Developing the Developing the Research FrameworkResearch Framework

A Report for Psy 220 byA Report for Psy 220 by

Eden T. GallardoEden T. Gallardo

What is aWhat is a FRAMEWORKFRAMEWORK??

StructureStructureScaffoldScaffoldSkeletonSkeletonSupportSupportConstructionConstruction

OutlineAgendaAgendaBasisBasisContextContext

What is What is RESEARCHRESEARCH??

InvestigationInvestigation InquiryInquiryExaminationExaminationStudyStudyExplorationExploration

Review/Definition of TermsReview/Definition of Terms Theoretical and Conceptual Theoretical and Conceptual

FrameworkFramework Review of ResearchesReview of Researches Some IssuesSome Issues Experiences in Thesis WritingExperiences in Thesis Writing

TheoryTheory

““a set of inter-related constructs (variables), a set of inter-related constructs (variables), definitions, and propositions that presents a definitions, and propositions that presents a systematic view of phenomena by specifying systematic view of phenomena by specifying relations among variables, with the purpose of relations among variables, with the purpose of explaining natural phenomena” (Kerlinger, explaining natural phenomena” (Kerlinger, 1979,p.64)1979,p.64)

TheoryTheory

Develops when researchers test a prediction many Develops when researchers test a prediction many timestimes combining independent, mediating and dependent combining independent, mediating and dependent

variables based on different forms of measures into variables based on different forms of measures into hypotheses of research questionshypotheses of research questions

hypotheses or questions provide information about hypotheses or questions provide information about the type of relationship (positive, negative or the type of relationship (positive, negative or unknown) and its magnitude (e.g., high or low)unknown) and its magnitude (e.g., high or low)

Example: hypothesis- The greater the centralization of Example: hypothesis- The greater the centralization of power in leaders, the greater the disenfranchisement power in leaders, the greater the disenfranchisement of the followersof the followers

TheoryTheoryVary in their breadth; three levels (Neuman, Vary in their breadth; three levels (Neuman,

2000):2000): Micro-levelMicro-level – explanations limited to small – explanations limited to small

slices of time, space or numbers of people slices of time, space or numbers of people (e.g., Goffman’s theory of “face work”)(e.g., Goffman’s theory of “face work”)

Meso-levelMeso-level – link micro and macro levels; – link micro and macro levels; theories of organizations, social movement, or theories of organizations, social movement, or communities (e.g., Collins’ theory of control in communities (e.g., Collins’ theory of control in organizations)organizations)

Macro-levelMacro-level – explain larger aggregates, – explain larger aggregates, such as social institutions, cultural systems, such as social institutions, cultural systems, and whole societies (e.g. Lenski’s macro-level and whole societies (e.g. Lenski’s macro-level theory of social stratification)theory of social stratification)

Forms of TheoriesForms of Theories

as inter-connected hypothesesas inter-connected hypotheses

as statements that explains why one as statements that explains why one would expect the independent variable to would expect the independent variable to influence or cause the dependent influence or cause the dependent variablesvariables

as a visual model that translates variables as a visual model that translates variables into a visual pictureinto a visual picture

Forms of TheoriesForms of Theories

as inter-connected as inter-connected hypotheseshypotheses

Example: Example: Hopkins (1964) theory Hopkins (1964) theory

of influence of influence processesprocesses

The higher her rank, the greater her The higher her rank, the greater her centrality.centrality.

The greater his centrality, the The greater his centrality, the greater his observability.greater his observability.

The higher her rank, the greater her The higher her rank, the greater her observability.observability.

The greater his centrality, the The greater his centrality, the greater his conformity.greater his conformity.

The higher her rank, the greater her The higher her rank, the greater her conformity.conformity.

The greater his observability, the The greater his observability, the greater his conformity.greater his conformity.

The greater her conformity, the The greater her conformity, the greater her observabiity.greater her observabiity.

Forms of TheoriesForms of Theories

as explanatory as explanatory statementsstatements

Example: Example: Homans (1950) theory Homans (1950) theory

of interactionof interaction

If the frequency of interaction between If the frequency of interaction between two or more persons increases, the two or more persons increases, the degree of their liking for one degree of their liking for one another will increase, and vice another will increase, and vice versa… persons who feel versa… persons who feel sentiments of liking for once sentiments of liking for once another will express these another will express these sentiments in activities over and sentiments in activities over and above the activities of the external above the activities of the external system, and these activities may system, and these activities may further strengthen the sentiments of further strengthen the sentiments of liking. The more frequently persons liking. The more frequently persons interact with one another, the more interact with one another, the more alike in some respects both their alike in some respects both their activities and their sentiments tend activities and their sentiments tend to become (pp.112,118,120)to become (pp.112,118,120)

Forms of TheoriesForms of Theories

as a visual modelas a visual model

- - so that the reader can visualize the interconnections of variablesso that the reader can visualize the interconnections of variables

X1

X2

X3

+

+

+

+

+

-

Y1

Y2

Z

Independent Variables

Intervening Variables

Dependent Variables

X1

Xa

Xb

+

Y1Experimental Group (+)

Control Group (-)

X2

Visual ModelsVisual Models

Example: Jungnickel (1990) dissertation proposal Example: Jungnickel (1990) dissertation proposal about research productivity among faculty in about research productivity among faculty in pharmacy schoolspharmacy schools

1.1. Asked what factors influence a member’s scholarly research Asked what factors influence a member’s scholarly research proposalproposal

2.2. Identified these factors in the literatureIdentified these factors in the literature

3.3. Adapted a theoretical framework found in nursing researchAdapted a theoretical framework found in nursing research

4.4. Developed a visual model portraying the relationship among Developed a visual model portraying the relationship among these factors; + and – valences to indicate the hypothesized these factors; + and – valences to indicate the hypothesized directiondirection

Visual Model of Faculty Scholarly PerformanceVisual Model of Faculty Scholarly Performance(Jungnickel, 1990)(Jungnickel, 1990)

Institutional Tenure Standards

Tenure-Track Appointment

College in Health Sciences Center

Self-Perception as Researcher

Prior Research Training

Demographic Variables

Type of Appointment (Chair vs. Faculty)

Workload (non-research)

Pressure to conduct research

Collaboration

Resources

Support from Colleagues

Support from Dept. Chair

Exogenous Endogenous

Independent

DependentScholarly

Performance

•Presentations (non-research)

•Presentations (research)

•Journal articles (non-referred)

•Referred articles (research)

•Referred articles (non-research)

•Book chapters

•Books

•Federal grants (approved)

•Federal grants (funded)

•Non-federal grants

•Contacts

+

+

+

+

+

+

++

+

+

+

+

+

+

+

+ -

+ -

- -

Deductive Approach Typically Deductive Approach Typically Used in Quantitative ResearchUsed in Quantitative Research

Researcher tests or verifies a theory

Researcher tests hypotheses or research questions from the theory

Researcher defines and operationalizes variables derived from the theory

Researcher measures or observes variables using an instrument to obtain scores

Options for Placing Theory in a Quantitative StudyOptions for Placing Theory in a Quantitative Study

PlacementPlacement AdvantagesAdvantages DisadvantagesDisadvantages

In the In the introductionintroduction

An approach often An approach often found in journal articles, found in journal articles, it will be familiar to it will be familiar to readersreaders

It conveys a deductive It conveys a deductive approachapproach

It is difficult for a It is difficult for a reader to isolate reader to isolate and separate theory and separate theory base from other base from other components of the components of the research processresearch process

In the literature In the literature reviewreview

Theories are found in Theories are found in the literature, and their the literature, and their inclusion in a literature inclusion in a literature review is a logical review is a logical extension or part of the extension or part of the literatureliterature

It is difficult for a It is difficult for a reader to see the reader to see the theory in isolation theory in isolation from the scholarly from the scholarly review of the review of the literatureliterature

Options for Placing Theory in a Quantitative StudyOptions for Placing Theory in a Quantitative Study

PlacementPlacement AdvantagesAdvantages DisadvantagesDisadvantages

After hypotheses After hypotheses or research or research questionsquestions

The theory discussion is a The theory discussion is a logical extension of logical extension of hypotheses or research hypotheses or research questions because it questions because it explains how and why explains how and why variables are relatedvariables are related

A writer may include a A writer may include a theoretical rationale theoretical rationale after hypotheses and after hypotheses and question, and leave out question, and leave out an extended discussion an extended discussion about the origin and about the origin and use of the theoryuse of the theory

In a separate In a separate sectionsection

This approach clearly This approach clearly separates the theory from separates the theory from other components of the other components of the research process, and it research process, and it enables a reader to better enables a reader to better identify and to understand identify and to understand the theory base for the the theory base for the studystudy

The theory discussion The theory discussion stands in isolation from stands in isolation from other components of other components of the research process the research process and, as such, a reader and, as such, a reader may not easily connect may not easily connect it with other it with other components of the components of the research processresearch process

A Quantitative Theory Section A Quantitative Theory Section (An Example)(An Example)

Crutchfield (1986) in a doctoral dissertation Crutchfield (1986) in a doctoral dissertation titled Locus of Control, Interpersonal titled Locus of Control, Interpersonal Trust, and Scholarly ProductivityTrust, and Scholarly Productivity

survey of nursing educatorssurvey of nursing educators to determine if locus of control and to determine if locus of control and

interpersonal trust affected the levels of interpersonal trust affected the levels of publications of the facultypublications of the faculty

A Quantitative Theory Section A Quantitative Theory Section (An Example)(An Example)

theory placed in a separate section in the theory placed in a separate section in the introductory chapter titled introductory chapter titled “Theoretical “Theoretical Perspective”Perspective”

Included the following points:Included the following points:1.1. the theory she planned to usethe theory she planned to use2.2. the central hypotheses of the theorythe central hypotheses of the theory3.3. information about who has used the theory information about who has used the theory

and its applicabilityand its applicability4.4. an adaptation of the theory to variables in her an adaptation of the theory to variables in her

study using the “if…then” logicstudy using the “if…then” logic

Theory Use in Theory Use in Qualitative ResearchesQualitative Researches

As a broad explanation As a broad explanation (like in quantitative research)(like in quantitative research)

a a theoretical lenstheoretical lens or or perspective perspective (opening passages of the (opening passages of the study)study)

As the As the end pointend point for a study for a studynaturalistic generalizationsnaturalistic generalizations

grounded theorygrounded theorypattern theoriespattern theories

Some Some do not employ any explicit theorydo not employ any explicit theorye.g., phenomenologye.g., phenomenology

Inductive Logic of Research Inductive Logic of Research in a Qualitative Studyin a Qualitative Study

Researcher analyzes data to form themes or categories

Researcher looks for broad patterns, generalizations, or theories from themes or categories

Researcher asks open-ended questions of participants or records field notes

Researcher gathers information (e.g., interviews, observations)

Generalizations or theories to past experiences and literature

The The Theoretical Theoretical Framework Framework

and the and the Conceptual Conceptual FrameworkFramework

Theoretical FrameworkTheoretical Framework

presents the theory from which the presents the theory from which the research problem was derived (in the case research problem was derived (in the case of some experimental studies), or to which of some experimental studies), or to which it is linked (in the case of some survey it is linked (in the case of some survey studies)studies)

A discussion of the theory which serves as A discussion of the theory which serves as the basis for the studythe basis for the study

Conceptual FrameworkConceptual Framework

presents the relationship between the presents the relationship between the specific concepts that may be studiedspecific concepts that may be studied

The concepts used at this level should be The concepts used at this level should be derived from the concepts used in the derived from the concepts used in the theoretical framework.theoretical framework.

should be more concreteshould be more concrete

Theory and Conceptual Theory and Conceptual FrameworkFramework

““Theory building relies on a few general constructs that subsume Theory building relies on a few general constructs that subsume a mountain of particulars. Terms such as ‘stress’ or ‘role a mountain of particulars. Terms such as ‘stress’ or ‘role conflict’ are typically labels we put on our bins containing a lot conflict’ are typically labels we put on our bins containing a lot of discrete events and behaviors. When we assign a label to a of discrete events and behaviors. When we assign a label to a bin, we may or may not know how all the contents of the bin fit bin, we may or may not know how all the contents of the bin fit together, or how this bin relates to another. But any researcher, together, or how this bin relates to another. But any researcher, no matter how inductive in approach, knows which bin to start no matter how inductive in approach, knows which bin to start with and what their general contents are likely to be. with and what their general contents are likely to be. Bins Bins come from theory and experience and (often) from come from theory and experience and (often) from the general objectives of the study envisioned. the general objectives of the study envisioned. Laying out those bins, giving each a descriptive or Laying out those bins, giving each a descriptive or inferential name, and getting some clarity about inferential name, and getting some clarity about their interrelationships is what a conceptual their interrelationships is what a conceptual framework is all about.”framework is all about.”

(Miles and Huberman 1994:18)(Miles and Huberman 1994:18)

Theoretical/Conceptual Theoretical/Conceptual FrameworkFramework

LevelLevel Independent Independent VariableVariable

Intervening Intervening VariableVariable

Dependent Dependent VariableVariable

TheoreticalTheoretical StimulusStimulus ResponseResponse

ConceptualConceptual 16mm film16mm film Knowledge GainKnowledge Gain

Mental set:Mental set:

MotivationMotivation

Review of Review of ResearchesResearches

Dy, EV. (2001). Konstrak ng Filipino Self-Dy, EV. (2001). Konstrak ng Filipino Self-Concept. (College of Education, PhD)Concept. (College of Education, PhD)

Qualitative research; inductive approachQualitative research; inductive approach Research framework was subsumed in the Research framework was subsumed in the

review of literature (development of review of literature (development of theories on self-concept, dimensions of theories on self-concept, dimensions of self-concept)self-concept)

AbstractAbstract Importance of self-concept, recognized the need for Importance of self-concept, recognized the need for

further theoretical studies regarding Filipino self-conceptfurther theoretical studies regarding Filipino self-concept Selected participants: purposive sampling of 72 Filipino Selected participants: purposive sampling of 72 Filipino

young adult from 20-30 yrs old (understanding of self-young adult from 20-30 yrs old (understanding of self-concept, local term, other dimensions) from 5 places- 3 concept, local term, other dimensions) from 5 places- 3 Luzon, 1 Visayas and 1 MindanaoLuzon, 1 Visayas and 1 Mindanao

Individual interviews for each pax, 1 FGD for all using Individual interviews for each pax, 1 FGD for all using Filipino language (with interpreter when needed)Filipino language (with interpreter when needed)

Nakisalamuha, nakipag-ugnayan, at nakipagtalastasan Nakisalamuha, nakipag-ugnayan, at nakipagtalastasan sa kalahoksa kalahok

Findings: Self-concept is important; major influence of Findings: Self-concept is important; major influence of mother and religion; positive self-concept; high mother and religion; positive self-concept; high importance given to kindness and maturity; each with importance given to kindness and maturity; each with own local terminologiesown local terminologies

Defined dimensions of self-conceptDefined dimensions of self-concept

Theoretical PerspectiveTheoretical Perspective

Cited theories on the following:Cited theories on the following: Effects of age in self-conceptEffects of age in self-concept Models of self-concept constructModels of self-concept construct Universal terminology for self-concept Universal terminology for self-concept

(communication/language)(communication/language) Personality theory of Rogers about the selfPersonality theory of Rogers about the self Sources of learning about the self by Taylor et al Sources of learning about the self by Taylor et al

(sosyalisasyon, nasisinag na taya o reflected (sosyalisasyon, nasisinag na taya o reflected appraisal, sariling pandama, namumukod-appraisal, sariling pandama, namumukod-tanging pagkakakilanlan, and kasarilinang tanging pagkakakilanlan, and kasarilinang sosyal)sosyal)

Research ParadigmResearch Paradigm What are the subjects’ definition of their self-concept and its What are the subjects’ definition of their self-concept and its

formationformation Where located: thoughts, feelings, observation of others, as Where located: thoughts, feelings, observation of others, as

verbalized by others, or combination of theseverbalized by others, or combination of these Who influenced them, what experiences made them learn their self-Who influenced them, what experiences made them learn their self-

concept (why, how, and when these happened) concept (why, how, and when these happened) Do they have decisions/wishes to change/alter their self-concept, Do they have decisions/wishes to change/alter their self-concept,

why so- why so- test of contentmenttest of contentment How has their self-concept influenced their everyday lifeHow has their self-concept influenced their everyday life What are subjects’ opinions about what is self-construct; see What are subjects’ opinions about what is self-construct; see

relations of all constructs, connections of conceptsrelations of all constructs, connections of concepts recognizing that recognizing that the Philippines consists of different culturesthe Philippines consists of different cultures

Identification of local terminologies for better communication Identification of local terminologies for better communication between researcher and subjects; use of interpreter when neededbetween researcher and subjects; use of interpreter when needed

Test of positivity of their self-concept, and whyTest of positivity of their self-concept, and why

Mga dimensions

ng self-concept ng

Filipino young adult

Konstrak ng self-

concept ng Filipino

young adult

Pagkaka-unawa ng Filipino sa

self-concept

Katutubong katawagan ng Filipino

para sa salitang

self-concept

Research Paradigm

MethodMethod

Secondary data gathering, one-on-one Secondary data gathering, one-on-one interview, FGDinterview, FGD

Purposive samplingPurposive sampling Use of Sikolohiyang Pilipino Use of Sikolohiyang Pilipino

methodologiesmethodologies

Results/DiscussionResults/Discussion Demographics; including practices (e.g. disco, Demographics; including practices (e.g. disco,

beerhouse)beerhouse) Used quotes based on interviewsUsed quotes based on interviews Discussion of self-concept of subjects per areaDiscussion of self-concept of subjects per area Analysis of language/word usage per areaAnalysis of language/word usage per area Consolidation by the researcherConsolidation by the researcher

-Taylor et al mentioned 6 ways of understanding the self -Taylor et al mentioned 6 ways of understanding the self while the subjects referred to only 1while the subjects referred to only 1- James’ definition of the spiritual self compared with the - James’ definition of the spiritual self compared with the Filipino religious contextFilipino religious context- Lukpetch on adults giving premium to their external - Lukpetch on adults giving premium to their external appearance vs. research findings (based on content appearance vs. research findings (based on content analysis of interviews and FGDs)analysis of interviews and FGDs)

Pagkaka-unawa ng

Filipino sa self-concept

Katutubong katawagan ng

Filipino para sa salitang self-

concept

Dayagram ng Konstrak ng Filipino Dayagram ng Konstrak ng Filipino Self-ConceptSelf-Concept

Mga dimensions ng

self-concept ng Filipino

young adult

Konstrak ng self-concept ng Filipino young

adult

Domingo, A. (2004). The Three Component Model of Domingo, A. (2004). The Three Component Model of Organizational Commitment: A Study of Retained Organizational Commitment: A Study of Retained Employees in the Context of Retrenchment. (CSSP, MA Employees in the Context of Retrenchment. (CSSP, MA Psychology)Psychology)

Quantitative research; deductive approachQuantitative research; deductive approach Research Framework subsumed in the Research Framework subsumed in the

Review of Literature; Conceptual Review of Literature; Conceptual Framework, then Theoretical FrameworkFramework, then Theoretical Framework

AbstractAbstract

3 component model of organizational 3 component model of organizational commitment (affective, continuance and commitment (affective, continuance and normative) applied to retained employees normative) applied to retained employees after the event of retrenchmentafter the event of retrenchment

used JP Meyer and NJ Allen measure of used JP Meyer and NJ Allen measure of organizational commitmentorganizational commitment

employees perception of management employees perception of management factors and employees attitude towards factors and employees attitude towards work related variables measureswork related variables measures

64 retained technical rank and file 64 retained technical rank and file employees within a single organizationemployees within a single organization

AbstractAbstract

correlation of the 3 component model with correlation of the 3 component model with employees’ personal and demographic employees’ personal and demographic perceptions of management factors and perceptions of management factors and employeesemployees

identified which among variables contribute to identified which among variables contribute to retained employees’ commitmentretained employees’ commitment

implications of the prevailing commitment of implications of the prevailing commitment of retrenched employees to the organization as retrenched employees to the organization as well as suggested ways to rebuild the well as suggested ways to rebuild the organization’s cohesiveness and employees organization’s cohesiveness and employees commitment during time of crisis discussedcommitment during time of crisis discussed

Review of LiteratureReview of Literature

commitmentcommitment organizational commitmentorganizational commitment three components of organizational three components of organizational

commitmentcommitment antecedent and consequent variablesantecedent and consequent variables employees perception of management employees perception of management

factorsfactors retrenchmentretrenchment

Conceptual Conceptual FrameworkFramework

Personal and demographic characteristics: Tenure, current salary rate, no. of children, highest educational attainment, age, type of school of children and amount of children’s tuition fee

Employees’ perception of management factors: Respect and consideration, quality and customer service, job responsibility, stimulating job, quality of information and administrative effectiveness

Attitude towards work-related variables after retrenchment: Relationship with co-workers, relationship with supervisor, job security, job clarity, job satisfaction, management’s decision-making, advancement in the company, rewards

Organizational commitment:

• affective commitment• continuance

commitment• normative commitment

Theoretical FrameworkTheoretical Framework

Definitions of commitment citedDefinitions of commitment cited Affective commitment- attachment to the Affective commitment- attachment to the

organization,… enjoying membership…organization,… enjoying membership… Continuance commitment- tendency to Continuance commitment- tendency to

engage in consistent lines of activity engage in consistent lines of activity (Becker’s Side-Bet Theory of (Becker’s Side-Bet Theory of Commitment)Commitment)

Normative commitment- commitment Normative commitment- commitment based on moral belief or obligationbased on moral belief or obligation

HypothesesHypotheses

personal and demographic perception of personal and demographic perception of management factors will be positively related to management factors will be positively related to organizational commitmentorganizational commitment

employees’ perception of management factors employees’ perception of management factors will be positively related to organizational will be positively related to organizational commitmentcommitment

employees’ attitude towards work related employees’ attitude towards work related variable measures will be positively related to variable measures will be positively related to organizational commitmentorganizational commitment

personal demographics perception of personal demographics perception of management factors will be positively related to management factors will be positively related to continuance commitmentcontinuance commitment

MethodMethod

Development of instruments; use of Development of instruments; use of existing ones; explanationexisting ones; explanation

Pre-testing; 3 variables taken out due Pre-testing; 3 variables taken out due to very low coefficient alphato very low coefficient alpha

Questionnaires administered to Questionnaires administered to subjects which were selected by the subjects which were selected by the HRHR

MethodMethod

After data gathering, found that the 3 After data gathering, found that the 3 deleted variables could be considered deleted variables could be considered as a single-item measureas a single-item measure

Questionnaires administered to single Questionnaires administered to single personnel, no data regarding number personnel, no data regarding number of children, type of school and of children, type of school and amount of tuition fee of childrenamount of tuition fee of children

Results and DiscussionResults and Discussion

Discussion of statistical Discussion of statistical findings/interpretationfindings/interpretation

Integration of findings with previous Integration of findings with previous literature (e.g. assessment of Meyer’s tri-literature (e.g. assessment of Meyer’s tri-component model, looking into the model’s component model, looking into the model’s utility on Filipino operators working in a utility on Filipino operators working in a Japanese company)Japanese company)

ConclusionsConclusions

DiagramsDiagrams Agreement with theories; mentioned how Agreement with theories; mentioned how

the study made additional impact to other the study made additional impact to other studiesstudies

Some Some Issues Issues

in in Developing Developing

the the Research Research

FrameworkFramework

Some Issues (Punch, 2000)Some Issues (Punch, 2000)

The perspective behind the researchThe perspective behind the research The role of theoryThe role of theory Pre-structured vs. UnfoldingPre-structured vs. Unfolding The relevant literatureThe relevant literature Quantitative, qualitative or bothQuantitative, qualitative or both

The Perspective The Perspective Behind the ResearchBehind the Research

Issue: whether there is a particular Issue: whether there is a particular perspectiveperspective, or philosophical position, or , or philosophical position, or paradigm or metatheory, which lies behind paradigm or metatheory, which lies behind and informs the researchand informs the research

Making certain assumptions and adopting Making certain assumptions and adopting certain systems of meaning, and rejecting certain systems of meaning, and rejecting othersothers

The issue applies unevenly across The issue applies unevenly across different social science areas; applied different social science areas; applied differently at different levels of higher differently at different levels of higher degree workdegree work

The Role of TheoryThe Role of Theory ““substantive theory”; sometimes considered more substantive theory”; sometimes considered more

appropriate at the doctoral level than at the masters levelappropriate at the doctoral level than at the masters level

Descriptive – for a totally new research area (e.g., how Descriptive – for a totally new research area (e.g., how teachers use the internet in classrooms); value might be teachers use the internet in classrooms); value might be questioned in some quartersquestioned in some quarters

Explanatory – for a well-worked research area (e.g., the Explanatory – for a well-worked research area (e.g., the relationship between social class and scholastic relationship between social class and scholastic achievement)achievement)

Explanatory knowledge is more powerful than descriptive Explanatory knowledge is more powerful than descriptive knowledgeknowledge

Theory verification – to test propositions (hypotheses)Theory verification – to test propositions (hypotheses)Theory generation – to generate or develop a theory to Theory generation – to generate or develop a theory to

explain empirical phenomena or findingsexplain empirical phenomena or findings

Simplified Model of Research Simplified Model of Research (with hypotheses)(with hypotheses)

Empirical stage

What data are required to test hypotheses?

Problem

Literature

Context

Research questions

Hypotheses

Theory

Design Data Collection

Data analysis

Test hypotheses

Research area

Pre-empirical stage

Pre-specified versus Unfolding: Pre-specified versus Unfolding: The Timing of StructureThe Timing of Structure

Qualitative research

Quantitative research

General open-ended questions

Loose design

Data not pre-structured

Pre-specified research questions

Tightly structured design

Pre-structured data

Has clear and specific research

questions, a clear conceptual framework, a pre-planned design and pre-coded data (e.g., quantitative researches)

The Relevant LiteratureThe Relevant Literature

Common criticisms: Common criticisms: Not thematicNot thematic Not properly integrated with the studyNot properly integrated with the study

Can be addressed by:Can be addressed by: Developing an organizing framework that Developing an organizing framework that

will often be developed as the basis for the will often be developed as the basis for the study’s study’s conceptual frameworkconceptual framework

Quantitative, Qualitative or BothQuantitative, Qualitative or Both

Fundamental issue of approach and Fundamental issue of approach and methodmethod

Methods should match research Methods should match research questions, and arguments should be questions, and arguments should be internally consistentinternally consistent

Experiences Experiences in in

Thesis Thesis WritingWriting

Music as a Metaphor for Thesis Writing Music as a Metaphor for Thesis Writing by Gertina J van Schalkwyk by Gertina J van Schalkwyk

AbstractAbstract

In the final throws of writing a doctoral thesis the struggle was to find a structure for presenting the vast amounts of

literature that had to be integrated and synthesized to form a coherent whole and linking psychology and music, the basis for my thesis. As a systems theorist and adherent to social constructionist views, the metaphor plays an important role in constructing realities, and the framework that came to mind for structuring and presenting my thesis

was that of the concerto from the Western classical music genre. In this paper I will explain how this metaphor was used for organizing and structuring my

research and presenting a systems paradigm as a coherent whole.

A five part polyrhythmic structure for thesis writing                                                       

Phenomenology as Research Method Phenomenology as Research Method by Beverley Campbellby Beverley Campbell

…“I needed a method of data collection and an approach which would allow me to research the question. A re-constructed narrative based on three interviews

provided the data for analysis, and at the same time, after reading Giorgi (1989) and van Manen (1984, 1990) I decided to carry out a phenomenological study. My reading of Reasons (1988) Human Inquiry in Action added a further dimension to

the framework I was developing; the need for the investigation to be guided by principles of cooperative inquiry and for the study to be mutually benefitting to all

participants. The study used a combination of Giorgis interpretation of meaningful transformation units and van Manens immersion in the data. As well I developed an understanding of metaphor ( Lakoff, G. and Johnson, M. 1980) and applied it in three ways in the thesis; the first provided a theoretical framework for the literature review which

resulted in the identification of seven metaphors predominant in the literature. Other literature in adult literacy studies (Sanguinetti 1994, Lee & Wickert 1994, Luke 1992, Gee 1990) identifies the dominant discourses currently in play which are

shaping policy and practice in literacy education; these are analogous to the concept of metaphor. The naming of these seven metaphors in turn provided a lens

through which to interpret the frameworks or metaphors for literacy which were predominant in the thinking of Bill, as the student and Nancy, as the tutor. Another

way I used metaphor was to frame the whole thesis in terms of the dominant metaphor life as narrative. There is a body of literature which works from and

extends this metaphor (Epston & White 1989, Salmon 1985). Finally metaphor was used as an analytical tool in the interpretive process to help identify seven

metaphors and several other major themes arising from Bills narrative and the interview texts which were analyzed at length.”

ReferencesReferencesBell, J. and Opie, O. (2002). Learning from research: Getting More Bell, J. and Opie, O. (2002). Learning from research: Getting More

from Your Data. Buckingham, Great Britain: Open University Press.from Your Data. Buckingham, Great Britain: Open University Press.

Campbell, Beverley. Phenomenology as Research Method. (Campbell, Beverley. Phenomenology as Research Method. (www.staff.vu.edu.au/syed/alrnnv/papers/bev.htmlwww.staff.vu.edu.au/syed/alrnnv/papers/bev.html))

Cresswell, J.W. (2003). Research Design: Qualitative, Quantitative, Cresswell, J.W. (2003). Research Design: Qualitative, Quantitative, and Mixed Methods Approaches (2and Mixed Methods Approaches (2ndnd ed). London, United Kingdom: ed). London, United Kingdom: Sage Publications.Sage Publications.

Librero, F. (1996). How to Write a Thesis Proposal: Some Practical Librero, F. (1996). How to Write a Thesis Proposal: Some Practical Guidelines (3Guidelines (3rdrd ed). UPLB: College of Agriculture Publications ed). UPLB: College of Agriculture Publications Program.Program.

Punch, K.F. (2000). Developing Effective Research Proposals. London, Punch, K.F. (2000). Developing Effective Research Proposals. London, United Kingdom: Sage Publications.United Kingdom: Sage Publications.

Van Schalkwyk, Gertina J. (2002). Music as a Metaphor for Thesis Van Schalkwyk, Gertina J. (2002). Music as a Metaphor for Thesis Writing. The Qualitative Report, Volume 7, Number 2 June 2002. (Writing. The Qualitative Report, Volume 7, Number 2 June 2002. (http://www.nova.edu/ssss/QR/QR7-2/schalkwyk.htmlhttp://www.nova.edu/ssss/QR/QR7-2/schalkwyk.html))

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IssuesIssues

Choosing the paradigm/perspectiveChoosing the paradigm/perspective Finding a structure for presenting the vast Finding a structure for presenting the vast

amounts of literature in a coherent manner amounts of literature in a coherent manner – e.g. sequence, location in the thesis– e.g. sequence, location in the thesis