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Professor Matthews

Business and the Liberal Arts

28 April 2016

Determinants of Motivation: English Language Students Abroad

Sarah slowly walks down the jetway, exhausted after thirteen hours of travel. She is both

excited and anxious about the opportunity ahead. The crisp, autumn air of Prague welcomes her –

the picturesque Vltava river flows in between the Old Town Square where the orange tiled roofs

match the falling leaves. Sarah is a recent college graduate from the University of Puget Sound. She

is looking forward to teaching English abroad, and yet nervous about her lack of experience. She is

ambitious, independent, and free-spirited – now is the time to experience life in another country.

In Prague, Sarah enrolls in a four-week, accredited course to get her Teach English as a

Foreign Language (TEFL) Certificate. She will get six hours of actual teaching experience and

education from well-trained instructors. After passing the course, Sarah can go anywhere in the

world to teach students of any age. Sarah searches for jobs and finds work teaching elementary

school students in Thailand. She imagines the beautiful beaches and the friendly locals – life in

paradise. But Sarah has romanticized the experience of being a teacher. And when she arrives in

Thailand she quickly realizes that her assumptions about teaching English were wrong.

Sarah has to teach thirty-five hours per week in overcrowded classrooms, leaving the

remaining five hours in her paid workweek to prepare lessons and grade homework. Half of the

students seem uninterested, without the desire to learn English. They argue that they are in rural

Thailand and will never need to speak English. Sarah tries making the lessons interesting and

interactive but the students do not react positively to these methods. She ends up working fifty to

sixty hours per week. Sarah is burnt out and does not know what to do.

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Sadly, Sarah’s experience is one that happens quite often. Recent college graduates are

entranced with the romantic idea of traveling abroad to teach English. They do not contemplate how

difficult teaching English is, especially with cultural barriers. In addition, many new teachers state

that one of the most difficult things they experience when teaching abroad is unmotivated students.

They try different tactics to motivate students based on assumptions that they have from their own

prior experiences. But they fail to understand the many different aspects that influence student

motivation, such as age, English proficiency, culture, and classroom climate.

Introduction:

An estimated 250,000 native English speakers are currently teaching English abroad at

nearly 40,000 schools and language institutes around the world (How Large Is the Job Market for

English Teachers Abroad?). It is a lucrative industry for recent graduates and those who want to

travel while earning income. Although traveling the world and teaching English sounds glamorous,

teaching English effectively is not easy—especially across different cultures, as depicted in Sarah’s

experience. Researchers have determined that one of the most difficult problems that teachers face

across cultures is unmotivated students. So, how are students motivated to learn English? Are there

any philosophies or methods utilized by teachers that are effective across cultures, age groups, and

levels of English proficiencies? If so, what are they? If not, what determinants are causing those to

not be universally effective?

These questions have led to extensive international research in many disciplines, including

education, history, psychology, and leadership studies. This paper will be divided into five sections:

a literature review, a synthesis of conclusions from the literature review, primary research through

an international questionnaire, analysis of the research, and the correlation of the literature and

research to transformational leadership. The literature review begins with a short synopsis of the

history of teaching English abroad. This provides an understanding of why teachers have been

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driven to teach in different countries over the last century. The history of teachers’ motivation is

related to why people teach English abroad today. The literature review includes a detailed

summary of each source and sets the context for how scholars study important factors in

determining how students are motivated to learn English. This research is conducted in several

countries, including: Nigeria, Iran, Japan, Chile and Sweden. Many common themes about student

motivation emerged; however, differences in the research are also evident. A synthesis of the

sources identifies four main thematic similarities: (1) autonomy increases student motivation, (2)

English proficiency has implications on student motivation (3) positive organizational climates

increase student motivation, and (4) cultural variables affect student motivation. In addition,

thematic differences and outliers in the research will be noted, including the effect of: utilizing

culturally relevant games and stories, future ambitions, and gender.

To test the validity of the literature, I created a seven-question survey based on a five-point

Likert Scale. These seven questions were aligned with the literature’s main findings, as to cross-

analyze and determine the validity of literature’s conclusions. The conclusions from the survey are

related to the literature review to determine commonalities and differences amongst them. Through

the analysis of the existing literature and my research, it is determined that, in general, the literature

and the primary research align in their conclusions. But, there are two important differences that

exist between these two forms of research: (1) student autonomy may not increase motivation, and

(2) low language proficiency may not decrease motivation. The teachers also indicated four main

themes when asked if any other factors influence student motivation, which are: (1) travel, (2)

relevance of the material, (3) social influences, and (4) teacher encouragement.

Student motivation abroad has also never been looked at through the lens of

transformational leadership, which has strong influences on student motivation to learn English

abroad. The findings have implications related to international leadership in general.

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Transformational leadership practices have positive influences on the motivation of followers, but

also have slightly different effects based on culture, which is prevalent in the results of the literature

and my research.

Literature Review:

History of English Teachers Abroad:

Zimmerman, Jonathan. Innocents Abroad: American Teachers in the American Century.Cambridge, MA: Harvard UP, 2006. Print.

Innocents Abroad: American Teachers in the American Century is the seminal work on the

history of teaching English abroad. Zimmerman states that historically, three distinct types of

teachers have worked abroad: colonials, missionaries, and volunteers (Zimmerman, 16-17). All

have struggled in their endeavor to educate students. The main points of conflict have been cultural

disconnects, the debate over American-style education versus traditional rote training, health and

sanitation education, and the ethical dilemmas that confronted most teachers. There are two distinct

periods that motivated teachers to work abroad. The first was before World War II, when American

imperialism and exceptionalism brought about a strong desire to “civilize the other.” The post-war

period was defined by increasing questioning of these superior attitudes, and teachers began asking

themselves whether it was their right to transport Americanized values to their host countries.

However, although teachers continued to impose American values on their students because of

cultural disconnects. Teachers also reflected on inequality in America. Several broad characteristics

classify most historical English teachers abroad. These teachers were usually white, middle-class,

and did not pursue education as a profession or career (Zimmerman, 14).

In the pre-WWII period, the majority of teachers were colonial teachers who sought to

westernize the students and the traditional styles of education. The colonial teaching period began

with a mass movement of teachers starting at the turn of the twentieth century. On July 23, 1901,

the U.S transport ship Thomas left the United States headed for the Philippines with 526 teachers on

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board. American teachers were shipped off to many colonial locations, including Hawaii, Puerto

Rico, Philippines, and Guam. These colonials were the main English teachers abroad in the first

three decades of the twentieth century. Zimmerman states that “wherever [the teachers] went…

Americans sought to spread their allegedly universalistic values; indeed, they cast themselves as the

globe’s lone ‘powerhouse’ of ‘the ideals of ‘Freedom and Justice’…” (Zimmerman 4). This was

particularly true during the colonial era. The teachers attempted to westernize other nations through

the implementation of American values. Teachers were appalled at the rote, European method of

learning and its prioritization of memorization and recitation. Therefore, American English teachers

tried to change systems, denouncing the students’ inability to think, and only to memorize. This

attack on rote systems continued through to the second era of American teachers working abroad.

The teachers also despised the poor sanitation and health of these societies, as well as the

societal structures for reprimanding children. Teachers set up courses devoted to teaching the

“uncivilized” peoples how to live. They created sports teams and other health and fitness classes in

hopes of minimizing unsafe sexual practices and spreading disease among the local population. The

teachers in this early period were insistent on “transmitting ‘virtue’ or knowledge’ to people who

lacked them” (Zimmerman, 6). In addition, American teachers struggled with the common practice

of corporal punishment among native teachers. American English teachers initially denounced this

style of reprimanding children to create obedience, but soon many resorted to hitting children,

publicly embarrassing them for acting out, and other activities. Although these cultural disconnects

persisted after the war, many American English teachers began to question the superiority and

imposition of the educational system that they were once so insistent on.

Over time, especially after WWII, teachers began to see that the students in their classrooms

simply did not agree or align with the Americanized values that they were attempting to enforce.

The students had their own cultures and beliefs. Therefore, teachers abroad attempted to determine

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whether American styles of education should take precedence over indigenous ones (Zimmerman,

8). Most teachers struggled with this dilemma, trying to cater to the students’ cultural needs while

simultaneously teaching based on the training they received back home. After these post WWII

teachers, especially Peace Corps and other volunteer teachers, had lived in relative poverty, they

also began to question the cultural imperialism and materialism that spread overseas. But teachers

still imposed American values on students, and criticized the rote method more strongly following

the war.

American teachers condemned the methods of memorization in which passing examinations

were more critical than the learning and application of the material. Teachers pushed against the

standardized testing and attempted to impose more discussion-based, practical application learning

methods for students. These cultural impositions did not go well. Students began to boycott

American teachers and begged to go back to fact-based, examination-centered lessons. They needed

to pass the examinations to receive good jobs. The teachers desire to rid rote also stemmed from

their desire to promote a more relaxed tone in the classroom, where teachers could be friends with

the students.

After WWII, teachers abroad increasingly attempted to create a relaxed tone in the

classroom. They hoped to be a friend first, and a teacher second. America was becoming more

egalitarian in nature with the Civil Rights Movement, and many of the teachers who chose to go

overseas were more likely to be progressive individuals (Zimmerman, 44). They also wanted to

create equality in their classrooms abroad. But the teachers did not understand that students in some

cultures prefer not to have a personal relationship with teachers. Some students therefore acted with

discomfort, passive resistance, and sometimes hostility towards teachers’ appeal for friendship. The

cultural disconnects continued after WWII when teachers abroad supported vocational training

rather than the traditional subjects that students desired to learn.

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The American teachers desired to help students out of economic poverty, especially through

vocational training. They pushed for utilitarian sources of teaching over providing what the students

in particular cultures wanted. It predominantly centered on the discussion of providing students with

the means to meet their “Basic Human Needs,” which included classes such as cabinetmaking and

auto repair. According to teachers, these courses could provide employment opportunities, where

English and science could not (Zimmerman, 70). Although the vocational trend only employed ten

to twenty percent of teachers abroad, it never claimed the majority. Americans quoted people like

Gandhi, who emphasized ensuring livelihood and independence through practical education, to

justify their decision for vocational training. But again, students resisted this style of education and

wanted instead to learn traditional subjects like English, math, and science (Zimmerman, 72).

Cultural disconnects plagued American teachers in both the pre-war and post-war settings.

Although teachers began to question their American cultural imperialism after WWII, they still

attempted to transport their values, educational methods, and societal structures into the classroom.

McEown, Maya Sugita, and +Osamu Takeuchi. “Motivational Strategies in EFL Classrooms: How Do Teachers Impact Students’ Motivation?” Innovation in Language Learning and Teaching 8.1 (2014): 20–38. Taylor and Francis+NEJM. Web.

McEown, Psychology professor at the University of Alberta, and Takeuchi, professor of

Foreign Language Studies at Kansai University in Japan, conducted a study to determine if

seventeen motivational strategies (MS) used by English Foreign Language (EFL) teachers in Japan

were effective. The MSs included specific leadership approaches, such as “speak in a clear voice”

or “start the class on time.” There were two groups studied—one with students of higher English

proficiency and higher initial motivation, and another with lower English proficiency and lower

initial motivation. They conducted surveys during four different points in the semester.

Only two out of the seventeen motivational strategies showed similar responses between the

two groups, which were: “‘Start the class exactly on time’ and ‘Make a clear explanation for class

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assessments and exams’” (32). These two MSs appeared important due to cultural customs. The

teachers in Japan give warnings to students who have been late and punish their grades. Many of the

students are also concerned with the final exam (29). Japanese students are culturally aware,

sensitive to punctuality, and are grade-oriented, so they consequently respond most positively to

these MSs. Of the remaining fifteen MSs, the two control groups differed, proving that the students’

perception of effective MSs was different depending on their English proficiency and motivational

levels (33). In other words, within the same culture, motivational strategies differed extensively.

Although the effectiveness of MSs can depend on culture, this study discovered one motivational

implication applicable to all cultures—the time of the semester. The research concluded that the

correlations between the frequency of the instructor’s motivational strategy use and perceived

students’ motivation are not stable, but rather depend on the time of the semester (30). While it is

universally true that the time of the semester has implications on student motivation, other factors

were not applicable across cultures.

Conventional wisdom in Western education highly esteems when teachers are enthusiastic

and cater to the individual needs of students. This Western philosophy also argues that these

practices can increase students’ motivation to learn. But, this seemingly effective style of leadership

had an undesirable effect with the students in this research. Specifically, “a negative correlation

in… ‘Display[ing] enthusiasm of teaching English’” was noted, “which was surprising” (32-33). In

addition, a negative correlation was found when EFL teachers “‘Ke[pt] pace with the students and

g[ot] them involved in the activities’” (29). These two aspects, which the authors note are important

in other educational cultures, were not only ineffective in motivating students to learn, but actually

had an adverse effect on students’ motivation.

Roohani, Ali, and Nafiseh Mohammadi. “The Relationship between EFL Teachers’ EmotionalIntelligence and Students’ Motivational Attributes.” Journal of Teaching Language Skills 6.3(2015): 113–133. Print.

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Roohani and Mohammadi, both professors at Shahrekord University in Iran, investigated the

relationship between teachers’ Emotional Intelligence (EI) and students’ motivational attributes.

The researchers examined five aspects of EI: intrapersonal relationship, interpersonal relationships,

adaptability, stress management, and general mood. They discovered EI has significant influence in

developing student motivation, which supports previous literature indicating that a direct correlation

between teachers’ EI and student motivation exists.

Roohani and Mohammadi indicate, through the study of 30 EFL teachers and 221 advanced-

level adult students, that the teacher’s adaptability is the best tool to increase student motivation

(136). If teachers are flexible and cater to the needs of the students and the demands of the situation,

students indicate higher motivational levels. Although adaptability had the highest correlation in the

study, other aspects of EI are also important for EFL teachers.

The researchers emphasize that all components of EI are significant. They state that “highly

emotionally-intelligent EFL teachers who are high in such skills as interpersonal relationship, stress

management, adaptability, and happy mood can influence their students’ interest and intensity”

(139). In addition, EFL teachers with a high EI are able to create a fun environment and a

nonthreatening relationship with the students, which increases the students’ likelihood participate in

class. Rahooni and Mohammadi’s study concluded that “in an Iranian EFL context, teachers’ EI

skills can be positively related to their students’ motivational attributes such as their attitude

towards learning” (140). Therefore, all aspects of EI are critical in increasing student motivation in

EFL classrooms.

Ajibade, Yetunde, and Kate Ndububa. “Effects of Word Games, Culturally Relevant Songs, and Stories on Students’ Motivation in a Nigerian English Language Class.” TESL Canada Journal 26.1 (2008): 27–48. Print.

Although English is an important part of curricula for primary, secondary, and tertiary

institutions in Nigeria, millions of students fail to learn the language. Researchers Yetunde Ajibade,

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professor at Obafemi Awolowo University, and Kate Ndububa, professor at Ambassadors’ College,

explored “how word games and culturally relevant instructional activities such as songs and stories

could be used in motivating students” (28). The researchers developed and conducted an experiment

that took place over three weeks. The experiment involved sixty Senior Secondary School II

students from a school in the Ife East Local Government Area of Osun State. The population was

split into two groups of thirty with one control group and one experimental group. The control

group was taught using conventional methods. The experimental group was taught comprehension

through culturally relevant stories, vocabulary through songs, and idiomatic expressions using word

games. In addition, the experimental group was given more autonomy and freedom when

completing assignments.

The researchers concluded that participants in the control group did not exhibit any significant

improvement in their motivation, whereas the experimental group did (38). This proves that the

culturally relevant teaching style used for the experimental group had positive effects. Not only was

student motivation highly influenced, but it was also determined that English performance increased

as a result of using word games and culturally relevant instruction. The researchers state that the

“experimental group’s improvement in performance in English could be attributed to the effect of

the treatment adopted” (39). Consequently, student motivation and English performance increased

as a result of culturally relevant instruction.

Ajibade and Ndububa also argue that other strategies are influential in improving student

motivation. Teachers who can make students feel respected as individuals are more likely to help

them strive to learn for the sake of learning and willing to be creative and open to new ideas (30).

Age also has implications on intrinsic motivation. Ajibade and Ndububa state that whereas young

children tend to maintain high prospects for success even in the face of recurring failure, older

students do not. Younger pupils tend to see effort as positive, whereas older learners view it as

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having unintended consequences (30). Therefore, age has effects on student motivation, even within

the same cultural setting.

Glas, Katharina. “Opening up ‘spaces for Manoeuvre’: English Teacher Perspectives on Learner Motivation.” Research Papers in Education 0.0 (2015): 1–20. Taylor and Francis+NEJM. Web.

This study carried out by Katharina Glas examines perceived student motivation of learning

English in secondary schools in Chile. She explores the teachers’ perspectives on student

motivation in the context of external and internal constraints, and how possible “spaces for

manoeuvre” can positively influence student motivation. The researchers interviewed nineteen

teachers who taught in public schools, semi-private schools, and private schools in proportions

approximately equal to those of the Chilean school system. In these interviews “the lack of student

motivation is perceived to be one of the greatest challenges facing an English teacher in Chile” (6).

The teachers in Chile stated both internal and external constraints that either inhibit or

intensify student motivation. A majority of the English teachers indicated that the “low

expectations, lack of support, and difficult access to motivational resources can work together to

undermine teacher’s efforts” (10). Often, senior level teachers and administration do not find

English that important, and in general the stigma that “learning English is not important for these

youngsters” (10) is perpetuated in Chilean culture. Glas states that “the government initiatives have

forgotten about the marginalised sector (teaching English)…” (11) which these teachers work in.

The main internal constraints that teachers criticized are the government-mandated textbooks. Many

of the teachers argued that students are actually highly motivated to learn English, but prefer to

learn through mediums which interest them (pop culture, music, world affairs, etc), rather than

boring textbooks.

Although constraints were prevalent, the researchers determined that three main “spaces for

manoevre” were found in teachers’ perception of increasing student motivation: immediacy of

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experience, learner autonomy, and empowering contents. The data suggests that to motivate

students the teachers must relate to the students’ current interests and “do things to exploit the

immediate relevance of English in the students’ lives, rather than telling them what English might

be good for later on” (14). Glas also determined that providing learning autonomy can have large

implications on increasing student motivation, as flexibility will allow them to pursue topics that

they are interested in. This will allow them to exploit their instinctive curiosity and thus support

intrinsic motivation (15). Lastly, empowering contents is also critical to positively effect student

motivation. She argues that if the teacher can provide motivating content, then, as a result, the

teacher can “tap into the three needs that must be met according to self-determination theory” (17),

which are competence, relatedness, and autonomy.

arbetsvetenskap, Göteborgs Universitet/Institutionen för sociologi och. “Exploring motivationstrategies in a collaborative method of teaching L2 (English): A case study of year 7 and year 8 at an independent compulsory school in Gothenburg.” (2012): n. pag. gupea.ub.gu.se. Web. 10 Nov. 2015.

Emanuelsson, an English teacher, conducted a study to examine the effects of collaborative

learning techniques on student motivation to learn English in Gothenburg, Sweden. It focuses on a

collaborative teaching method that organizes classroom instruction to focus on promoting

cooperation to achieve common learning expectations (10). Essentially, the collaborative teaching

method encourages students to work in small groups in which each member shares responsibility,

ridding the educational system of intense personal competition. It involves group work, shared

knowledge between the teacher and students, multiple tasks, and a heterogeneous group of students.

To determine if this teaching style is effective, Emanuelsson created a month long lesson

that involved the students planning, researching, writing, and presenting on what factors influence

how individuals speak (accents, linguistic concepts, slang, etc.). Using surveys, interviews, and

extensive observation, the researcher split the respondents into two groups. Group A, with thirty-

four students, had the highest level of English proficiency, while Group B, twenty-one students,

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possessed lower English proficiency. The results concluded that many factors influenced student

motivation, and there were substantial discrepancies between Group A and Group B.

The study indicated that the students’ initial attitude toward learning English has a strong

influence on student motivation. Aspects of the initial attitude were intrinsic motivation, cultural

interest, linguistic self-confidence, and future ambitions. Therefore, there are many characteristics

of student motivation that the teacher does not have control over, since it is pre-determined. But, the

study determined that the teacher could increase motivation through many actions and concepts.

The first determinant that increased student motivation was to make the learning tasks

stimulating. Next, Emanuelsson established that encouraging a stimulating environment is crucial to

motivating English students. Third, increasing learners’ goal-orientedness was important. Lastly,

the relevance of the learning materials in mastering English affects how motivated students are.

Although these were relatively common among Group A and Group B, there were differences. For

example, encouraging a stimulating environment was more influential for the group with a higher

proficiency. The researcher determined that the less proficient group struggled more often and

preferred a more relaxed, easy environment. Therefore, English proficiency has strong implications

on student motivation.

Ruesch, Ashley, Jennifer Bown, and Dan P. Dewey. “Student and Teacher Perceptions ofMotivational Strategies in the Foreign Language Classroom.” Innovation in Language Learning and Teaching 6.1 (2012): 15–27. Taylor and Francis+NEJM. Web.

This study examines language learning in general, from Israeli students learning Arabic to

Chinese students learning English. Ruesch et al. studied 136 students and 84 teachers at North

American universities who were involved in one or more diverse set of languages, including:

Arabic, Mandarin, Japanese, Spanish, Hungarian, Italian, French, Russian, and/or German.

The study compares teachers’ and students’ perceptions of motivational teaching practices

known as macrostrategies, and also compares these perceptions to previous research in the field to

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determine if cross-cultural similarities or differences occur. The first major conclusion that Ruesch

et al. determined was that teachers do tend to rate macrostrategies differently than students do (19).

Students and teachers in the study disagreed on the macrostragy of effort, with teachers rating it as

the 6th most motivational practice, while students rated effort significantly lower at 10th overall (22).

Similarities and differences occur across cultures. Similarities included the macrostrategies of

teacher behavior and rapport, climate, building learner’s self-confidence, and presenting tasks

properly, while the differences include social comparisons and levels of effort. Although these

parallels occur, there are a couple of distinct differences. First, the most striking difference between

North American and Hungarian data is the concept of comparison—for example avoiding social

comparisons (21). Teachers in the U.S. rarely want to openly compare students, and ranked it 3rd

among motivational practices. In contrast, Hungarian teachers ranked it 18th, or completely last,

while Taiwanese teachers ranked it 41st out of 47th, showing that cross-cultural differences have

large effects on specific aspects of motivation. Next, Taiwanese teachers ranked effort very high,

while U.S. teachers ranked it moderately, and Hungarian teachers ranked it rather low. When

looking at cultural aspects, Asian students emphasize effort more than their Western counterparts

(21).

This study determined that multiple effective motivational strategies are similar across

cultures, including teacher behavior and rapport, climate, building learner’s self-confidence, and

presenting tasks properly. But other motivational macrostrategies did not translate across cultures,

including effort and openly comparing students. Not only did macrostrategies differ across cultures,

but students and teachers themselves had different perceptions of their effectiveness in motivation.

Thematic Synthesis:

Similarities:

Autonomy Increases Student Motivation

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Three of the studies conclude that autonomy increases student motivation, while one

additional study suggests its importance. In the Chilean study, Glas argues that providing learners

with autonomy is one of the most critical teaching philosophies in increasing students’ motivation.

Her data “suggested a positive interrelationship between teacher autonomy…, learner autonomy…,

and motivation” (15). Ajibade and Ndububa support this finding, as students in this study were

allowed to have some degree of control over the learning process (34) and consequently out-

performed the control group that lacked autonomy. Ruesch et al. also describe the significance that

Hungarian English students associate with autonomy in increasing their motivation.

English Proficiency Has Implications on Motivation

Only three out of the six studies analyzed English proficiency’s effect on motivation. All

three underscore the effect that students’ language proficiency has on their motivation. In the

Swedish study, the researchers divided the students into two groups based on proficiency levels, and

the results differed greatly between these two groups. McEown and Takeuchi discovered the same

results, stating that the effectiveness of some MSs varied according to students’ English proficiency

(22). Therefore, the students’ language proficiency levels must be taken into account when

determining how motivated they are to learn English.

Strong Organizational Climate Increases Motivation

Five of the six studies reference organizational climate and its significance to student

motivation. Roohani and Mohammadi examined that an effective organizational climate can create

a fun and optimistic environment in the classroom, hence promoting collaboration and participation

in classroom activities (139). Ruesch et al.’s research also indicates the consequences of

organizational climate, and the data between language learners in the United States, Taiwan and

Hungary concludes that creating a pleasant classroom climate was among the most important

strategies for all three cultures analyzed (21). While creating a positive mood in the classroom is

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influential, Glas also recognizes an uncontrollable determinant of organizational culture and its

impact on motivation. She discusses how the history of learning English in Chile, which consists of

negative sentiments, has a noticeable, adverse influence on student motivation.

Cultural Implications

Five of the six studies directly emphasize that cultural contexts can affect student

motivation, while Roohani and Mohammadi suggest its importance throughout their research.

Emanuelsson, who studied English students in Sweden, states that EFL students around the world

are “located in different cultural and historical contexts that can definitely affect their motivation to

learn” (5). McEown and Takeuchi agree, arguing that some motivational strategies could be

universal while others could be contingent on culture (21). Glas stresses relevance of culture in

student motivation and discusses how even institutional culture and familial culture can differ

between well-off and disadvantaged sectors of the same city. All of the research acknowledges that

cultural factors play a large role in how students are motivated to learn English.

Differences:

Culturally Relevant Games and Stories

Ajibade and Ndububa indicate a motivational factor that all of the other authors disregard.

They state that students in Nigeria, when taught English using culturally relevant songs, games and

stories, have higher motivation to learn English than students taught using conventional methods.

They argue that providing students with cultural familiarities in lessons will consequently result in

students being more attentive and willing to learn, therefore increasing motivation.

Future Ambitions

Emanuelsson’s study in Sweden was the only research that emphasizes a student’s initial

attitude towards learning English and its effects on motivation. She found that the students who

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desired to learn the “language as an instrument for future ambitions” (38) had more motivation than

students with weaker initial interest in learning English.

Gender

Although all of the studies indicate the gender of the participants in their research

methodology, only Ajibade and Ndububa discuss the implications of gender on student motivation.

They discovered that culturally relevant songs and stories designed to motivate students had no

significantly different effect on the motivation of male and female students (40). It seems possible

that the motivational levels would be similar for male and female students across all other studies,

but the other authors failed to analyze this variable.

Research:

Introduction

This section provides an explanation of my research strategy, an overview of the English

teachers who volunteered to participate in the study, a description of the questionnaire used to illicit

data from the teachers, and a brief explanation of the data analysis.

Participants

This study is designed to focus on the opinions of current and former English teachers

abroad. It allows them to share their thoughts on how students are motivated to learn English.

Student views are not included in this study. Teachers from around the world contributed. The

participants include English teachers in private American or British schools, teachers in public

institutions, private tutors, and volunteer teachers in the Peace Corps or other organizations.

The teachers were found through my personal connections to a TEFL certification course

TEFL WorldWide Prague, which marketed the survey via its Facebook page. Other personal

connections were also used to find teachers. People who took the survey also sent it to other

teachers. The survey was also on LinkedIn and the University of Puget Sound’s alumni network.

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There were seventy-five teachers who completed the questionnaire. They had taught in

twenty eight1 different countries. Most teachers only taught in one country, while some taught in up

to five different countries. The seventy-five teachers taught a multitude of age groups – from

kindergarten to adults – as well as low English proficiency levels to advanced English speakers.

Instruments

The primary instrument of this study was a questionnaire administered to the teachers via

Google Forms, which provides simple data collection and analysis2. The questionnaire for this study

was designed on the research conclusions provided in the literature review. Seven main questions

were asked, correlating to the main findings from the literature review. A five-point Likert Scale

was used to determine how strongly the teachers agreed. For example “Providing students with

autonomy in their coursework increases their motivation to learn English” was one of the seven

statements. Answering with a one is strongly disagreeing with the statement, while five is strongly

agreeing. Teachers also had the option to explain the choices they checked to help give context to

their ratings. Teachers also had an optional question asking them if there were any other factors in

their own experience that influenced student motivation.

Internal validity of the responses was difficult to monitor. The link to the online survey was

available for anybody with access to it. In addition, I did not know the qualifications of the teachers

or know who they were, so I had to trust the merit of the autonomous responses.

Data Analysis

The purpose of gathering the data was to determine if it aligned with the major conclusions

of the literature review. In order to accomplish this, the teachers participating in the survey

answered seven questions that inquire how students are motivated to learn English abroad. The data

was analyzed based on the responses from each of these seven questions.

1 The list of countries where teachers have taught is attached in Appendix A2 The questionnaire used is attached in Appendix B

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Autonomy:

The response to “providing students with autonomy in their coursework increases their motivation

to learn English” yielded a variety of answers. Forty percent of the participants responded with

neutrality on this statement by marking the number three. 18.7% of the participants disagree, or

somewhat disagree, with this statement by answering with a one or two. The remaining 41.3% of

the teachers agree or somewhat agree with this statement. There were a couple of recurring

explanations that teachers provided when answering this question. They indicated that autonomy

was more successful with higher-proficiency learners, and that lower-level English speakers need

much more instruction. There was also an indication that autonomy is only successful when there is

a structured foundation to build on.

Language Proficiency:

To examine how language proficiency affects student motivation, the participants responded

to the statement “Low English language proficiency decreases student motivation to learn English.”

As shown by the graph, there is a scattered response. Slightly over half of the respondents, 50.7%,

disagreed with this statement, and 30.7% agreed with it. The remaining 18.7%5 remained neutral.

There is one recurring theme in the teachers’ explanations to this response: this statement is true and

20

more noticeable if the low-proficiency students are in a class with many higher proficiency students

that dominate conversation and participation.

Classroom Mood:

The teachers collectively had a clear response to the statement “A positive classroom climate/mood

increases student motivation”. Seventy-three out of the seventy-five participants agreed with this

assertion, and the remaining two teachers neither agreed nor disagreed by answering with a three.

The teachers overwhelmingly commented on this statement with sentiments such as “You have to

remind them that the classroom is a safe space to make mistakes. Every one is still learning” or “A

positive environment definitely increased motivation. I found that when the classroom environment

was fun and positive, students were more inclined to participate.” These views indicate that a

positive classroom environment increases students’ motivation to learn through increased

participation and engagement.

Culture:

21

To examine if the literature is correct in arguing that cultural factors influence student

motivation, the statement “Cultural factors can either increase or decrease student motivation to

learn English” was evaluated by participants of the survey. The majority of teachers, 74.7%, agreed

with this statement. Only 5.3% moderately disagreed, while the remaining 20% rated this with a

three, indicating neither agreement nor disagreement. The teachers indicated very strongly in their

responses how important and influential culture is to student motivation, especially with common

thread participants indicating how influential Asian cultures are. For example, one participant

indicated that “this is especially true in Japan where the group opinion outweighs an individual's

opinion. Kids want to fit in and be exactly like their peers” or one teacher had “students who would

say that they are Arab so they should be speaking in Arabic, not English.” One teacher began

teaching in the Czech Republic right after independence from communist rule, and indicated that

students are highly motivated to learn English because they were forbidden to speak it during this

rule. There were countless examples of how cultural structures either increased or decreased student

motivation.

Students’ Families:

22

The claim that “The students’ families at home encourage them to learn and master the

English language, therefore increasing student motivation” yielded relatively uniform results. The

highest percentage of teachers responded neutrally, indicating that in their experience the students’

families did not directly affect motivation in a positive or negative way. 48% of teachers agreed that

students’ families encourage them to learn English, while only twelve percent disagreed.

Future Ambitions:

The teachers collectively agree with the statement that “Students are motivated to learn English

with the future ambition of receiving a job, continuing onto university, etc.” The bulk of the ratings,

73.3%, agreed with this statement. Only 6.6% disagreed that students were motivated by future

ambitions, and 20% indicated that it neither increased nor decreased motivation. The teachers

indicated in their contextual explanations that this is most likely true in the case of older students

nearing university. But many teachers also indicated that cultural influences affect this, as some

cultures begin testing students on English skills at four or five years old to determine what schools

23

they will go to. Other teachers indicated that this is less true for students who are required to learn

English, and do not necessarily choose to be there.

Individual Consideration:

The participants in the survey validate the statement that “the more individual consideration

the teacher gives to a student, the more intrinsically motivated that student will be to learn English.”

Only four percent of the teachers oppose this assertion while eighty percent of the teachers agree.

The remaining 16% indicated that the more individual consideration students receive from teachers

does not affect intrinsic motivation in a positive or negative way. Although the teachers as a whole

indicated this statement as valid, there were important observations that they elaborated on in

individualized consideration could be negative for students. The teachers indicated that students

might be humiliated or embarrassed by receiving extra attention in front of their peers. The teachers

also discussed that giving attention to specific students could alienate the rest of the group and make

them feel unimportant. Balance was mentioned as a crucial qualifier for agreeing with this

statement.

Connections Between Research and Literature Review

The literature only focuses on advanced-level English learners. My research does not have a

particular focus, and includes all levels of English learners. The literature only studies older

students, between the levels of high school and university. This has the potential for creating

24

disconnects between the literature and the research, as students of older ages might be motivated to

learn English differently than younger students.

The primary research and the literature are mostly aligned in their findings, but there are

also some differences between them. Both the literature and the primary research find that cultural

factors and language proficiency have an effect, either positive or negative, student motivation.

They both conclude that motivation is increased due to the following factors: the students’ future

ambitions in education and careers, teacher providing students with individual consideration, and a

positive classroom environment. While these commonalities are present, the literature and primary

research have different findings on the importance of autonomy in increasing student motivation.

Effect of Student Autonomy on Motivation Differs Between Literature and Primary Research

Four of the six pieces of literature indicate that providing English learners with autonomy

will positively affect their motivation. But this does not align with the findings of the primary

research. Just as many teachers responded neutrally as either agreeing or somewhat agreeing – both

around forty percent. The statistical mean of the seventy-five responses to this question on the

survey was 3.35. A statistical mean of four or five would indicate that the teachers collectively

support the findings of the literature. But, because the mean is closer to three, the teachers in the

study collectively are more indifferent to the argument that providing students with autonomy

increases their motivation. When the data is analyzed based on region, slightly different results are

found; however, they are skewed based on sample size. The responses for teachers who taught in

Asia had a statistical mean of 3.16, slightly lower than the overall average. The statistical mean for

the responses of English teachers who taught in Europe is 3.39, just slightly higher than the overall

average, but still not high enough to indicate that the teachers in Europe agree with the literature.

Only two teachers taught in the Middle East and the mean of their data is 3.5, which is not

conclusive to the literature’s findings. A mean of 4.66 is calculated for the responses of teachers in

25

South or Central America, which aligns with the literature review. But with a sample size of only

three, one cannot say with confidence that students in this region are motivated to learn English

when given more autonomy. Therefore, because of the disconnect between the literature and the

primary research, it cannot be concluded whether providing students with autonomy will have a

positive effect on their motivation to learn English.

Cultural Factors Have Implications on Student Motivation

The primary research and the literature review reach the same conclusion that cultural

factors have implications on student motivation. Those factors can either positively or negatively

influence motivation. All six pieces of literature emphasize the importance of cultural factors’

influence on student motivation. The seventy-five teachers in the primary research collectively

agree with the literature, as 74.7% either agreed or somewhat agreed. But, there are regional

differences between the teachers’ responses. The average for teachers in Europe is 3.79, while it is

4.38 for those in Asia. Although a mean of 3.79 is shifted enough to conclude that teachers in

Europe find culture to be fairly important, it may not be strong enough to confidently conclude that

teachers in Europe agree with the literature on culture’s effect on motivation. The variance of 0.59

between the data for Asia and Europe is also large enough to make it appear that there is a

difference between how culture affects motivation in Asia versus Europe. The teachers from Asia

noted in their comments how different and influential the educational culture is, while European

teachers did not mention its relevance in their comments as often. The two individuals who taught

in the Middle East both rated this question with a five, while the mean for South American teacher

responses is 4.33, but the sample size is too small to confidently come to a conclusion. While there

are variations within the data, as a whole the primary research aligns with the literature in

concluding that cultural factors have implications on student motivation to learn English.

Language Proficiency Affects Motivation Based on Individual Circumstances

26

Three of the six pieces of literature claim that English language proficiency levels affect

students’ motivation. Two of the three made this claim more broadly, speaking of its importance but

indicating how the motivation of more proficient students is different from the motivation of less

proficient students. Emanuelsson’s study indicates the significance of English proficiency as well,

but has a more specific argument. She states that lower level English students are less motivated to

learn English, while higher-level students are more motivated. The statement “Low English

language proficiency decreases student motivation to learn English” that the teachers responded to

in the survey coincides with Emanuelsson’s findings. It does not ask of the importance of language

proficiency on motivation in general, but the results that the teachers provide, as well as the their

extended comments, can be analyzed to determine the general effects of language proficiency on

motivation. The statistical average of the responses is 2.71, without any noticeable variations based

on specific regions. The teachers are collectively indifferent to this statement. It can be assumed that

this statistical average means that the teachers think that low language proficiency does not have a

strong affect on student motivation. While this is true, the results are so varied that the mean may

not be a good indicator of the results. Consequently, the standard deviation is 1.41, which is

relatively high compared to the standard deviation of other responses. This means that the data is

more spread out, and that over two-thirds of the data lies between the normal distribution. In this

case the normal distribution is between 1.30 and 4.12, which is essentially the whole data set. This

means that the results are so widespread that a clear conclusion cannot be drawn from the data.

Emanuelsson’s findings are not supported by the primary research, so it cannot be stated assertively

that lower English proficiency decreases student motivation. But, the teachers’ explanations indicate

that they did find English proficiency to be important in its implications on student motivation.

Many sentiments such as “In some cases absolutely [low English proficiency decreases student

motivation], in some cases no. My experience had a healthy mixture of both from those that I

27

worked with…” were voiced. Therefore, the respondents indicated that English proficiency does

affect motivation, but were unable to determine exactly how.

The Importance of a Strong Organizational Climate

The primary research and the literature align with the notion that a strong organizational

climate in the classroom will increase student motivation. Five of the six articles of literature

declare that having a positive classroom mood will increase student motivation to learn English.

The statistical mean of the seventy-five responses is 4.75, which clearly indicates that the teachers

agree with the statement, a “A positive classroom climate/mood increases student motivation.”

Because of the clear correlation between the literature and the primary research, a positive

classroom environment does increase student motivation to learn English.

Future Ambition

The literature and the primary research concur that students are motivated to learn English

because of a future ambition to get a job or go to university. Emanuelsson, who studied English

learners in Sweden, is the only author who discusses these future ambitions, she argues that students

are more motivated to learn English if they have these ambitions. While 73.7% of the participants

either agreed or somewhat agreed with the statement that “Students are motivated to learn English

with the future ambition of receiving a job, continuing onto university, etc.,” the statistical mean

was only 4.03. This average states that as a group the teachers collectively somewhat agree with the

statement. Although it cannot be confidently stated that the primary research and the literature align,

it appears that they are associated.

Students’ Families

Glas illustrates that external factors can influence students’ motivation to learn English. She

emphasizes that the students’ families can encourage them to learn English, usually associated with

the parents’ understanding of globalization or desiring their children to have a better life by

28

studying abroad or finding work abroad. Parents can also dissuade children to want to learn English

because of cultural or national pride. While Glas establishes that family life has an impact on

student motivation, she did not deduce whether there is a general trend of families being more

supportive or against learning English. Consequently, the survey question “The students’ families at

home encourage them to learn and master the English language, therefore increasing student

motivation” is asked to determine how the statement corresponds with the seventy-five participants.

The statistical average of the data is 3.44, portraying that teachers are relatively impartial to this

statement, with a slight trend towards somewhat agreeing with the statement. There are some

concerns with the answers to this question. Many of the respondents who answered with a three

explained that they either did not know about the family situations outside of school or that it

depended on the particular student in the class—they could not make a general assessment either

way. There is a theme in the teachers’ responses stating that if the families speak English at home or

for their careers, then this statement is more likely to be true. In addition, many of the participants

also indicated that there is a fine line between the families encouraging and pressuring students to

learn. Particularly the teachers who taught in Asia mentioned that the families may push the

students too hard. Therefore, there is no conclusion to show whether students abroad are motivated

because their families encourage them, but the literature and primary research both emphasize the

importance of this factor.

Other Factors

Due to the conciseness of the survey, only seven main questions were asked. Therefore,

there may be other factors that the participants think influence student motivation that did not relate

to one of the questions asked. Consequently, teachers were given an opportunity to answer the

question: “What other factors have a major affect on student motivation to learn English?” After

29

analyzing the responses. Four main themes emerged: students interested in traveling, the relevance

of the teaching material, social influences, and encouragement from the teacher.

Travel:

The most common theme that emerged is that students are motivated to learn because of the

opportunity to travel. They cited that English is a globalized language and they can travel to many

different countries where they can speak English. They indicated three types of traveling

opportunities that students are motivated by: current business travel, future leisure travel, and study

abroad.

Relevance:

The teachers emphasized that students are more motivated to learn when the lesson plans

cater to the students’ interests. Pop culture, music, television, movies, and other cultural ideas that

are associated with the English language are often important to students, and they want to learn

English in order understand and interact with these ideas. Glas and Emanuelsson, although not

citing this as a major factor to student motivation, mention its value in their respective research.

Social Influences:

Students may be motivated to learn English to satisfy social pressures and influences. In

societies with more distinct social classes, students may be motivated to learn English to appear

more sophisticated or of higher status. Social pressures from peers are also cited as imperative. The

interests of friends or the language proficiency of peers influences students’ motivations to learn

English.

Teacher Encouragement:

While teacher encouragement is encompassed in creating a positive classroom environment,

the participants in the survey specifically identified its significance. Students are more motivated

when they feel validated and are recognized when they perform well. The teachers suggest that in

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many other cultures the fear of making mistakes can be a barrier for students, especially for younger

children. So they express that praising students can make them more likely to participate, and

consequently increase motivation.

Implications for International Leadership Practices:

Transformational Leadership

The literature and my primary research relate to transformational leadership, part of the Full

Range Leadership Development (FRLD) theory, as much of the literature discusses its effect on

student motivation. The FRLD theory is a model that is supported by extensive research and

applications in many different leadership settings. Many scholars argue that this paradigm of

leadership is the most established and premier model (Sosik & Jung, 8). The FRLD system

attributes five major styles of leadership: laissez-faire, passive management-by-exception, active

management-by-exception, contingent reward, and transformational leadership. The range begins

with laissez-faire as the lowest form of leadership, in which a leader abdicates responsibility and

avoids making decisions. This is essentially non-leadership. The continuum moves towards more

active, involved, and rewarding styles of leadership until the highest form of leadership of

transformational leadership is reached, in which the leader has a vision that aligns with the ideals of

the followers and inspires them to develop their own leadership capacity. This is considered the

most effective form of leadership within the FRLD theory.

Transformational leadership provides individuals with a source of both intrinsic and

extrinsic motivation to complete the tasks assigned by the leader through four key behaviors:

idealized influence, inspirational motivation, intellectual stimulation, and individualized

consideration. With idealized influence the leader models high levels of performance and ethics,

which followers identify with, and this increases trust of the followers. A leader who develops and

articulates a vision that aligns with his or her followers shows inspirational motivation. To further

31

motivate followers, leaders who spend time listening, coaching, and teaching individuals display

individualized consideration. While none of the authors in the teaching literature specifically use the

terminology “transformational leadership,” they discuss aspects of it and the relationship that those

characteristics have in motivating students.

Five of the six authors indirectly discuss different qualities of transformational leadership

and their influence on motivation. Ajibade, and Ndububa argue that teachers who create an

environment where students feel respected as individuals are more interested in learning and open

to new ideas. This aligns with the transformational leadership concept of individualized

consideration, and they argue that it has positive effects on student motivation. McEown and

Takeuchi also discuss individualized consideration and its relationship to motivation. They discover

that a negative correlation occurred when teachers involved students in activities and kept pace with

them (29). This motivational strategy embodies intellectual stimulation and individualized

consideration because the teacher catered to the students’ pace and involved them in activities.

Another characteristic of transformational leadership that McEown and Takeuchi study is idealized

influence. They find that “a negative correlation in… ‘Display[ing] enthusiasm of teaching

English’” occurred. Enthusiasm can be categorized under idealized influence by indicating a desire

to teach, and an example of one who is fluent and engaged with the English language. Reusch et al.

also discusses the importance of idealized influence. Specifically, a teacher who “show[s] a good

example by being committed and motivated to helping the students succeed” (31) was one of the

highest rated motivational strategies by both teachers and students. Emmanuelson discusses

intellectual stimulation and its effect on motivation. Her research indicates how the two groups of

students studied, one with higher proficiency and the other with lower proficiency, were influenced

when the teacher encourages a stimulating, academic environment. This environment that she

discusses can also be categorized under intellectual stimulation. She finds that intellectual

32

stimulation is more influential in motivating the group with a higher English proficiency, while the

less proficient group struggled more often and preferred a more relaxed, easy environment.

Five of the six authors mention the importance of transformational leadership, with specific

emphasis on individualized consideration and idealized influence. Only the study of Japanese

students resulted in the opposite conclusion. The students were not only uninfluenced by aspects of

transformational leadership, but rather had a negative response to them. When teachers

implemented idealized influence through showing teaching enthusiasm, and enacted individualized

consideration when getting all students involved in activities, the data indicated that a negative

correlation to the students’ motivation occurred. Because of the discrepancy in the literature, my

survey has a specific focus on individualized consideration to determine that the general literature is

correct in praising individualized consideration.

The literature and my research align that when students are given individual consideration, a

form of transformational leadership, then they are more motivated to learn English. The teachers

responded to the statement “The more individual consideration the teacher gives to a student, the

more intrinsically motivated that student will be to learn English.” Around 80% of the participants

chose either a four or a five. This shows that a majority of the teachers agree, and my research

aligns with the literature in that when students are given individual consideration, they are more

motivated to learn English. While McKeown and Takeuchi’s research in Japan indicates that these

transformational leadership strategies do not prove successful in Japan, their findings portray the

importance of cultural effects on student motivation. While individualized consideration generally

supports student motivation, teachers must have awareness for the specific culture that they are

teaching to evaluate its effectiveness.

International Leadership Practices

While this paper looks at motivation through a case study of English students abroad, there

33

are many concepts and ideas that are translatable to international business practices. International

leaders and followers are always engaged in a mutual relationship, which should be based on a

common goal, as well as being equitable and ethical in the process of achieving that goal. In the

past, as shown through Zimmerman’s history of teaching English abroad, Western leaders have

attempted to impose their ethnocentric values onto their followers abroad. The results were

detrimental according to Zimmerman. In the same way, modern international leaders, when leading

foreign teams or working with organizations abroad, cannot force their cultural and social values

onto other cultures. This will alienate the followers of other cultures and make them feel lesser.

Successful and ethical leadership cannot be rooted in this power structure. Often, the followers will

begin to disregard the leader and retaliate against the treatment they receive. Accordingly,

international leaders need to be malleable and open to new styles of leadership, dependent on the

setting.

As with other leadership concepts, motivation depends on specific situations and factors. It

depends on culture, age, the leader’s actions, socioeconomic factors, family backgrounds, work

environment, and many other influences. This is very important for international leaders to

understand. Because one motivational tactic is successful for one group of followers, it does not

mean that it will be successful for another. That same philosophy may result in negative effects on

follower motivation, and could actually create an unhealthy organizational climate, as it did with the

Japanese students’ negative responses to intellectual stimulation and individualized consideration.

Therefore, to most effectively motivate their followers, leaders must develop cultural intelligence,

which is the capability to deal effectively with people from different cultural backgrounds. There

are three main factors in becoming culturally intelligent: (1) becoming knowledgeable about how

cultures differ, (2) developing mindfulness, and (3) developing cross-cultural skills (Thomas &

Inkson, 16). These three steps relate to motivation, as shown through the literature and the findings

34

of the survey.

To become culturally intelligent, international leaders must become knowledgeable about

culture. This goes beyond the basic understanding that cultures differ, as this realization is obvious.

It is an understanding that culture is shared, and has profound influences on one’s behavior. Culture

is systematic and has developed over time according to a group’s values. There is a well-known

study by Geert Hofstede, who studied over 100,000 employees in over 50 countries, and rated each

country according to individualism, uncertainty avoidance, power distance, and masculinity

(Hofstede, 2016). These fundamentals, while generalizations, are integral for international leaders to

become familiar with. This clearly relates to motivation, as culture has profound influences over

behavior. The shared values of people must be respected in order to motivate them. In addition, an

individual in a highly collectivist culture is much more likely to be motivated when tasks are team-

oriented. Through this knowledge, international leaders master the first of the three layers of

cultural intelligence.

International leaders must also strive for cultural mindfulness. This is the ability to pay

attention to the context of a situation in a reflective and creative way. This is first manifested

through being mindful of one’s own assumptions, ideas, and emotions. Cultural mindfulness begins

with people becoming aware of their own culture. Mindfulness involves paying attention to one’s

senses, putting oneself into another person’s position, and categorizing people’s personalities and

cultural backgrounds as to improve future interactions. All of these actions are critical for

international leaders to motivate followers. People of varying cultures will act differently, and

leaders need to be constantly cognizant of how followers are feeling, responding, and viewing

situations as to foster a healthy relationship.

After one has developed cultural knowledge and mindfulness, then one can practice

building cross-cultural skills. Most problems that international leaders face involve communication

35

issues, misunderstandings, personality conflicts, poor leadership style, and bad teamwork. By

developing skills, international leaders can mitigate these potential problems. It is important to note

that this part of cultural intelligence does not mean that one develops skilled routines that are

mastered for a specific culture, as these “skills” will most likely not translate to other cultures.

Instead, one must improve more general skills, such as: relational skills, tolerance for uncertainty,

empathy, perceptual acuity, and adaptability. One must not only cultivate these skills, but also know

when to use each one. Cross-cultural skills are imperative for leaders who want to motivate

followers. Leaders can better relate to followers, and constantly improve how they interact with

people, no matter what setting they are in. They can choose the appropriate behavior that fosters

proper communication, trust, and respect from followers. This will increase follower motivation as

they will feel more comfortable and appreciated as individuals, willing to do the task necessary for

the common goal of the group.

By cultivating all three aspects of cultural intelligence, international leaders can feel

confident knowing that no matter the situation, they will be prepared to approach it with poise,

reflect on it, and learn valuable lessons that can be then applied in the future. Followers’ motivation

will be much stronger with culturally intelligent leaders, as the followers will be treated in a genuine

way that aligns with their culture(s), and makes them feel comfortable to work towards common

goals.

Concluding Thoughts:

More than 1.2 billion students are engaged in English classes around the world (How Large

Is the Job Market for English Teachers Abroad?), and many scholars have studied how students are

best motivated, hoping to determine general trends and universal patterns that are successful. The

literature review indicates that students around the world are motivated by many factors, with

similarities and differences across cultures, age groups, and English skills. The primary research

36

studying seventy-five English teachers abroad indicate similarities and differences to the literature.

There is a similar emphasis on culture’s importance in influencing student motivation, but specific

motivational factors such as providing students with autonomy, or the idea that low proficiency

learners are less motivated, differed between the primary research and the literature. Although these

similarities and differences between the literature and the survey provide important conclusions,

they cannot be generalized for all students. As with other leadership concepts, student motivation

depends on specific situations and factors. It depends on culture, age, English proficiency,

socioeconomic factors, family backgrounds, type of school (public or private), and many other

causes.

There are concerns with the literature gathered that must be discussed. Some of the

researchers studied more theoretical concepts such as emotional intelligence or transformational

leadership, while others study specific methods such as the teacher “speaking clearly and loudly” or

“providing sufficient study guides for the exam.” Consequently, the same concepts and frameworks

are not being studied in each cultural setting, so it is difficult to effectively determine how concrete

the similarities and differences are. The primary research differs from the literature, making

statistical analysis between them incompatible. While some basic statistical analysis is completed, it

is not sufficient to determine whether there is statistical difference between my research and the

literature. Due to this setback, the research examines broad motivational theories that can be

translated to future research and more easily cross-analyzed. Therefore, additional research in this

field should strategize to use the same framework across cultures to create a more unified collection

of information. In addition, the literature only focuses on advanced-level English learners, as well as

students aged fifteen or older. The primary research evaluates teachers who have taught all ages of

students, without any clear focus. It would be interesting for future research to evaluate the

37

motivation of young learners compared to older learners, as well as the relationship between

beginning and advanced learners’ motivation.

38

Works Cited

Ajibade, Yetunde, and Kate Ndububa. “Effects of Word Games, Culturally Relevant Songs, and

Stories on Students’ Motivation in a Nigerian English Language Class.” TESL Canada

Journal 26.1 (2008): 27–48. Print.

arbetsvetenskap, Göteborgs Universitet/Institutionen för sociologi och. “Exploring motivation

strategies in a collaborative method of teaching L2 (English): A case study of year 7 and

year 8 at an independent compulsory school in Gothenburg.” (2012): n. pag. gupea.ub.gu.se.

Web. 10 Nov. 2015.

Glas, Katharina. “Opening up ‘spaces for Manoeuvre’: English Teacher Perspectives on Learner

Motivation.” Research Papers in Education 0.0 (2015): 1–20. Taylor and Francis+NEJM.

Web.

Hofste, Geert. "National Culture." The Hofstede Center. N.p., 2016. Web. 08 May 2016.

"How Large Is the Job Market for English Teachers Abroad?" How Large Is the Job Market for

English Teachers Abroad? 12 Feb. 2012. Web. 5 Dec. 2015.

McEown, Maya Sugita, and Osamu Takeuchi. “Motivational Strategies in EFL Classrooms: How

Do Teachers Impact Students’ Motivation?” Innovation in Language Learning and Teaching 8.1

(2014): 20–38. Taylor and Francis+NEJM. Web.

Roohani, Ali, and Nafiseh Mohammadi. “The Relationship between EFL Teachers’ Emotional

Intelligence and Students’ Motivational Attributes.” Journal of Teaching Language Skills

6.3(2015): 113–133. Print.

Ruesch, Ashley, Jennifer Bown, and Dan P. Dewey. “Student and Teacher Perceptions of

Motivational Strategies in the Foreign Language Classroom.” Innovation in Language

Learning and Teaching 6.1 (2012): 15–27. Taylor and Francis+NEJM. Web.

Sosik, John J., and Don I. Jung. Full Range Leadership Development: Pathways for People, Profit,

39

and Planet. New York: Routledge, 2010. Print.

Thomas, David C., and Kerr Inkson. Cultural Intelligence: Living and Working Globally. 2nd ed.

San Francisco, CA: Berrett-Koehler, 2009. Print.

Zimmerman, Jonathan. Innocents Abroad: American Teachers in the American Century.

Cambridge, MA: Harvard UP, 2006. Print.

Appendix A

Country Number of Teachers Who Taught There3

Czech Republic 19

France 11

Spain 7

Germany 4

Poland 1

Italy 2

Turkey 1

Russia 2

Ukraine 1

Japan 10

Thailand 11

China 7

South Korea 3

Indonesia 1

Cambodia 1

3 Teachers may have taught in more one country

40

India 1

Mongolia 1

Vietnam 2

Taiwan 1

Kyrgyzstan 1

United Arab Emirates 3

Peru 1

Ecuador 1

Brazil 1

Guatemala 1

Chile 1

Czechoslovakia4 1

United States 1

United Kingdom5 1

Appendix B

Questionnaire for Teachers Abroad

Hi,

My name is Joey Randazzo, a senior at the University of Puget Sound in Tacoma, WA. I am conducting thesis research on how students are motivated to learn English abroad in TESOL/TEFL classrooms. Because of your experience teaching abroad, I invite you to take this very brief (3-8

4 This teacher began his/her career in Czechoslovakia, before the country changed its name to the Czech Republic5 Two teachers indicated that after finishing teaching abroad, they either taught in the United States or the United Kingdom. While this is not technically “teaching English abroad”, it may have implications on their answers, so these countries are still noted.

41

minute) survey. Your response will help me complete a significant thesis project and assist me in my journey teaching abroad in just a couple of months. I am happy to share the results of the survey.

Thank you for your time!

* Required

Preliminary Questions

What country did you teach in? * _________________________ What age group did you teach? * _________________________ What English proficiency did you teach? Low, moderate, or high? * ________________________ Main Questions

Providing students with autonomy in their coursework increases their motivation to learn English. *

1 2 3 4 5Disagree Agree

Please explain the choice you checked above with comments that help give context to your ratings (optional). _______________________________________________________________________ Low English language proficiency decreases student motivation to learn English. *

1 2 3 4 5Disagree Agree

Please explain the choice you checked above with comments that help give context to your ratings (optional). _______________________________________________________________________ A positive classroom climate/mood increases student motivation. *

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Please explain the choice you checked above with comments that help give context to your ratings (optional). _______________________________________________________________________ Cultural factors can either increase or decrease student motivation to learn English. *

1 2 3 4 5Disagree Agree

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Please explain the choice you checked above with comments that help give context to your ratings (optional). _______________________________________________________________________ The students’ families at home encourage them to learn and master the English language, therefore increasing student motivation. *

1 2 3 4 5Disagree Agree

Please explain the choice you checked above with comments that help give context to your ratings (optional). _______________________________________________________________________ Students are motivated to learn English with the future ambition of receiving a job, continuing onto university, etc. *

1 2 3 4 5Disagree Agree

Please explain the choice you checked above with comments that help give context to your ratings (optional). _______________________________________________________________________ The more individual consideration the teacher gives to a student, the more intrinsically motivated that student will be to learn English. *

1 2 3 4 5Disagree Agree

Please explain the choice you checked above with comments that help give context to your ratings (optional). _______________________________________________________________________ Post-QuestionsWhat other factors have a major affect on student motivation to learn English? (optional) A more personal question: I will be teaching abroad starting in August, and any tips you feel inclined to share would be great! I am particularly interested in volunteer teaching or working in a developing country. (optional)