Disaster Preventionand Management

Non-monsoonal landslides in UttaranchalHimalaya (India): implications upon disastermitigation strategyPiyoosh RautelaDisaster Mitigation and Management Centre, Uttaranchal Secretariat, Dehradun, IndiaR.K.PandeDisaster Mitigation and Management Centre, Uttaranchal Secretariat, Dehradun, India

Disaster Prevention and Management, Vol. 15 NO.3, 2006,cg Emerald Group Publishing Limited, 0965-3562

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Disaster Prevention and ManagementVol. 15 No.3, 2006

pp. 448-460

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(thrusting). The Himalayan teITainexhibits traces of a large number of major and minordislocation planes (faults and thrusts) of regional dimensions (Himalayan Frontal Fault,Main Boundary Thrust, Main Central Thrust, South Tibetan Detachment,Indus-Tsangpo Suture Zone). Evidences of recent movement (neotectonism) alongthese planes have been observed (Satiand Rautela, 1998;Wesnousky et al, 1999;Kumaret al.,2001;Thakur and Pandey, 2004)and continuing build up of strain in the region dueto ongoing tectonic movements makes the Himalayan teITainprone to earthquakes andin the past the region has been devastated by a number of seismic events.

The tectonic movements have rendered the rocks of the teITain highly sheared,faulted, folded and these show large number of penetrative weak planes along whichthe rock mass is prone to fail. Landslides are thus a common feature in the region andcause loss of human interests essentially during the monsoon season. High relativerelief, high and concentrated atmospheric precipitation further enhance the fury ofthese disasters. Flash floods, forest fires, avalanches and road accidents are otherdisasters common in this terrain.

The state of Uttaranchal represents essentially a Himalayan state that is locatedbetween Nepal and Himachal Pradesh (India) and the seismic risk in the state isevaluated to be high. Four of the 13 districts (Pithogagarh, Chamoli, Bageshwar andRudgaprayag) of the state fall completely in Zone V of the seismic risk map of India(damage of > IX on MSK scale) while other five (Uttarkashi, Tehri Garhwal, Pauri,Almora and Champawat) and fallpartially in ZoneVand partially in ZoneIV (damageofVIIIon MSKscale).In the recent past, the state has experienced two major earthquakes(1991Uttarkashi and 1999Chamoli)and non-OCCUITenceof a major earthquake (M > 8on Richter scale)in the region for morethan previous 200years further enhances seismicrisk in the region (Bilhametal., 2001).Inthe past, the state has witnessed a large numberof landslide and flash floodevents (Table I)and almost all of these have been confined tomonsoonal season. Landslides are, therefore, considered to be a monsoonal feature andlandslide-related administrative preparedness is particularly geared up during thisseason to timely respond to these events so as to reduce human miseries.

In the year 2003, landslide, however, initiated at Uttarkashi on 23 September(plate 1) with the withdrawal of the monsoonal rains and after quiescence all throughthe peak of the monsoons. In the year 2005, the landslide at Ramolrsari (plate 2) struckon 30 March with the onset of the summer season and at a time when theadministrative preparedness was being geared up to tackle the oncoming fire season(forest fires generally break out during summers in the region). The OCCUITenceoflandslides during non-monsoonal season in the previous some years, therefore, need tobe taken up as warning signals given by nature and reorient the disastermanagement-related initiatives to avoid being surprised by a non-monsoonal landslide.

This paper discusses the above cited two non-monsoonal landslides and attempts tohighlight the fact that rainfall is not the sole triggering force for landslides and,therefore, landslides should be expected in any season, though their frequency couldincrease during the monsoonal season.

Both Uttarkashi and Ramolsari are located in the catchment of Bhagirathi river, thatmeets Alaknanda at Devprayag to form river Ganga, and in adjacent district ofUttarkashi and Tehri Garhwal, respectively. These can be approached byRishikesh-Gangotri National Highway; Uttarkashi being situated on the main roadhead while for Ramolsari Chaam-Mendkhallink road has to be followed.

Non-monsoonallandslides

449

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Table I.Listof major landslidesinUttaranchal

1816184218571868

Pauri landslide]oshimath landslideMassive landslide blocked the flow of the Mandakini riverLandslide at Chamoli Garhwal blocked Alaknanda river: swept two villages and killed 70pilgrimsLandslide in Nainital Town: massive destruction and killed more than 150 personsLandslide blocked Birahi Ganga and formed an artificial lake near Gohna village in GarhwalHimalayaBreach of Gohna lake causing "Birahi disaster" in Alaknanda valleyHelang landslidePatalganga landslideNainitallandslideKaliasaur landslideKarnaprayag landslideLandslides formed an artificial lake in the upper catchment of Alaknanda river: affected 101villages, 25 buses of pilgrims Swept away, 55 persons and 142 animals deadDistrict headquarter of Chamoli district devastated and subsequently shifted to GopeshwarOkhimath landslide: 39 persons diedUttarkashi-Kedarghati landslideLandslides at ]akholi in Tehri Garhwal and at Devaldhar in Chamoli: 32 lives lostGopeshwar landslide: 36 persons in 6 villages diedBhimtala landslide

Massive landslides in Okhimath area formed an artiiiciallake blocking the course ofMadhyamaheshwar river (tributary of Mandakini): 109 people dead, 1,908 families from 29villages affected and 820 houses damagedMalpa landslide into river Kali: wiped out Malpa village near Dharchula in Pithoragarh,more than 300 people diedPhata and Byung Gad landslides: around 20 persons killed and several houses damagedLandslides at Budhakedar and KhetgaonUttarkashi landslideAmparav landslideRamolsari landslide

18801893

1894190619451963196319651970

197919811986199119961998

1998

20012002200320042005

Uttarkashi landslide affected the township of Uttarkashi that is also the districtheadquarter while Ramolsari is located in a remote area of Tehri Garhwal district.Apart from access and ease of mobilization of resources, the vulnerability of Ramolsariis enhanced by:

sex ratio favouring females;high child ratio;low literacy rate; and

high proportion of the marginal workers and non workers (Table II, Census ofIndia 2001, 2004).

GeologyFrom south to north, the Himalayan mountain range is longitudinally divided into sixtectonic zones; the Outer (Sub) Himalaya, the Lesser (Lower) Himalaya, the Higher(Great)Himalaya, the Tethys (Tibetan) Himalaya, the Indus Suture Zone and the TransHimalaya (Gansser, 1974;Thakur, 1992).Himalayan Frontal Fault, Main Boundary

Non-monsoonallandslides

451

Plate 1.View of the Uttarkashilandslide of September2003 (Camera looking

north) with Bhagirathiriver in the foreground

Plate 2.View of the Ramolsari

landslide of March 2005(Camera looking south).

Habitations of the ChawaTok {hamlet of Ramolsari

village are seen at theridge to the east of the slide

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Fault, Main Central Thrust, South Tibetan Detachment and Indus Tsangpo Suture arethe discontinuities of regional dimensions marking boundaries of these zones.

Both Uttarkashi and Ramolsari landslide zones lie in the Lesser Himalayan Zone(Figure 1)that essentially consist of low grade meta-sedimentaries that are thrust overthe sedimentary rock sequences of the Outer Himalaya along north dipping MainBoundary Thrust. The northern boundary of this tectonic unit is marked by northdipping Main Central Thrust that brings the crystallines rock sequence of HigherHimalaya Zone in juxtaposition with the meta-sedimentary sequence of rocks.

Uttarkashi and Ramolsari area is locally sandwiched between Srinagar Thrust andMCT to the south and north, respectively. The rocks constituting the Uttarkashilandslide are mainly phyllites and quartzites of Rautgara formation (Valdiya, 1980),dipping northerly into the hill at 30-35°. These are highly shattered, fragmented,fractured and thinly jointed. These are covered with 20-25meters thick slided material.The rocks housing the Ramolsari slide are essentially phyllites of Chandpur formation(Valdiya, 1980) that show a number of penetrative weak planes. These rocks dipsouthwesterly at moderate angles (30-40°).

Comparison of the two slidesThe Uttarkashi landslide of 23 September 2003 took place along the southern slopes of thehill (Varunavat Parvat) that rises above the river terrace level and along the lower slopes ofthe hill colluvium is observed to obliterate the river telTaces. The township of Uttarkashithat is situated over the river terraces was threatened by this slide though timelyadministrative action averted loss of human lives in this incidence. This slide, however,caused immense loss of public and private property and the restorative works are estimatedto cost the public exchequer around 2,853 million Indian rupees (1US$ - 47 Indian rupees).

The Ramolsari landslide of 30 March 2005 took place on the northern slopes of a hillfalling in the watershed of a fourth order stream, Malogi Gad (Figure 2) that flows innortheasterly direction to meet Bhagirdthi river near Birkot. Near the confluence,extensive terraces of Bhagirathi are observed. Village Ramolsari is situated at the base ofthis hill and the slide has overrun vast expanse of agricultural lands of the village anddepleted the forest resources.

Both these slides took place on sparsely forested hill slopes; in Uttarkashi, the hill hadpine forest while in Ramolsari, there were oak apart from pine. Around the landslide zones,veneer of colluvial deposits is also observed. At both the places, lower slopes show

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Childratio(proportion

of the Literacyrate Percentagechildrenin (literatesas of the

Sex ratio the age proportion Male Female marginalTotal (femaleS/1,OOOgroup of 0-6 of the literacy literacy workers and

452 population males) years) population) rate rate non-workers)

Uttarkashi 16,218 750 12 77 82 70 70

Table II.(ME)Ramolsari 258 1,345 18 44 60 32 81

Demographicdetails ofSource: Censusof India 2001,2004Ramolsariand Uttarkashi

Non-monsoonallandslides

453

extensive teITacedevelopment along the course of Bhagirathi river. Both the landslidesshow characteristics of debris slide (debris slide in the crown portion, and rockfall androckslide in the middle part) and in both the cases rolling down of the dislodged rockfragments and debris continuedfor morethan ten days after the initiationofthe landslide.

The crown of the Uttarkashi landslide is situated at an altitude of about 1,675meters above mean sea levelwith the scarp of the active slide being 30meters long and150 meters wide and dipping in southeasterly direction (55/150°).It coincides with aprominent joint set (48-500/110-1200)that is observed to be filled with 1-2mm thickclayey material. The movement of the rock debris has produced sharp slikenslidesplunging due 150-160°.The crown of the Ramolsari slide is located at an altitude ofaround 1,500meters above mean sea level (Figure 3) and scarp of the active slide isabout 100meters wide and 40-60meters long and dips steeply. The failure is observedto have taken place along one of the prominent joints dipping 700due 0200along whichclay development was noticed in the field.

KrulFm. Mandhali I Deoban Fm.

:::an Fm. r Figure 1.BlainiFm. k..:::: RautgaraFm.Geological map of the area

NagthatFm. }::'.'.',l ChakrataFm. 1// I Fault U 4 SMile around, , Uttarkasi-Ramolsari

ChandpurFm. :=:JDebguruPorphyroidFm. l/ j Lithological boundary0 5 10 15Km

(After Valdiya, 1980)(After Va/diya, 1980)

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454

Figure 2.Map showing topographicdetails of Ramolsari areatogether with the positionof the slide scar, debrisand the ground fissurestogether with the primarysurface of deposition

Multiple joint sets are observed in the vicinity of both the landslides. In case of Uttarkashislide, two sets of near vertical joints striking 40-220°and 140-320°apart from those dippingat moderate to steep angles are observed (48/120° 80/040° 80/140°). The foliation plane ofthe in situ rocks are observed to dip in northeasterly direction (40/045°).Lower hemisphereprojection of these planes suggest that the intersection of the joint planes provide suitableconditions for failure to occur. The slip surface coincides with one of the prominent jointplanes (48/120°) and the intersection lineations plunge in the direction of the massmovement (Figure 4).In the vicinity of the Ramolsari slide, the rocks dip westerly (38/277°)and show three prominent sets of joints (70/020° 65/065° and 70/125°). All the joints setsshow dilation of millimeter scale. Lower hemisphere projection of the joint and foliationsurfaces together with the slope suggest that the intersection of the penetrative weakplanes provide ideal situation for mass wastage to take place (Figure 5).

Both the landslides are observed to have formed bench like surface of deposition(primary surface of accumulation) at 1,525 and 1,350 meters above mean sea level in

l

tJ Landslide scar0 500 1.000L- I I h) Landslide debris

Meters ..1-.L- Ground tissures

Zone of subsidence

"'; Primary accumulation zone

"""II

...

Uttarkashi and Ramolsari slides,respectively.Dislodgedmaterial from the slide scar hasgot accumulated in these benchesfromwhere it rolleddownslopeto the secondaryzoneofaccumulationtowards thebase ofthe slope.In case ofUttarkashi landslide,two prominentdebris chutes are observed and the slides material acc;umulatedin distinctly identifiableaccumulation zones.Though single debris chute and accumulation zone are observed inRamolsari slide, initiation of ground fissures oblique to the main slide scar (trending150-330°and oblique to 070-250°trending fissures that parallel the main scar) indicatepossibilityofthe initiationofa newdebris chute fromtheprimary surfaceofaccumulation.Failing of the ground along these ground fissures would initiate a new debris chute fromthe primary surface of accumulation and overrun the agricultural lands below.

Upslope tilted trees in the crown region are indicative of the rotational geometry ofthe slides. On the basis of the geometry of the exposed scarp of the raised benches at1,525and 1,350meters in Uttarkashi and Ramolsari slides, respectively, the depth ofthese landslides are estimated to be 20-25 meters and 15-20 meters, respectively.According to the volume calculation formula based on the ellipsoidal geometry of thelandslide mass as given by the IAEG Commission on Landslides (1990),the volume ofthe dislodged rock mass is given by 1/6TTDrWrLr (where Dn Wrand Lr represent thedepth, width and length of the surface of rupture, respectively). The volume of thedislodged rosk mass in case of Uttarkashi and Ramolsari landslides is estimated to beof the order of 50,000-60,000m3 and 30,000-60,000m3,respectively.

Wide open ground fissures running parallel to the slide scarp are observed over theslide zones. These are indicative of the slide engulfing still more land.

Landslide triggering mechanismLandslides are known to have several causes, including geological,geomorphological,physical and human (Alexander, 1992;Cruden and Varnes, 1996),but only one trigger(Varnes, 1978).By definition, trigger is an external stimulus such as intense rainfall,earthquake shaking, volcanic eruption, storm waves, or rapid stream erosion thatcauses a near immediate response in the form of landslide by rapidly increasing thestresses or by reducing the strength of slope materials.

Excessive precipitation resulting in increased pore water pressure is normallyconsideredto be themain cause oflandslides and, therefore,rainfallrecord ofthe two areaswas analysed. On an average, the area experiences annual rainfall around 2,000mm and

Ramolsari village

. ~ .;~. "''' ChawaTok"-:'.~ ...

~. n

'~'.~ ..-:~/./ '~', V .. ~"."" //", / \.. Primaryacc:umu]allonzone

/.~./ .(/// -t;\ ~~ .-:' A!\~ \.:~/ \\ A ," Malogi Gad'i:', \\ U I

/'/ Joint plane trace ~

Northeast~

o 500 1.000

Meters

Non-monsoonallandslides

455

Figure3.Cross section of theRamolsari slide (for

section line refer thetopographic data given onFigure 1) showing the zoneof depletion together with

primary and secondaryaccumulation zones

-

1.800

1.600t

1.400.-.E""

1.200

1.000

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1

~ )

456

Figure 4.Lower hemisphereprojection of the jointplane and foliation in theUttarkashi landslide zone

1

J

~ N

almost60per centofit is confinedto the months ofJuly-September.Uttarkashi landslideof2003initiated immediately after the seizure of rains on 23 September. It is indicated byGupta and Bist (2004)that due to rains in the precedingmonths, the groundwater pressuremight have progressively increased;rains oftheorder of 1,545mmbeing experiencedin 60rainy days between July and September. An unlined canal dug in the area by forestdepartment over the landslide scarp might have further enhanced groundwaterinfiltration and facilitated failure of the highly jointed and fractured rock mass.

Rainfalldata for the Ramolsariarea suggests that the rainfall during the previous twoyears has been on the lower side being 1,209 and 1,470mm during 2003 and 2004,respectively, against 2,225mm during 2002. Though most rains are confined to themonths ofJuly-Septembersome rains are experiencedduring the winter season but theseare not significant. The winter rains spread over October and March are of the order of300mm and these were recorded to be 224mm, 237mm and 292mm during 2002-2003,2003-2004and 2004-2005,respectively.During the year 2004,there was 156mm of rain inOctoberand the months of Novemberand Decemberdid not witness any rain. In the year2005,there was 32 and 101mm of rain during January and February, respectively,andtherewas norain during March.The rainfall data doesnot seemto indicate that the region

-

I"

experienced enough rainfall before the landslide event so as to trigger the Ramolsarilandslide.There alsodoes not exist any recordof seismicityin the regionthat couldbe heldresponsible for triggering the slide.MalogiGad does not flowin the immediatevicinityofthe slide zoneand, therefore,possibilityof toeerosion triggering the slideis also ruled out.Cause of the elide in case of Ramolsari landslide could not, therefore,be established.

Instances of similar slides where the mass movement seems to occur without anapparent attributable trigger have been reported (Wieczorek,1996)and these generallyoccur due to a variety or combination of causes, such as chemical or physicalweathering of materials, that gradually bring the slope to failure (Wieczorek, 1996).Ramolsari landslide of March 2005is an example of one such slide where the landslidetrigger mechanism could not be established and perhaps slowly and continuouslyacting denudational forces were responsible for triggering the slide.

Implications of Ramolsari landslideLandslides are generally understood to accompany monsoonal rains and, therefore, it isa common practice amongst the disaster management-related organizations in theregion to gear up their landslide response-related preparedness during this season.

Non-monsoonallandslides

457

Figure5.Lower hemisphere

projection of the jointplane and foliation in theRamolsari landslide zone

. I

-=

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Other seasons are generally considered to be safe from landslides and during theseperiods other disaster management-related activities are generally carried out. TheRamolsari landslide of 2005, however, indicates that slowly and continuouslyoperating physio-chemicaland mechanical weathering processes have the potential ofinitiating landslides at locations that satisfy other geological conditions for thedownslope mass movement even in the absence of rainfall. Geotectonic evolutionaryhistory of the terrain makes the rocks of the terrain highly fractured and jointed andmany a slopes in the region show high landslide hazard potential (NRSA,2001).

Human miseries in the event of these landslides occurring in non-monsoonal periodwould be greatly compounded by the relaxed landslide preparedness norms of theagencies responsible for undertaking post disaster operations. It, therefore, becomesimperative to redefine the landslide period and keeping the landslide-relatedpreparedness on high alert all through the year.

Where ever human habitations and critical infrastructure are located in the vicinityof the landslide hazard prone slopes special attention needs to be paid. Experiencessuggest that more than anything else mass awareness and preparedness have thepotential of greatly reducing human miseries and trauma in the event of any disaster.The masses, therefore, need to be communicated the potential threats they are exposedto, together with the essential do's and do nots during a disaster. Capacity building ofthe local volunteers needs to be carried out for making them efficient and effectiverelief workers well versed "rith search and rescue and first aid fundamentals. In therugged and inaccessible mountainous terrain, these efforts become all the moreimportant because despite the best efforts and intentions, the constrains put forth bytopography, relief and accessibility are bound to delay the formal response.

The State Government of Uttaranchal through its Disaster Mitigation andManagement Centre (DMMC)has already started working on these lines and villagedisaster intervention teams (VDIT)of localvolunteers have been raised in more than 300disaster prone remote villages. These teams are helping in bringing mass awareness,undertaking resourceappraisal and risk assessment, as also in the formulation of villagedisaster intervention plans. Apart from the personnel of the regular policeservices whohave the responsibilityof carrying out post disaster interventions the VDITmembers arealso being imparted rigorous training in search and rescue as also first aid by the StateGovernment. These together with the training of the masons in earthquake resistantconstruction,construction of demonstration houses and awareness of the schoolchildrenand staff would help in greatly reducing human miseries in the event of any disaster.

458

Recommendations

Treatment of the Uttarkashi landslide of 2003 has already been initiated and in case ofRamolsari landslide debris is still observed to be continuously rolling down from theprimary surface of accumulation. Even slight perturbations caused by strong winds areinducing the mass to roll down. Unlike the Uttarkashi landslide that took place in the heart ofa major township, this landslide does not create a major threat for a large population groupand, therefore, the administration is unlikely to muster funds for its elaborate treatment. Therestoration work would at the same time involve erection of heavy engineering structuresand this is a long-term strategy requiring mammoth financial and technical resources. Tillthis strategy is implemented avoidance of the slide zone is the best remedy for the Ramolsarilandslide. Any kind of anthropogenic intervention in the slide zone together with the buffer

-

marked around it, on the basis of the surface expressionof ground fissures and the strikecontinuityof the same,needs to be avoided.Devoidof hwnan interventionthe slidezoneisexpectedto be stabilizedby natural regenerativeprocesses in due course of time.

The agricultural land betweenChawaTok (ahamletofRamolsarivillage)and the toeofthe slidealsoneeds to bemade freeofanthropogenicinterventions.Initiativesto restore theagricultural fields in this zonewould only amount to destabilizationof the toeand initiatefurther downslopemovement of looserock mass. The villageroutes have to be realignedfor making the accessto forest and schoolconvenientfor themasses. This couldbe donebythe constructing bridge across MalogiGad at a suitable site so as to avoid the slide zone.

Though the Ramolsari village seems to be free of immediate threat of landslide thereis every likelihood of the initiation of landslide and consequent debris chute to thesouth of Chawa Tok, between Ramolsari and Chawa Tok. This would adversely affectthe lifesupport strategy of the masses as it would engulf most of the productive land ofthe village. The following mitigative measures, therefore, need to be undertakenurgently for ruling out possibility of initiation of this slide:

Provision for the diversion of water away from the head of the slide zone.Construction of restraining structures at suitable sites.Slope modification wherever required.Safe disposal of the loose debris at the primary surface of accumulation that isinclined to escape through this new slide zone. This debris can be manuallydisposed off through the existing debris chute.

Initiation of this slide would totally isolate the Chawa Tok that would then be engulfedby landslide chutes on all its sides. Any attempt to cross these could result in humancasualties and, therefore, the masses need to be conveyed the threat posed and togetherwith basis dos and do nots.

Evidences of creep and ground subsidence have been observed in the upper slopesof Ramolsari village that is located in a small pocket at the base of the cliff and theslides in this zone would pose a grave threat to human lives. Avoidance of the hazardprone areas is the best remedy for minimizing risk and, therefore, the masses should beencouraged to voluntarily rehabilitate at other safe locations by communicating therisk posed to their present habitations by the landslide. Incentives by the State forthose who chooseto rehabilitate would facilitate this process. If the new habitation siteis not far off the masses can continue cultivation of their lands around Ramolsari.

Awareness needs to be brought about amongst the masses regarding the possiblethreats that the mountain ecosystem generally poses to the habitations and they shouldat the same time be trained in search and rescue, together with first aid. During themonsoon season regular surveillance of the upper slopes should be resorted to by thevillagers and any abnormal observation should be reported to the authorities.

References

Alexander, D. (1992),"On the causes of landslides: human activities, perception and naturalprocesses", Environmental Geologyand Water Sciences,Vol.20 No.3, pp. 165.79.

Bilham, R., Gaur, V.K. and Molnar, P. (2001), "Himalayan seismic hazard", Science, Vol. 293No. 5534, pp. 1442.4.

Census of India 2001, (2004),Census of India 2001, Officeof the Registrar General, New Delhi.

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Cruden, D.M. and Varnes, D.]. (1996), "Landslide types and processes", in Turner, AK andSchuster, R.L. (Eds), Landslides: Investigation and Mitigation, Transport Research BoardSpecial Report 247, National Academy Press, Washington, DC, pp. 36-75.

Gansser, A. (1974), "The Ophiolitic melange, a world-wide problem on Tethyan examples",Eclogae GeoLHelv., VoL 57, pp. 479-507.

Gupta, V. and Bist, K.S. (2004), "The 23 September 2003 Varunavat Parvat landslide inUttarkashi township, Uttaranchal", Cun-ent Science, VoL 87 No. 11, pp. 1600-5.

IAEG Commission on Landslides (1990), "Suggested nomenclature for landslides", Bulletin ofInternational Association of Engil'zeering Geology, VoL 41, pp. 13-16.

Kumar, S., Wesnousky, S.G., Rockwell, TK, Ragona, D., Thakur, V.e. and Seitz, G.G. (2001),"Earthquake occurrence and rupture dynamics of Himalayan Frontal Thrust, India",Science, VoL 294, pp. 2328-31.

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460

Further reading

Cruden, D.M.(1991),"A simple definition of a landslide", Bulletin of International Association ofEngineering Geology,Vol.43, pp. 27-9.

Corresponding authorPiyoosh Rautela can be contacted at piyooshrautela@hotmail.com

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