NCMI

TRAINING MANUAL

DEVELOPMENT AND DYNAMICS OF

CHRISTIAN THEOLOGY Part 1

By Ian McKellar,

Adapted by Leschenne D. Honiball

This document may be duplicated whole, or in part, in any form (written, visual, electronic or audio) without express written permission, providing it is not used for commercial purposes.

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Development and Dynamics of Christian Theology in History

(AD 0 – 1500)

HISTORY LESSON “History repeats itself. Has to, no one listens.” - Steve Turner “…my people are destroyed for their lack of knowledge” Hosea 4:6 INTRODUCTION Church History is a most exciting subject. It teaches us so many things that would be difficult to learn in any other way. We must learn the patterns of history so that we do not keep on repeating the mistakes of the past and can begin to sow good seed so that we can reap the revivals of the future. In the Church today there is a great lack of the knowledge of the foundations of the faith; there is a great lack of understanding of where we have come from. Therefore it is difficult to see where we are going. Francis Schaeffer said, “There is a flow to history and culture.” Once we begin to see and understand this flow we can begin to rise up with new faith for what God is doing in our day and for what God has promised in the future. In this course of Church History, there are four things we would like to highlight. Once you have finished the course, we trust that you have understood and grasped these four things:

1. A Flow to History

Galatians 6 speaks of sowing and reaping. Whatever we sow will produce a harvest, either for good or for evil. History is the most wonderful system to study, to understand the harvest that is produced from both good and bad doctrine being taught, from good and bad models, from good and bad leaders. We want to study history and Scripture so that we can reap a good harvest. Observing a timeline of this period, one can see a good example of the flow of history: The Pendulum effect in history. Given the trends observed in history and plotting them on the timeline, it is reasonable to predict the pendulum swing from Pentecostalism to the over-reaction of much of the New Age movement, Gnosticism, etc.

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2. God‟s Timing

God‟s timing is perfect. We need to understand from the flow of history that God gives divine opportunities at different times. As we study history we see windows of opportunity opening up for God‟s people; if these opportunities are taken, a great thrust forward results; where these opportunities are missed, God‟s people seem to go through the wilderness for another season until the day of opportunity comes once again. We must learn to perceive God‟s opportunity so that we can go ahead when God opens the door. 3. Leadership

As we study history, we see that God always uses men and women to forcefully lead and to take His people out of darkness into light. We can be greatly inspired and encourage ourselves to become better leaders, so that God can use us to do greater things. We also learn that Church government and structure are vitally important in order for the Church to become all that God has destined. 4. Theology

It is good to understand that our present day theology is rooted in history. Theology is looking to see what God is doing, and God has been doing different things throughout the history of the Church. God remains the same, but His times and seasons change. God has been restoring truths back to the Church, so as we study Church history we get an understanding of theology and how it fits into the bigger picture of God‟s plan. We need to study in order to get to know God and draw close to Him; the study of Church History is like reading a modern day book of Acts where we see the acts of the Holy Spirit and the acts of God‟s people once again demonstrated throughout the history of the Church.

We have been destined for great things and the study of God‟s past working with His Church will encourage us to pray and believe for greater things in the future.

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UNIT ONE

THE BEGINNINGS (First Century)

Learning Outcomes: 1. Understand the beginnings of the church. 2. Identify the spread of the gospel during the first century.

3. Know the accounts as written by Historians, which confirm the Biblical account.

1.1 THE FOUNDATIONS Radical Churchmanship is that expression of Christianity, which appears again and again throughout church history. It is in essence the attempt to recover Christianity, as it was understood at its origins; it is a rediscovery of roots. In its varied forms it consequently emphasises more highly the Bible and the Holy Spirit, when tradition and human activity dominate the mainstream church. By the turn of the second century, approximately 10% (that is around 25 million) of the world‟s population were Christians. The first century was a burst of power, as can be seen from the book of Acts.

After the Passover season ended and the crowds that had gathered for the occasion had dispersed, Jerusalem returned to normal. Some were puzzled, however, by the unusual circumstances surrounding the crucifixion of a certain Jesus of Nazareth, who appeared to be a revolutionary. He had talked about setting up a kingdom of His own. A rumour had spread concerning His resurrection from the dead. The soldiers who were guarding His tomb reported the theft of His body by His followers.

1.1.1 In the World but not of the World

Christians are not of the world. Rather, they are distinct from it, different in nature and substance. When the church loses that distinction, it loses its effectiveness and Jesus said it is only fit to be „trampled under foot‟, Matthew 5:13. This was really a very radical thing to say, as society and religion had always been seen as the same in Jewish history. The High Priest and the King had acted as one. The people were to be religious and Israel was both church and state. The same was

What Jesus said about the new people of

God, this alternative society,

was a fundamental challenge to the

established order of things in Israel

as well as in other nations

as that time.

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true for any other nation in the first century, with the further point that the King and the High Priest were often the same person. Not only was Jesus‟ statement revolutionary for the Jews but also for the dominant political system at the time, the Roman Empire. For throughout this Empire, the Emperor was not just the supreme in government but was to be worshipped as a god. Refusal to worship the Emperor was the reason why the early Christians were subjected to so much persecution. They would not compromise their allegiance; they were committed to Christ and His kingdom. They were an international people. 1.1.2 Pentecost

One hundred and twenty of Jesus‟ followers gathered in an upper room in Jerusalem. Having seen and talked with the risen Lord, they awaited, at His command, the coming of the Holy Spirit (Acts 1:4, 5). On the day of Pentecost (fifty days after the crucifixion and ten days after the ascension), they were rewarded. A sound as of a rushing wind filled the house. On each of the group lighted what appeared to be a tongue of flame. Immediately they were filled with the Spirit and began to speak in other tongues. Thus the church was born, and wonderful was the experience of believers during succeeding days. They held to the true doctrine, were faithful in prayer, participated frequently in the Lord‟s Supper, enjoyed each other‟s fellowship, were in one accord, and lived joyous lives. Those who met them were strangely moved and awed; many believed and were added to the number of the church daily (Acts 2:42–47). Soon the number of believers grew to about five thousand men (Acts 4:4).

Stop and explore: Read Acts 2. There are a number of scholars that all conclude this event was the birth of the Christian church. What was the purpose, the significance and the importance of the Holy Spirit‟s coming?

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1.1.3 Persecution and Growth However, life was not always going to be perfect. The believers were often persecuted (Acts 4). Accepting the Lord was a serious matter and the decision was never made lightly; it involved suffering for His sake. The world hated Him; it would hate His followers also (John 15:18–19). Persecution came with increasing regularity and intensity. First there was warning, then beating, and then murder. Stephen was the first Christian martyr (Acts 7:54–60). But persecution did not have the desired effect. Members of the Jerusalem church were scattered all over Judea and Samaria, preaching as they went. Philip ministered in Samaria and witnessed a wonderful spiritual awakening there. Christ‟s commission to preach in Jerusalem, Judea, Samaria, and the uttermost part of the earth (Acts 1:8) was being fulfilled.

1.2 MISSIONS

1.2.1 Paul‘s Missionary Journeys

Ultimately, church growth at Antioch required more workers. Barnabas went to Tarsus to persuade Paul to join in the ministry in the Syrian metropolis. Soon the Lord revealed to the church that He wanted Paul and Barnabas in foreign missionary activity. They departed, with the blessing of the whole church, to minister to Jews and Gentiles in the regions beyond. They travelled and preached in Cyprus and Asia Minor (modern Turkey) and returned to Antioch. When they arrived, a question of the relationship of Jew and Gentile in the church and to the law arose. Jewish Christians believed that Gentile believers had to submit to the law as well as place their faith in Christ. The issue was referred to

Stop and research: Read Acts 9-10. Discover the life and conversion of Saul. Give a brief synopsis of the events that took place concerning his

life changing experience.

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the mother church at Jerusalem; Paul and Barnabas and others were sent there to present the case. The decision of the great Council of Jerusalem (A.D. 49 or 50) is significant: “For it seemed good to the Holy Spirit, and to us, to lay upon you no greater burden than these necessary things: that you abstain from things offered to idols, from blood, from things strangled, and from sexual immorality. If you keep yourselves from these, you will do well” (Acts 15:28–29). Under the guidance of the Holy Spirit, the council decided that the law, which had been an impossible burden for Jews, should not be required of Gentiles. Silas accompanied Paul on his second missionary journey. The two again visited churches in Asia Minor and then, responding to the call of the man from Macedonia (Acts 16:9), they crossed over into Greece, where they established churches at Philippi, Thessalonica, Berea, and Corinth. Paul remained at Corinth for about eighteen months of successful evangelistic work. During this journey he also preached his famous sermon on Mars Hill in Athens (Acts 17). Thus the evangelisation of Europe had begun. On his third journey Paul again called on the believers in central Asia Minor. Travelling westward he stopped for much of three years at Ephesus (Acts 20:31), where he carried the gospel. After revisiting the churches in Greece, he returned to Jerusalem, where he was apprehended by the leaders of the Jews and imprisoned. At length, appealing to Caesar, he was taken to Rome for trial. There he was imprisoned for two years (apparently under house arrest, Acts 28:30). According to some historians Paul was released from his first Roman imprisonment and went on a fourth missionary journey. In support of such a view, he had anticipated gaining his freedom (Phil. 1:25; Phylum. 22) and even expected to go to Spain (Rom. 15:24, 28) at a future time. Moreover, there is some indication in the church fathers that he did indeed get there. On that fourth journey he seems also to have gone to Crete, where he established Titus in a leadership position, in addition to visiting some churches already founded.

THE JERUSALEM COUNCIL

A conference held around AD 49 between representatives (including Paul and Barnabas) from the church at Antioch of Syria and those from the church at Jerusalem. This council met to settle a dispute over whether Gentile converts to Christianity had to be circumcised (Acts 15:1–29). They insisted that Gentiles could not be received into the church unless they were circumcised and brought under the rules of the Mosaic Law. The apostle Paul, champion of Gentile freedom, said that all people, both Jews and Gentiles, are saved by grace through faith in Jesus Christ, apart from the works of the Law. To require circumcision, he argued, would destroy the good news of God‟s grace. The conclusion of the Jerusalem Council determined that Gentiles did not have to be circumcised in order to identify with Judaism. Peter declared, “We believe that through the grace of the Lord Jesus Christ we [Jews] shall be saved in the same manner as they [the Gentiles]” (Acts 15:11).

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1.2.2 Missions of Other Apostles The other apostles were also active during the first century. Several apparently evangelised areas not already mentioned. History teaches that Bartholomew preached in Armenia; Andrew in the southern steps of Russia and the Ukraine; Thomas in Persia and India; Matthew in Ethiopia; James the Younger in Egypt; Jude in Assyria and Persia; and Mark (not one of the apostles but closely related to them) in Alexandria. If the Babylon from which Peter wrote (1 Peter 5:13) was Babylon on the Euphrates instead of a symbolic representation of Rome, then Babylonia was also evangelised during the first century. Indications are that Peter ministered in Rome near the end of his life and was martyred there. Evidently, he also preached in several of the provinces of Asia Minor (1 Peter 1:1). If there is any truth in these accounts concerning the apostles and other early church leaders, the gospel penetrated the more important inhabited areas of Europe, Asia, and Africa by the end of the first century. In general support of this contention, Justin Martyr, one of the most outstanding leaders in the church about A.D. 150, observed:

There is no people, Greek or barbarian, or of any other race, by whatever appellation or manners they be distinguished, however ignorant of arts or agriculture, whether they dwell in tents or wander about in covered wagons, among whom prayers and thanksgivings are not offered in the name of the crucified Jesus to the Father and Creator of all things.

Although admittedly this reference must have been primarily to lands within the Roman Empire, it does show a widespread distribution of the gospel. In a real sense, then, the pattern of evangelism laid out in Acts 1:8 was realised: “But you shall receive power when the Holy Spirit has come upon you; and you shall be witnesses to Me in Jerusalem, and in all Judea and Samaria, and even to the end of the earth.”

Search the globe: Consider the work of the Holy Spirit in Acts 2:4; 4:31; 5:32; 6:3,10. The phrase “filled with the Holy Spirit” is used to display what the Spirit does or how He works. Read the verses and identify the work of the Holy Spirit in the believer‟s life.

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1.2.3 Historians confirm Biblical accounts

In 1947 Prof. Sukenik uncovered near Jerusalem what many scholars believe are Christian inscriptions scraped on bone caskets found in first century tombs (AD 30), saying, „Jesus, let him arise,” and „Jesus, let him help him.‟ It seems to indicate that these people were buried with the certain hope of resurrection. In Nazareth, a plaque from about AD 50 also was found saying that anyone caught tampering with tombs will be put to death by order of the Emperor. He was presumably worried about the stories going around about Jesus having risen from the dead. It sounds very like the Chief Priests telling the guards to spread a rumour that the disciples had stolen Jesus‟ body (Matthew 28:11-15).

Suetonius, at the turn of the first century, records that fact that the Emperor in about AD 50 pushed the Jews out of Rome. Compare this to Acts 18:2, where Paul lodges with Aquila and Priscilla who had recently been expelled from Rome. Persecution is something that recurs throughout the history of the church. „Those who will live godly in Christ Jesus shall suffer persecution.‟ (2 Timothy 3:12) All who genuinely follow Jesus will suffer

hardship. And there are some lovely examples of people who stood for the Lord in the first century. 1.3 IN THE WORLD 1.3.1 Emperor Burns Rome

One of the worst of the Roman emperors was Nero, who reigned from AD 54 to 68. He was obviously mad; he decided to burn Rome and so set fire to the slum quarters in AD 64. It was widely rumoured that Nero had started the fire but he blamed it upon the Christians. Nero‟s persecution of Christians was fierce; he put them on crosses, poured molten tar over them and set fire to them. In that way, they would burn slowly to death. Nero used them to illuminate his banquets. To entertain himself, he would dress Christians in animal skins and then loose wild animals to tear them to shreds. Crucifixion was a particularly cruel way of executing people. The man responsible in Rome for crucifixion was the Prefect of Rome, a member of the famous Flavian family, a hardened man with 32 campaigns to his name. He was second only to the Emperor himself.

One of the exciting things about early

church history is that the non-Christian

historians make reference to events

that are recorded in the

New Testament.

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Many times, he would have been responsible for turning his troops on to Christians. Although it is not recorded that he became a Christian, we cannot help but speculate that he did, perhaps through seeing the way the Christians died for their faith. Roman historians recorded that he suddenly changed – this hardened man became soft-hearted, “a man who would not shed the blood of his fellow humans lightly”. In AD 69, when riots broke out over the appointment of the new Emperor, he refused to draw his sword and so died on the steps of his own palace. 1.3.2 Dispersion Brings Growth Flavius Josephus, a first-century Jewish historian, confirms what the Bible says, that the church in Jerusalem was led by James, the half brother of Jesus. Soon after James‟ martyrdom, the church fled to mountains between AD 66 and AD 70. Eusebius, the early church historian (c. AD 263-339), tells of the scattering of the Christians far and wide. Following the persecution. The effect was that healthy decentralisation took place, and masses of new churches were planted. There is good reason to believe that Thomas went to India and most of the immediate countries of the Middle East were evangelised. The pressure of persecution serves only to cause rapid expansion in the church. Although they had not yet been drawn together, some scholars say that all the books of the New Testament were written by AD 70 (many scholars think that the whole of the New Testament was written in the first century AD). The foundations of a radical faith had been established in the early church and it spread rapidly through the known world at that time. We need to rediscover the same sort of faith and life so that we see the world become saved within our generation. The stories of our forefathers will inspire us to do so. Try the Self-test on the next page.

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Self-test 1. of Jesus‟ followers gathered in an upper room in Jerusalem and waited, praying to God. 2. What took place in the upper room in Jerusalem, at Pentecost? 3. How did persecution aid the spread of the Gospel? 4. Give a brief synopsis of the events at the Jerusalem Council in AD 49.

5. There were other apostles that were actively spreading the gospel during the first century, name as many as you can and where they went.

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6. The Roman emperor who set fire to Rome, was 7. Why was the above person regarded as one of the worst Roman emperors in History? Now compare your answers with mine on the next page.

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Self-test 1. of Jesus‟ followers gathered in an upper room in Jerusalem and waited, praying to God. 2. What took place in the upper room in Jerusalem, at Pentecost? 3. How did persecution aid the spread of the Gospel? 4. Give a brief synopsis of the events at the Jerusalem Council in AD 49.

5. There were other apostles that were actively spreading the gospel during the first century, name as many as you can and where they went.

One hundred and twenty (120)

Having seen and talked with the risen Lord, the disciples awaited, at His command, the coming of the Holy Spirit (Acts 1:4,5). On the day of Pentecost they were rewarded. A sound as of a rushing wind filled the house. On each of the group lighted what appeared to be a tongue of flame. Immediately they were filled with the

Spirit and began to speak in other tongues.

Members of the Jerusalem church were scattered all over Judea and Samaria, preaching as they went. Philip ministered in Samaria and witnessed a wonderful spiritual awakening there. Christ‘s commission to preach in Jerusalem, Judea,

Samaria, and the uttermost part of the earth was being fulfilled. (Acts 1:8)

A conference held around AD 49 between representatives (including Paul and Barnabas) from the church at Antioch of Syria and those from the church at Jerusalem. This council met to settle a dispute over whether Gentile converts to Christianity had to be circumcised (Acts 15:1–29). They insisted that Gentiles could not be received into the church unless they were circumcised and brought under the rules of the Mosaic Law. The apostle Paul, champion of Gentile freedom, said that all people, both Jews and Gentiles, are saved by grace through faith in Jesus Christ, apart from the works of the Law. To require circumcision, he argued, would destroy the good news of God‘s grace. The conclusion of the Jerusalem Council determined that Gentiles did not have to be circumcised in order to identify with Judaism. Peter declared, ―We believe that through the grace of the Lord Jesus Christ we [Jews] shall

be saved in the same manner as they [the Gentiles]‖ (Acts 15:11).

History teaches that Bartholomew preached in Armenia; Andrew in the southern steppes of Russia and the Ukraine; Thomas in Persia and India; Matthew in Ethiopia; James the Younger in Egypt; Jude in Assyria and Persia; and Mark (not one of the apostles but closely related to them) in Alexandria. If the Babylon from which Peter wrote (1 Peter 5:13) was Babylon on the Euphrates instead of a symbolic representation of Rome, then Babylonia was also evangelised during the first century. Indications are that Peter ministered in Rome near the end of his life and was martyred there. Evidently, he also preached in several of the provinces of Asia

Minor (1 Peter 1:1).

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6. The Roman emperor who set fire to Rome, was 7. Why was the above person regarded as one of the worst Roman emperors in History?

One of the worst of the Roman emperors was Nero, who reigned from AD 54 to 68. He was obviously mad; he decided to burn Rome and so set fire to the slum quarters in AD 64. It was widely rumoured that Nero had started the fire but he blamed it upon the Christians. Nero‘s persecution of Christians was fierce; he put them on crosses, poured molten tar over them and set fire to them. In that way, they would burn slowly to death. Nero used them to light his banquets. To entertain himself, he would dress Christians in animal skins and then loose wild animals to tear them to shreds.

Nero

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UNIT TWO

THE CHURCH IN ITS EARLY DEVELOPMENT (Second Century)

Learning Outcomes:

1. Understand the importance of the apostolic church fathers. 2. Identify teachers within the early church and their contribution to

Christianity. 3. Explain the importance of apologetics in the early church. 4. Identify key apologists within the early church.

2.1 STRENGTHENING BELIEVERS 2.1.1 Fervent fight for purity in the Second and Third Centuries “They meet together before the day breaks. They sing a hymn to Christ as God. They vow that they would not participate in certain forms of evil… After going home, they come back again to eat together. There they commit themselves to each other and to God.” These words were written in about AD 112 in a letter from Pliny the Younger, Governor of Bythinia, to the Emperor Trajan. He was a good civil servant, meticulously carrying out the orders of his boss, but clearly worried by what he had to do. These people whom he had to torture and slaughter seemed to him to be very decent people.

Christians refused to worship the Emperor. Much trade in trinkets and animals for use in pagan rituals had been lost as people turned to Christ. Consequently, through the second and third centuries, Christians continued to be under severe pressure from the authorities. In fact it is generally reckoned (if we include the Domistian persecution at the end of the first century which was largely

confined to the aristocracy) that there were ten major outbreaks of persecution during the whole period (AD 30 to 312) at which time Christianity was eventually tolerated by law. 2.1.2 The Apostolic Fathers As the first apostles passed from the scene, others arose in the church to take their places. These leaders, generally elders or bishops, are called Fathers (“Fathers in God”) because of the esteem in which church members held them or

The spread of Christianity

had become a real problem for the

Roman

establishment.

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because of their historical relationship to later church developments. In fact, Father has come to apply to church leaders during an extended period beginning about AD 95. The Fathers frequently are divided into four groups:

• the Apostolic or Post-Apostolic Fathers (c. 95–150); • the Apologists (c. 140–200); or Ante-Nicene Fathers • the Polemicists (c. 180–225); or Nicene Fathers • the Scientific Theologians (c. 225–460) or Post-Nicene Fathers

The Apostolic Fathers are characterised by edification as they sought to build up or strengthen believers in the faith, the Apologists by defence against attacks on Christianity, the Polemicists by attacks against heresy within the church, and the Scientific Theologians by a scientific study of theology in an effort to apply to theological investigation philosophical modes of thought then current. Clement While the apostle John was writing Revelation on the Isle of Patmos or at Ephesus, Clement served as leading elder, or bishop, in the church at Rome. He was responsible for answering an appeal (as did Paul a half century earlier; cf. 1 Corinthians 7:1ff.) from the church at Corinth for advice on how to restore harmony to a divided church. He sent a letter urging a demonstration of Christian graces in daily relationships and obedience to the elders and deacons against whom some were rebelling. He made frequent reference to both Old and New Testament Scripture and especially to Paul‟s epistles. Because this is the earliest extra-Biblical Christian writing, it has attained a place of prominence among the writings of the Apostolic Fathers. Near the end of the second century, this work (1 Clement) almost attained canonical status in some churches. 2.1.3 Teachers Of The Early Church Ignatius Ignatius, bishop of Antioch, was a Syrian Apostolic Father and the most famous of the group. About AD 110, he was apprehended by Roman authorities because of his Christian profession and sent to Rome for judgment and expected martyrdom in the arena. Along the way he wrote letters to various churches.

The Apostolic Fathers

Purpose: to exhort and edify the church

Writers or Writings Clement

Papias Shepherd of Hermas

Barnabas Ignatius

Didache Polycarp

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These seven letters were designed to promote unity in the churches addressed. Unity was to be accomplished on the one hand by rooting out heresies that denied the full divine-human personality of Christ, and on the other hand by the subjection of leaders in local congregations to a ruling bishop. Thus Ignatius gave momentum to the power of bishops, but only over local congregations. He did not promote the position of the bishop of Rome over that of other bishops, but he seems to have been the first to speak of a catholic (universal) church. It is not clear whether his emphasis on the ruling bishop was a view held commonly in the church in his day or whether it was largely his own position. He held that the church could not baptise, celebrate the Eucharist, or perform a marriage without the bishop. Polycarp In Asia Minor (modern Turkey) two church fathers were active: Polycarp and Papias. Polycarp, bishop of Smyrna (modern Izmir), is particularly interesting to modern Christians because he was a disciple of the apostle John. Though he wrote several pieces, only his letter to the Philippians remains. As one would expect from a disciple of John, Polycarp emphasised in his letter faith in Christ and the necessary outworking of that faith in daily living. Unlike those of his friend Ignatius, his concerns do not involve church organisation and discipline. In his letter he quoted from thirteen New Testament books and knew of a collection of Paul‟s letters. Martyred for his faith in Smyrna (probably in 155 or 156), Polycarp claimed to have served Christ for eighty-six years. A staunch defender of orthodoxy, he devoted much of his energy to combating heretics. The Martyrdom of Polycarp, written by his church within a year after his death, is the first Christian account of martyrdom (excluding that of Stephen in Acts 7).

Consider the church fathers… What are your thoughts concerning the contributions of Ignatius to the church? What were some advantages and disadvantages?

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Papias Papias, bishop of Hierapolis in Phrygia, wrote in AD 125. His Interpretations of the Sayings (Oracles) of the Lord is now lost, but parts of it survive in the writings of Irenaeus and Eusebius. These fragments deal with the life and teachings of Christ and attempt to preserve information obtained from those who had known Christ. They are especially interesting for their historical references, such as the statement that Mark got the information for his gospel from Peter. His comments on the apostolic age of the church should not be quickly dismissed because he too was a “hearer of John” the apostle. He penned one of the earliest statements on a literal material millennium when the earth will be miraculously fruitful. Barnabas Works assigned to the period of the Apostolic Fathers also originated in North Africa. Barnabas may have been written in Alexandria – probably somewhere between AD 70 and 130. Like much of the other literature of Alexandria, this epistle is quite allegorical in nature, engaging in gross typology and numerology. The basic problem of the epistle concerns the necessity of a Christian‟s keeping the law. It holds that such was not necessary; the work of Christ was sufficient. It becomes so anti-Judaic as almost to deny an historical connection between Judaism and Christianity. Didache The Didache, or Teachings of the Twelve, is also believed to have originated in Alexandria (though some think it came from Syria), probably during the first decades of the second century. A church manual, divided into four parts, the Didache treats Christian ethics (chaps. 1-6), liturgical matters baptism, fasting, the Eucharist, (chaps. 7-10), the ministry and church government (chaps. 11-15), and the Second Coming and end of the world (chap. 16). Baptism was to be performed by immersion if possible. Believers should live a life of preparedness in view of the return of Christ. The Didache is available on the Internet and is freely downloadable. 2.1.4 The Purpose of Apostolic Fathers

The Apostolic Fathers must be evaluated in accordance with their apparent purpose: to exhort and edify the church. Sometimes they are criticised by evangelicals because they do not seem to grasp the New Testament concept of salvation by faith or because they seem to neglect certain doctrines. It should be remembered, however, that if one‟s purpose is to exhort to a higher level of Christian living, one

might make rather vague allusions to the means by which an individual becomes a Christian. Moreover, informal utterances of devout faith are not designed to

The Apostolic Fathers

must be evaluated in accordance

with their apparent purpose:

to exhort and edify the church.

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provide completeness of theological treatment and should not be judged by the same criteria as a systematic theology. Admittedly however, the Apostolic Fathers do in some instances assign a rather significant place to baptism as a medium of forgiveness of sin. Martyrdom and celibacy are also thought to have special sin-atoning power. On the whole the Apostolic Fathers portray a church still throbbing with missionary zeal, a church in which individual responsibility is still everywhere recognised, and a church in which hierarchal organisation is at a minimum. 2.2 DEFENCE OF THE FAITH

2.2.1 The Apologists

The approach and purpose of the Apologists were entirely different from those of the Apostolic Fathers. The Apologists sought to win legal recognition for Christianity and to defend it against various charges directed by the generally pagan population. In constructing this defence, the Apologists wrote in a more philosophical vein than the Apostolic Fathers. A generation of Christians from a higher social class and with more extensive education had arisen. As the Apologists wrote their defences they had at hand two literary forms already in use in the Roman world: the legal speech (apologia) delivered before judicial authorities and subsequently published, and the literary dialogue.

Search the globe: Consider the apostolic fathers and their contributions to the early church. List the advantages and the things you would change had you been an apostolic church father.

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In seeking to win a favourable position for Christianity, the Apologists tried on the one hand to demonstrate the superiority of the Hebrew-Christian tradition over paganism, and on the other to defend Christianity against a variety of charges. They viewed this superiority as both temporal and spiritual. To support a temporal or chronological superiority, Justin Martyr claimed that Moses wrote the Pentateuch long before the Trojan War (c. 1250 B.C.), thus antedating Greek history, to say nothing of the Romans. He and other Apologists spoke much concerning the fulfilment of prophecy, in an attempt to show that Christianity was not something new, but merely a continuation or culmination of the ancient Hebrew faith. As to the spiritual superiority of Christianity over paganism, the Apologists claimed that noble pagans had obtained their high ideals from God or Moses. Among the charges against which Apologists defended Christianity were atheism, cannibalism, immorality, and antisocial action. The first charge arose because Christians refused to worship the emperor

or the Greco-Roman gods; The second, because of a misunderstanding of the celebration of the

Lord‟s Supper; The third, because religious services generally had to be conducted in

secret or after dark and because Christians displayed great love for each other;

The last, because Christians found it necessary to retire from much of public life, as most aspects of human existence were in some way connected with worship of the gods. For instance, one who held public office had to participate in and even lead the populace in sacrifices to the ruler or the goddess Roma, the personification of the state. Normally those who attended an athletic festival or a drama, found themselves consenting to a sacrifice to a god before the event began.

The Apologists Purpose: to defend the faith

Leaders

Justin Martyr Tatian Tertullian

―apologetics‖

An organised, thoughtful defence of the Christian faith. The believer‟s task is to know well the truths of the faith and to prepare to

present them in a persuasive fashion.

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In their effort to win recognition from the state for their faith, the Apologists generally took a philosophical approach. It was only natural that they should do so, because, on the one hand, they were trying to reason out the case for Christianity with their opponents, and, on the other hand, they often wrote to men who were themselves greatly interested in philosophy. (Note, for instance, that the emperor Marcus Aurelius was a Stoic philosopher, and apologies were addressed to him.) Because of their philosophical orientation, the Apologists have been accused of undue surrender to the worldview of heathenism. Even their teachings about Jesus Christ appear in the form of the Logos doctrine. To the philosophers the Logos was an impersonal controlling and developing principle of the universe. The Apologists on most points seem to have upheld the New Testament concept of Jesus Christ, though it must be admitted that such writers as Justin sometimes described Christ as being of inferior rank to the Father. The very fact that the Apologists placed such great stress on the Logos demonstrates that their theology was Christ-centred. Justin Martyr Probably the most dramatic and therefore the best known of the apologists was Justin Martyr. Certainly he was a great literary defender of the faith. Born about AD 100 in a small town in Samaria (a Gentile), Justin became well acquainted with the various philosophical systems. But his great knowledge of these philosophies also led him to a realisation of their inadequacies. At this point of disillusionment and searching (c. 132), an old Christian came into Justin‟s life and showed him the way of faith in Christ. Thereafter, the converted philosopher became a Christian philosopher, presenting the Christian message in philosophical terms. Justin wrote apologies to the emperor Antoninus Pius and his adopted son, Marcus Aurelius, and a dialogue with Trypho the Jew. In the apologies, he sought to defend Christianity against the charges of atheism and immorality, to demonstrate that Christians were loyal citizens (Christ‟s kingdom was not of this world; so the empire had no reason to fear insurrection), and to prove that Christianity alone taught the truth. In his dialogue with Trypho, Justin tried to show that Jesus was the Messiah. During his second stay in Rome, Justin engaged in a public debate with a philosopher by the name of Crescens. Shortly thereafter (c. 163), Justin was martyred by Marcus Aurelius, perhaps at the instruction of several philosophers close to the emperor. The later chapters of his first apology are especially interesting because of his comments on baptismal and Eucharistic belief and practice. In fact, he was one

John, in chapter one of

his gospel, had also used Logos to

describe Christ, without any sacrifice of His deity or the value

of His atoning work.

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of the foremost interpreters of the Christian faith between the late first and early third centuries. And though he is commonly presented as a Christian philosopher, his focus was Christ, and his final authority the Scripture, the Word of God. In fact, he was not afraid to sit in judgment on philosophy. Tatian One of Justin‟s converts in Rome was Tatian (a native of Assyria), a writer skilled in argumentation. His Address to the Greeks was largely a tirade against paganism; it ridiculed almost every pagan practice. In the latter part, he argued that since Christianity was superior to Greek religion and thought, it deserved to be tolerated. After Justin‟s martyrdom, Tatian went to Syria, where he founded a group later called the Encratites – known for their extremely severe practices. Tatian is probably best known for his Diatessaron, the earliest harmony of the gospels, composed about AD 150–160. Tertullian Another writer, sometimes classified among the Apologists, was Tertullian. Born in Carthage, North Africa, about 160, he may have become a lawyer and was won to Christianity late in the century. An important church father, he wrote a long list of apologetic and theological works in Latin and Greek. His Apologeticus (c. 197), addressed to the Roman governor of Carthage, refuted the common charges brought against Christians, demonstrated the loyalty of Christians to the empire, and showed that persecution of Christians was foolish anyway, because they multiplied whenever persecuted. About 200, Tertullian became enmeshed in the error of Montanism.

Get some ideas… Read 1 Peter 3:13-17. Peter instructs the believers to be ready to give an „apology‟ (an organised, thoughtful defence) of their faith. Briefly write the reason why you believe in Christ, incorporating key verses to help you.

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Self-test 1. Within the second century government, whom did Christians refuse to worship?

2. What are the four groups into which apostolic fathers are commonly divided? 3. As Ignatius travelled to Rome for his judgment he wrote seven letters to different churches. What was the main theme and purpose to his letters? 4. What did Polycarp, a disciple of John the apostle, emphasise in his letter to the Philippians? 5. What is the Didache?

6. What was the main purpose of the apostolic fathers?

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7. What was the purpose of the apologists as opposed to the apostolic fathers? 8. What is apologetics? Now compare your answers with mine on the next page.

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Self-test 1. Within the second century government, whom did Christians refuse to worship?

2. What are the four groups into which the apostolic fathers are commonly divided? 3. As Ignatius travelled to Rome for his judgement he wrote seven letters to different churches. What was the main theme and purpose to his letters?

4. What did Polycarp, a disciple of John the apostle, emphasise in his letter to the Philippians? 5. What is the Didache? 6. What was the main purpose of the apostolic fathers in the church?

Christians refused to worship the Emperor.

• the Apostolic or Post-Apostolic Fathers (c. 95–150); • the Apologists (c. 140–200); or Ante-Nicene Fathers • the Polemicists (c. 180–225); or Nicene Fathers • the Scientific Theologians (c. 225–460) or Post-Nicene Fathers

These seven letters were designed to promote unity in the churches addressed, so that heresies which denied the full divine-human personality of Christ, and the

subjection of leaders in local congregations to a ruling bishop, could be ruled out.

Polycarp emphasised, in his letter to the Philippians, faith in Christ and the

necessary outworking of that faith in daily living.

The Didache, or Teachings of the Twelve, was a church manual that was divided into four parts. The Didache spoke of Christian ethics (chaps. 1-6), liturgical matters baptism, fasting, the Eucharist, (chaps. 7-10), the ministry and church government (chaps. 11-15), and the Second Coming and end of the world (chap. 16).

The Apostolic Fathers apparent purpose was to exhort and edify the church.

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7. What was the purpose of the apologists as opposed to the apostolic fathers? 8. What is apologetics?

The Apologists sought to win legal recognition for Christianity and to defend it

against various charges directed by the generally pagan population.

Apologetics: An organised, thoughtful defence of the Christian faith. The believer‘s task is to know well the truths of the faith and to prepare to present them in a

persuasive fashion.

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ASSIGNMENT ONE PART ONE

1.1 Compile a progressive study on the spread of the Gospel, beginning with the early church through to the fifth century. Using a map for each century, chart the spread of the Gospel. You can use a different colour for each century i.e., red for the first century, green for the second century, etc.

Include an outline with your map, indicating the century, the original sending point of the Gospel, the direction in which the Gospel spread (or to whom), and the key missionary figure(s) in each century.

1.2 Using your outline from question 1.1, write an essay detailing the contribution of four key leaders in the early church.

Include a brief overview of the person you are writing

about.

Discuss the style of evangelism used and its effectiveness.

Identify the successes and weaknesses of each in their effort to evangelize the nations.

Conclude with a summary of their contributions to the growth and establishment of the early church.

[Approximately 1500 words in total]

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UNIT THREE

ATTACKS AGAINST ERROR (Third and Fourth Centuries)

Learning Outcomes:

1. Understand the development of secularisation within the early church. 2. Identify the rise of major doctrinal issues within the church. 3. Explain the uniting of church and state toward the end of the third

century. 4. Understand the influence of paganism on the church.

3.1 STRUGGLE FOR SURVIVAL 3.1.1 Radical Reaction The effect of sustained persecution led to people becoming fearful and less committed to challenge the paganism around them. In the second and third century, the use of charismatic gifts was still evident, but becoming less common. The reaction to this neglect of spiritual gifts was the first in a stream of radical movements in the church and was led by a man called Montanus born c. AD156, and two prophetesses, Prisca and Maximillia. Montanus spoke out against the laxity of the relationship of the church to the world. The movement grew out of a desire to see more of the Holy Spirit. It grew rapidly in Asia Minor and North Africa. Many Montanists were martyred. At about this time Tertullian joined the movement, despite criticism of Montanists‟ orthodoxy, he was by this time an established theologian and happy to align himself with Montanists.

It was Tertullian who coined the word ‗Trinity‘ to describe the Godhead of Father, Son and Holy

Spirit. His writing shows three

main concerns: the Christian‘s attitude to

the Roman State and society,

the defence of orthodox beliefs against heresy,

and the moral behaviour

of Christians.

Write a letter to a friend introducing your church. What good areas would you highlight and why?

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3.1.2 Origen‘s Fervour

The third century continues with examples of people who are completely committed to following Christ, whatever the cost. In about AD 202, Leonidas was in prison for his Christian faith and was eventually martyred. His seventeen-year-old son, Origen, was so full of love for Christ that he wanted to rush down to the prison to die with his father. The only way his mother could stop him was to hide all his clothes. Origen became one of the greatest evangelists and apologists of his time. While he was living and working in Alexandria, the Emperor‟s mother would go to listen to his preaching. He sent out tracts, and wrote letters to the Emperor.

He was considered the most famous of the Alexandrian writers (AD202-232). Thereafter he moved to Caesarea in Palestine, where he would continue his illustrious career for another twenty years until the Decian persecution. Origen is often called the first great theologian. He brought to scientific formulation the allegorical interpretation of Scripture. The concept of this approach may be seen in Philo of Alexandria, a contemporary of Christ who had sought to find reconciliation between Greek philosophy and Jewish thought by searching for hidden meanings in the Old Testament. Christian writers after Philo employed the allegorical method, but Origen receives credit for the full development of the approach.

Origen‟s works number in the thousands (some say six thousand, including letters and articles), involving critical, apologetic, dogmatic, and practical treatises. His commentaries deal with almost the whole Bible. Although they are helpful at points, their value is restricted by his allegorisms. Highly significant are his critical or textual studies: the Hexapla and Tetrapla. The former has several Hebrew and Greek versions arranged in parallel columns. The latter contains the four Greek versions of the Hexapla. Only fragments of these works remain. Origen‟s On First Principles is the earliest systematic theology that has come down to historians.

Stop and consider: Research and discover all you can about the allegorical method of interpreting the Scriptures. Jot down your findings in point form.

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3.1.3 Church Leaders

Throughout history persecution of the church has produced a recurring problem. Under pressure, some Christians became fearful and they compromised or retreated from their faith. Others stood firm and faced severe punishment. Those in authority within the church at this time, had to make decisions concerning the fate of these „betrayers to the faith‟. Cyprian (martyred in 258), is known for his opposition to Novatianism. Novatus (Novatian) held that those who denied their faith during persecution could not be pronounced forgiven by the church and restored to its fellowship; forgiveness must be left to God alone. It was not Novatus‟s severity of discipline but his denial that the church had the right to grant absolution that caused his excommunication. The church had become conscious of her catholicity and unity by this time, and those who would not submit to divinely appointed bishops were regarded as heretics. In line with this common attitude, Cyprian, bishop of Carthage, felt it his duty to condemn Novatus. 3.2 MAJOR ISSUES ARISING IN THE CHURCH IN THE SECOND AND

THIRD CENTURIES 3.2.1 Monarchical Bishops

In AD 95, Clement of Rome wrote concerning the church being led by one person. Churches were to be led by a body of elders. However, in AD 115, Ignatius from Antioch was seeking to justify the thought of one man being able to lead a church. The New Testament must have foreseen a corporate leadership and accountability; not all people have all the gifts. Ignatius strongly supported the development of monarchical bishops – one strong leader for each church in each city. Although there is no evidence of a woman being a monarchical bishop, it is evident that in a few places there were woman bishops or “presbytides”. It is thought that reference was made to the office of a woman bishop being disbanded in AD 363 at the Council of Laodicea. “Canon XI states „Presbytides, as they are called, or female presidents, are not to be appointed in the church‟. A later commentator, Balsamon, writes „In old days certain venerable women sat in Catholic churches, and took care that the other women kept good and modest order. But from their habit of using improperly that, which was proper, either through their arrogance or through their base self-seeking, scandal arose. Therefore the Fathers prohibited the existence in the church thereafter of any more such women, as are called presbytides or presidents‟ This ruling implies that women were publicly recognised as serving in the church until the fourth century, and of course, that the men were never

Radical Christians

took up the issue

on the question

of church leadership.

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arrogant or self-seeking in their behaviour.”1 In the third century, Cyprian identified the leaders of the church with the Old Testament priests. He advocated a stronger distinction between the clergy and the laity, and the word „priest‟ began to be used in an official way. 3.2.2 Baptism and Gnosticism Baptism became an issue of debate in the third and fourth centuries. “Repent and be baptised, and you will receive the Holy Spirit.” (Acts 2:38, Darby Bible) “He that believes and is baptised shall be saved.” (Mark 16:15, Darby Bible) The Bible clearly speaks of believers‟ baptism. It is the answer of a good conscience towards God (1 Peter 3:21). Infant baptism became an issue in the church during this time. Groups that practised baptism of infants baptised not only infants but also adults who had come to faith in Christ. One of the arguments proposed in favour of baptising infants is that entire households were baptised in New Testament times (Acts 16:15,33). However, the context of these verses clearly shows that all the members of the households referred to were saved. Certainly such households or families must have included children. Consequently, groups who hold this position believe this practice should be extended to the present day. A second argument cited is Jesus‟ treatment of children. Jesus commanded the disciples to bring the children to Him. When they did so, He blessed them (Mark 10:13–16). Because of this example from Jesus, it would seem inconsistent to deny baptism to children today.

A third argument put forth by covenant theologians is that children were participants in the Old Testament covenant: “And I will establish My covenant between Me and you and your descendants after you in their generations, for an

1P. Beasley-Murray (Editor), Anyone for Ordination? MARC 1993, p.74.

What are your thoughts concerning the position of women leaders in the church? Research Scripture and find an answer to the question above. Here are some verses to get you started: Galatians 3:28; 1 Corinthians 14:34,35; 1 Timothy 2:11-12; Acts 21:9.

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everlasting covenant, to be God to you and your descendants after you” (Genesis 17:7). They were present when the covenant was renewed (Deuteronomy 29:10–13; Joshua 8:35). They had a standing in the congregation of Israel and were present in their religious assemblies (Joel 2:16). The promises of God were given to children as well as adults (Isaiah 54:13; Jeremiah 31:34). Circumcision was administered to infants in the Old Testament (Genesis 17:12). Since baptism had replaced circumcision, it was natural that it should be administered to children, according to those who practised infant baptism. Irenaeus wrote in the second century criticising heretics who were baptising children. Origen speaks of believers‟ baptism, but a later document which some attribute to Origen, would clearly be contradictory to this by advocating infant baptism. In the mid third century, Cyprian clearly encourages the baptism of infants; and this practice became increasingly common amongst orthodox believers. Both infant and believers‟ baptism continued to be practised side by side until the seventh century. From that point on, in the established church, anyone who wanted to be baptised, as an adult believer would be put to death. If one sought to be baptised when he/she became a believer, having already been baptised as a baby, it would be considered a second baptism (Anabaptism). The Paulician Christians (a radical group in Asia Minor and Armenia) baptised their adherents when they had reached the age of 30, as that was considered the age of Jesus when he was baptised.

GNOSTICISM

Gnosticism is a system of false teachings that existed during the early centuries of Christianity. Its name came from gnosis, the Greek word for knowledge. The Gnostics believed that knowledge was the way to salvation. For this reason, several writers of the New Testament condemned Gnosticism as false and heretical.

Sources

There are several resources found that help to uncover Gnosticism in the early church. First, there are the Gnostic texts, which are among the New Testament Apocrypha. These texts are not recognised as Scripture because they contain teachings that differ from those in the Bible. Then, there are the refutations of the Gnostics by the early church fathers. Some of the more important ones are Irenaeus, Against Heresies; Hippolytus, Refutations of All Heresies; Epiphanius, Panarion; and Tertullian, Against Marcion.

Still a third source about Gnosticism is the New Testament itself. The writers of the New Testament condemned many Gnostic teachings. Paul emphasised a wisdom and knowledge that comes from God and does not concern itself with idle speculations, fables, and moral laxity (Col. 2:8–23; 1 Tim. 1:4; 2 Tim. 2:16–19; Titus 1:10–16). John, both in his gospel and in the epistles, countered heretical teaching that, in a broad sense, can be considered Gnostic.

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Gnosticism was a movement for „special‟ people, mysterious intellectuals, who would be saved by having secret knowledge („Gnosis‟ is Greek for „knowledge‟). Gnostics believed that they had received some super-spiritual truth that others did not have. 3.2.3 State Invades the Church By the end of the third century significant heresies begin to affect the church. Within the church the power vested in the bishops was beginning to corrupt. The church was affecting the institutions of the Empire but the Empire‟s pagan ways were subtly making inroads into the church. Thank God for those who were prepared to go back to the purity and power of their roots in the New Testament, the radicals like the Montanists, Novatians, Cathars, even if at times they were numbered with the heretics. Looking at the increase in persecution against those who gave themselves in radical commitment to Christ, we might wonder what the point of it is – was anything achieved? As we look at the history of the church, and see the influence today, there is no doubt that very significant things were achieved. During the fourth century the church was increasingly taken over by the secular state or was found in the process of taking over the secular state. This led to a reaction from those who sought to maintain the purity and separateness of the church. Movements similar to the Montanists, Cathars and Novatians that were have seen in the second and third centuries continued throughout the fourth century. 3.3 CONSTANTINE CONQUERS – THROUGH THE CROSS At the beginning of the fourth century, a fundamental change took place both in the nature of the church and in the relationship of church and state. A Christian

MARTYR

A witness.

“Martyr,” one who bears “witness” by his death. Because the early Christians frequently suffered for their faith, the word “martyr” soon came to refer to people who suffered or died because of their witness to Christ. Thus the apostle Paul calls Stephen a martyr (Acts 22:20), and the book of Revelation mentions “the martyrs of Jesus” (17:6).

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before AD 300 meant not just living for Jesus, but running a high risk of dying for Him also; putting it in general and stark terms, persecution kept the church pure. Under Constantine‟s influence however, church and state become allies; the church was no longer salt and light, purifying and illuminating the world. Citizens of the empire became members of the church by birth, and not by profession of faith. In AD 312, the Edict of Toleration towards Christianity was passed. After his victory at the Battle of the Milvian Bridge in the same year, Constantine established his supremacy over the eastern part of the Empire. He reversed the trend of earlier centuries and made Christianity legal. Constantine said that before the battle he had a vision of a flaming cross in the sky and the words “In Hoc Signa”. These words mean “In this sign”. Constantine put the sign of the cross on his swords and spears and believed that the Christian God gave him victory in his battles. He imposed his peace upon the empire and Christianity became supreme. Although he acted as if he were the head of the church, Constantine was not baptised until he was near death. 3.3.1 Paganism Infiltrates the Church

With Christianity becoming the accepted religion of the Empire, many flooded into the church. People had become disaffected with the gods of Rome and other religions, and admired the fervour of the Christians. The Bishops became very powerful. Previously Christianity was illegal and therefore the church was not allowed to own property. However, in the fourth century, buildings began to be converted for Christian use.

With the buildings, there often came all the trappings of the old religions. Some of the old liturgies infiltrated the Christian ones, burning of incense was introduced, and pagan festivals like Easter (originally a pagan festival honouring Eostre, a Teutonic goddess of light and spring)

2 and Christmas (the church in Rome chose

to begin celebrating Jesus‟ birth in the second or third century in order to obscure a pagan holiday that was traditionally celebrated at that time)

3 were adopted into

the Christian calendar. Even Sunday is suspect – Constantine had the sun god, a great symbol of pagan worship, on some of his coins. This might account for his choosing Sunday as the special day of rest for Christians. It had nothing to do

2Ronald F. Youngblood, general editor; F.F. Bruce and R.K. Harrison, consulting editors, Nelson’s new

illustrated Bible dictionary: An authoritative one-volume reference work on the Bible with full color illustrations [computer file], electronic edition of the revised edition of Nelson’s illustrated Bible

dictionary, Logos Library System, (Nashville: Thomas Nelson) 1997, c1995. 3James I. Packer, Merrill C. Tenney and William White, Jr., editors, Nelson’s illustrated manners and

customs of the Bible [computer file], electronic ed., Logos Library System, (Nashville: Thomas Nelson)

1997, c1995.

For the first three

hundred years, the church

met in homes

or in the open.

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with the Sabbath. However, on the first day of the week in earlier centuries, the followers of Christ met early in the morning and late at night to celebrate the Lord‟s resurrection, but Sunday had not been a day of rest. It is in this period that the first ecumenical councils met at Nicea AD 325, and Constantinople AD 381. They tried to establish truths about the person of Christ, the meaning of the Trinity, and the Scriptures. Sadly, the controversies that arose sometimes resulted in bishops being physically attacked and injured for refusing to fall into line. The church declined, and a great apostasy grew as people wielded power for their own ends through the structures of the church.

Hermits and Monasteries

There was a rise in asceticism (a practice of great self-denial and abstaining from worldly comforts and pleasures for religious reasons). Out of a sincere desire to find a purer way of life, some like Anthony in Egypt took to the solitary life of a hermit. Others wanted to discover more meaningful body-life in the church and established the first monasteries. They were not first of all designed for effecting world evangelisation, rather, to develop a deeper personal spirituality. \

Worship of Relics and Idols

A result of Constantine‟s joining of church and state was that the paganism of the empire was able to flow into the church. Constantine‟s mother began to promote the collection of relics, which are bits of the cross, pieces of garments, and parts

Putting priests in

robes often came from pagan religions

but were justified from the

Old Testament.

Compare the state of the church in the third century with that of today‟s church. What is your attitude toward worldly tendencies, ideas and secular phrases entering into the church? Explain your answer.

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of the saint‟s anatomies (what is said to be John the Baptist‟s finger encased in gold can still be found in Istanbul). Irene, the widow of Emperor Leo IV, promoted this practice in the Eastern part of the empire during the eighth century. In the ninth century, Emperor Theophilos was very opposed to the practice. However, after his death, his widow, Theodora, promoted it. The message of the church became very confused as institutional Christianity absorbed much of the paganism around it. The desire for power led bishops to take titles for themselves, which in no way reflected the servant heart of Christ. Leo the Great (AD390-461), Bishop of Rome, used the words of Jesus in Matthew 16:18-19, to justify his supremacy over other bishops, though at that time he did not yet call himself the pope. Now try the Self-test on the next page.

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Self-test 1. brought to scientific formulation the allegorical

interpretation of Scripture.

2. Why did Cyprian condemn Novatus? 3. What evidence is given concerning the office of women bishops in the church?

4. What two major issues plagued the church early in the third century?

5. What is Gnosticism?

6. Under whose influence did the church and state become allies at the end of the third century? 7. What is asceticism?

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Self-test 1. brought to scientific formulation the allegorical interpretation of Scripture. 2. Why did Cyprian condemn Novatus? 3. What evidence is given concerning the office of women bishops in the church? 4. What two major issues plagued the church early in the third century? 5. What is Gnosticism? 6. Under whose influence did the church and state become allies at the end of the third century? 7. What is asceticism?

Origen

In line with this common attitude, Cyprian felt it his duty to condemn Novatus because he held that those who lapsed during persecution could not be pronounced forgiven by the church and restored to its fellowship; forgiveness was to be left to God alone. Novatus‘ denial that the church had the right to grant absolution caused

his excommunication.

It is thought that reference was made to the office of a woman bishop being disbanded in AD 363 at the Council of Laodicea. ―Canon XI states ‗Presbytides, as they are called, or female presidents, are not to be appointed in the church’.

A later commentator, Balsamon, writes ‗In old days certain venerable women sat in Catholic churches, and took care that the other women kept good and modest order. … The Fathers prohibited the existence in the church thereafter of any more such women, as are called presbytides or presidents‘ This ruling implies that women were publicly recognised as serving in the church until the fourth

century….‖

Baptism and Gnosticism

Gnosticism is a system of false teachings that existed during the early centuries of Christianity. Its name came from gnosis, the Greek word for knowledge. The Gnostics

believed that knowledge was the way to salvation.

Constantine

Asceticism is the practice of great self-denial and abstaining from worldly comforts

and pleasures for religious reasons.

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UNIT FOUR

THE CHURCH LEADERSHIP (Fifth Century) Learning Outcomes: 1. Identify the significant leaders within the early church. 2. Understand the influences of Augustine on Christianity. 3. Identify the problems that caused Christians to dispute. 4. Track the continued spread of the Gospel. 5. Identify the beginning of corruption within the papacy. 4.1 INFLUENTIAL CHURCH LEADERS

4.1.1 Mixed Philosophies

The fourth century produced some important leaders. Chrysostom who lived between AD347 and AD407 was the most prominent leader of the Greek Church and was also important as a representative of the grammatical-historical interpretation of Scripture in opposition to the allegorical and mystical interpretations of Alexandria. While Chrysostom did not exclude all allegorical and mystical elements from scriptural study, he confined them to cases in which he felt the inspired author suggested such a meaning. Chrysostom is also important for the reformation of Eastern theology. At the time of the Reformation there were long

discussions about whether Chrysostom was Protestant or Catholic. Though he ignored confession to a priest, he did hold to the real presence in the Eucharist, to the one church, and to tradition as a valid basis of authority. Born in Antioch and for many years a preacher in the cathedral there, Chrysostom became patriarch of Constantinople near the end of his life (398). Unfortunately, his criticism of the lavish life of the court, his tactlessness, asceticism, and opposition of the Patriarch of Alexandria brought him considerable trouble, and he was finally thrown out from office. Ambrose, bishop of Milan (374–397), was one of the most illustrious Fathers of the Western church. Popes, councils and theologians have regularly appealed to his writings because they represent an official witness to the teachings of the Roman Church in his own time and earlier

In the lives and teachings of the

Fathers we find the beginnings of almost

all that arose later.

The grammatical-historical method of studying the

Bible instructs us:

(a) to look at the grammar of a passage carefully to see what it says, and

(b) to understand a Biblical statement in light of its historical background.

It is understood that an historical statement is an uncomplicated statement and does not change its

literal, grammatical sense.

This is ―common sense.‖

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centuries. Commentaries on Scripture constitute more than half of his writings. In these, Ambrose employed the allegorical-mystical method of interpretation: he admitted a literal sense, but sought everywhere a deeper mystical meaning that he converted into practical instruction for Christian life. Ambrose also encouraged monasticism. He was one of the earliest supporters of devotion to Mary in the Western church, and promoted the cult of martyrs during his bishopric. In his diligence in teaching the faith and refuting heresy, he influenced many, not the least of whom was St. Augustine, who was his most illustrious convert. During this time Jerome (AD347-420) gathered together various versions of the Bible to produce the Latin version, the Vulgate. Britain was thoroughly evangelised in the fourth century, and

the gospel was spreading to Ireland, Spain, Ethiopia, the Sahara, Persia, India and China. As the radicals lived and died they kept alive the genuine meaning of Christianity. Their dedication, and often ultimate sacrifice has influenced the church in significant ways. 4.1.2 The influence of Augustine At the end of the fourth century, the church was under great spiritual pressure and the situation was volatile. For example, in AD366 a controversy arose

Consider Scripture. What does is mean to you to know that the Bible has been preserved throughout time for instruction in living righteously?

Allegorical interpretation of Scripture

In every allegory there is a twofold sense—the

immediate or historic, which is understood from the

words, and the ultimate, which is concerned with the

things signified by the words. The allegorical

interpretation is not of the words, but of the things

signified by them, and not only may, but actually does,

coexist with the literal interpretation in every allegory, whether the narrative in which it is conveyed be of things

possible or real.

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concerning who should be the Bishop of Rome. There was violent conflict between the rival bishops, Vusinus and Damasus which caused the death of 137 people when a fight broke out in the Basilica at Rome. At about the same time, Augustine was virtually forced by popular acclaim to become the Bishop of Hippo in North Africa. Augustine (354-431) influenced mainline Christianity to an unprecedented degree. Almost every Christian doctrine he touched, he changed or qualified. Augustine‟s mother, Monica, was a Christian, but Augustine did not at first support Christianity. He became a Manichean and was influenced by Stoicism and Neo-Platonism. These had important effects upon his thinking, which are later reflected in the way he changed Christian doctrines. These philosophies influenced Augustine when he introduced a totally new meaning for election and predestination into Christianity. It is important to note that there is no evidence that these doctrines existed in the writings of the early Greek Fathers. The writings of the early Greek Fathers in the years immediately following the apostles are vital to help our understanding of the apostles‟ doctrine. It is invalid to read the insights of the later Latin Fathers directly back into the New Testament. It was Ambrose, a godly man, who led Augustine to Christ. In Augustine‟s writings, he clearly emphasises the freedom and the responsibility human beings have both to sin and to choose to repent. Although Augustine must have learnt such things from Ambrose, he quite deliberately changes his understanding and therefore his teaching of these issues at a later stage.

Augustine‟s influence upon all Christian faiths has been significant. His emphasis on a personal experience of the grace of God as necessary to salvation has caused Protestants to accept him as a forerunner of the Reformation. His emphasis on the church, her creed, and sacraments has appealed to Roman Catholics. His teaching that the Millennium was the period between Christ‟s first and second comings, during which time the church would

conquer the world, has contributed greatly to amillennial and postmillennial theologies of past and present. Augustine‟s teaching that man is in all his parts perverted by sin, profoundly influenced Calvinistic theology, and such an outstanding American scholar as Perry Miller made the claim in his New England Mind that the Puritans were even more Augustinian than Calvinistic in their theology.

It is widely believed that St. Augustine

stands as the greatest

theologian

of all time.

Manicheism is a dualistic system of

belief of good and evil in which Christ came into the world to

help the good in humans to overcome the evil

darkness.

42

There is no doubt that Augustine‟s influence was profound and pervasive. It was a long time before a few brave people like the Waldensians, the Anabaptists, Arminius, Wesley and others challenged this predominant theological viewpoint. 4.2 EAST-WEST DIVIDE

The fifth century saw the collapse of the western part of the Roman Empire by the invasion of barbarian hordes. The church remained strong, and its political influence grew as the Holy Roman Empire developed out of the remaining structures of the Western Roman Empire. 4.2.1 Controversy over Mary Nestorius, a preacher in Antioch, born in Syria, was appointed Bishop of Constantinople in AD428. He was an eloquent and energetic man. Following the teaching of Theodore of Mopsuestia, (AD350-428) he opposed the use of the term “God-bearer” (theotokos in Greek) for Mary, the mother of Jesus. He was accused, falsely, of denying the divinity of Christ. While declaring our Lord was fully God and fully man, he argued that since God preceded Mary, He could not be born from her. Jealousy on the part of Cyril, Bishop of Alexandria, provoked him to organise a council at Ephesus (AD431), which condemned Nestorius as a heretic. After bitter arguments, the Emperor finally confirmed this judgement and Nestorius was banished. He lived out the rest of his days in poverty and isolation at an oasis in the Egyptian desert.

Consider the influence of Augustine on the church in the fifth

century. In what ways did he lay the „ground work‟ for us today?

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Notes: ___________________________________________________________ ________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________ Many supporters of Nestorius moved eastward where they were well received in the churches in Iran and further east. New life was stimulated and soon the churches became involved in pushing the Gospel to more distant places. What became known as the Nestorian church, treated as heretical by the Western Orthodox and Catholic Church, grew rapidly, taking the gospel to China by the sixth century and into Armenia, Iraq, Iran, Afghanistan, Burma and North India by the ninth century. At its height there were almost certainly more Christians in the Nestorian church than in the orthodox churches based in Rome and Constantinople. There are two important things to note at this point. Firstly, while we readily accept the statements of beliefs set out in the

Western creeds, we need to remember that there have been vast numbers of Christians throughout history who have expressed their understanding of God, and the divinity and humanity of Christ, in different ways.

Secondly, the Nestorian church based in Baghdad and stretching through into China and North India, was living and effective in an area of the world that is now one of the hardest to reach with the gospel. It is possible that the life of these churches were perhaps exhausted by the way they were excluded by the western church. The Mogul and Turkic peoples are still the great missionary challenge of our day.

The Nestorian church had great men like Alopen (cAD635) and Kiho (cAD713), martyrs for the faith. They brought revival to Turkey and Central Asia and yet the Nestorian church went the same way as the Orthodox Catholic Church and institutionalisation brought spiritual death.

What is your opinion of the idea put forward by some Catholics, that the Trinity should now be called “the Holy Four” (to include Mary)? Support your view from Scripture.

44

Islam was growing fast and eventually by the 13th century wiped out the once thriving Nestorian church and the church in North Africa, both the institutional church and radical elements such as the Donatists. 4.2.2 Christianity Develops in Europe This link between Celtic and Eastern Christianity may be deduced from common features in both of them – the date of Easter, the shape of the monk‟s cowl and the fact that neither came under Roman authority.

There is an undoubted etymological link between the words „Galaha‟ and „Gaul‟ and any influence, deduced above, would have taken place before the bureaucratic structures of the Roman Empire were established in the West saw no effective growth. North Africa was lost to Islam and Scandinavia was gained. From the fifth century onwards, exciting advances were made in Northern France and the British Isles. It seems as though the Celtic Christianity developing in these areas bypassed what was happening within

the part of the church based in Rome. In terms of culture and language, there is a strong link between Asia Minor and Brittany and the Celts. The virility of this Eastern Christianity travelled along the trade routes into Northern France and Britain.

By the year AD600, the church was divided into the following: Research the following churches and write a brief sentence to describe each.

Western Church based on Rome (Catholic)

Eastern Church based on Constantinople (Orthodox)

Nestorian Church based on Baghdad

Centred upon Rome and Constantinople, the body

of people, which were supposed to represent Christianity, seemed to have structured itself to

be it deliberately, defiantly, or arrogantly opposed to what Jesus

told us to do – in love ―to go into all the world and

make disciples…‖

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The Irish captured Patrick (AD390-461) in Britain. He saw paganism in Ireland, and there was born, in his heart, a desire to see the country evangelised. After he escaped to England, he later returned to Ireland as a missionary. He was a powerful preacher of the gospel. His influence was immense, including the task of “praying out all the snakes of Ireland”. Scholarship at the highest level developed in Ireland so that from this century onward missionaries spread out all over Europe. Irish evangelists also travelled to what is now called Austria, Germany and Poland, as well as spreading the gospel throughout England and Scotland, it was an inspirational movement. 4.2.3 The Gospel goes Further It is alleged that St. Brendan travelled from Ireland with seventeen monks in a small leather boat across the Atlantic. He probably dropped a few in each landfall on the way. When he arrived in America, he seems to have made no contact with the native Red Indians, and returned to Ireland. His apparent motive was to obey our Lord and evangelise the whole world. The story of St. Brendan came to light in the Middle Ages. Although the language is slightly fanciful, it is quite possibly true. The medieval account records that as they crossed the Atlantic they were rained on by fire; that they met a glass island; and that they were carried on the back of a big fish (thought impossible until similar occurrences in the 19th and 20th centuries).

―How beautiful are the feet of those who preach the gospel of peace, Who bring glad tidings of good things!‖

Romans 10:14-15

How then shall they call on Him in whom they have not believed? And how shall they believe in Him of whom they have not heard?

And how shall they hear without a preacher?

And how shall they preach unless they are sent? As it is written:

Compare the missionary endeavours of your own church with those of Patrick.

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Columba (c. AD521-597) became a passionate advocate of the faith in Ireland. His name means „dove‟, but earlier in his life his nickname had been „the fox‟! Columba had a dispute with his bishop and so left Ireland to evangelise Scotland. One point of great breakthrough was when a daughter of one of the Scottish chieftains fell seriously ill. They called for Columba, but by the time he arrived several days later, she had died. He prayed for her and she was raised to life again. As a result, the gospel spread through Scotland like wildfire. The effectiveness of Columba‟s evangelism was not simply through signs and wonders, but in corporate witness of himself and his co-workers. They set up little groups of celibates who would work in an area for three or four years to plant and establish a church, and then move on to do the same elsewhere.

Notes: ___________________________________________________________ ________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________ ________________________________________________________________ 4.2.4 Paulicans‘ Progress

The movement mentioned earlier in Asia Minor and Armenia that gave rise to Celtic Christianity became known as the Paulicans. It is not easy to trace the origin of the name; some say it was because they traced the foundation back to the apostle Paul, others say it originates from a leader called Paulus. As with so many of the radical movements, the documentary evidence of their beliefs and lifestyle is scant; the reason for this is that when many of them suffered persecution and death at the hands of „orthodox‟ Christians, their writings were also destroyed. From what we are able to glean, there is no doubt that Paulicans were thoroughly Biblical. Accounts show that many devoted themselves to courageously spreading the gospel and visiting churches to teach and encourage. One such believer, an Armenian, who had been held captive by the Saracens, was travelling back to Armenia, after his release in approximately AD653. A man called Constantine gave him hospitality. In the evening the visitor took out his Bible and read it aloud with Constantine, who devoted himself to its study. It transformed his life; he changed his name to Silvanus, naming himself after the companion of the apostle Paul. He adopted a son by the name of Justus, and began travelling in the Euphrates valley and into Asia Minor with the gospel. His activities drew displeasure from the Byzantine Emperor who sent a certain Simeon to track these “heretics” down and eliminate them. Many refused to co-operate with Simeon‟s hunt and risked their lives in so doing. Tragically, it

What are the advantages of a living a consistent Christian

lifestyle?

47

was Justus, Silvanus‟ adopted son, who betrayed his father and the many others who died at the hands of their persecutors. On his return to Constantinople, Simeon could not dismiss from his mind the powerful witness of those who died for Christ. He fled Constantinople and joined the Paulicans. He changed his name to Titus and became an evangelist and teacher himself. In the end, he also, with many others, was burned to death for his faith. The records of the institutional church would have us believe that these people were Manicheans, the worst of all heretics. Although they did have some unusual features, the heart of their doctrine was clearly Biblical. Their devotion and zeal, which brought so many to their death, is also evidence of their orthodoxy. They practised believers‟ baptism, but unusually emersed the person three times separately in the name of the Father and the Son and the Holy Spirit. They encouraged celibacy for Christ‟s sake, but this is not entirely surprising when the institutional church was advocating the same for its priests. Many years later, a Paulican book called “The Key of Truth” was discovered that confirms that their doctrine did not differ vastly from Biblical orthodoxy. It tells us their way of life and teaching, “the holy milk whereby you may be nourished in the faith”. Amongst other things, it gives specific directions as to the three-fold method of baptism (mentioned above) and the appointment of elders. It says that an elder should be one who “has perfect wisdom, love (which is chief of all), prudence, gentleness, humility, justice, courage, sobriety and eloquence.” In replying to the elders‟ question about commitment, the new elder would make a vow:

“I take on myself scourging, imprisonment, tortures, reproaches, crosses, blows, tribulation and all temptations of the world, which our Lord and Intercessor and the Universal and Apostolic Holy Church took upon themselves, and lovingly accepted them. So even do I, an unworthy servant of Jesus Christ, with great love and ready will, take upon myself all these things until the hour of my death.”

Notes: ___________________________________________________________ ________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________ ________________________________________________________________ The movement spread through Armenia, Asia Minor, Greece, Bulgaria and Yugoslavia. Other names attributed to them are Thonraks, Bulgars and Bogomils.

In your opinion, should elders take a vow on taking up their office? Give

reasons for your answers.

48

One of the main reasons for these groups being persecuted by the institutional church was that they took issue over the worship of idols. Try the Self-test on the next page.

49

Self-test 1. Chrysostom was important as a representative of the interpretation of Scripture. 2. The bishop of Milan (364-397) was , the same man who led Augustine to the Christ. 3. The bishop of Milan (374-397) used the method of interpreting the Scriptures. 4. What is Manicheanism? 5. Why did the Protestants acknowledge Augustine as a possible forerunner for the Reformation? 6. What was the controversy over Mary, the mother of Jesus, concerning Nestorius? 7. Into what three groups was the church divided, in AD 600? 8. Who were the Paulican‟s? Now compare your answer with mine on the next page.

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Self-test 1. Chrysostom was important as a representative of the interpretation of Scripture. 2. The bishop of Milan (364-397) was , the same man who led Augustine to the Christ. 3. The bishop of Milan (374-397) used the method of interpreting the Scriptures. 4. What is Manicheanism? 5. Why did the Protestants acknowledge Augustine as a possible forerunner for the Reformation? 6. What was the controversy over Mary, the mother of Jesus, concerning Nestorius? 7. Into what three groups was the church divided, in AD 600? 8. Who were the Paulican‟s?

Grammatical-historical

Ambrose

Allegorical-mystical

Manicheism is a dualistic system of belief of good and evil in which Christ came into

the world to help the good in humans to overcome the evil darkness.

His emphasis on a personal experience of the grace of God as necessary to salvation

has caused Protestants to accept him as a forerunner of the Reformation.

Following the teaching of Theodore of Mopsuestia, (AD350-428) Nestorius opposed the use of the term ―God-bearer‖ (theotokos in Greek) for Mary, the mother of Jesus. He was accused, falsely, of denying the divinity of Christ. While declaring our Lord was fully God and fully man, he argued that since God preceded Mary, He could not

be born from her.

Western Church based in Rome (Catholic) Eastern Church based in Constantinople (Orthodox)

Nestorian Church based in Baghdad

The movement that began in Asia Minor and Armenia gave rise to Celtic Christianity and became known as the Paulicans. Some say their name is traced back to following the apostle Paul, others say it originated from a leader called Paulus. Paulicans were thoroughly Biblical. Accounts show that many devoted themselves to courageously

spreading the gospel and visiting churches to teach and encourage.

51

UNIT FIVE

GREAT MEN OF GOD (The Middle Ages)

Learning Outcomes:

1. Identify key people in the contribution to the development of the church.

2. Understand the developing problems within the church during the Middle Ages.

3. Trace the beginnings and progression of great men in the faith. 5.1 OUTSIDE OF THE CHURCH 5.1.1 Peter Waldo Peter Waldo was a businessman in Lyons during the 12th century. He was greatly affected by Alexis, a man who devoted himself to the Lord, became celibate, and suffered for the Lord‟s sake. When Alexis returned home, he was unrecognised, not even by his parents until after his death. Peter Waldo began to enquire more about Christ. He went to a priest and asked what he needed to do to follow Jesus. The priest told him to read the New Testament and particularly Matthew 19:16-24, concerning the Rich Young Ruler. His immediate response was to put his daughters in a nunnery, support his wife financially and abandon his family. This was what it meant to be spiritual in that day. He abandoned his family in order to be free of earthly ties and he began to preach. Peter had been greatly moved by the Scriptures, but as they were available only in Latin he had translations made into his vernacular. He began to preach in the streets and for the first time in a long while ordinary people heard what the Bible was saying. This scripture-based movement amongst the ordinary people grew very rapidly; its adherents were known as Waldensians. Peter Waldo and his followers initially had Papal approval. However, this was later withdrawn because the bishops disliked this alternative and popular preacher. Peter Waldo was excommunicated because the pope‟s command was ignored. From that time forward the Waldensian movement operated from outside the framework of the

Jesus said to him, ―If you want to be

perfect, go, sell what you have and

give to the poor, and you will have treasure in heaven; and come,

follow Me.‖

Matthew 19:25

52

institutional church. They continued to grow and expand their influence despite persecution; and by the end of the 13th century, Waldensians had spread through all of mainland Europe. They survived beyond this time to influence both the Reformers and the Anabaptists. 5.1.2 Community and Outreach

Around the beginning of the 13th century the Waldensian movement broke into two sections. The first group made contact with the Albigenses, another radical movement in Southern France (named after the town of Albi); this particular group of Waldensians were concerned with community life. They set up a community in which labour was honoured, so that the people living there held them in high regard. They lived from a common purse (money) and all the normal restraints and constraints of community life began to develop. The second group of Waldensians emphasised poverty. They sold what they had and gave to the poor. They trusted in God to supply all their needs and travelled to different places preaching the Gospel, no matter what the cost. So often through the history of the church these two emphases have been falsely set against one another. In the case of the Waldensians it is encouraging to see that the two sections reunited after 15 years apart. 5.2 WITHIN THE CHURCH 5.2.1 Francis of Assisi Francis (1182–1226) was born to a wealthy cloth merchant and worked for him until the age of twenty, when military adventures stole his attention. Taken prisoner for many months after a border dispute, he reflected on his life. It was

What is your attitude concerning the selling of possessions to give to the poor? Is this a burden or a blessing? Search the Scriptures to

verify your answer.

53

not until 1204, however, that Francis became dissatisfied with his reckless youth and materialistic values. He began to struggle inwardly in prayer and meditation. This new spiritual sensitivity prepared him for two events, which profoundly changed his life. The first was a pilgrimage to Rome, where he knelt beside a leper to give him alms and kiss his sores. The second event was the revelation Francis received at a little ruined church in San Damiano on the outskirts of Assisi. Here a voice from the crucifix ordered him to restore the building. Convinced that Francis was insane, his infuriated father denounced him, and Francis began his life as the povercello, the little poor man. Francis founded the Franciscan order in 1209. The heart of Francis‟s message was poverty. To renounce wealth was to find true freedom to serve God and needy people. The “first rule” issued in 1221 stated: “The Friars are to appropriate nothing for themselves, neither a house, nor a place, nor anything else…they beg alms trustingly.” When the leadership passed to brother Elias of Cortona in 1232, the order went in many directions, displeasing Francis. New friars wanted a stronger emphasis on education, but Francis felt this would betray the simplicity of the gospel, create pride, and foster the keeping of possessions (such as books). In spite of Francis‟s pleadings, the friars eventually entered the political realm and the intellectual life of the universities. With the direction of the order beyond his control, Francis retired to a semi-eremitic life, at which time he received the stigmata (wounds of Christ) on his body. Combined with the rigors of self-denial, this caused his health to weaken, and after extended illnesses he died in 1226. He was canonised two years later.

Consider this statement… “To renounce wealth was to find true freedom to serve God and needy people.” Have you or would you ever live in the same lifestyle as Francis of Assisi? Why or why not? From Scripture, how would you justify this action?

Francis

was a Catholic preacher and mystic who began monastic

communities for men and women.

He was devoted to poverty and service to

the poor.

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5.5.2 John Wycliffe John Wycliffe (c1329-1384) called the „Morning Star of the Reformation‟, was a lecturer at Oxford and despite his education he saw the need for ordinary people to be theologically trained and schooled. He translated the Scriptures into English, so that the Bible was available to ordinary people. At the same time he challenged several areas of church practice and doctrine and obviously evoked the wrath of the Roman church. He took issue over Christ being the only source of true religion, Scripture as the sole authority from God, and each man being responsible to God. Purgatory was another doctrine he challenged, as was the supremacy of the clergy. It is possible to see the religious awakening under Wycliffe, particularly as the Scriptures were distributed in the vernacular, as a contributory factor to the Peasant Revolt (1377-1381). It can be concluded therefore that Wycliffe‟s influence played a part in undermining the traditional structure of society at that time, peasants, priests and nobles. Wycliffe attracted followers because of his energetic preaching and lecturing; his followers were known as Lollards, a derogatory name that may mean „babbler‟, „mutterer‟ or „mumbler‟. The Lollards travelled all over Britain proclaiming Jesus, just like the Waldensians had done a hundred years before. Wycliffe made a devastating effect on the church in this England. One half of it had defected into Biblical Christianity. From the beginning of the 15 th century, Lollards were suppressed by the church, particularly when their preaching could be linked to civil unrest. The movement, however, continued to thrive and prepared the way for Lutheranism in the next century. Wycliffe himself was excommunicated for heresy; in 1382 he and his followers were forced to leave Oxford. Wycliffe settled in Lutterworth, where he died two years later. One of Wycliffe‟s students was Jerome of Prague. He returned home, full of the insight he had received in Oxford; one of those with whom he shared them was John Hus.

What do you think? Would you be of the same opinion as Wycliffe concerning the formal schooling of all Christians in theology and the Word? Give reasons for your answer.

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5.2.3 John Hus

John Hus (1374-1415), a theologian and preacher in Prague. The followers of John Hus were known as „Hussites‟ and were a sort of European counterpart of what had been happening in Britain. The movement was so vast that it swept through Czechoslovakia and Poland and almost the whole church turned round and stood against the pope. Therefore, the church used force. The movement fragmented into groups over the issue of whether force should be used in self-defence against oppression from the church. This division weakened the movement, and was eventually suppressed by the establishment. John Hus‟ case was eventually referred to a Church Council at Constance in 1415. Although travelling under the Emperor‟s safe conduct, he was seized on arrival and condemned to be burned at the stake, with no chance to explain his views. One of the leaders in the Hussite movement was Peter Cheltschizki; he belonged to group of Hussites that completely rejected the use of force, even in self-defence. Remarkably, his book „The Net of Faith‟ written in 1440, survived the persecution that the Hussites suffered, and describes his search for Biblical foundation for the church. The book also attached the three-fold nature of European society, nobles, priests and peasants. These radical groups all saw themselves as true believers, and resisted absorption into the state church. One can trace groups such as the Waldensians, Lollards and Hussites from this period up to the 18th century (when they were known as Moravians). Both the Roman Catholic and Protestant churches, because of their resistance to a „territorial‟ church concept, persecuted these groups. Erasmus One of the main features that prepared the way for the Reformation, was a new wave of Bible understanding and knowledge, bursting into Europe through the man we might call the „father of the Reformation‟, Erasmus (1467-1536). His most important work was a new scholarly edition of the Greek New Testament, which was published in 1516, the year before the Reformation began (1517, when Luther nailed his 95 thesis to the door of Wittenburg Cathedral).

At times, Hussites lived in a community,

with a common purse; they considered

themselves to be a movement similar to

that of the Waldensians.

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5.2.4 Gregory the Great Gregory I, the Great (540–604), was one of the best leaders that the Roman Church has ever had. Coming on the scene at the time of widespread political confusion with its consequent effects on the life and organisation of the church, he became the stabilising political influence and was largely responsible for the creation of the medieval papacy. Born into a noble, wealthy, and devout family, Gregory was for a while the prefect of Rome, the highest civil administrator in the city. This experience would later be invaluable to him. Gregory early turned to the monastic life as a way to glorify God, and he spent his inherited fortune to found seven monasteries. Pope Pelagius II called him back into public life, and from 579 to 586 he represented the Roman bishop at Constantinople. Elected bishop of Rome in 590, he strongly resisted the appointment but finally became reconciled to the calling. He much preferred the monastic life. With the decline of imperial power in Italy, Gregory found himself raising an army to fight the Lombards, appointing commanders, conducting a war effort, caring for thousands of refugees, and concluding a peace arrangement with the Lombards in 592-93. After the war was over, he did much to meet the needs of the poor in Rome and elsewhere. He became the real ruler of Rome and the virtual civil ruler of Italy in the last years of the sixth century. His administrative responsibility in Italy was important in the establishment of the Papal States. Gregory‟s great achievement was to organise the papal government as an elaborate, smoothly functioning machine in a period when society in Italy and the West in general was falling irretrievably into decay. Significantly, he was spurred on in his work by the conviction that the end of the world was imminent. Gregory‟s Importance For many reasons Gregory was one of the most important popes in the history of Roman Catholicism.

First, as noted above, he transformed the bishopric of Rome into a papal system that endured through the Middle Ages. His pontificate did much to establish the idea that the papacy was the supreme authority in the church.

Second, he introduced changes into the liturgy and sought the standardisation of it. Although Gregory was not responsible for the type of chant that bears his name, he did much to circulate its use in worship services and established schools for the training of singers.

Third, from a theological standpoint, his system served as something of a converging point for lines of thought found in the councils and in the Fathers. Though Gregory‟s theology was not original, he is important for his definition of dogma and his incorporation of elements of the popular

Gregory I . . . was largely responsible

for the creation of the

medieval papacy.

57

piety of his day into the official teachings of the Roman Catholic Church. He put tradition on an equal basis with Scripture in determining dogma.

Though he accepted the Augustinian view of original sin, he held that through baptism sin was forgiven and faith implanted so that an individual might work the works of God. For sins committed subsequently penance was required. He expanded the concept of purgatory and converted the Eucharist from a sacrament into a sacrifice for redemption, having value for the living and the dead. He officially approved the invocation of saints and martyrs and the use of relics and amulets to reduce temporal punishments. His view of Christ and the Trinity followed the decisions of the ecumenical councils.

Fourth, he was important for his writings. The Moralia, a commentary on Job, provided one of the patterns for the allegorical interpretation of Scripture common during the Middle Ages. His superstitious nature and that of the age is well displayed in his Dialogues, which concerns the lives and miracles of pious Fathers in Italy. And his Pastoral Rule was a practical work that instructed the bishop in the care of his flock and became the standard manual for the conduct of bishops. King Alfred the Great translated it into Greek in his lifetime and into Anglo-Saxon three hundred years later.

Gregory was a good preacher too, as evidenced by his forty sermons that have survived. They indicate a real concern for the spiritual and material needs of Christians in Rome. Gregory‟s writings have earned for him a place among the four great Latin doctors of the Western church: Ambrose, Augustine, Jerome, Gregory.

Fifth, Gregory promoted asceticism, especially as he enforced the celibacy of the clergy and as he restored monastic discipline. The first pope to be monk, he was a great propagator of monasticism.

Consider Gregory‘s contributions to Christianity… He was an important influence to that of the Roman Church but what were his effects on the effort of true Biblical Christianity? List his positive and negative contributions.

58

Last, Gregory possessed great missionary zeal. He sent forty monks to England in 596 under the leadership of Augustine (not the famous bishop of Hippo, who died in 430). Their success was pronounced, especially in the area of Canterbury, which became the religious capital of England and the seat of the archbishop.

Gregory‟s Successors During the seventh century Gregory‟s successors hardly maintained the high place he had earned for them. His first five successors were undistinguished and lasted for only twenty-one years. Rome suffered famine, plague, and natural disasters during their reigns. During most of the rest of the century there was a running battle between the emperors and the popes over matters of doctrine and administration. The emperor arrested Martin I (649–53), smuggled him out of Rome, subjected him to cruel treatment and condemned him to death. But later the emperor commuted Martin‟s sentence to banishment, and he died in the Crimea. Though the popes of the period were generally orthodox, Honorius I was bewildered by the Third Council of Constantinople in 681. The century was also a period when Roman monks in Britain were engaged in a struggle for supremacy with Irish monks who had preceded them there. Try the Self-test on the next page.

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Self-test

1. was a businessman in Lyons during the 12th century. 2. What were the differences between the first and second group of Waldesians? 3. What were the main contributions of Francis of Assisi to monastic life? 4. (1374-1415), a theologian and preacher in Prague. 5. There were six reasons why Gregory was one of the most important popes in the history of Roman Catholicism. What are they?

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Self-test

1. was a businessman in Lyons during the 12th century. 2. What were the differences between the first and second group of Waldesians? 3. What were the main contributions of Francis of Assisi to monastic life? 4. (1374-1415), a theologian and preacher in Prague. 5. There were six reasons why Gregory was one of the most important popes in the history of Roman Catholicism. What are they?

Peter Waldo

The first group:

Made contact with the Albigenses, another radical movement in Southern France (named after the town of Albi).

They were concerned with community life. They set up a community in which labour was honoured, so that the people living there held them in high regard with a common purse.

The second group:

Emphasised poverty.

They sold what they had and gave to the poor.

They trusted in God to supply all their needs and travelled to different places

preaching the Gospel.

Francis was a Catholic preacher and mystic who began monastic communities for men and women devoted to poverty and service to the poor. He also founded the

Franciscan order in 1209, and St. Dominic founded the Dominicans in 1216.

John Hus

First, he transformed the bishopric of Rome into a papal system that endured through the Middle Ages.

Second, he introduced changes into the liturgy and sought the standardisation of it.

Third, from a theological standpoint, his system served as something of a converging point for lines of thought found in the councils and in the Fathers.

Fourth, he was important for his writings.

Fifth, Gregory promoted asceticism, especially as he enforced the celibacy of the clergy and as he restored monastic discipline.

Last, Gregory possessed great missionary zeal.

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UNIT SIX

THE INSTABILITY OF THE MIDDLE AGES (1100-1500)

Learning Outcomes:

1. Understand the purpose and effects of the medieval crusades. 2. Learn from the movements of the Middle Ages leading up to the

Reformation. 3. Identify key figures that aided the development of papal government. 4. Understand the detrimental results of those willing to defy the papal

government. 6.1 THE CRUSADES 6.1.1 The First Crusade, 1095–1099 In part, the call for action, which was term “crusade”, should be viewed in connection with political matters. At the Council of Clermont in 1095, in the midst of the contest with Henry IV, Urban II proclaimed a Crusade. This was evidently a show of force in his struggle with the emperor. By this means Rome could direct the energies of Europe in a way that would bring her great advantages. In fact Urban promised remission of sins to those who marched under the banner of the cross. The event that sparked the Crusades was the advance of the Seljuk Turks in the East and the call for help from the Byzantine emperor Alexis I. Tales of the sufferings pilgrims endured at the hands of the Turks in the Holy Land provided emotional appeal for many to engage in holy war. And, in fact, Urban‟s

professed goal was to deliver the shrines of the Holy Land from Muslim control and return them to Christian supervision. In response to Urban‟s call, a great host gathered from Western Europe, especially from France, the Lowlands, and Italy, and finally took Jerusalem in 1099. The Crusaders then set up the kingdom of Jerusalem and a series of Crusader states along the coast of Syria and Palestine. Estimates of the

number participating in this Crusade vary greatly. About 40,000 arrived at Nicaea (north western Turkey) in June of 1097; of these less than 5,000 were nobles and knights. The rest were wives, sisters, relatives, friends, retainers, an assortment of pilgrims, and even prostitutes.

Although

many went on the Crusades for economic

reasons, or for adventure, or for lesser reasons, the

primary and official motive of the Crusades

was religious.

The crusades were the military expeditions undertaken in the 11

th, 12

th, and 13

th centuries by

the Christian powers of Europe to recapture the holy Land from the Muslims.

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6.1.2 Bernard and the Second Crusade, 1147 The burden of arousing enthusiasm for the Second Crusade (1147) fell on the famous Bernard of Clairvaux. Europeans were concerned with meeting the Muslim threat to the northern borders of the kingdom of Jerusalem. The king of France and the emperor of the Holy Roman Empire led the Crusade, but it was completely unsuccessful, leaving Jerusalem in greater danger than before. The crusading movement ground to a standstill until 1187, when Saladin captured Jerusalem and all Christendom was again aroused. 6.1.3 Third Crusade, 1189–1229 The Third Crusade (1189–1192) is known as the Crusade of the Three Kings: Richard I of England, Philip II of France, and Frederick I of Germany. Frederick drowned on the way to Palestine; Philip stayed in Palestine for only a very short time, leaving Richard to carry on the struggle alone. Although he was unsuccessful in taking Jerusalem, he recovered territory along the coast of Palestine and won permission for pilgrims to enter the Holy City for a few years. 6.1.4 The Fourth, Fifth and Sixth Crusades, 1202-1229

The Fourth Crusade began in 1202 under the leadership of Pope Innocent III. He urged the capture of Egypt as a base of operations against Palestine. When the army gathered, it found itself without sufficient funds to pay for shipping. In return for financial guarantees, it agreed with Venice to recapture nearby Zara from the Hungarians. For the same reason, it subsequently decided to support the deposed Byzantine emperor in his bid to regain the throne of the empire. The attack on Byzantium was more fiercely opposed than the Crusaders had expected, however. The result was a prolonged struggle there, permanent sidetracking of the Crusade, the sacking of Constantinople and destruction of the power of the Eastern empire, and establishment of a Latin kingdom in its place. Innocent was able to have some indirect influence in this Latin kingdom and over the Eastern Orthodox Church. Not much is known about the fifth crusade. The last Crusade of any significance was the sixth, led by Frederick II of Germany in 1228–1229. By diplomacy he acquired for ten years Jerusalem, Bethlehem, Nazareth, and a corridor connecting Acre and Jerusalem.

What are your convictions concerning “religious” wars, e.g. overcoming followers of a pagan religion by military force? Give Biblical reasons for your answer.

Consider the crusades… What contributions were made to history because of

the crusades being fought? Explain your answer.

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6.1.5 The End and Effects of the Crusades The Crusades ended in failure, with Jerusalem falling to the Egyptians in 1244 and remaining in Muslim hands until 1917, when the British General Allenby captured the Holy City from the Turks. Yet it must be said that while the Crusades lasted, the Roman church enjoyed wave after wave of popular enthusiasm in support of her causes. Moreover, while the church directed the energies of Europeans in fighting an external foe, she provided a safety valve that spared her a great deal of internal stress. They contributed to the commercial revolution and its accompanying rise of the middle class, the demise of feudalism, and the decline of provincialism in Western Europe. It is hard to measure fully the impact on Western Europe of the travel of hundreds of thousands of people to strange lands where they discovered new foods, new modes of dress, and new ways of doing things. All this ferment also helped to pave the way for the coming of the Renaissance. And since profits from commerce usually do not flow in one direction, rising commercial activity also stimulated a new prosperity in Muslim lands, notably Egypt. Moreover, the Fourth Crusade helped to bring about the fall of the Byzantine Empire.

6.2 THE PEASANT REVOLT (1377-1381) 6.2.1 Heretics Burnt in England

The Peasant Revolt (1377-1381), took place in last years of Wycliffe's life. This revolt hindered the religious revival at that time by the peasants uniting against the nobility and clergy. The Wycliffites were blamed for the excesses and losses of the insurrection. Although this was unjust, there was an undeniable and intimate connection between true Christianity and the deliverance of the oppressed.

Various views prevailed but there was general agreement as to the authority of Scripture, and the ruling church denounced as apostate and idolatrous. The first to suffer at the stake after the law was enacted for burning heretics was William Sawtre (1401), a Norfolk rector. The House of Commons presented petitions to Henry IV praying for the diversion of the surplus revenues of the church to

useful purposes, and the modification of the laws against LoIlards. His answer was to sign a warrant for burning Thomas Badly, a tailor of Evesham. This man,

The effects of the

Crusades were destined to be mainly

political, social, and economic

rather than

religious.

The translation of the Bible

had its due effect, and great numbers of the

people came to acknowledge it

as the only guide for faith

and conduct.

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accused of denying transubstantiation, after giving a courageous defence of his belief before the Bishop of Worcester, was tried in St. Paul's Church before the Archbishops of Canterbury and York and was burnt at Smithfield.

A leader among the Lollards was Sir John Oldcastle, Lord Cobham, a distinguished soldier. His castle of Cowling was a refuge for the travelling preachers, and meetings were held there, in spite of their being forbidden under severe penalties. Henry IV did not venture to interfere with him, but as soon as Henry V came to the throne he besieged and captured the castle and took its owner prisoner. Sir John escaped from the Tower, however, and was able for some years to elude pursuit, though many others were taken and executed, including thirty-nine of the Lollard leaders. When Sir John was finally captured in Wales, he was burned, the first English nobleman to die for the faith.

After his death a law was passed that whoever read the Scriptures in English should forfeit land, possessions, goods and life, and be condemned as a heretic to God. He/she would be an enemy to the crown, and a traitor to the kingdom. They were not to have any benefit of sanctuary; and that if they continued to be obstinate, or relapsed after being pardoned, it was necessary that the person should first be hanged for treason against the king and then burned for heresy against God.

Large churches were to be found in the neighbourhood of Beccles at the time of the accession of Henry VI (1422). Though the congregations were often broken up and reformed, some were in continuous existence over considerable periods; some, for instance in Buckinghamshire, for 60 or 70 years. The Bishop of London, writing to Erasmus in 1523, said: “It is no question of some pernicious novelty, it is only that new arms are being added to the great band of Wycliffite heretics.”

Consider yourself in such danger for preaching God‟s truth. From what Scriptures would you find greatest comfort?

Consider the punishment…. Perhaps you have a close friend facing opposition to the Gospel and enduring such torture. What words of comfort would you give to that friend?

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6.2.2 The Martyrs

Papacy brought much darkness and superstition into the church. However, there were a few who perceived the destructive ways of such errors and determined to shine the light of the Gospel in its real purity. One of the brightest lights was Berengarius, who, about the year 1000, boldly preached Gospel truths, according to their primitive purity. Many, from conviction, consented to his doctrine, and were, on that account called Berengarians. Another such reformer was Peer Bruis, who preached at Toulouse, under the protection of an early named Hildephonsus. All the tenets of the reformers, with the reasons for their separation from the Church of Rome, were published in a book written by Bruis. The title given to the book was “Antichrist”.

In 1147, because of Henry of Toulouse, deemed their most eminent preacher, they were called Henericians. As they would not accept any proof relative to religions, but only that, which could be found and verified in Scripture, the popish party gave them the name of apostolics. Peter Waldo was a native of Lyons known for his piety, learning, and opposition to the popery. Pope Alexander III being informed by the bishop of Lyons of these transactions, excommunicated

Waldo and his adherents, and commanded the bishop to exterminate them, if possible, from the face of the earth; hence began the papal persecutions against the Waldensians. The proceedings of Waldo and the reformed, occasioned the first rise of the inquisitors; for Pope Innocent III authorised certain monks as inquisitors, to inquire for and deliver over, the reformed to the secular power. The process was short, as an accusation was deemed adequate to guilt, and a honest trial was never granted to the accused. 6.3 CHURCHES AT THE CLOSE OF THE MIDDLE AGES 1300-1500

The influence of the Waldensians and the testimony of the "brethren” affected circles far wider than those with which they were definitely associated, and in the first half of the fourteenth century their teachings prevailed to an extent never known before. In 1302 Pope Boniface VIII issued a bull (an edict) declaring that submission to the Roman pope was, for every human being, necessary to his soul's salvation. From this edict the consequences were assumed that there was no God-given authority in the world apart from that which was derived through the pope. The

By 1140, the number of the

reformed was very great, and the probability of its increasing concerned the

pope, who wrote to several princes to banish

them from their dominions, and employed

many learned men to write against their

doctrines.

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Emperor, Ludwig of Bavaria, headed the protests that such claims aroused, and the pope placed the greater part of the empire under an Interdict. The Christian churches and their teachings spread rapidly among the people of the great cities, and especially among the members of the different workmen's and trade guilds. In Italy and France the brethren were often called "Weavers", it being said as a reproach that they were mostly hand workers and even their teachers were weavers and shoemakers. These guilds were very powerful, and their cause known in all countries, from Portugal to Bohemia and from England to Sicily. Each had its own elaborate organisation and they were also interrelated. Scripture and prayer had an important place in their functions. One of the most powerful was that of the Masons, which included the many kinds of workers connected with building. There is evidence of the power and importance of this guild in the wonderful beauty, grace, and strength of the numerous cathedrals and churches, town halls and houses, which were built in the 12th, 13th, and 14th centuries, and still give to Europe a unique interest and charm. In the builders' huts the „master‟ would read the Scriptures, even in times when elsewhere the mere possession of a Bible was punishable with death. Large numbers of people who had nothing to do with building – ladies, shopkeepers, and others became members of the guild on payment of a nominal contribution, e.g., a pot of honey or a bottle of wine. Such members were sometimes more numerous than the actual workpeople, finding in the guild a refuge from persecution and opportunity for hearing the Word of God. The artistic value and varied beauty of most handiwork at that time was largely inspired by the spiritual passion which lay behind the patient technical skill of the worker. Strasburg and Cologne were, for centuries, chief centres of the brethren; the churches of God there were large and influenced many beyond their own circles. A chronicle relates that in 1322 a certain Walther came to Cologne from Mainz.

Consider the impact of such groups… What does your church do in order to impact the community around you? If your church has no such projects, what are the greatest needs within your community that could be met by either yourself or the church giving birth to such a project?

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He was a leader of the Brethren and a dangerous heresiarch, who for many years had remained hidden and had involved many in his dangerous errors. He was seized near Cologne and by court of justice given over to the fire and burnt. He was a man full of the Devil, more able than any other, constant in his error, clever in his answers, corrupt in faith, and no promises, no threats, not even the most terrible tortures could bring him to betray his fellow culprits of whom there were many. This Lollard, Walther, of Netherland origin, had little knowledge of the Latin language, and wrote the numerous works of his false faith in the German tongue, and distributed them very secretly to those whom he had deceived and led astray. As he refused all repentance and recantation, and defended his error most steadfastly, not to say obstinately, he was thrown into the fire and left nothing but his ashes behind. Alvarus Pelagius, a Spanish Franciscan, supported the view of Thomas Aquinas‟ in writings, which gained him great consideration. "The pope", he wrote, "seems to those who view him with the spiritual eye, to be, not a man but a God. There are no bounds to his authority. He can declare to be right what he will and can take away from any their rights as he sees fit. To doubt this universal power leads to being left out from salvation. The great enemies of the church are the heretics, who will not wear the yoke of true obedience. These are extremely numerous in Italy and Germany, and in Provence, where they are called Beghards and Beghines. Some call them 'Brethren', others the „Poor in Life', others 'Apostles'.” “The Apostles and Beghards”, he continues, “have no fixed dwelling, take nothing with them on their journeys, never beg, and do no work. This is the worse in their case because they were formerly builders, smiths, etc." Another writer (1317) says that heresy had spread so much among the priests and monks that all Alsace was full of it. 6.3.1 Tauler

In 1307 the Vice-General of the Dominican Order in Saxony was the celebrated Master Eckart who, when at the University of Paris, had gained the reputation of being the most learned man of his day. His enlightened preaching and teaching led to the loss of his dignity, but after a period of seclusion he was found again in Strasburg, where his power as a preacher soon gathered a large following around him. Eckart's writings were used so much by the Beghards in Strasburg that he himself came under suspicion and moved to Cologne, where, after he had preached for some years, he was cited to appear before the Archbishop on a charge of heresy. The matter was brought before the pope, and Eckarts' writings were condemned and forbidden, but in spite of this his teaching continued to prevail because of his holiness of life and high character. Suso was one who found peace in God through him, and in Cologne he met and influenced Tauler

The writings of

Thomas Aquinas had proved effective in

establishing the doctrine that since all power in

heaven and on earth was given to Christ, His

representative, the pope, had the same

authority.

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when he was still a young man.

In the struggle between the Emperor Ludwig of Bavaria and the pope, the well-known Dominican, Dr. Johannes Tauler, boldly took the side of the Emperor. Not only was he greatly esteemed and loved in Strasburg, where his sermons drew large numbers, but his fame as a preacher and teacher spread into other countries. When (1338), on

account of the Interdict, most of the clergy left Strasburg, Tauler remained, finding in the greater need of the city greater opportunity of service. Ten years later the plague devastated Strasburg and again Tauler stood to his post, and, with two friends, one an Augustinian and the other a Carthusian monk, served the suffering and terrified people. These three published letters, in which they justified their ministries to those who lay under the ban, arguing that, since Christ died for all, the pope could not close the way of salvation to any because they denied his authority and were loyal to their rightful King. For this the three friends were driven from Strasburg and retiring to the neighbouring convent, of which the Carthusian was Prior, he continued to send out their writings. Afterwards Tauler lived in Cologne, preaching in the church of St. Gertrude, but was able later to return to Strasburg until just before his death (1361), at seventy years of age, after a long and painful illness, during which his sister, a nun in the same convent, cared for him. In his own lifetime Tauler was accused of belonging to "sects", instead of belonging to the "Friends of God". He said: "The Prince of this world has nowadays been sowing weeds among the roses, insomuch that the roses are often choked, or sorely torn by the brambles. Children, there must needs be a flight or a distinction; some sort of a separation, whether within the cloisters or without, and it does not make them into a sect, that the 'Friends of God' profess to be unlike the world's friends." When his teaching was called Beghard teaching, he replied by warning the "cold and sleepy people" whose trust was their having done all "that the Holy Church had commanded," that "when they had done all this, they would have no peace in their hearts forever unless the uncreated, eternal Word of the Heavenly Father should inwardly renew them and really make a new creature of them. Instead of this they rock themselves in a false security and say, 'We belong to a holy order and have the holy fellowship and pray and read.‟” The General of the Jesuits ordered (1576) that the books of Tauler should not be read, and (1590) Pope Sixtus V placed his sermons on the Index of prohibited books. Those writings of Tauler that were considered to be especially heretical were destroyed, and what remain has been altered. On the other hand, writings have been attributed both to Eckart and to Tauler, which evidently were not written by them. Owing to the circumstances of persecution that prevailed, the true authorship of many books was concealed. What we possess of Tauler' s

Tauler visited many places, which were

suffering, spending some time in Basle and in

Cologne.

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teaching shows his intimate sympathy with the brethren and the Christian churches.

6.3.2 Persecution in 1300

The new Emperor was entirely under the influence of the pope and his party, and advantage of this was taken to make a more determined effort than before to crush all dissent. During the first half of the 14th century the churches of believers had increased abundantly and the influence of their teaching had profoundly affected many people who did not formally attach themselves to them; but from the middle of that century fiery trial tested them. Inquisitors were sent in increasing numbers

into the Empire, and the Emperor gave them all the power the popes desired. The greater part of Europe became the scene of the cruel execution of many of its best citizens. Records of burnings abound. In 1391, 400 people, accused of heresy, were brought before the courts in Pomerania and Brandenburg. In 1393, 280 were imprisoned in Augsburg; in 1395, about 1000 people were "converted" to the Catholic faith in Thuringia, Bohemia, and Moravia; in the same year 36 were burned in Mainz; in 1397, in Steier, about 100 men and women were burned; two years later 6 women and one man were burned in Nuremberg. The Swiss cities suffered similar violence. During this time Pope Boniface IX issued an edict ordering that all suitable means should be used to destroy the plague of heretical wickedness. He quotes from a report in which those whom he calls his "beloved sons the inquisitors" in Germany, describe the Beghards, Lollards and Schwestrionen, who call themselves "the Poor" and "Brethren" and say that for more than 100 years this heresy has been forbidden under the same forms, and that in different towns several of this obstinate sect have been burned almost every year. In 1395 an

Consider the impact of Tauler on church history. What stands out to you the most? Why?

The death of the

Emperor Ludwig and the election of Charles IV

(1348) brought about a disastrous change in the

circumstances of the

Christian congregations.

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inquisitor, Peter Pilichdorf, boasted that it had been possible to control these heretics. Bohemia and England were places of refuge for many who fled to them, the teaching of Wycliffe in England and of Jerome and Hus in Bohemia powerfully influenced those countries.

Notes: __________________________________________________________

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________________________________________________________________

________________________________________________________________

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A document of the year 1404, preserved in Strasburg, though written by an adversary, contains a quotation from one of the brethren, who says: "for 200 years our fellowship has enjoyed good times and the brethren became so numerous that in their councils 700 and more persons were present. God did great things for the fellowship. Then severe persecution broke over the servants of Christ…yet we believe that the church will be raised up again in greater numbers and strength. The founder of our covenant is Christ and the Head of our church is Jesus the Son of God." The same document accuses the brethren of destroying the unity of the church by teaching that a man who lives virtuously will yet only obtain salvation by his faith; and blames them for condemning such men as Augustine and Jerome. It also states that they have the Holy Scriptures in their mother tongue, in their memories and repeat it in this language in their meetings.

These seven points reappear, but in German instead of Latin (they are in Latin in the Straussburg document) in a well-worn 14th century book found in the abbey

(1) The Triune God (2) That this God is the Creator of all things, visible and invisible (3) That He gave the Law of Moses (4) That He allowed His Son to become man (5) That He has chosen for Himself a spotless church (6) That there is a resurrection (7) That He will come to judge the living and the dead

It is further stated in this document that the brethren confessed

seven points of the Holy Christian faith:

Consider this carefully: If you knew that to confess Christ meant

you would be burned at the stake, would you still do it?

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at Tepl, near the mountainous district of the Bohmerwald. This was a production of the brethren themselves, and was evidently used by one or more of them. Passages of Scripture for reading on Sundays and some other days were arranged, from which it is evident that the Roman Catholic feasts, with few exceptions, were not observed. The importance of regular reading of the Scriptures is pointed out, and also that each father of a family should be a priest in his own household. The main section to the book, however, consists of a German translation of the New Testament. This translation differs considerably from the Vulgate, used by the Roman Church, and resembles the German translations in use from the introduction of printing to the making of Luther's translation. 6.3.3 Capture of Constantinople About the middle of the 15th century, a series of events began which transformed Europe. The capture of Constantinople by the Turks (1453) caused the flight of learned Greeks to the West. These carried with them priceless manuscripts containing the old Greek literature, long forgotten in the darkened West. Soon Greek Professors were teaching in the Universities of Italy the language which gave the key to these treasures of knowledge, and from there to Oxford the study of Greek spread rapidly. From this arose such a reviving of literature as deserved the name given to it of the Renaissance, New Birth, or New Learning, but the restoration and publication of the text of the Greek New Testament had more powerful results than were produced by the recovery of any other of the restored literature.

At the same time, the invention of printing provided the means by which the new knowledge could be dispersed, and it was in printing the Bible that the first printing presses were chiefly occupied.

The discovery of America by Columbus, and the discovery of the Solar System by Copernicus, also gave great enlargement to men's minds and activities.

Perhaps you could even go further and volunteer or give financially to the effort.

Consider the importance of the distribution of God‘s Word… There are numerous portions of Scripture translated into different languages, yet there still remain hundreds of languages without God‟s Word. Find three organisations that contribute to the distribution of God‟s Word and pray for each of them by name and for the people that serve in the distribution and printing of Scripture.

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6.3.4 Onward to the Reformation

Now try the Self-test on the next page.

Factors leading to the Reformation: 1) Fall of Constantinople to Turks (1453)

Flight of educated Greeks to the West, bringing a mass of old Greek literature

Revival of learning/literature (renaissance) 2) Printing press invented – mid 15

th century – dissemination of newly found

knowledge

3) Columbus – discovery of America

Copernicus – study of solar system 4) Erasmus – Greek N.T. (100,000 copies sold in France, and Latin translation of

N.T.) – scholarship/renewed study of the Bible within institutional church 5) Wycliffe – Bible in English / Peasants uprisings 6) Corruption / Materialism in the institutional church

} New incentive to study

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Self-test

1. What were the effects of the Crusades on the church in the 11th and 12th centuries? 2. What was the importance of the translation of the Bible at the time of the Peasant Revolt?

3. In 1302 issued a bull (an edict)

declaring that submission to the Roman pope was, for every human being, necessary to his soul's salvation. 4. In Italy and France the brethren were often called

it being said as a reproach that they were mostly hand workers and even their teachers were weavers and shoemakers. 5. The writings of had proved effective in

establishing the doctrine that since all power in heaven and on earth was given to Christ, His representative, the pope, had the same authority.

74

6. What were the seven Holy Christian points of faith confessed by the brethren in the persecution of 1300. 7. List six key factors that led to the Reformation? Now compare your answers with mine on the next page.

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Self-test

1. What were the effects of the Crusades on the church in the 11th and 12th centuries? 2. What was the importance of the translation of the Bible at the time of the Peasant Revolt?

3. In 1302 issued a bull (an edict)

declaring that submission to the Roman pope was, for every human being, necessary to his soul's salvation. 4. In Italy and France the brethren were often called

it being said as a reproach that they were mostly hand workers and even their teachers were weavers and shoemakers. 5. The writings of had proved effective in

The Crusades ended in failure, it must be said that while the Crusades lasted:

The Roman church enjoyed popular enthusiasm in support of her causes.

The church directed the energies of Europeans in fighting an external foe; thereby providing a safety valve that spared her a great deal of internal stress.

The crusades contributed to the commercial revolution and its accompanying rise of the middle class.

The demise of feudalism.

The decline of provincialism in Western Europe.

They paved the way for the coming of the Renaissance.

The Fourth Crusade helped to bring about the fall of the Byzantine Empire.

The translation of the Bible had its due effect, and great numbers of the people came to acknowledge it as the only guide for faith and conduct. Various views prevailed but there was general agreement as to the authority of Scripture, and the ruling

church denounced as apostate and idolatrous.

Pope Boniface VIII

―Weavers‖

Thomas Aquinas

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establishing the doctrine that since all power in heaven and on earth was given to Christ, His representative, the pope, had the same authority. 6. What were the seven Holy Christian points of faith confessed by the brethren in the persecution of 1300. 7. List six key factors that led to the Reformation?

(1) The Triune God (2) That this God is the Creator of all things, visible and invisible (3) That He gave the Law of Moses (4) That He allowed His Son to become man (5) That He has chosen for Himself a spotless church (6) That there is a resurrection (7) That He will come to judge the living and the dead

1. Fall of Constantinople to Turks (1453)

Flight of educated Greeks to West, bringing mass of old Greek literature

Revival of learning/literature (renaissance) 2. Printing press invented – mid 15

th century – dissemination of newly found

knowledge 3. Columbus – discovery of America

Copernicus – study of solar system 4. Erasmus – Greek N.T. (100,000 copies sold in France, and Latin translation of

N.T.) – scholarship/renewed study of the Bible within institutional church 5. Wycliffe – Bible in English / Peasants uprisings 6. Corruption / Materialism in the institutional church

} New incentive to study

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ASSIGNMENT TWO

PART ONE

2.1 ―Institution‖ by definition means: an organisation or an establishment. Bearing in mind that the church is the Body of Christ, we can compare the development of the ‗institutional church‘ with the ‗inspirational church‘.

―Inspirational‖ by definition would be the church whose leaders held the Scriptures in high regard and who had a radical experience of Jesus.

It appears that the ‗inspirational church‘ was very much alive and making a great impact right up to the Reformation.

Write an essay using the following points as a guide:

Write a concise but comprehensive definition of the „institutional church‟.

Discuss how the medieval church became „institutional‟, in terms of its structure, doctrine, spiritual life and practice, and its mission to the world.

Give a concise but comprehensive definition of the „inspirational church‟.

The outstanding features of its growth and success.

Aspects of the church that made them radical and inspirational.

You will need to do further study about Francis of Assissi, Boniface, Peter Waldo, Tauler and the Waldensians for examples of the „inspirational movement‟.

[Total words approximately 1500]