determinants of fertility behavior in two regions of...
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DETERMINANTSOF FERTILITY BEHAVIOR IN TWO REC10NS OF CHINA
THESIS SUBMITTED IN PARTIAL FULFILLMENTTHE REQUIREMENTS FOR THE DECREE OF
MASTER OF ARTS(POPULAT10N AND SOCIAL RESEARCH)
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onuりИ■1■1,
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rああづ″ルう ″′″島oフ
NEFUJGNWA
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FACULTY OFMAHIDOL
INGRADUATE STUDIESUNIVERSITY
1993
23300
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Thesisentitled
DETERMINANTS OF FERTILITY BEHAVIOR IN TWO REC10NS OF CHINA
_塑形Wang Ju-FenCandidate
Monthree Chulasamaya. M. D. , ph. D.
DeanFaculty of Graduate Studies
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:盤もこ濯無憮ルCo― Adv■ sor
l}'n"lr^ Vdi** ^oo.n'-
N'l| 1-r---------------- ./Bencha Yoddumne rn -Att ig, ph. D.
Cha i.rmanMaster of Arts Programin Population and Soc ia]Re s earchInstitute for Populationand Social Research
^
Thes.isentitled
DETERMINANTS OF FERTILITY BEHAV]OR IN TWO REGIONS OF CHINA
was submitted to the Faculty of craduate Studies,Mahidol University for the degree of Master of Arts' (Population and Social Research)
on25 June. 1993
普酷ヽ
Candidate
Cha irman
多li`盗 μ :響gr・た.4rJ笙
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Bencha Yoddumnern-Attig, Ph. D.Member
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^)Y1:-Som-arch Wongkhomthong, M. D. , D. H. Sc .Member
Monthree Chulasamaya,ltt. D. , Ph. D Aphichat Chamratr ithirong, Ph.D.
Dean DirectorFaculty of craduate studies fnstitute for Population and
SociaI Research
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_「 _ 坐整盤 鼈‐`
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BIOGRAPHY
NAME
DATE OF BIRTH
PLACE OF BIRTH
INSTITUTE ATTENDED
FUNDING ACENCY
PRESENT POSIT10N
Wang aluFen
2I May ,1949
Shanghai.P.R-China
Fudan Univers ityShanghai,P.R ChinaBache Ior(PoIiticaI Economics )
lroscow UniversityMoscor., , USSRShort Term Training
Institute for Populationand Social ResearchMahidol University. Thailand1992-1993. Master of Arts inPopulation and Social Research
World HeaIth Organization
Research Fellowlnstitute of PopulationResearchFudan University,Shanghai′P.R.China
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ACKNOWLEDCEI!ENT
I r.rould like to acknor.rledge uith gratitude the
intellectual guidance, .constructive comments and useful
suggestion of my major advisor Dr. Varachai Thongthai
throughout th j.s research.
I am very grateful to my co-advisors Dr Bencha
Yoddumnern-Attlg and Dr. Som-arch Wongkhomthong fortheir invaluable time and helpful. comments.
f r.rould like to thank W.H.O program for providing
financial support during 18 months studies in Thailand.
I $rould also Like to thank rehole teachers and staffof the Institute. for population and social Research,
even some one f could:t't rernember their name, but theirhospitality and friendliness keep in memory ever, r.rho
offered the hel.p both spirit and material during my
stay in IPSR.
Finally, my deepest appreciation is extended to my
beloved parents, husband and my lovely daughter, Ithank my father and mother. for them the be6t raisingand deep love, f thank my husband and my daughter forthem spiritual support and sincerely encouragement.
This work devoted to them.
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Thesis Title
Name
Degree
Determinants of FertilityBehavior in Two Regions of China
Wang JuFen
Master of Arts(Population and Sociat Research)
Thesis Supervisory Committee
Varachai Thongthai , Ph. D.
Bencha Yoddumnern-Attig, ph. D.
Date of craduation 25 」une B.E.2536 (1993)
ABSTRACT
Using data from survey ,'population Control
After Economic Reform in China.,, whlch was conducted by
Institute of Population Research, Fudan UniversityShanghai, the study examine determinants of fertilitybehavior in two regions of China.
The findings are age at first marriage vras
influenced by woman's age, occupation of woman and age
gap between husband and wife in both regions. Hourever,
the influence of woman's education on age at marriage
iiwaa found only in Thaichang.
Contraceptive use was affected by age of uroman
in both regions. Education had influenced on
contraceptive use only in Wugang, but the effect ofWoman' s occupation on contraception use was found
only in Thaichang. Finally, onty in Wugang where age
qap between husband and wife had influenced on
contraceptive use.
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TABLE OF CONTENTS
Page
ABSTRACT ........● ●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●iLIST OF TABLE .....● ●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●‐●●●●●●●●●●●●●●‐●Vi
CHAPTER ONEINTRODUCT10N■.■ Introduction.....● ●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●・・・・・ ●●●●●●●1■.2 0bjective of study .........・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・●●●●●・4
CHAPTER TWOREVIEW OF FERTILITY BEHAVIOR DETERMINANTS2.l Review of some Literature Related Age at
First Marr■age ........● ●●‐●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●52.1.■ age of woman ......● ●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●52.1.2 Education Attainment......・ ・・・・・・・・・・・・ ‐・ ●●52.1.3 0ccupation of women ........・ ・・・・ ●●●●●●●●●●62.1.4 Age Cap Between Husband and wife .........● 7
2.2 Rev■ew of Some Literature Re■ ated contraceptiveUse .......● ●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●92.2.l Age and lts Effects on Contraceptive use ..92.2.2 Woman's Educatio■ .......● ●●●●・・・・・・・・・・ ●●●●92.2.3 0ccupation of women ........● ●●●●●‐●●●・・・・ 102.2.4 Age Difference in Husband and Wife.....・ ・・■l
2.3 Conc■usion.....● ●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●12
CHAPTER THREE3.■ Conceptual Framework ....._.● ●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●133.2 HypOthesis .....● ●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●143.3 The Sources of Data .......● ●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●‐●●■43.4 Data Ana■ysis ........● ●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●17
CHAPTER FOURRESULT OF THE STUDY4.■ Soc■ o―Denlongraphic Characteristics of The
Respondents .....● ●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●184.2 Effects of Soc■ o― Demographical Varェ able on
The Age at First Marriage ........● ●●●●●●●●●・・・・254.2.l Effect of Age ........● ●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●254_2.2 Education Attainment......● ●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●254.2.3 0ccupation of wOmen .._.....● ●●●●●●●●●・・・・284.2.4 Age Cap Between Husband and Wife .........30
4.3 Factors Affecting cOntraceptive Use ......・ ・ ‐・・・304.3.l Age of Woman......● ●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●o304。 3.2 Womanis Education .......● ●●●●・・・・・ ●●●●●o 334.3.3 0ccupation Of women ........● ●●●●●●●●●●●●●334.3.4 Age Cap Between Husband and Wife..._.....・ 36
4.4 Conclusion .._..● ●●●●●●●●●●●●●●・・・・・・・‐・‐・・・・・・・ 38
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IVCHAPTER FIVE5.1 summary and conclusion .. . - -..405.2 Recommendations ..... - - -42References . -. -.44Appendix. .......48
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LIST OF TABLEV
Page
Table 4.I Soc io-demographic characteristics ofmarried women in Thaichang and wugang
.Table 4.2 Mean number of childrea ever Sorn bywoman's age. ...... ' -2I
Tabte 4.3 Percent of ever married women by ageat marriage .........22
Table 4.4 Percent of ever married women bycontraceptive use. - -.... -.24
Table 4.5 Mean age at marriage by current age ofwomen in Thaichang and Wugang. ........26
Table 4.6 Mean age at marriage by education ofwomen. . -. -....27
Table 4.? Mean age at marriage by occupation ofwomen. - - -.....29
Table 4.8 Mean age at marriage bY age gap betweenhusband and wife. . -. -.. -..3I
Table 4.9 Percentage distribution of r.romen bycontraceptive use and age in Thaichangand Wugangr ..... -...32
Table 4.I0 Percentage distribution of women bYcontraceptive use and education.. -....34
Table 4.lI Percentage distribution of r.ronen bycontraceptive use and occupation.... -.36
Table 4.I2 Percentage distribution of women bycontraceptive use and age gap betweenhusband and wife .........37
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CHAPTER ONE
INTRODUCTION
■。■ Introductlon
China has achieved fertiュ ity decline since
1970。 According to the 1990 population census′ the
tota■ fertility rate was 2。 3 in ■989′ declining
from 5.68 in I960s to 4.0I in 1970s and further down
to 2.47 during 1981 1988. As compared with the
I960s, the total fertiltty rate of Chinese women,in the
1980s decreased by 57 percent, crude birtt rate by 43
percent, and rate of natural increase by 48 percent.
However, there is a gap of fertility between urban
and rural areas. Since 1980, total fertillty rate in
urban areas has been around 1.5, and around 2.8 in
rural areas. Besides the difference ln fertility
between urban and rural areas, there are also
variations in fertility among provinces of rural
areas. Lower total fertility rates (around 2.Ll can be
observed in the provinces along the east-coast and
higher total fertility rates of more than 3 could
still be found in remote areas (Peng lgg2 ).The government of China had set fertility rate
at lower than the average level of present developed
countries by the end of the century( TFR=I.9); However,
in light of high fertility in rural areas, it is
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still doubtful whether the aim could be achieved.
Although the family planning program is quite
successful in China, why does the fertillty gap between
urban and rural- as well as rural and rural still exist?
The present'situation reveals that fertility declj-ne
not only depends on the sole element of familyplanning, but also relies on social and economic
factors. If the object is to understand and predict
the onset of fertility transition, t,hen study should be
focused on the condition of stable high fertility and
on the nature of destabilization (Caldwell 1982). With
economic reform, socj.al-economic conditions have been
changing in many aspects in China. For example, with
the productive responsibitity system has being carried
out in rural China sj.nce 19?8, the family is being
renewed as a productive unit; therefore, conception
of family is enhanced. Large family size seems
much more important now than during the time when
the collective unit performed a productive task. So
studying the situation of a reformed society and neh,
conditions is an urgent task facing us.
Besides socioeconomic conditions, culture also
is a very relevant factor effects fertility. As a
country with a civilization of long-standing and
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distinct geographical features, culture evidently has
significant meaning in the process of fertility
transition. Owing to cultural change accompanied by
economic change, such changes are very slow; some
content of the culture is getting weaker, while other
content is getting strong€r, so we should distinguishthe culture which is affecting fertility or which ishindering the family planning program from going
further.
The current situation of fertility in China
demonstrated two aspects.On the one hand,the population
growth is being controlled; compared with 1970s. On
the other hand, population growth still is a very
severe problem to a certain extent, sirice the annual
number of births in China has now risen to 23 million,with a net i-ncrease of over 16 million annually, which
is almost the total population of Australia. That isan unbearable burden in the proceds of economy
development. So studying and analyzing the determinants
of fertility behavior and finding the barrier of the
fertility decline in some higher fertility regions,
especially in rural areas, wiII help in forming a
program to reduce population growth rate as well as
accelerate economic development.
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L.2 ObJectlve of the Study
The purposes of this study are
I.examining factors which have effects on
fertility behavior in two regions; one with a lower
fertility and more developed economic Ieve1, and
another with a relatively higher fertility leve1 but
Iower economic development.
2.identifying the different factors affectingfertllity behavior in these two regions.
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CHA.PTER TWO
-RevLew of literature
'This chapter explores some literature review
concerned variables such as age of uroman, woman'E
education and occupation, and age gap between husband
and wife which affects fertility behavior, likecontraceptive use and age at first marriage.
2.L Factors affectlng age at first marriage
z.L.I Age of woman
Age at marriage is usually affected by woman's
d9€, younger cohort,s are generally getting married
Later than older cohorts . Smith (1980) found thatKorean women married much later, and younger cohorts
got married later than older cohorts. fslam and Islam
(1993) noted that older cohorts had a Iower age at
marriage than their younger counterparts.fn Bangladesh.
The mean age at marriage has increased by 2.5 years inIast 15 years
2.L.2 Educational attainment
Educational attainment seems to be the most
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important variable which delays age at flrst marriage
of women in aIl the countries examlned (United Nations
1990).
one study on differentials in age at first
marriage ( ltc Carthy 1982) indlcated that urban versus
rural residents and higher versus lower leveIs of
education are strongly associated with the age at which
a lromen married for the first time. Both urban $romen
and men with relatively higher levels of education are
less likely than their rural or less well-educated
counterparts to be married by the end of their teenage
years and are more likely to have a higher mean age at
marriage.
2.L.3 occupatlon of women
United Nation (1990), based on the ltlorld
Fertility Survey, found among ever-married r"romen aged
23 years and over from 10 African countries, shows that
the mean age at first marriage varied from 16 to 19
years for women who had no occupation or worked in the
traditional sector before marriage as compared with 19
years or over for those who had worked in the modern
sector of the economy. women who had worked before
marriage in a non-agricultural sector married somewhat
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Iater than the others. The same study also noted in
many Asian countries the mean age at first marriage of
h,omen involved in traditional agricultural occupations
is only slightly higher and probably not significantJ.y
different from those of women in the non-working
category, but the data confj.rm the very important
association between mean agte at first marriagre and work
in a modern occupation. For each country, women
involved in that type of work are characterized by the
highest mean ages at first marriage.
2.L.4 Age gap between husband and wife
United Nations (1990) reported that forcountries with an early-marriage patterns, particular Iy
those where women marrlr befo.re age I5, the age
differences between nusUana and wife $rere largest;differences of more than six years were reported forfndia, and they exceeded seven to eight years during
certain time periods in Pakistan. Conversely,
in countries of North America, Europe and Oceania,
which had intermediate and late-marriage pattern,
singulate mean age at marriage differences between man
and women $rere much smaller and varied, mostly between
two to four years, regardless of the time period
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. So far, a1l of the above
first marriage differs with age
attainnent, occupation of r.romen
between husband and wife.
has sho$rn how age at
of women, educational
and age difference
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2.2 Factors affectlng contraceptlve uae.
2.2.L Age of uonan
There are some arguments about, the age effect
on contraceptive use among research documents. saturday
(I984) indicated that age as a factor affecting
contraceptive use is not clear. since the result of
this study found that differences in age and parity
distributions at national level and among the subgroups
does not appear to affect the differentials in
contraceptive use observed among them. However.
Leoprapai and Thongthai (1989) perceived, that age
was curvilinear related to current contraceptive use.
Contraceptive use related to the age of women
is . also found China. One of the results of 1988
National Fertility Survey (zhoq FongXian I991) noted
that contraception was adopted mostly by women at age
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group 35-39, dropped followed by age increase. since
women at youngest age group are begging of birth. thus
prevalence rate was lowest. l{omen aged over 44,
except for a few still desire to have baby, mostly is
going to be Iow fertile, thus the prevalence rate for
r.romen at oldest age group also reduced.
2.2.2 Uoman'6 educatlon
contraceptive use is clearly associated l.,ith
educational attainment of r.roman, which were found in
some studies ( World Fertility Survey 1982, Leoprapai
and Thongthai 1989). Horrever, the former found, in
general, that higher education leads to higher use of
contracepticn, but there is no strong evidence to
conclude that the relative share of efficient methods
increases with education among the users. The latter
indicated that educational attainment of women which
showed a strong positive relationship betlireen the IeveI
of educational attainment and contraceptive use in the
past had become curvilinear. The only significant
difference in the level of contraceptive use was
between r.romen lrith no education and some education but
not between women with different l-evel of education
attainment. Besides the aforementioned, the study
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concerning determinants of contraceptive method choice
in an industrial city of fndia detected that wife's
education shows a strong positive relationship with the
overall use of contraception (Bhende et aI 199I)..
Effect of education on contraceptive use can be
observed in China also, FongXian (199I) announced that
the highest rate of contraception is among the women
with collage or university education, followed by
women with primary school and women with
secondary school.
2.2.3 Occupatlon of wonen
occupation, as an index of women's social
status, whether having influence cn contraceptive use
or not, is still debatable.
A result of a study on World Fertility Surveys
stressed that the work status of women as measured in
these surveys doesn't seem to show any pattern of
relationship with the use of contraception. Wives of
professional and clerical workers use contraception
more often than wives of those with no work as well as
those engaged in agriculture and farming (Sathar and
Chidambaram I9B4).
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The Study carried out among Thai Women in
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II1987 found that whether women are working or not
stiIl makes some difference in contraceptive use.
However, there was no difference in the percentage of
women practicing contraception among those working inthe farm and non-farm sectors ( Leoprapai and Thongthai
1989). Although the prevalence rate of eontraeeption isvery hlgh in China, the difference in the percentage of
user among the different occupation of women also
existed. One study used data from two per thousand
survey ( FongXian 199I) revealed that u/omen engaged inthird enterpnise and engaged in industrial work are
more likely to practice contraception than those Lromen
engaged in agricultural work.
2.2.4 Age difference between husband and wife
Although no documents on effect of age gap
between spouse on contraceptive use have been found,
the case of Thaichang is special one, because TFR inthis region is very low and age gap between husband and
wife is very short, it is strong suspected to be
associated with the use of contraceptive and
consequentially, lead to low fertility. So this study
attempt to test the relation between age gap between
spouse and contraceptive use.
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2.3 Conclusion
Most studies confirm younger cohorts got
married later than older cohorts, and some studies
indicated woman's education is strongly associated with
the age at which a woman married for the first time.
Some studies found that age at first marriage issubstantially delayed when premarital work pertains to
a modern occupation. Finally, one study reported _
thatfor countries with an early marriage patterns,particularly those where women marry before age 15, the
age differences between husband and wife were largest.Some studies documented that contraception sras
adopted initially by older women who wanted to cease
childbearing, ever though there are sonne argument about
the age effect on contraceptive use. Most of the
studies emphasize that contraceptive use is clearlyassociated with educational attainment and occupation
of women. Few study testified the relationship between
age gap between husband and wife and contraceptive
use.
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CHAPTER THREE
METHODOLOGY AND SOURCE OF DATA
3.1 Conceptual Franer.rork
fn this study, fertility behavior is defined by
two indicators: age at first marriage and contraceptivepractice. The determined variables set here are age
of woman, education of woman, occupation of woman, and
age gap between husband and wife. The independent
variables to be set to test the effect to age at firstmarriage should relate to the situation before
marriage. with exception of woman,s occupati.on,
education attainment and age gap between husband and
wife, can satisfy this condition. However, we could
assume that occupation of woman do not change before
and after marriage. In the case of wugang. there was
97 percent of women engaged in agricuftural work, so
it does not natter srhether occupation of women
changed. fn Thaichand although 80 percent of women
engaged in non agricultural work, 87 percent of uomen
got married within the township, thus it is lesspossible for Thaichang women to change occupation
because of marriage migration. Moreover, people's jobs
are quite stable in China, therefore it can be assumed
14
that current occupation is not much different from the
previous ones.
The age match for couple is divided into three
categories: husband younger than wife, husband same
as wife and husband older than wife. The $rhole
study was guided by this conceptual framework.
3.2 Hylrothesis
According to the research purpose and
conceptual frameeork, the hypotheses of this study
would be stated as f ollor.rs:
I Higher educated women would marry later than lor.rer
educated women.
2 Women engaged i:r non-agriculturaL work would mary
later than u/omen engaged in agricultural work.
3 Higher educated women are more likely to practice
contraception than lower educated women.
4 Women engaged in non agricultural work are more
IikeIy to adopt contraception than women who engaged
in agricultural work.
3.3 Sources of data
The fnstitute of Population Re6earch, Fudan
University, China, undertook the survey titted
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Population Control After the Economic Reform Has Been
Conducting in Chlna, supported by the foundation of He
Yin Dong in Hong Kong with the purpose of making a
study about the characteri sti.cs of the peoples,
reproductive behavior under the environment of economi.c
reform in three countLes qrithin three provinces, inthe summer of 1990. Each of them represents differentfertility levels or represents the different economics
and cultural types in China. Wugang county representsthe Kejla culture, the main characteristics of which
reflect natlves and Lmmigrants from the North of China
nixed together and middle level economic development.
Sheqi represents the central plains culture and also a
middle leveI economic area. Thaichang reprssentsculture in the east coa6t areas and more developed
economics types. To meet those purposes of smallsamples r.lith whole representation, the method chosen
is the improbability survey because it does not need
to infer generalities from the sample. The whole studyinterviewed people in five villages; each of them is inthe middle Level of economic qnd family planingprograms sithin the three counties, one is inThaichang, tlro in Shiqi and two in wugang. Withi,n
five villages. every ever married woman in
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reproductive age had been interviewed.
individual cases is 1,076,
Besides the individual interview,
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The tOtal
the study
group also made an anthropological Eurvey. They
investigated the data about the background of each
county and organized several focus group dj.scussions.
But qualitative data will not be used in this
study.
The survey called Population control contalns a
complete blrth history of ever-married woman in each
househofd, together uith the family planning attitude,
practice, as welI as intens j.ve information on proximate
socioeconomic and cultural situations in each
household.
The fertility levels of sheqi .and wugang are
very similar, and considering the purpose of this
research, the data used ror this study include only
two counties . which are Thaichang and wuganq. (see
map in appendix) The information concerni.ng the
fertility behavior determinants wou.Ld be selected
partly from data of those counties.
Thaichang is adjacent to Shanghai which belongs
to ilingShu province, an advanced area in the
popul-ation control and economic. The total fertility
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rate lras 1. 19 in 1990 and each of the economic index
either agricultural or industrial was higher than the
average. Total eases in Thaichang is 2OL. Wugang is
located in the south -west of Hunan province which isa typical pure agricultural area; economic and
population growth were at average level. Total
individual cases is 429.
3.4 Method of analysis
The statistical package for the soci.al science
(SPSS/PC) program is utilized for data analysis. To get
cumulative fertility and marriage age situations of
women, the mean tables were applied. To identify the
determinants of fertility behavior, the data were
analyzed using the bivarj-ate analysis techniques.
The Chi-square test and F test were used to
check the statistj-c association. The findings of thisstudy were summarized and classified by tables.
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CHAPTER FOUR
RESULT OF THE STUDY
4.1 Socio-demographic characteristlcs of the
respondents
The age structure of women in Thaichang is older
than women's in Wugang. The mean age of women in
Thaichang was 3.2 years older than the women in
Wugang. Evidently, in first 3 younger groups had more
higher percent people in Wugang than in Thaichang. In
contrast with last 3 older age groups, the percent of
women was lower in Wugang than in Thaichang (see Tabl6
4.r).Majority of women in both areas had less than
primary education, although Wugang's women tend to have
a little higher education than Thaichang's women (see
Table 4.I).
ft was observed that while most women in
Wugang were stiII engaged in agricultural work, nearly
B0 percent of r.romen in Thaichang. were working mostly
in factories of village or town (see Table 4.1).
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■9Table 4.1 Socio-demographic
married women incharacterlstics ofThalchang and Wugang.
Thaichang Wugang
Age Group
20-2425-2930-3435-3940-4445-49
TotalNulnbe rMean .Median
Education leve■
Less thanPr■ maryMore than
TotalNumberMeanMedian
Primary
primary
Occupation
AgricultureNon― agr■ culture
TotalNumber
Age gap between Spouse
Husband youngerthan wifeHusband as sameas wifeHusband olderthan w■ fe
TotalNumber
3。 018。 415.929。 922.910。 0
100。 020137。 238.0
15.424.516.l17。 717.09.3
100.042933.933。 5
36.■28。 435。 4
100。 0429
5.66.0
97.03.0
100.0429
5。 8
14.2
80。 0
100.0429
森 ,
47。 321。 930.8
■00。 020■
5.l5.0
19.480.6
100.0201
26.9
25。 4
47.3
100_0201
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According to the viewpoint of Chinese social
custom, if husband were 2 or 4 years older than the
wife, that would be happy family. The data displayed
that the people in Wugang was still keeping this
traditional custom, but not in Thaichang. Age gap
between husband and wife in Thaichang was diverse
situation from Wugang (see Table 4.I). on the who1e,
the women in Thaichang had weak traditional conception,
almost half of them had not chosen the husbands who
were older.
As regards to cumulative fertility, mean number
of children ever born in Thaichang tras I.5 and in
Wugang was 2.2. Women in every age group in Wugang
had more children than those Lromen in Thaichang;
however, the differ.'ence in fertility level between two
regions $ras getting lesser for younger age than older
age group (see Table 4.21
Women in Thaichang got married later than
those women in Wugang. The percent of women in Wugang
who got married before aged 20 was 2 times more than
those vromen in Thaichang. On the other hand, percent of
women in Thaichang who got married after aged 25 was 3
times more than those women in Wugang (see Table 4.3),
The mean age at marriage of women in Thaichang Lras,.A>
>
21
Table 4.2 : Mean number of children ever bornby woman's age
Age Chlldren ever born
Thaichang Wugang
20-2425-2930-3435-3940-4445-49
Total
0.81。 01。 1
1.62。 02。 3
■。5
1.01.52.02.63.24.0
2.2
らヽ
ィメヽさ
22
Table4.3 Percent of ever marrled women by ageat first marriage
Age at marrlage Thaichang t{ugang
Before21-2425 and
Tota■Number
or 20
after
19.462.217.9
100。 0201
44.149.96.1
100。 0429
ユ
ヾ
iL
23
22.5, and in Wugang was 20.4
The prevalence rate of contracepti-on was quite
high in both places (see Table 4.4). There was more
than 90 percent of ever mamied women practicing
contraception in both areas though the prevalence rate
of contraception in Wugang was lower than Thaichang.
In sum, the majority of women in both reglons
hrere around middle d9€, had at least 5 years of
schooling. Although women in Thaichang were a bit
older, and slightly less education, but a higher
percentage of them were engaged in non-agrricultural
work, in comparison with women in Wugang.
As regards to age gap between husband and wife,
there were more percentage of women whose husbands
were younger than wives in Thaichang than in l.Iugang.
fn addition, women in Thaichang got married
later than those women in Wugang. Finalllt, in terms
of practicing contraception. the women in both places
reached quite hiqh levels, though the prevalence rate
in Thaichang was slightly higher than Wugang.
-^)"
24
^ Table 4.4. Percent of ever married women bycontraception use
Contraceptive usesituation Thaichang Wugang
Current using 94.0 90.2Not using 6.0 9.8
Total 100.0 100.0Number 2OL 429
み
ハ
4.2 Effects of socio-denographlcal variable on
age at first marrlage
25
the
4.2.L Ef fect of age
Woman 's age affected age at first marri-age
in both Thaichang and Wugang (see Tab1e 4.5). The
age at first, marriage varied with the woman's age. Itis i.mportant to point out that getting married earlier
was a tendency for both regions. Although age at firstmarriage was raised, between the oldest age group
(45-49) and the middle age group (30-34), it was lower
again for the younger age group QO-24) (see Table
4.s).
4.2.2 Education attalnment
A significant influence of education on age at
first marriage was found only in Thaichang (see Table
4.6 ). It showed that woman who had more than primary
education got married latest among all groups; however.
woman who got married at the youngest age were not
those having less than primary education but was a
group who had primary education.
'^-
26
ハ. Table 4。 5 Mean
andage at marriage by current age of womanregLon
Current age Thaichang tlugang
20-2425-2930-3435-3940-4445-49
Total
20.522.923.323。 021。 721.1
22.5
19.820.621.520.919.519。 4
20。 4
F.Sige
6。 74360。 0000
2.79800。 0258
ヽ
=
27
Table 4。 6 MeanOf
age at flrst marriage bY educationuronan and region
Education level Thaichang Uugang
Less thanPr■ maryMore than
Total
Primary
Primary
22。 421。 923.1
22.5
19.820。 720.8
20。 4
ヽ
ヽ
F.Sig.
3.99520。 0199
l.98870.1381
声
n〉
e
2
g
タ
In Wuqrang, there was no difference between a
at first marriage and education attainment of woman.
4.2.3 Occupation of woman
Woman's occupation affected age at first
marriage significantly in both areas (see Table 4.71.
In Thaichang women who were engaged in non-agricultural
work were married later than those women who were
engaged in agricultural work; however, the relationship
between occupation and age at first marriage was
reverse in Wugang, as women in non agricultural work
got marriage earlj-er than those in farm work.
The main reason to explain this that phenomena
is marital behavior is affected by many factors. The
specific functions of marrj-age are economic, social
and personal, but they vary with respect to the place
of resj.dence, educational level, religious affiliation,
as weIl as regional, and socio-economic and cultural
differentials, which all affect the age at marri-age
(Kadi 1987). So even women were engaged in
non-agricultural occupation, it does not mean marital
behavior would change too, that is why the result of
this study didn't lead to same conclusion as hypothesis
stated.
{-
29
お
Table 4.7 MeanOf
age at first marriage by occupationuroman and reglon
Occupation Thaichang Wugang
AgricultureNon― agr■culture
Total
21。 122。 8
22.5
20.516.3
20.4
FSig.
19.19650。 0000
10.23760。 0015
ヽ
~
お
ヽ
ト
30
4.2.4 Age gap betueen husband and ulfe
There was significant difference between age
at first marriage and the age gap between husband and
wife ln both regions (see Table 4.8).
The highest mean age at marriage was observed
among women whose husbands are younger than them, on
the other hand, the louest mean age at marriage $ras
among women whose husband are older than then. Age
match of couple has effect age at first marriage.
In sum, age at first narriage r.rere influenced by
women's age, occupation of women and age gap between
husband and wife in both regions. The effect of
r.roman's educatj.on on age at first marriage is found
only in Thaichang.
4.3 Factors affectlng contraceptlve uae
4.3.I Age of sonan
Age had a great infLuence on contraceptive use
in two regions. The extent of practicing contraception
varied with age. Preval-ence rate of contraception
increased folLowed by age increase from, age gtoup 20-24
to age group 35-39 or 4O-44, however, the peak of
prevalence rates were different (see Table 4.9).
31
Table 4.8: Mean age at marriage by age gap betweenhusband and wlfe
Age gap between spouse Thaichang Wugang
ミ
Husband youngerthan wifeHusband as sameas w■ feHusband oldthan wife
Total
24。 0
22.9
21。 4
22.5
24.3
22.0
19.8
20.4
F.Sig.
29.61940。 0000
15。 84280。 0000
ヨ bl´
32
^
Table 4.9 Percentage distrlbution of uomen bycontraceptive use and age in Thaichang and l{ugang
Age Group Currently use Not use Total Number
‐Ц、
Tha■chang
20-2425-2930-3435-3940-4445-49
Total
Wugang
20-2425-2930-3435-3940-4445-49
Total
66.794.696.996.7
100。 075。 0
94。 0
75.886。 791。 3
100。 097.390。 0
90.2
33.35.43。 ■
3.30.0
25.0
6.0
24。 2■3.3
8。 70.02.7
10。 0
9.8
100.0 6100。 0 37100.0 32100。 0 60100.0 46100。 0 20
100。 0 201
100.0 66100.0 105100。 0 69100.0 76100。 0 73100.0 40
100。 0 429
Chi― Square= 25◆ 05064P=0。 000■ 4
碑ヽ
Chi― Square=29.55367P=0.00002
彿繹 33
4.3.2 l{onan's education
The effects of woman's education on
contraceptive use is 6tatistical significant only inWugang (see Table 4.10). Ho$rever, the highest
prevalence rate wa6 among women who have lower than
prinary education, moderate among those who completed
primary education and lowest among women who compl,eted
higher than primary education. This result is opposite
to the hypothesis.
This may be due to early marriage. As women inlJugang stitrI kept early marriage cuEtom in which
lower educated eomen tend to marry earlier t.han higher
educated women. According to Chinese government familyplanning policy, women after having first baby are
advised to practice contraception, thus the higher
contraceptive use among less educated women was a
result of this policy.
4.3.3 Occupation of Lrouan
Woman's occupation affected contraceptive use
only in Thaichang ( see Table 4.1I). A higher
percentage of current married women practicingcontraception was among women in non -agricu ltura Isector. Therefore, the hypothesis is accepted.
ヽ
ヽlo l23300
レQう′」
34ニ
Table 4.10 Percentage dlstrLbution of woman bycontraceptive use and education
Educational level Currently use Not use Total Number
Tha■chang
Less than Pr■ maryPr■mary ,More than pr■ mary
Total,60897Chi― Square=31,16456P=01
Wugang
Less than Pr■ maryprュ maryMore than pr■ mary
TotalChi― square=9。 78405
P=0。 00751
92。 6100。 091.9
94。 0
94.292。 684。 2
90.2
7。 40。 08.■
6。 0
5.87.4
15.8
9.8
100.0 95100.0 44100。 0 62
100.0 201
100.0 155100。 0 122100.0 ■52
100。 0 429
“
ヽ
35
▲
Table 4.11 Percentage distribution of woman byfanlly planning status and occupation
Occupation Currently use Not use TotaI Number
Tha■chang
Agr■cultureNon― agr■ culture
Tota■Chi… Square=4。 04503
P=0.04430
Wugang
Agr■cultureNon― agr■ culture
TotalChi― Square=04639
P=0.8295
87.295.7
94。 0
90。 484.6。
90。 2
12.84。 3
6。 0
9。 615.4
9.8
100。 0 39100。 0 162
100.0 201
100.0 416100。 0 13
100.0 429
ヽ
ヽ
ヽ
36
4.3.4 Age gap between husband and wlfe
The effect of age gap between husband and wife
on the contraceptive practicing was perceived only
in Wugang (see Table 4.L21. A1l couples whose husband
Lras younger than his wife $Jere using contraception,
while only 75 percent of couples with the same age
were using.
The reason may be due to the fact that the
couples are more liberal and do not strictly follow the
norm of the society that prescribe husband to be older
than wife. In this kind of reverse si-tuation, where
wife is older than husband, there is the tendency thatwife will be more independent to make her decisj-on on
accepted contraception.
fn sum, effect of woman's age on contraceptive
use was found in both regions. Edueation affectingcontraceptive use was found only in Wugang, but
significant effect of woman's occupation on
contraception practicing was only prevailed inThaichang. Finally, effects of age gap between
husband and wife on contraceptive use occurred only
in Wugang.
ヽ
37
Tab1e 4.L2 Percentage distributlon of woman byfamily planning status and age gapbetween husband and wife
ヘ
Age gap Currently use Not use Total Number
Thaichang
Husband youngerthan wife 96.3 3.? 100.0 54
Husband as sameas wife 94.I 5.9 IOO.O 51
Husband olderthan wife 92.6 7.4 IOO.0 95
Total 94.0 6.0 I00. o 200Chi-Square=O . 82153
P=0.66314
Wugang
Husband youngerthan wife 100-0 0.0 I0O.O 25
Husband as sameas wif e 75.4 24.6 IOO. O 6I
Husband olderthan wife 92.L 7.9 I0O.O 343
Total 90 .2 9. B 100.0 429Chi-Square=19 .27L44
P=0.00007
ヽ
38
4.4 Concluslon
Women in Thaichang were a little older, and
slightly less educatlon than women in Wugang, however,
higher percentage of them $rere engaged innon-agricultural r.rork, in comparison with r.romen inl,Iugang.
Regards to the age gap between husband and wife.Thaichang had more proportion of couples uhiih husband
is younger than wife than wugang.
Women in Thaichang had less children than $/omen
in l{ugang
In terns of practicing contraception. the $romen
in both places reached quite high levels. though theprevalence rate of contraception in Thaichang was
6lightly higher than l{ugang. Finally, women inThaichang got married Iater than those wonen inWugang.
Age at first marriage lras influenced by r.roman,s
age. The effects of woman's occupation and age gap
bet$reen husband and wife on age at first marriage were
found in both regions. A hypothesis which statedwoman's education have influence on age at firstmarriage is accepted only in Thaichang. The hypothesis.
which assumed $romen engaged in non-agriculturaL uork
ヽ
‐
39.
were more rikely to apply contraceptl0n than hromen
engagi-ng agricultural work is accepted in bothregions.
Contraceptive use L,as affected by age of uroman
in both regions. Education had effect on contraceptiveuse only in Wugang, but the result is opposite to thehypothesis. The hlpothesis which presumed woman' s
occupation made some difference in contraceptionpracticing onry accepted in Thaichang. Finarry theeffect of age gap between husband and wife on
contraceptive use was only found in Wugang.
さ
ヽ
CHAPTER FIVE
SUMMARY AND RECOMMENDATIONS
5.I : Summary
The purpose of this study is to studydeterminants of fertirity behaviors, that are age atfirst marriage and contraceptive use, in two regionsof china. The data r.ras f rom the survey conducted by
the rnstitute of popuration Research at Fudan
University in 1990, alming to study population controlin china after economic reform. Totalry' ?30 cases
was selected from two regions, Thaichang and Wugang.
They are distinguished in terms of eeonomic conditionsand fertility situaticns. Thaichang is adjacent toshanghai which belongs to ilingshu province, dn
advanced area in the popuration contror and economic
in china. The total fertirity rate was 1.19 in 1990 and
each of the economic index either agriculturaL orindustrial was higher than the average. trlugang isrocated in the south -west of Hunan province which isa typicar agricurtural area; economie and populationgrowth were at average level.
The ma jority of r.romen in both regions was
middle d9€, had at least 5 years of schooling. Although
ミ
゛
As regards to the age gap between husband and
wife, Thaichang had more proportion of couples urhich
husband is younger than uife than Wugang.
Cumulative fertility levels in both regions lras
evidently different, the nean nuDber of children everborn for wonen in l{ugang vas 2.2 and for $romen inThaichang was 1.5.
Women in Thaichang got married later thanwomen in wugang. Finally, nearly all women in bothregions were us j.ng contraception. Though the provalence
rate in Thaichang was glightly higher than that inhlugang .
r.romen in Thaichang were
less educated, a higher
in non-agricultura I work,
Wugang.
41
a littIe older.and s Iightlypercent of them was engaged
as compared to women in
age at firstthe dependent
denograph icalis significantfirst marriage
全 The bivariabl"es analyses, using
marriage and contraceptive use as
variables, have shown that thecharacter ist ics , such as age of woman,
in explaining the variation of age atand contraceptive use in both regions.
The effect of education on age at firstmarriage only prevailed in Thaichang, and its effecta
42
on contraceptive use was found only in Wugang.
The occupation of woman was a factor r,lhich
signiflcantly affected age at first marriage in bothregions, but in Wugang, the result is opposite tothe hypothesis. Occupation had a significant relationr.rith contraceptive use only in Thaichang.
The effects of age difference between
husband and wife on age at first narriage are
particularly strong in both Thaichang and Wugang.
However, age gap between spouses affecting practicingcontraception was only showed in Wugang.
5.2 : Reconnendations
I The effect of education on age at firstmarriage was found in Thaichang, which means promoting
education is useful to influence later mamiage and
to go further consolidate the result of popul,ation
control in more developed regions in China.
2 The study implicated that in moderate
developed regions like Wugang, the prevaLence rate ofcontraceptive use was already high, but the cumulative
fertility was still high. Thus, besides of familyplanning program should not slacken, multiple champion
like later marriage, earty use contraception, should
゛
ヽ
43conduct, if the government wants to reach the populationaim by the end of the century.
3 The study proved that the woman.s occupationplays an important role in contraceptj.ve use and age atfirst marrj,age in Thaichang, ff r.re r.roulal adhere todevelop township enterprise 1ike 1n Thaichang, thatshould bring about great benefit to rural developmentas r.rell as to population control in rural China forthe future.
4 The result sho$n that age gap betr.reen husbandand r.rife has a influence on age at first marriage.If we could guide people to break down the Chinesecustom in most areas r.rhere the husband must be olderthan r.rif e, that would delay the age of rnarr j.age andqo further more to reduce the Level of fertility inChina.
ヾ
ヽ
q..
44REFERENCES
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F[::1 8113:111:y'eξ:II:h:1:kP'H::lil:: by
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