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Energy Polio T. Vol. 24, No. 5, pp. 463-469. 1996 Copyright © 1996 Elsevier Science Ltd

Printed in Great Britain. All rights reserved 0301-4215/96 $15.00 + 0.00

Diffusion of improved biomass stoves in China

Daxiong Qiu and Shuhua Gu Institute./br Tech-Economics and Energy Systems Analysis, Energy Science Building, Tsinghua University, Beo'ing 100084, China

Peter Catania and Kun Huang Department of Industrial Systems Engineering, Faculty of Engineering, University of Regina, Regina, Saskatchewan, Canada $4S 0.42

The large-scale utilization of inefficient biofuei stoves for cooking and heating in the rural areas of China can cause ecological and environmental problems; thus, in 1982, the Chinese government en- couraged the diffusion of improved biomass stoves. From 1982 to 1994, these improved biomass stoves have been used by 144 million households or the equivalent of 90% of all improved stoves in- stalled globa|ly; 62% of the Chinese market has been penetrated. This paper presents the funda- mental features of China's diffusion programme of improved biomass stoves, analyses of the future domestic market, and defines some of the lessons learned from the diffusion programme which may be applicable in other emerging nations. Copyright © 1996 Elsevier Science Ltd. Keywords: Improved biomass stoves; Diffusion programme; Pilot country, China

Biomass is the most widely used of the renewable energy sources in developing countries. However, its use in many areas is causing ecological and environmental problems, such as, deforestation, land degradation, air pollution, and indoor pollution. Relative to these issues, many interna- tional organizations and developed countries supported the developing countries to protect the forest as a means of improving the global ecological environment. One of these methods was promotion of the improved biofuel stoves. Many of these programme efforts resulted in marginal benefits.

This paper addresses a successful sample - that of the diffusion of improved biomass stoves in China, wherein firewood and crop residues represents over 75% of total rural household annual energy demand. The Chinese gov- ernment has benefited during 1982-94 by encouraging the diffusion of improved biomass stoves without the input of international funds. These benefits include (1) increasing remarkably the forest coverage; (2) reduction of biomass fuel; (3) improving rural household kitchen sanitation con- ditions; (4) reducing residential indoor pollution; and (5) a decrease in human labour previously dedicated to cooking and collecting fuel.

China's diffusion improved biomass stoves

Success in the diffusion programme

China's government in the 1950s and 1960s failed in its ef- fort to diffuse improved biomass stoves in the vast rural areas. This was due in part to the immensity of the pro- gramme and the combination of poor management. The rural areas in the 1980s were facing a more serious chal- lenge of energy shortage and increasing deterioration of the ecological environment. Since 1982 the Chinese government has acted upon a major plan in diffusion of improved biomass stoves within its rural areas and has carried out complete reforms particularly in the diffusion methodology.

The state and provinces selected and arranged a group of pilot counties which are administratively and technically capable of organizing the diffusion programme. The state and provinces provided the necessary financial aid to carry out the R&D, tests and demonstrations in order to gain ex- perience and to accumulate successful skills so as to influ- ence and stimulate the all-out national campaign of 'improving stoves to save biomass'. From 1983, the Depart- ment of Environmental Protection and Energy under the

463

464 Diffusion of improved biomass stoves in China: D Qiu et al

Ministry of Agriculture selected about 100 national pilot counties annually and signed technical contracts with county governments who were required to complete the programme within three years. By 1990, 786 counties in total carried out this programme, of which 566 had passed the acceptance performance test. From 1991, the diffusion programme continually developed under the new energy policy 'integrated rural energy construction'. By the end of 1994, China reported that 144 million households have used improved biomass stoves in rural areas. ]

Policies

Since the end of the 1970s, the Chinese government has paid increasing attention to the problem of rural energy and listed it as one of the nationally important tasks in its stra- tegic energy programme. In addition to efficiently utilizing the commercial energy provided by the state, the govern- ment has (1) actively exploited the local renewable energy resources that can be utilized, (2) adopted up to date energy technology and energy saving techniques, and (3) gradually set up a sound system of rural energy supply and energy utilization. A strategic policy for rural energy has been de- veloped which includes 'taking the local conditions into consideration, tapping multiple resources of energy, utiliz- ing energy integratively, and stressing economics benefits', 'paying equal emphases to exploitation and economization' and 'giving priority to economization in the near future' (Qiu et al, 1990, p 34).

While carry out the diffusion programme, the govern- ment proposed the policy of 'self-building, self-managing, and self-using' (Qiu et al, 1990, p 35). This meant that the government conducted extensive publicity and training courses, so as to stimulate the farmers' enthusiasm, thus re- lying mainly on the farmers' own efforts with the aid of the state and regions as supplement. While implementing the programme in provinces, municipalities and counties, every level of government developed specific corresponding pol- icies according to their local condition.

Administration

A system of administrative leaders at all levels participating in the diffusion programme of improved biomass stoves has taken shape and strong administrative means has become a guarantee of success in the process of the diffusion (see Figure 1).

Management

The diffusion programme witnessed improvements in the management, who in turn established pilot counties at all levels in order to demonstrate the benefit to the public. The objectives of the management of the programme were: (!) to perfect the managerial and organizational set-up; (2) to select the proper stove models for diffusion; (3) to pay spe-

I Data were provided by Ministry of Agriculture, China in 1995.

cial attention to technical training; (4) to guarantee the sup- ply of necessary funds and materials; and (5) to stress in- spection and performance tests.

The programme was assigned by the Department of Sav- ings and Integrated Utilization of Resources, the State Plan- ning Commission in 1982, and was put under the direct charge of the Department of Environmental Protection and Energy, Ministry of Agriculture.

The main functions of the rural energy offices at provin- cial and municipal levels in carrying out the diffusion pro- gramme were: (I) providing assistance to the Ministry of Agriculture in terms of selecting pilot counties; (2) report- ing the selection results to the ministry as well as contract signing; (3) supervising and giving specific help to the pilot counties in fulfilling their tasks listed in the contracts with guaranteed quality and quantity; (4) helping the ministry to carry out the acceptance performance test; (5) casing out active promotion with the typical cases in the pilot counties; and (6) conducting analysis and comparison in terms of en- ergy, economic, social and ecological benefits of the pilot counties in order to improve the public's understanding of the significance of the diffusion programme.

Each pilot county, organized by a leading management team, designed the diffusion plan and strategy. Generally speaking, the pilot counties implemented the diffusion pro- gramme in three stages. These stages are: (I) setting up pilot units in the first year; (2) extending the township pro- gramme, one or two pilot villages are established for demonstration, then the villages will in turn set up pilot households which are more likely those of the village cadres; and (3) rounding off work associated with the diffu- sion programme in the last year.

Technology

China's biomass stoves are used for cooking and heating and are divided into two basic categories. One is used with soft biomass, eg crop residues, and another is used with firewood (hard biomass) as the fuel. Designs vary from re- gion to region.

The four technical features which can, in general, char- acterize the old-fashioned biomass stoves are large combus- tion chambers, large feeding doors, inappropriate smoke outlets and no grates. The thermal efficiency of old stoves ranges from 10 to 12%. In the diffusion programme, con- sideration was given not only to increasing the thermal effi- ciency (greater than 20--25%), but also to providing convenience in use by households (without polluting the environment). With these objectives in mind, the techno- logy for improved stoves was upgraded by the addition of a chimney or an improvement in its position, addition of a grate and a baffle, reduction of the size of the feeding door, and redesign of the combustion chamber.

The design standards of a advanced improved stove re- suited in a saving of energy, suitability for households, im- proved safety, cost reduction, and as a result, less time for cooking, and improved thermal efficiency for heating. The design criteria are highlighted in Figure 2.

D![Tusion of improved biomass stoves in China: D Qiu et al 465

Sector assigning the task

Sector in charge

Assistant sectors

Sector undertaking the tasks

Offices of rural energy in provinces

Rural energy manufacturing in counties

Rural energy manufacturing in districts

Rural energy manufacturing in townships

Department of Savings and Integrated Resources, State Planning Commission

Department of Environmental Protection and Energy, Ministry of Agriculture

Leading teams of rural energy in pilot counties

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

I 3

Offices of rural energy ] _ _ in pilot counties [

Leading groups of rural energy in districts

Leading groups of rural energy in townships

Leading groups of rural energy in villages

Farmer household users

Offices of rural energy [ in municipalities J

Rural energy service companies in counties

Rural energy service stations in districts

Rural energy service stations in townships

Figure 1 Organizational system of diffusion of improved biomass stoves in China

Source offunds for the diffusion programme

There were several main sources of funds in the develop- ment of China's diffusion programme of improved biomass stoves:

(I) The state financial aids were provided for the pilot counties having assigned the contracts. From 1983 to 1985, the programme was in the start up stage, and ad- ditional funds were provided by Ministry of Agricul- ture. After 1986, the growth stage, an amount of 25 000 yuan were provided to each pilot county. 2 Since 1991, the rural energy strategy has been changed. This will be discussed later in this paper.

(2) Funds provided by provinces and municipalities are re- lated to local conditions. Various provinces and munici- palities had their financial departments arrange for a special level of funding which varied according to their economic ability.

(3) The pilot counties raise part of the funds from their own financial resources in accordance with local conditions. The balance of the funds were raised by districts, town- ships and the public. The funds collected by the public were in general used on stove improvements and con- struction of the stoves.

The overall finance for the diffusion programme is summa- rized as: national fund 2.7%, region 13.4% and rural house- hold 83.9% of the total. The average social cost, that is, production cost plus external cost, of improved biomass stoves is 24.49 yuan. Product cost is 23.08 yuan and the ex- ternal cost 3 is 1.41 yuan. The cost of these improved biomass stoves and funds for the diffusion programme are lower than in any developing country and the results of the programme of action are unquestionably successful.

3External costs include the expenses of training, promotion, monitoring 2Five yuan approximately equalled US$1 in 1990. and so on.

466

Requests for stoves

I. Functional requests

Di].]'usion of improved biomass stoves in China: D Qiu et al

Design criteria of functions

1. Cooking

2. Space heating

3. Control of indoor pollution

Suitability of cooker ]

Convenience for heat control

Room floor radiates heat

Emission of indoor smoke

II. Other requests

Design critede of construction

I Number and size of pot holes in stove

Installation of flame baffle

Design of combustion chamber

Position and size of chimney

~ g surface for cooking 1. Comfort and sanitation for cooking

2. Safety

3. Economy

4. Spending time/output work

Price of stove

/ Durability

/ Quantity of fuel consumption

Operating functions

Output state of stove

Maintenance

Building materials

5. Type and size of utilizable fuel Fuel type and size for stove

Portability 6. Adaptability and selectivity of users

7. Prestige of products

J

8. Consistent with kitchen

Surface of stove

Figure 2 Characters and construction design criteria of improved biomass stoves

Weight I

Size of surface I

Training

Technology training has attracted attention from leaders at all levels in the diffusion programme and as a result, a num- ber of technical personnel have been trained. Various kinds of training courses were held by the state, provincial and county level in an effort to build up the local rural energy technical teams. The training method adopted by every level is based on the principle that higher level rural energy

technicians train other technicians. The training course used on the spot teaching methods in the pilot units which em- phasized teaching the trainees the knowhow in building the kind of improved stoves suitable for the locality as well as explaining to the trainees the basic theory of thermal con- version, knowledge of stove construction and performance test methods. Each trainee was granted a qualification cer- tificate after successfully completing an examination. These trained county teams have become the technical force in

improving stove efficiencies and in transferring the tech- niques to others.

Promotion

Biomass stoves in China have been used over several thou- sand years. Thus, to change long established customs the diffusion of improved biomass stoves required a strong promotional strategy and mobilization among the public. The promotional campaign was conducted by convening meetings in order to improve the understanding of the sig- nificance of energy saving and the promotion through the analysis of typical cases. In some pilot counties, pilot households presented their analysis of the comparison be- tween the situation before and after using improved biomass stoves. This resulted in individuals who not only visited the model households in order to see with their own eyes but also obtained a hands on experience. Upon return, they initiated improvements to their own stoves. In this way, the stove diffusion become a conscious action of the householders themselves instead of an administrative means.

Distribution channel

Figure 1 outlines the frame of the rural energy network which consists of rural energy offices and rural energy ser- vice companies. This network became the distribution channel in rural energy systems that transmitted the information from top down or bottom up; provided installa- tion and services for rural energy technology; helped ensure coordinated provisions of supplies, management, transport and marketing; supported part of the funds needed for local diffusion, for example, for poor households and village demonstrations; and offered a way to harness forces of competition to improve quality and cost-effectiveness.

Monitoring and performance testing

The standards of inspection in the pilot counties are that the number of households using improved biomass stoves must be over 90% of total households in the county. In ex- cess of 90% of these stoves have their thermal efficiency greater than 18%. The investigation must be made for in- spection for a least 200 household users. Out of this sam- ple, 30 households are selected at random for a boiling water test. Among the total number of the investigated users, the qualified ones must account for 90% in order to pass the inspection.

The boiling water test is issued by the State Bureau of Standards and is described in Testing Methods of Biomass Stoves for Household Use and Thermal Performance (GB 4643-84), 1984 (Qiu et al, 1990, p 48). This method can demonstrate the practical properties of the stoves without using theory, which is of little relevance to actual applica- tions. The method is clear cut and easy to understand for those who have received junior high school education. New learners can quickly master this method after participating in a short training course.

Diffusion of improved biomass stoves in China: D Qiu et al 467

"E

70-

60 -

50

40

30

20

10

0

1982 I I I I I i

1984 1986 1988 1990 1992 1994

Figure 3 The lifecycle of improved biomass stove technology

Benefit of the diffusion programme for ecological environment

Independent of the biomass diffusion programme discussed in this paper was a complementary programme wherein ef- forts were made to increased forest coverage, through a separate programme referred to as the firewood plantation programme. These two programmes were complementary with the later programme resulting in increased forest cov- erage from 12% total land area in 1979 to 13.4% in 1992. In addition, the programme also saved crop residues which no longer needed to be burned but could be changed to or- ganic fertilizer and returned to the farmland for protecting the soil from being eroded.

Discussion

China's improved biomass stove technology has entered into the maturity phase. Figure 3 outlines the lifecycle of improved stove technology that increased the market share to almost 62%. 4 Nevertheless, there is still a large market in the rural areas. Some of the factors which could influence this technological diffusion in rural areas are outlined below.

In the Sixth and Seventh Five-Year Planning (1981-85 and 1986-90), the rural energy policies advocated the de- velopment of single energy techniques. The strategic policy associated with rural energy development was modified in the Eighth Five-Year Planning (1991-95). The central gov- ernment stressed the integrated rural energy development which was comprised of large and complex energy devel- opment systems. This system involves multiple energy, multiple sectors and multiple subjects, emphasizing the in- timate links of energy technology and their exploitation and economization, as well as improvements to the local eco- logical and environmental conditions. The improved biomass stove programme is only one part of the integrated rural energy construction plan.

4Market (%) in this paper means the percentage of households using im- proved biomass stoves in rural areas in China.

468 Diffusion of improved biomass stoves in China: D Qiu et al

China's economic reform has carried the change of rural society. In high and middle income rural areas, the family structure also has changed. The three-generation house- holds have been separated to become several small families. The large sized improved stoves and cooking pots are not suitable for the small family needs, and the preference is coal stoves.

In developing countries, questions on the impact of stove diffusion programmes still remain. These are often raised by proponents of Fuel Switching at household level in urban areas. It refers to the possibility of a large majority of inhabitants of the developing world switching from low- grade biomass fuels to high-grade fuels such as electric- ity, kerosene, and LPG (Karekezi, 1992, p 53; Gu et al, 1991, p 24).

Fuel Switching is characterized by the source of energy ranging from animal dung through crop residues, firewood, biogas, coal, LPG, natural gas, and in a few cases, to elec- tricity. Most of China's rural population operates within the range of crop residues to coal, with coal increasing in im- portance.

The Chinese rural economic changes have resulted in the growth rate of rural personal income exceeding that of urban personal income and improved biomass stoves have been installed in new rural residential households. High and middle-high income households also bought coal stoves and LPG stoves. If they obtained coal and LPG, their pref- erence is to use them daily, rather than biomass. Thus, the economic development resulted in the natural tendency of households to move toward higher level fuels. However, these same households have improved biomass stoves, but they do not use them to the same extent as in the past.

One possible attractive option for developing future new markets for a second generation of improved stoves is tech- nological innovation (see Chen, 1992), ie to design and dis- seminate another generation of improved stoves, even more efficient and durable than the first generation. Another op- tion would be to enhance R&D related to the commercial- ization of biomass fuels. The convenient, inexpensive, and highly efficient commercial biomass fuels, could, with these options in place, permeate the balance of rural markets.

Another market of improved biomass stoves is in the middle-low and low income areas situated primarily in the mountains areas and remote regions. How does one help the poor regions to develop the improved biomass stove tech- nology? One scenario is to map out a special policy that could decrease the gap between rich to poor. This is beyond the scope of this paper.

Conclusions

From 1982 to 1994, China's diffusion programme of im- proved biomass stoves resulted in the installation of stoves in 144 million rural households. Although the diffusion lightly fluctuated in several years (Figure 3), the rate and total extent of this effort far exceeds that of any other nation during this period. Some 62% of all Chinese rural house- holds are reported to have received improved stoves. No

Table 1 Number of Improved biomass stove disseminated by the Year 1991

Country Number built

China a 127.96 million households India b 8.00 million stoves Bangladesh b 1.20 million stoves Kenya b 0.55 million stoves Burkina Faso b 0.33 million stoves Niger b 0.20 million stoves Tanzania b 0.05 million stoves

aData is provided by the Ministry of Agriculture, China in 1995. bData of the other countries are obtained from Karekezi.

other country has even reached the 10% plateau. In terms of total stoves, it is estimated that, 90% of all improved stoves installed globally are part of improved stove programmes in China. Table 1 represents the number of improved biomass stoves built in some developing countries by 1991.

There are some lessons to be learned from the diffusion programme which can be applicable for other countries. It can be argued that the Chinese experience could be down- played because of the belief that China is so different, polit- ically, culturally, and economically from the rest of the developing world. This argument is unfounded and the dif- fusion of the principals associated with the success experi- enced in China are applicable to any other country. These lessons are classified as either institutional or technical.

Institutional lessons

One of the most critical reasons for the success enjoyed to date by the diffusion programme is adherence to a fairly simple concept-work in the best areas first. This is accom- plished by means of the pilot county programme. It is im- portant to note that the criteria for being chosen as a pilot county go well beyond such obvious salient factors as evi- dence of biofuel shortage. Equally important are the man- agerial, financial, technical and building stove material resources existing in the county. Finally, the county must demonstrate the desire to become a pilot county by first en- tering into a provincial competition under the Department of Environmental Protection and Energy, and then success- fully winning in the national competition. Thus, although the diffusion programme is centralized and top down in many respects; in choosing sites it relies on a strong bottom up approach.

Essential to the overall success of any promotion and dissemination activity is regular, systematic, and consistent monitoring and evaluation. This has been an integral part of the Chinese diffusion programme since the beginning. Un- fortunately, serious monitoring and evaluation is not com- mon in improved stove programmes around the world.

In common with a number of other programmes around the world, most Chinese users pay the full cost of the stove materials and construction labour. The government's contri- bution is much smaller (about 16%) and restricted mainly to training, administration, and promotion. As in diffusion programmes elsewhere this approach, where feasible, as- sures more active household interest in understanding, using, and maintaining the stoves.

Diffusion of improved biomass stoves in China: D Qiu et al

Stove body

469

Heat insulator

Figure 4 Cross section of improved biomass stove in China

In the diffusion programme, one of the most striking as- pects is the promotion of rural energy companies. If the programme is eventually to reach full self-perpetuation, it will be through these enterprises. Importantly, however, these companies generally do not narrowly focus only on stoves, but are diversified into other rural energy technolo- gies as well as unrelated actives, such as hotels, restaurants, and grocery stores that could develop financial resources. Few improved stove programmes in other countries have such well conceived, broad based, and long-term ap- proaches to the promotion of rural energy companies.

Technological lessons

Many engineers and technicians took part in the R&D in the initial phase of the diffusion programme. They adopted the common and repeated practices of laboratory to field operations. From this experience the technological contri- butions for the world are as follow:

(1) Shape of combustion chamber: in other countries, the shapes of combustion chambers can best be described as a pot wherein the walls of the combustion chamber are vertical. In China, the walls of the combustion chamber are curved similar to that of a bowl (see Figure 4). This modification increased the efficiency of operation.

(2) Size of feeding door: reducing the size of the feeding door is another innovation. The top of the feeding door was lowered so that the products of combustion passed through the smoke outlet and directly into the chimney together with some excess air which enters from the grate and the feeding door. This modification greatly decreases smoke and indoor pollution.

(3) Grate: installation of the grate is commonly used by third word countries, however, the Chinese grates for the improved biomass stoves are different in one re- spect. The enlarged area of air circulation represents about 50% of total grate area. This allows increased air input thus enhancing complete combustion of the fuel.

(4) Ash pit: China's improved biomass stoves have ash pits which can accommodate two day's ash deposition. They are bigger than those used elsewhere. The result- ing advantages are convenience for the users and im- provement of kitchen sanitation.

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