developing vocabulary in esl contexts at tertiary level in sri lanka
TRANSCRIPT
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Widyalankara, R. C. (2012). The Judicious Integration of L1 in ESL Learning Contexts:
A Sri Lankan Perspective. LAP publications. Amazon: ISBN-10: 3848434849
Chapter 5
Pedagogical implications
5.1 Scaffolding the findings of the main research and pre research tasks to pedagogy
The primary concern of this component of the chapter is to present a pedagogical format for
developing vocabulary systematically in the target population, the undergraduates of the Faculty
of Arts who register for ELTU courses, based on the findings of the pilot studies, reviewed
literature and the findings of the main research component. This pedagogical procedure
incorporates the judicious integration of L1 (Sinhala) at two specific levels: provision of glosses
to enhance text comprehension, introducing the phonetic alphabet and instruction on dictionary
consultation for pronunciation through the large corpus of English loan words which are used by
the Sinhala speech community. Findings of the pilot studies reveal that the low and intermediate
level ESL learners in the target population possess very poor inferring skills and weak dictionary
skills
Findings of the main study reveal that not only the low level learners but also the intermediate
learners benefit from the provision of L1 glosses during reading comprehension. The summaryof the Chi Square Test for Dependency too indicates that the performance of low and
intermediate proficiency ESL learners at text comprehension is dependent on the provision of
glosses for difficult lexical items. Summary of the findings of the Mann Whitney Test for
Median Comparison identifies that the provision of English meanings, for low and intermediate
proficiency learners, results in a performance equivalent to the provision of no meanings. Both
proficiency groups out performed when subjected to the Sinhala gloss conditions (Appendix H,
Instrument 3). However there is a caveat to bear in mind at this juncture. The strategy followed
in instrument 3, where Sinhala gloss conditions were provided, bypassed the decoding, lemma
and lexeme levels of lexical processing during meaning identification when testing performance
at text comprehension. Thus the learners were provided a boot strapping to semantic level
activation of L1 meaning without the need for mapping orthography to phonemes and lemma and
lexeme level analysis. Thus it is suggested that this bypass, which is a required limitation of the
test instrument, should be assuaged at the pedagogical level. This will necessitate extensive work
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on mapping orthography to phonetics if success is to be achieved in lexical acquisition under non
experimental conditions.
Another caveat to bear in mind is the assumption that the 179 words high frequency words in the
200 word instrument were comprehensible to all the test takers across the three proficiency
levels. This assumption was proved wrong as most of the low and intermediate learners
identified many high frequency words within the instrument as difficult to understand. Thus the
format for vocabulary development will initially attempt to address these problematic areas
before learners are required to learn vocabulary through reading. This gains accord from
Calderon et al (2005) who highlight the requirement for systematic vocabulary instruction before
implicit vocabulary learning commences through reading. They state that it is typical forlearners who are in the process of learning English to have limited second language vocabulary,
an obstacle that adversely affects their reading comprehension. Paribakht and Wesche (1997)
too propose that systematic vocabulary instruction in addition to learning through reading is a
successful approach to vocabulary acquisition. Thus before the learners are exposed to learning
vocabulary through reading this study suggests that they should be provided explicit teaching of
vocabulary to acquire the 2000 high frequency words to the point of automatic receptive and
productive activation.
Furthermore Lightbown and Spada (1999:169) caution that vocabulary instruction is successful
only if methods are appropriate to the learners age, interests and learning styles. Thus this
approach takes into account the cognitive (process of acquiring knowledge through reasoning or
by intuition) and the metacognitive (strategies of knowledge acquisition regulating, directing,
monitoring and evaluating ones own learning) maturity of the learners who are undergraduates
with a mean age of 23 years.
The goals of a vocabulary component of a language course according to Nation (2001: 380) are
to increase usable vocabulary size and for learners to gain control of large vocabulary coping,
and learning strategies. Thus the goal of the vocabulary component in this study is to achieve
student autonomy in lexical comprehension through strategy development. Such autonomy will
provide the target population, the low and intermediate proficiency undergraduate ESL learners,
with an escape source from the beginners paradox Coady (1997). Coady defines this paradox
as a vicious cycle in which limited lexical knowledge discourages reading and, simultaneously,
a lack of reading restricts vocabulary growth. The escape source suggested consists of a
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classroom plan for the first
frame is one year equating 1
week.. The academic year co
evaluations - oral and listenin
that vocabulary learning is a
least for 10 minutes during
sessions with distributed pra
systematic approach, this stu
vocabulary (Figure 5)by Hu
Figure 5 - A frameSource: Alan
The broad lexical goals of the
1. Developing vo
2. Consolidating
3. Building fluen
year undergraduates who register for ELT
00 contact hours, consisting of 25 weeks
sists of 30 weeks and 5 weeks are set aside
g tests, written paper. This classroom plan i
continuous and incremental process which
each 1 hour lesson. Recommendation of
ctice comes from Baddeley (1998). Aimi
y uses an adaptation of a framework for d
t & Beglar (2005).
ork for developing EFL reading vocabulHunt and David Beglar (2005).
above framework according to Hunt & Begl
cabulary breadth.
and elaborating vocabulary knowledge
y with known vocabulary.
courses and its time
f teaching, 4 hrs. per
for the preparation for
based on the premise
has to be addressed at
short frequent study
ng to conceptualize a
veloping EFL reading
ry.
ar (ibid) are:
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The goal of this study as mentioned is to achieve student autonomy in lexical comprehension
through strategy development which will borrow the above as its broad lexical goals. The
objectives of this vocabulary teaching/learning component are to provide the learners the ability
to:
1. Formulate strategies for learning the decontextualized 2000 high frequency words in one
of the following: General Service List (West, 1953) / British National Corpus
(http://www.natcorp.ox.ac.uk/Brown Corpus (Frances and Kucera, 1982).
2. Analyze patterns of spelling, sound symbol correspondence by utilizing loan words
within a list to introduce the International Phonetic Alphabet (the dictionary version)
leading to enhancing pronunciation skills.3. Upgrade dictionary skills to consulting monolingual English-English dictionaries for
meaning, pronunciation and context.
4. Take responsibility of learning new vocabulary. Identify a personal plan for increasing
depth and breadth of vocabulary.
5. Comprehend meanings of high frequency words during reading with the provision of
bilingualized glosses for infrequent words.
6. Extend the literal knowledge to other associative meanings through semantic maps.
7. Infer the meanings of low frequency lexis during reading.
8. Gain entry to and progress along the receptive-productive continuum in the vocabulary
acquisition process while achieving learner autonomy in explicit vocabulary learning.
The timeframe is set down taking advantage of the maturity of the learners and introduce two
phases through which the learners progress during the first semester. The following pedagogical
procedure introduces the two phases:
Phase 1 - Explicit vocabulary instruction through a compilation of 230 loan words1
(content and
experience) from the 2000 high frequency word list (Brown Corpus, 1982). Attention is drawn to
the fact that the acoustic reduplication of the pronunciation of loan words when produced during
Sinhala speech provides instant access to the mental lexicon of a learner facilitating the
pronunciation of most of the words.
1The Sinhala language borrows a large corpus of English lexical items in the form of loan words which are
extensively used by its speech community. Acoustically, the pronunciation is very often identical.
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Phase 2 - Explicit vocabulary learning, utilizing the reading passages in the lesson material,
during text comprehension through the provision of bilingualized glosses.
These two phases will be covered as parallel sessions during the first semester. The main
research area of the study through its findings revealed the benefits of the provision of glosses.
As the study recommends judicious integration of L1, the provision of glosses in the research
instrument is upgraded to bilingualized instead of L1 or L2 glosses in isolation which were
utilized at the main research stage. Recall literature on lexical knowledge as a control based
functional continuum (Henrikson, 1996) which progresses from a partial precise knowledge
continuum through depth of knowledge continuum to a receptive productive continuum. Phase 1,
it is suggested, will upgrade lexical knowledge of the 230 loan words selected out of the 2000high frequency words from a partial precise continuum and enable the learners to upgrade the
loan words to the receptive/productive continuum. These 230 loan words as soon their
pronunciation is activated will access the mental lexicon of the learner for semantic values. For
this process to occur the study visualizes the following framework which commences with
explicit instruction on the learning burden of a lexical item. Learning burden of a word according
to Nation (2005) is what needs to be taught in a word. The detection of the learning burden
commences with the identification is the word a loan word in L1? and proceeds through
explicit instruction on the following aspects of the 230 loan words in the high frequency word
list: sound symbol correspondence, pronunciation of the word, phonemic transcription of the
orthography, spelling patterns.
Phase 1 Phase 2
5.2- Explicit lexical instruction
Current research (Bogaards, 2001; Coady & Huckinson, 1997; Hunt & Beglar, 1998; Koda, K.
2007; Sokman, 1997; Wang, M., Perfetti, C. A., & Liu, Y. 2004) places significant emphasis on
explicit teaching of vocabulary. Theorists state explicit instruction is time efficient (Chung &
Nation, 2003), it is suitable for low proficiency learners as they can easily understand explicit
Explicit vocabulary
instruction 230 loan
words from the 2000
high frequency words
Explicit vocabulary learning of low frequency words
through bilingualized glosses in reading passages
provided in the lesson material for text comprehension.
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word meaning (Ellis, 1997), and to deal with the problems of implicit vocabulary teaching and
learning, prior exposure to explicit vocabulary learning techniques is beneficial (Ziegler &
Goswami, 2006).
5.2.1 Phase I - De-contextualized high frequency word instruction
Many theorists have argued for de-contextualized explicit word instruction and Beaton,
Grunberg and Ellis (1995) after a ten year follow-up study of retention of vocabulary using the
key word method state de-contextualized learning is proven to have a consistently positive
influence on retention and lexical acquisition. Furthermore the target population who are adult
ESL learners have already developed a conceptual and semantic system which links to their firstlanguage they can easily understand explicit word meaning (Ellis, 1997). But the number of
decontextualized words in English, if gauged by the number of words in a large dictionary
(Oxford Advanced Learners Dictionary, Websters Third International Dictionary, 1963), is so
large that Nation and Waring (2003) state that attempting to learn all the words is far beyond the
reaches of ESL learners. They further state that a small number of words in English occur very
frequently and these lists of high frequency words can be freely accessed through web sites.
5.2.1.1 - High frequency words
The General Service List (West, 1953) has a list of 2000 high frequency words obtained from a
corpus of 5,000,000 words, The Teachers Word Book of 30,000 words (Thorndike and Lorge,
1944) provides the first 2000 high frequency words which could be used by teachers of English.
This list has been obtained from a corpus of 18,000,000 words. This study utilizes the most
recent compilation of frequency words - Brown Corpus (Frances and Kucera, 1982, 1,015,945
words) and its 2000 Most Common Word List to make explicit instruction of decontextualized
vocabulary feasible. Learning of the high frequency words is important as objective 3 of this
pedagogical framework is to upgrade dictionary skills to consulting monolingual English-English
dictionaries for meaning and context. For this to become viable fluency in the 2000 high
frequency words is the basic requirement. Nation ( 1997) states though there is no set number
of words learners need to know to make use of a monolingual dictionary a basic vocabulary of
2000 words or more is required to understand definitions in a second language. The seventh
objective of creating the ability to infer the meanings of low frequency lexis through reading too
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needs the automatic activation of, at least, the 2000most frequent words. According to Coady &
Huckin (1997) the high-frequency words should be learned as quickly as possible to the point of
automaticizing, because after learning the basic high-frequency words learners can more easily
increase their vocabulary size through reading, especially in the case of low-frequency words.
Nation and Waring (2003) agree, suggesting that if learners know these words they will know a
very large proportion of the running words of a written text. Francis and Kucera (1982)
examined the vocabulary size needed for text coverage using a corpus of over 1,000,000 running
words taken from 500 texts which had an approximate word count of 2000 words. Table 42
summarizes their findings.
Table 42: Vocabulary size required for text coverage
These findings indicate that a learner with a knowledge store of the 2000 high frequency words
is capable of covering 80% of a text. Nation and Waring (2003) state that the learners need to
know the 2000 high frequency words of the language and this should be given high priority in
vocabulary teaching and caution that there is little sense in focusing on other vocabulary until
these are learned. Thus the reviewed literature justifies the underlying principle of using de-
contextualized word instructionutilizing a 2000 high frequency word list asthe first phase of the
pedagogical format of this study.
Addressing the question whether the ESL learners of the present study can cover a 2000
high frequency word learning endeavour, I wish to site the findings of Milton and
Meara(1995). Using the Eurocentre Vocabulary Size Test they examined the vocabulary
learning capabilities of 53 European adult ESL learner participants. The findings show
that a significant growth of vocabulary can occur in an ESL environment. The average
growth in vocabulary per person approached a rate of 2500 words per year over the six
Vocabulary size Text coverage
1000 72.0%
2000 79.7%
3000 84.0%
4000 86.8%
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months of the vocabulary learning programme. This provides feasibility statistics for the
learning of the 2000 high frequency words by the low and intermediate learners of the
present study. Furthermore the following criteria will make the learning of the high
frequency words easier.
A supplementary list of function words - High-frequency words contain a large number
of function words (such as prepositions, conjunctions, or articles) that have little semantic
content of its own and chiefly indicates a grammatical relationship. Linguists usually
draw a distinction betweencontent words, those words whose meaning is best described
in a dictionary and which belong in open sets so that new ones can freely be added to the
language, and function words, words with little inherent meaning but with importantroles in the grammar of a language (Higgins, 2002). This supplementary list of function
words will not beincludedwithin the de-contextualized high frequency word instruction.
But this supplementary list is used to recap grammar instruction at school level.
A multitude of English lexical items in the high frequency word list are used as loan
words in the learners L1 discourse.
5.2.1.2 Function words
These lexical items according to Sawicki (1985) are the most difficult to learn and consist of
articles, prepositions, conjunctions, adverbs, adjectives and pronouns. This study suggests that
these grammar parts should be introduced through grammar components within the lesson
material as it recognizes that decontextualized instruction for sight words, though feasible, has
neither theoretical nor empirical recognition. Function words due to their usage patterns will
require a different approach to facilitate acquisition and the research area for this study is text
comprehension where lexis is given priority over grammar. Discussing the outcomes of an
introspective and retrospective study of 10 undergraduates from a variety of L1 backgrounds
where a think aloud data collection method was used Paribakht and Wesche (1999) state that
function words occur with high frequency and it is likely that most are already somewhat
familiar at least in form to L2 learners. Thus learners do not identify them as unknown. They
further state that the preponderance of content words identified as unknown is notable, which
justifies the priority given to content words in this pedagogical component of the study.
Furthermore school curricula have already given recognition to the importance of these grammar
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components by their inclusion. Thus pedagogical approaches to function word instruction will
not be discussed though the study considers their inclusion in the material as vital. As a remedial
measure it is suggested that the learners should be given the complete list of 320 function wordsin alphabetical order to recap grammar components learned (Source:
http://www.answers.com/function%20word%20list, Appendix A).
5.2.1.3 Content and experience words
Sawicki (ibid) claims that these words can be seen, touched or experienced and
decontextualization will not hamper meaning creation. Out of a corpus of the 2000 most frequent
words from the Brown Corpus (Francis and Kucera, 1982) the study ascertained that 235 wordswere loan words (Appendix B) in the L1 (Sinhala) of the target population. Thus the study
suggests that explicit teaching should commence with the process of moving these loan words
along the partial precise continuum, through depth of knowledge instruction towards the
receptive productive continuum.
5.2.1.4 Loan words
In an ESL context many first languages borrow a lot from English. Most of these borrowings are
lexical items. This is true in the linguistic context described in this study where the L1 of the
learner population is Sinhala. The extent of the influence of English loan words on Sinhala is
discussed by Premawardana (2003). According to Premawardana the existing morphological
structure of Sinhala has undergone change due to English loan words, particularly, the addition
of /ek/ one as a singular making for nouns borrowed from English. This extensive usage of
loan words with the addition of /ek/ in Sinhala discourse is conveyed by the fact that 8/10 (table
43) words identified in the first ten loan words obtained from the high frequency word list are
examples for the above usage.
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Table 43: Loan words from English +/ek/ used in Sinhala discourse
The other two words in the list (Table 44) fall into the loan word category as an extended usage
administration building /ek/ and by a common usage Good afternoon which is borrowed for
convenience rather than any lexical inadequacy of Sinhala.
Table 44: Other usages
This unique feature in the L1 of the learners can be used judiciously to accelerate the learning of
the high frequency word list. Encouraging learners to notice borrowings and to use loan words
to help the learning is a very effective vocabulary expansion strategy. This involves deliberately
exploring L1 and L2 relationships (Nation, 2003). But evidence from the test battery used in the
main research of the study reveals that though these loan words are used in L1 communication
Loan word Addition of /ek/ one as a singular making for the noun
Academy Academy /ek/
account account /ek/
action action /ek/
activity activity /ek/
address address /ek/
affair affair /ek/
agency agency /ek/
agreement agreement /ek/
administration administration building /ek/
afternoon Good afternoon
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the lack of sophistication in mapping orthography to sound results in the loan word going
uncomprehended by a majority of low and intermediate level learners (Table 45).
Table 45: Performance at identifying L1 equivalent of a loan word
The test battery requested test takers to write the L1 meaning of the loan word enzyme and thepoor performance indicates that explicit instruction on mapping orthography to phonemes is one
of the main pedagogical requisites for vocabulary learning. It is suggested that such phonemic
awareness should be created initially through loan words within the high-frequency list as their
pronunciation is already established in the L1 mental lexicon of the learners. For example the
pronunciation of academic (Table 46)is identical whether it is in the learners L1 or L2.
Table 46: Loan words with identical pronunciation
Thus the adult learners, posses a highly developed L1 mental lexicon for the borrowed loan
words from English with efficient storage and retrieval facilities. Mental lexicon according to
McCarthy (1990) is a store of words, their meanings and associations. It is like a dictionary, a
thesaurus, an encyclopedia, a library, a computer and a net. The information in the mental
lexicon of a person is always being updated and new words are added, new connections are made
to existing words. Thus what loan words provide is not only word knowledge but a
simultaneous activation of pronunciation (albeit in their L1) too will occur in the learners mental
lexicon. Capitalizing on this pedagogy should utilize the activated pronunciation of loan words
2Can be realized as /kdmk/too.
Loan
word
Correct mapping of orthography to sound as a %
Low proficiency learners Intermediate proficiency learners
Enzyme 5% 29%
Lexical item Sinhala pronunciation English pronunciation
academic /kdmk/2 /kdmk/
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which are considered as existing in the L1 mental lexicon to facilitate instruction on mapping
orthography to phonemes in the learners L2 English. Figure 6 produces a framework for short
listing lemma for explicit vocabulary instruction.
Figure 6: A framework for short listing lemma for explicit
vocabulary instruction
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
1Example - General English, Volume 1. G.C. E. Advanced level classes (1999)
Adjectives Language study (p.44)
Adverbs Activity 2 (p. 9)
Prepositions Language study (p. 55)
5.2.2- Class plan for Phase 1 - explicit instruction on high frequency loan words
Once the loan words are short listed the study suggests the following class plan which
commences with 5 hours of instruction on mapping orthography to phonemes which comprises
of recapping previous phonetic instruction, introducing the Key to phonetic symbols and leads
to the final compilation of Vocabulary Record Books I (loan words) and II (Function words).
Pick loan words
(n=235, Appendix M)
1445 non
loan words
Recap school grammar instruction1
Decontextualized high frequency word list (n = 2000)
Brown corpus - www.edict.com.hk/lexiconindex/frequencylists/words2000.htm
Provision of 320 function words.
(Higgins, 2002; Appendix N)
Identification and categorization of
content and experience words (n = 1680)
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Table 47: Class plan for Phase I - explicit instruction on decontextualized
high frequency word list (235 loanwords)
5.2.2.1 Instruction on mapping orthography to phonemes 235 loan words
This study suggests that exposure to the phonetic symbols - as they are represented in English-
English dictionaries frequently used by learners - is a much needed explicit instruction at
undergraduate level. Experience states that the majority of learners rarely consult pronunciation
as their exposure to the phonetic symbols is non existent or minimal. Educating the on phonetic
transcription might be construed as an arduous task but most of the non standard usages, it is
suggested, can be rectified through exposure to the English phonetic system as given in a
dictionary.
Semester I approximate total time allotment 50 lessons of 1 hr. each
exposure to Key to Phonetic Symbols. Instruction on mapping orthography to
phonemes 5 hrs.
Explicit vocabulary instruction through loan words (Appendix M) contained in
decontextualized word lists (10 minutes per 1 hour lesson).
Vocabulary Record Book I
235 loan words (content and experience) from the 2000 high frequency word list
(Brown Corpus, Appendix M) in 11 handouts containing approximately 20
words each. The students are required to record phonetic transcription, L2
meaning and a context for the given meaning of the loan word.
Vocabulary Record Book II
320 function words (Higgins, 2002; Appendix N) given as one hand out for
compilation of individual Vocabulary Record Book II which requires recording
of pronunciation, L2 meaning (if feasible) and a context for usage.Oral practice of pronunciation
Identify pronunciation differences in L1 and L2 usages
Notice correct pronunciation for problem areas. Consult mono lingual English
dictionary for pronunciation, L2 meaning and L2 context. Record
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Figure 7: Mapping orthography to phonemes - 230 loan words
Re-capping pronunciation instruction - (General English, 1999: 104-108)
e. g. :- Problems for Sri Lankan learners of English (p.104)
1. The confusion and overuse of the sounds p/f, s/ sh, o/aw
2. The inserting of /i/ in front of words beginning with /sk/, /st/, /sp/
5.2.2.2 Introducing phonetic symbols found in a dictionary which are not
represented by letters of the English alphabet
Consonants
Exercise I Consult an English English dictionary and write the phonetic transcription
Sound Word Phonetic transcription
sing, finger
j yes, yellow
Re-cap pronunciation
Introduce phonetic symbols which are not represented by letters of the English
Broaden exposure to Key to phonetic symbols in an English English dictionary
Attempt phonetic transcription of loan words. Awareness creation on Spelling and sound
Consult an English English dictionary for clarification of phonetic
Note down contexts provided in a dictionary for high frequency content loan words
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c
It is suggested that the transc
be substituted by / /. This sy
Attention to the symbolic
confusion and overuse of thes Vowels
The transcription /aw/ which
short and long sounds // an
their confusion with /o/ and o
of ESL (Fernando, 1978; Gu
/:/ are new sounds to the s
sounds is difficult for second
L2 pronunciation once L1
ability to distinguish new sou
Sound
she, crash
check, church
just, large
ription /sh/ which was introduced in General
bol should be compared with the symbol /s
ifference will create awareness which is
e sounds
was introduced in General English (1999) sh
/:/ . These two symbols should be given
veruse are identified as a problematic areas
esekera, 2005; Kandiah, 1981). This is due
eakers of Sinhala and according to linguist
language learners. Sebastian-Galles et al (2
phonology is already internalized can re
ds that appear in the L2.
Word Phonetic transcription
cup, luck
arm, father
cat, black
away, cinema
turn, learn
hot, rock
call, ball
English (1999) should
and its pronunciation.
needed to avoid the
ould be elevated to the
extensive attention as
or Sri Lankan learners
o the fact that // and
s, assimilation of new
05) state that learning
uce an individuals
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Table 48: Student handout 1 sample of the first 10 loan words of Vocabulary
Record Book I
Use an English- English dictionary to fill the following. The first word is done for you.
* substituted for academic as academy too is a loanword in Sinhala
5.2.2.5 Spelling and sound symbol correspondences
Though good readers process orthography in a highly automaticized, accurate manner theory on
low level learners, who can be identified as poor readers, state that they are slow in processing
orthography (Foorman et al., 2000; Stanovich, 1998). Thus theorists and researchers (Carver,2000; Rayner et al., 2002) claim that explicit teaching of spelling and sound symbol
correspondences can contribute to vocabulary learning and also generate fluency in reading. One
form of orthographic processing involves explicit emphasis on spelling. Mathes and Torgesen
(2000), and Stanovich, (1998) suggest explicit instruction on spelling is particularly important to
low level L2 readers. Recall literature on the irregularities of the English spelling system (Tables
26, 27, 28) and how they allow the same letter to represent more than one sound or the same
Loan wordPhonetic
transcription
meaning in L2 L2 Context from dictionary
academy* /kdm/
account
action
activity
address
administration
affair
afternoon
agency
agreement
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Table 49: Suffixation for a loan word
(Stem) Derivative Meaning
A sample context formed by
learners
academy
/kdm/
Academic
/kdmk/ (adj.)
(n.)
Time when teaching is done
Teacher of a university
The academic year is over.
She is a well known
academic
5.3 Phase 2 - Exposure to texts with bilingualized glosses
During the first semester parallel to Phase 1(decontextualized vocabulary instruction on 240 loan
words) Phase 2 will expose the learners to texts with bilingualized glosses. According to Nation
& Waring (2003) with a vocabulary size of 2000 words a learner knows 80% of the words in a
text which means that 1 word in every 5 (approximately 2 words in every line) are unknown. Na
& Nation (1985) through research reveal that this ratio of unknown words is not sufficient to
allow reasonably successful guessing of the meaning of unknown words which are low
frequency words. Thus this study suggests that during semester I the reading passages included
in the material should be provided with bilingualized glosses for the low frequency words which
the learners encounter during reading. Theory on vocabulary acquisition state that introducing
lexis in partially de-contextualized or fully contextualized settings is a combination which is
conducive to acquisition (Zimmerman, 1997). Prince (1996) claims that vocabulary retention is
enhanced when learners temporarily isolate words from their context and deliberatively process
them. This thesis in its main research statistically evaluated the benefits of partial de-
contextualization of low frequency words along with a fully contextualized setting for high
frequency words. Gloss conditions were provided for the partially de-contextualization lowfrequency words. These gloss conditions in the test battery consisted of two separate independent
variables: Sinhala glosses and English glosses. For the weaker learners the research revealed the
SG condition was the most beneficial while EG condition did not increase performance. But at
pedagogical level, where judicious integration of L1 is the premise, intuition states that gloss
conditions provided in lesson material for texts should embody bilingualized lexical information.
Each head word should be given L1 and L2 glosses and an L2 sentence example using the head
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word in a different context. These provisions will increase the number of lexical items in passive
vocabulary or denote an incremental shift in the partial precise continuum. But the vocabulary
knowledge gained through the provision of bilingualized glosses will be pedagogically restrictive
as it only provides one literal meaning to a word in a given context. If the word contains multi
meanings the knowledge of the meanings other than the one in context will be denied.
5.3.1 Elaboration of lexis
To elaborate the meaning of the newly learned lexis the teacher should create opportunities for
understanding recently learned words in new contexts, or organize exercises that provide new
collocations and associations (Hunt & Beglar, 1998). For example the following conceptmapping provides new collocations and associations for the word fat which occurred in the test
battery of the main research (Appendix F) and glossed the literal meaning lipid. The suggested
bilingualized gloss would be as follows:
1. fat/s /ft/ n.- lipids - Vegetable fats are healthier than animal fats.
2. fat /ft/ adj. - large in size (-tter, -ttest)If you eat too much chocolate you will get fat.
The introduction of the second meaning of the base form which is a frequently used word will
activate world knowledge through the L1 mental lexicon of the learners. Capitalizing on this
activation a rich array of semantic associations in the form of antonyms and synonyms and
gradation could be introduced through a semantic network. Thus pedagogy should activate
associative lexis in L2 which are considered as existing in the L1 mental lexicon. This is
suggested as effective teaching of vocabulary entails not only the presentation of new words, but
also the elaboration and development of the meaning of old and new vocabulary.
Figure 8: Elaborating known vocabulary through concept mapping
Fat-
Large in
size
Chubby
plump, stout
Overweight -
Most
neutral
usageSkinny, gaunt
Under
weight-Most
neutral
usage
Anton mS non m
emaciated not healthy Obese not healthy
Slender, slim
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5.4 Implicit lexical learning strategies
The class plan for semester II given below moves from explicit instruction on lexis to implicit
lexical acquisition strategies which need fine tuning such as inferring skills. The poor Mean
scores on measures of English inferring skills of the target population (Table 17) justify the need
for such fine tuning. The development of inferring skills will be done through reading texts
without glosses.
Table 50: Classroom plan for the second semester of the first year
Semester II (Approximate time frame 10 mins. during 50 1hr. lessons)
Compilation of the balance 1412 high frequency
words in Vocabulary Record Book II
Reading texts without glosses
for low frequency words
30 learners in the class are given a list of 50
words each for completing entries on
pronunciation, L2 meaning, dictionary context
for one or multiple meanings. Lists are checked
for progress and acuracy. The record book
should be done using Microsoft Word other than
pronunciation which should be done manually.
The list of each learner should be completed
within the first 3 weeks of semester II.
Inferring the meaning.
Compiling the encountered
low frequency vocabulary
items in Vocabulary Record
Book III.
Compilation of all 30 lists into one vocabulary
component. Learners requested to obtain
photocopies of the compiled collective work
titled Vocabulary Record Book II.
completing entries on
pronunciation, L2 meaning,
dictionary context for one or
multiple meanings
Oral practice of pronunciation. Identify differences in L1 and L2 usages. Notice
correct pronunciation for problem areas
Extended reading for fluency development along with broadening the corpus of
Vocabulary Record Book III
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5.4.1 Developing inferring skills
According to Nation (1990) after the high frequency words are learned the next focus for the
learners is on helping the learners develop strategies to comprehend and learn the low frequency
words. But as the ESL learners of this study are undergraduates with a very limited time
allocated for ESL instruction helping the learners develop strategies to comprehend and learn
the low frequency words in the form of developing inferring skills commences along with the
compilation of vocabulary record book III. Here the study makes note that Nation (ibid) further
state that because of the very poor coverage low frequency words give, it is not worth spending
class time on actually teaching these words. But class time should be spent on inferring the
meaning of the low frequency words which occur in texts given in the material, such ascomprehension passages, from context. But Carver (2000) cautions us that ESL learners can
tolerate a small proportion of unknown words in a text without disruption of comprehension and
can infer meanings of these words from sufficiently rich contexts. However if the proportion of
unknown words is too high comprehension is disrupted. Thus texts for developing inferring
skills should be carefully selected so that they will be of an appropriate difficulty level (Hu &
Nation, 2003). Current pedagogy places high importance on strategic development of inferring
skills (Clark & Nation, 1980; Fraser, 1999; Hunt & Beglar, 2005; Nassaji, 2003; Nation, 2005;
Nation & Waring, 2003). Thus the texts used in the material during semester II should be graded
according to the number of low frequency words in the content. The low frequency words should
be in bold and after inferring the meaning clarifying the meaning, consolidating pronunciation
and obtaining other meanings and their contexts through dictionary consultation should follow.
Fraser (1999) supports the use of a dictionary during classroom activity as there is a need to
focus on efficient and effective use of dictionary while reading and suggests that teachers should
reevaluate the minimal use accorded to dictionary use in class. Laufer & Hadar (1997) state that
learners should practice using all the information in an entry before making conclusions about
the meaning of a word and according to Tang (1997) learners need to practice reevaluation of
their incorrect inferences so that they do not retain them. Classroom activities should include oral
practice of pronunciation, identifying differences in L1 and L2 usages, noticing correct
pronunciation for problem areas as they accelerate consolidation. It would benefit the learners if
these lessons too could include concept mapping for elaborate processing of at least one low
frequency lexical item. All the above have been summarized by clues into a six step inductive
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instructional procedure modified from Clark & Nation (1980) and Nation (2001: 257). This study
proposes that the procedure has abundant merits for its target population whose inferring skills
are very low.
1. Identify the unknown part of the word.
2. Search for clues in the immediate context. This prevents hasty guesses
based on word form.
3. Assess both L1 and L2 inferences and explain reasons for the choice. This promotes
self inquiry and understanding of inferential strategies.
4. Confirm the part of speech in the learners inference, compare it to the unknown word
and attempt to substitute it into the original context.5. To reduce the probability of erroneous guesses the learners should confirm their
inferences by consulting a dictionary.
6. When learners make incorrect guesses they need to reevaluate the contextual clues in
order to become aware of any misrepresentation
This study suggests that inferring skills should not stop at successful inferring of the meaning of
the word. It should work through elaboration, consolidation and recording for future consultation
as it will aid retention and recall. Furthermore extended reading should be included in the
curriculum and the allotment of marks for discussion of a text (characterization, development of
plot, and thematic value to the learner) at evaluation level of the speech component would create
the necessary motivation.
5.4.2 Extensive reading
Hunt & Beglar (2005) identifying the merits of extensive reading state in extensive reading
learners select and read large amounts of material that interest them and that are within their
level of assisted comprehension. Material for extensive reading can be obtained from the
Extensive Reading Pages website at http://www.extensivereading.net/index.html . This online
source provides a range of material which suits learners at different levels of proficiency. This
study suggests that fiction and newspapers too provide ample sources for extended reading. It
further suggests that learners should be encouraged to include new lexis encountered during
extensive reading in their vocabulary Record Book IV.
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5.4.2.1 Fiction
Material for extended reading for ESL learners is rarely available in university libraries. The
classic fiction available serves the literary needs of the undergraduates of the Department of
English. A study by Hirsh & Nation (1992) identifies novels written for teenagers as a good
source for ESL learners extended reading. They are unabridged and the topics are considered to
be interesting to the ESL undergraduate. The writers use simple vocabulary and because it is a
continuous novel by one writer the vocabulary is very often repeated. The following table
indicates that the density of unknown words is also less than in a formal text.
Table51: Density of unknown words in novels for teenagers
Source:Table 2 Vocabulary size and coverage in novels for teenagers
Hirsh & Nation (1992) cited in Nation and Waring (2003)
As the vocabulary size of the learners is expected to reach the 2000 word threshold by the middle
of the second semester extended reading in the form of fiction could be introduced during the
second semester. Furthermore extensive reading, according to Nation & Waring (2003), will
enhance word knowledge and the learners get a lot of exposure to the most frequent and useful
words. It is suggested that the resource centre of the ELTU should store novels which could be
used for extended reading and make borrowing and reading at least 5 novels compulsory during
the second semester. Recapping and evaluation of at least two texts could be included in the oral
test at the end of the semester and allocation of 5/20 marks is recommended.
5.4.2.2 Newspapers
Another source of material for extended reading is newspapers. Newspapers especially the
weekend papers provide material which will interest a varied proficiency level of ESL learners.
Ranging from formal/ literary articles which are suited for high proficiency learners to
supplements which target young readers the weekend papers are a rich source of ESL material.
Vocabulary size % coverage Density of unknown words
2000 words 90% 1 in every 10
2000 words + proper nouns 93.7% 1 in every 16
2600 words 96% 1 in every 25
5000 words 98.5% 1 in every 67
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provision of L1 glosses significantly accelerated text comprehension. But as judicious integration
of L1 is the main premise of the thesis the pedagogical procedures in this chapter sited research
to argue that the provision of glosses should be upgraded to bilingualized glosses. The rationale
further included a framework which explicit instruction on the 2000 high frequency words and
this commenced with instruction on the 240 loan words short listed. The second instance of
judicious integration of L1 occurred during the selection of the 240 loan words borrowed from
English and used in Sinhala discourse to introduce phonetic transcription. As the pronunciation
of most words in this list of loan words is already acquired through their use in Sinhala discourse
it was argued that exposure to the phonetic alphabet found at dictionary should be handled
through phonetic translation of these words using dictionary consultation. Once pronunciation ofa word is established the possibility of elaboration through creating morphological awareness
and other modes such as concept mapping too were explored.
The fundamental reason for a massive pedagogical workload being handled within a short
time span is that the school ESL curricula has not been, to large extent, able to fulfill the
vocabulary requirements of most learners during the 10 years of ESL instruction. A
plausible explanation for this should be found through an evaluation of how lexical
development is handled at school level especially during the span of grade 3 11. It is
suggested that teachers at school level should place a high priority on research to identify
a rationale for improving the vocabulary component of the material used from grade 3-
11. These areas of research could include the following.
The main research which identified the effect of the provision of L1 glosses in text
comprehension could be reduplicated at school level to ascertain the benefits of such a
procedure for low and intermediate level learners.
Feasibility of introducing and consolidating the 2000 high frequency word list through a
framework such as the procedure suggested in this study at school level during a limited
time frame (for example from grade 7- 9).
Investigate the possibility of introducing the phonetic alphabet of English (the dictionary
version) through the short listed loan words from the 2000 high frequency word list.
Maintaining a vocabulary record book, according to literature, is a very effective strategy
for increasing the breadth and depth of vocabulary in an ESL learner. Research is needed
to identify the suitable age group for introducing methods of maintaining a personal
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vocabulary record book. It is suggested that maintaining a personal vocabulary record
book should be included as early as possible into the ESL curricula.
If, through research, school curricula accommodates the learning burden of the 2000 high
frequency words ELTU curricula can utilize the valuable instruction time saved for introducing
the vocabulary needed for academic discourse. Nation (2000) states that if a learner is an
undergraduate there is a clear need for general academic vocabulary. This can be found in the
836 word list called the University Word List (UWL). UWL consists of words that are not in the
2000 high frequency list but which are frequent of a wide range in academic texts. Wide rangemeans that the words occur not just in one discipline but occurs within a wide range of
disciplines. An alternative source is the Academic Word List (Coxhead, 2000) which account
for 10% of the running words in academic texts.
In summation as this thesis explores the benefits of utilizing the high L1 literacy of the learners
and its judicious integration in the ESL classroom it is imperative for the teachers of ESL to
adhere to the following.
Do not conceive learners through a deficit perspective.
Try to avoid the use of deficit labels.
View them in terms of their strengths.
Remember that ESL learners are fluent users and makers of
meaning within their L1 context (Franklin & Thompson, 1994).
Thus they have a well developed mental lexicon in L1.
Understand that learners may react more positively to the demands of L2 if they
experience acceptance and valuing of L1.