desert bighorn council transactions...las vegas, nevada santa fe, new mexico plateros sur 1999...

DESERT BIGHORN COUNCIL TRANSACTIONS

VOLUME 7 1963

Desert Bighorn Council i

A COMPILATION OF FORMAL PAPERS PRESENTED AND DISCUSSIONS HELD AT THE SEVENTH ANNUAL MEETING APRIL 2, 3, AND 4, 1963 IN THE SCIENCE BUILDING O F THE UNIVERSITY OF NEVADA A T

LAS VEGAS, NEVADA

Compilod by CHARLES G . HANSEN

AND

EDMUNO L. F O U N T A I N

T H E DESERT BIGHORN COUNCIL TRANSACTIONS ARE PUBLISHED ANNUALLY

AND ARE AVAILABLE BY WRITING T H E

" D E S E R T BIGHORN C O U N C i L e '

P. 0. BOX 440, LAS VEGAS. NEVADA.

COVER DRAWING, BY P A T HANSEN.

P U B L I S H E D B Y :

REYNOLDS EL E CT RI C AL h ENGINEERING CO.. INC.

U. S. A T O M I C E N E R G Y COMMISSION C O N T R A C T AT(29-21-162

O C T O B E R - 1983

SEVENTH ANNUAL MEETING

D E S E R T B I G H O R N C O U N C I L

A p r i l 2, 3, and 4, 1963

L a s Vegas, Nevada

T A B L E OF C O N T E N T S

P a g e P r o g r a m - 1963 D e s e r t B i g h o r n C o u n c i l ........................... fV

.................................................. G r o u p P h o t o g r a ' p h V I I

R o s t e r .......................................................... VIII

.................................... D e s e r t B i g h o r n C o u n c i l A w a r d .xIV

FORMAL PAPERS AM) DISCUSS IONS

A HISTORY OF BIGHORN SHEEP I N CENTRAL NEVADA' -

Mr. M e r l i n A. McColm ....................................... 3.

PROGRESS AND HUNT RlEPORT W r . Ray B r e c h b f l l ........................................... J.2

WATER RELATIONSHIPS OF DESERT MAMMALS WITH SPECIAL RBFERENCE TO BIGHORN SHEEP .

M r . W i l l i a m G. B r a d l e y .............O....................... 26

EXOTICS AND THEIR IMPLICATIONS ........................................... D r . W i l l i a m G r a f 42

BIOUGICAL ASSAYS D r . Edmund L. Fountain ..................................... 53

THE BXGXORN SHEEP OF LAKE MEAD NATIONAL RECREATION AREA Mr. James Sleznick, Jr. . . . . . . . . . . . e . . . . . . . . e ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ e m ~ . o ~ 58

SOME DESERT BIGHORN REFLECTIONS Mr . G a l e M o a s o n ............................................ 61

THE WYNNE-EDWARDS THEORY APPLIED TO DESERT BIGHORN SHEEP M r . Winston E. B a n k o ....................................... 64

A DESERT BIGHORN STUDY: PART ONE Mr. Norman M. S i m m o n s ...................................... 72

A NATIONAL WILDLIFE SERVICE FOR MEXICO D r . R o d o l f o H e r n a n d e z C o r z o . . . . . . . . . . . . . .e. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 87

BIGHORN BREEDING Mr. Oscar V. Deming ........................................

BIGWRNS AND PAPAGOS Mr. Seymour H. Levy ........................................

SIGNIFICANT BIGJ3OR.N SLIDES ..................................... M r . Florence B . Welles

RE-ESTABLISHING NATIVE BIGHORN RANGES ............................................. Mr. Jim Yoakurn

BIGHORN SHEEP OF TXE ANGELES NATIONAL FOREST M r . C h a r l e s E. Kennedy .....................................

A REPORT ON THE FIRST MID-WINTER AND SPRING BLGHDRN SHEEP CENSUS IN THE SANTA ROSA MOUNTAINS - 1962-1963

Dr. John D. Goodman ........................................ STUDIES ON THE EFFECTS OF THE DRUG SUCCINYLCHOLINE CHURIDE ON DOMESTIC SHEEP, RELATED Kl I T S USE AS AN AID I N THE CAPTURE OF DESERT BIGHORN SHEEP

Mr. D e n n i s W. Chew and D r . John D. Goodman ................. BIGrnRN SKULL STUDY

Mr. John H. Kiger ..........................................

Page

92

RE30RT FROPl THE KDFA GAME RANGE Mr. Gerald E. Duncan ....................................... 151

SOME WATERING CHARACTERISTICS OF TWD PENNED BIGHORN SHEEP ON THE DESERT GAME RANGE, NEVADA

M r . W i l l i a m C. R e f f a l t ..................................... BIGHORN SHEEP I N ANZA BORREGO DESERT STATE PARK

Mr. Dalton E. M e r k e l ....................................... ARIZONA PROGRESS REPORT

Mr. Robert A. Jantzen ...................................... NEW MEXZOO PROGRESS REPORT

Mr. Phil E. Freeman ........................................

BUSINESS SESSION

Cornittees ................................................. Minutes ....................................................

OONTRIBUTED PAPERS Page

A SIMMER WATERHDLE STUDY AT CARRIZOSPRING, SANTA ROSA MOUNTAIMS OF SOUTHERN CALIFORNIA

Mr. Mark F. Knudsen ........................................ l s 5

SOME COMMENTS ON THE DISTRIBUTION OF DESERT BIGWRN SHEEP OF THE S- ROSA mmINS OF SOUTHERN CALIFORNIA ................. Dr. John D. Goodman and Mr. Mark F. Knudsen 193

A DYE SPRAYING DEVICE FOR MARKING DESERT BIGHORN SHEEP ...................................... Dr. Charles G. -*sen 199

P R O G R A M

D E S E R T B I G H O R N C O U N C I L

M r . A1 Ray Jonez, Chairman Nevada Fish and Game Department

Las Vegas, Nevada

D r . Charles G. Hansen, Secretary-Treasurer Desert Game Range Las Vegas, Nevada

S E V E N T H A N N U A L M E E T I N G

Apri l 2 - 4, 1963

University of Nevada, Southern Regional Division Las Vegas, Nevada

Program Committee: Arrangements Cormittee :

Newell B. Morgan, Chairman Richard. Weaver Edmund L. Fountain

A1 R a y Jonez, Chairman Theodore F. Whitmoyer

Meeting opened a t 8:45 a.m.

Welcome : Dean W i l l im D. Carlson, Universi ty of Nevada, Southern ~ e g i o n a l

Division, Las Vegas, Nevada

M r . Frank W. Grwes, Director, Nevada F i sh and Game Department Reno, Nevada

Introduction of Members

Section Chairman M r . Frank W. Grwes, Nevada Fish and Game Department

A HISTDRY OF BIGHORN SHEEP IN CENTNIL NEVADA M r . Merlin A. McColm, Nevada Fish and Game Department, Austin, Nevada

PROGRESS AND HUNT REPORT Mr. Ray Brechbil l , Nevada Fish and Game Department, Hiko, Nevada

U)OSE END THINKING M r . Ralph E. Welles, Beatty, Nevada

WATER RELATIONSHIPS OF DESERT MAMMALS WITH SPECIAL REFERENCE TO BIGHORN SHEEP

M r . William G. Bradley, Univers i ty of Nevada, Las Vegas, Nevada

EXOTICS AND THEIR IMPLICATION D r . W i l l i a m Graf, San Jose S t a t e College, San Jose, Ca l i fo rn ia

BIOLOGICAL ASSAYS D r . Ebund L.Fountain, Veter inary Corps, US. Army, Las Vegas, Nevada

THE BIGHORN SHEEP OF LAKE MEAD NATIONAL RECREATION AREA M r . James Sleznick, Jr., Lake Mead National Recreation Area,

Boulder City, Nevada

SOME DESERT BIGHORN REFLECTIONS M r . Gale Monson, F i s h and Wi ld l i f e Service, Washington, D. C. Read by: M r . Wins ton E. Banko

TKE WYNNE-EDWARDS THEORY APPLIED XI DESERT B1GHIR.N SHEEP M r . Winston E. Banko. Fish and Wi ld l i f e Service, Washington, D.C.

April 3 , 1963

Meeting opened a t 8:30 a.m.

Sect ion Chairman Pir. George E. Barclay, Fish and Wild l i fe Service

A NATIONAL WILDLIFE SERVICE FOR MEXICO- and MOVIES - A reconnaissance f o r Bighorn i n Baja Ca l i fo rn ia Dr. Rodolfo Hernandez Corzo, Director General of Hunting, Mexfco, D.F.

BIGIIDRN BREEDING -

M r . Oscar V. Deming, F i s h and Wi ld l i f e Service, Lakeview, Oregon

BIORNS AND PAPAGOS M r . Seymour H. Levy, Tucson Wi ld l i f e Unlimited, Tucson, Arizona Read by: M r . Norman M. Sinnnons

SIGNIFICANT BIGH3RN SLIDES Mrs. Florence B. Welles, Beatty, Nevada

RE-ESTABLISHING NATIVE BIGKRNS M r , Jim Yoakum, Bureau of Land Managanent, Reno, Nevada

BIGHORN SHEEP OF THE ANGELES NATIONAL FOREST M r . Charles E. Kennedy, Angeles National Forest, Newhall, Ca l i fo rn ia

A REPORT ON THE FIRST M I D - W I N T W SPRING BIGmRN SHEEP CENSUS IN THE sANI!A ROSA MOUNTAINS, 1962- 1963

D r . John D. Goodman, Universi ty of Redlands, Redlands, Cal i fornia

STUDIES ON THE EFFECTS OF DRUG SUCCINPLCXDLINE CHLORIDE ON DOMESTIC SHEEP, r e l a t ed t o . i t s use as an a i d . in the capture of deser t bighorn .

sheep. Mr, Dennis W. Chew, University of Redlands, Redlands, Cal i fornia

BUSINESS MEETING opened a t 2:00 p . ~ . Chairman, M r . A1 Ray Jone?

Presentation of Award t o M r . Oscar V. Deming Commendation of M r . George E. Barclay Technical S taf f Report Election and In s t a l l a t i on of Off icers Current Business

A p r i l 4, 1963 '

Section Chainnan M r . Richaed E. Grfffdth, Fish and WildlSfe Service

BPGEOIW9 SKULL STUDY . .

M r . John 8. Kiger, F i sh and Wildl i fe .Service, Las ~ e g a s , Nevada

STATUS OF TRANSPLANTED BIGHORNS I N TEXAS M r . Tom L. Hailey, Texas Game and Fish Conmission, Marfa, Texas

SOME WATERING CHARPlCTERISTICS OF TGlO PENNED BIGHORN SHEEP ON THE DESERT GAME RANGE, NEVADA

M r . William C. Ref fa l t , Colorado S t a t e University, For t Collins, Colorado

B1GHI)RN SHEEP IN ANZA BORREGO DESERT STATE PARK M r . Dalton E. Merkel, Department of Parks and Recreation,

Borrego Springs, Cal i fornia

ARIZONA PROGRESS REPORT M r . Robert A. Jantzen, Arizona Game and F ish Department,

Phoenix, Arizona

NEW .MEXICO PROGRESS REPORT M r . Ph i l E. Freeman, Department of F i sh and Game,

Santa Fe, New Mexico

ATTENDEES AT THE 7963 DESERT BIGHORN COUNCIL

F R O N T R O W F R O M L E F T

MR. N O R M A N M. S IMMONS DR. JOSE A N G EL D A V I L A - MR. P A R R Y A. L A R S E N MR. O S C A R V. D E M I N G MR. J O H N D. H l L L

STANDING " T A G- A- L O N G * * D E B B I E K A N S E N

SECOND ROW FROM L E F T

DR. J O H N W. WOOD MR. R A O D S. G O R D O N ING. R A M A R ! O G A R C I A P E R E Z MR. N O R M A N A. B I S H O P MR. W I L L I A M C. R A F F A L T MR. H O H N P. RUSSO MR. N E W E L L 8 . M O R G A N MR. P H I L E. F R E E M A N MR. H U G H H. B O Z A R T H MR. C H A R L E S E L . K E N N E D Y

THIRD ROW FROM LEFT MR. T O M MC K N l G H T MR. J A M E S A. B L A I S D E L L MR. R i C H A R D A. W E A V E R D R . C H A R L E S G. H A N S E N DR. R O D O L F O H E R N A N D E Z C O R Z O MR. A L R. J O N E S D R . E D M U N D L. F O U N T A I N MR. FL O RE N CE a. WELLES M R a R A L P H E. W E L L E S

BACK ROW FROM L E F T MR, M A R S H A L L H U M P H R I E S ING. M A N U E L F O G L I O C. MR. D E N N I S W. C H E W MR. E L W O O D F. H l L L MR. S T A N L E Y E. B R O M A N MS. C E C I L A. K E N N E D Y MR. F L O Y D C. N O E L MR. J A M E S S L E Z N I C K JR. MR. WINSTON E. B A N K 0 MR. T O B I A S C O N T R E R A S B. MR. J A C K R. C O O P E R MR. G E R A L D E. D U N C A N MR. F R A N C I S C. G I L L E T T DR W I L L I A M G R A F MR. T O M L. H A I L E Y MR. D O N A L D C. D O B E L MR. M E R L I N A. M C C O L M MR. R A Y B R E C H a l L L MR. P A U L M. W E B B MR. SAM M A L I Z Z O MR. G E O R G E A. R O G E R S MR. B O M A R BLONG (IN FRONT) MR. G E O R G E W. W E L C H MR. T. J. M C M I C H A E L MR. A L S E R T K. L E O N A R D DR. J O H N D. G O O D M A N ( I N F R O N T ) MR. W A R R E N E. K E L L Y MR. R A Y P A R E N T MR. J O H N H. K I G E R .MR. R O B E R T L. D A R N E L L MR. G E O R G E E . B A R C L A Y MR. C L A U D E F. L A R D MRS. P A T R I C I A A. H A N S E N

R O S T E R

DESERT BIGHORN COUNCIL

April 3 , 1963

Name Agency Hailing Address

u-8, Willard N. Training Officer Public Helth Service

Las Vegas, Nevada

~ l i s o n , l&lcolm N. Bureau Sport Fisheries & 650 Capitol Ave. Rm. 4100 Wildlife Sacramento 14, California

lustin, George

bnko, Wins ton E.

brclay, George E.

Student 5077 Eugene Avenue University of Nevada a t Las Yegas, Nevada Las Vegas

Bureau of Sport Fisheries & 7612 Highland Avenue Wildlife Springfield, Virginia

Bureau of Sport Fisheries & Box 1306 WLldlif e Albequerque , New k x k o

Bishop, Norman A. Park Naturalist Box 193 National Park Service Death Valley, California

Blaisdell, Jarnes A.

Blong, Bomar

Bozarth, Hugh B.

Bradley, W i l l i a m G.

Brechbill, Ray and Maureen

Broman, Stanley E.

National Park Service Box 336 Grand Canyon, Arizona

Cal i fornia Dept. of Fish & Box 161 Game IdyJlwild, California

Death Valley National ~ n u m e n t National Park Service Death Valley, California

Biology Professor U of N a t Las Vegas Las Vegas, Nevada

Key-Pittman Wildlife Hanagement Area

Nevada Fish & Game Commission-Hiko, Nevada

National Park Service Box 1728 Santa Fe, New Mexico

vi i i

Name - Chew, W.

Contreras, Tobias

Cooper, Jack R.

Agency Mailing Address

Student Cor tner Hall University of Redlands Redlands, California

Agancia Gral. Av. Plateros Nte. 1952 Hexicali, B. C., Mexico

Nevada Fish br Game Conan. Box 788 Ely, Nevada

Corzo, D r . Rodolfo H. Director General de Caza Subsecretaria de Recs. Fors. Caza

Aquiles Serdan No. 28 -3rd Pi Mexico 1, D. F. , Mexico

Dale, Dr. red 8.

Darnell, Robert L.

Bureau sport Fisheries & Wildlf f e Washington, D. C.

Manager, Havasu Lake Refuge Box 1717 Bureau Sport Fisheries & WmL? Parker, Arizona

l i f e

Deacon, James E m

Dobel, Donald C,

Duncan, Gerald KO

Eustis, George P.

Foglio, Hanuel

Professor U of N at U s 'Vegas Us Vegas, Nevada

Sheldon-Hart Mtn. Refuge Refuge Biologist Lakeview, Oregon

Nevada Fish & Game Comm. Box 294 Eureka, Nevada

A s s ' t Mgr., Hofa & Cabeza Box 1032 Private Game Range Yma, Arizona

Bureau Sport Fisheries & Wildlife

A s s ' t . Mgr., Monte Vista NWR Box 147 Bureau Sport Fisheries .& Monte Vista, Colorado Wildlife

Agencia Gral. de Agric. Jacarandas 1126 Mexicali E. C. , Mexico

Name - pountain, Edmund I,.

Freeman, Phil E.

~ a r c i a, Ramiro

C i l l e t , Francis C,

Goodman, John D.

Gordon, Radd S,

Graf, William

Agency

New Mexico Game & Fish Department

Agencia Gral. de. Agric.

Bureau Sport Fisher ies & Wildlife

Biology Ilep&tment University of Redlands

New Mexico Game & Fish Department

Biology Department San Jose State College

Graf, Mrs. W i l l i a m (Same as above)

Grwes, Frank W. Director, Nevada Fish & Game

Hailey, T m Lo Texas Game & Fish Dep t .

Bmbly, Derek 0 . Lake Pleqd at' 1 Recreation Area

National Park Service

Hansen, Charles G.

Ransen, Mrs, Pat

H i l l , E f w ~ o d F,

Bureau Sport Fisheries & Wildlife

Nevada Fish & Game Connn.

Mailing Address

Box 1676 Las Vegas, Nevada

Santa Fe, New Mexico

Plateros Sur 1999 Memcicali B. C., Heldco

Washington 25, D. C.

Redlands, Cal i fornia

S.anta Fe, New Mexico

San Jdse, Calif ornka

Po 0, BQX 678 Reno, Nevada

Bsx 1228 Marfa, Texas

1212 Avenue I Boulder City, Nevada

Desert Game Range Las Vegas, Nevada

Desert GameJange Las Vegas, Nevada

Pioche, Nevada

Name - Aaency Mailing Address

Hill, John Dm

Hill, Mrs. Jane D.

Boll, Royal

Hqhreys, Marshall

Jantzen, 8. 8.

Jonez, Al

Jonez, Hrs. Dorothy

Kelly, warren%.

Ass' t Refuge Manager Bureau Sport Fisheries & Wildlife

Hart Mtn. Refuge Plush, Oregon

Hart Mtn, Refuge Plush, Oregon

Range Conservationist Bureau of Land Management

Wildlife Special is t Nevada Fish & Game Comn.

Arizona Game & Fish Dept.

Las Vegas, Nevada

Box 678 Reno, Nevada

Room 111 - Capitol Annex Phoenix, Arizona

District Supervisor Nevada Fish & .Game C a m .

5325 Evergreen Las Vegas, Nevada -

5325 Evergreen Las Vegas, Nevada

Southern Reg, Div. Arizona Game 6; Fish Dept.

Box 1232 Wickenburg, Arizona

Kendschy, Bob Range Conservationist Bureau of Land Management

Box 5 Vale, Oregon

Refuge Manager Bureau Sport Fisheries &

Wildlife

Box 756 Las Cruces, New Mexico

Kennedy, Charles E, Angeles ~ational Forest U. S. Forest Service

23610 San Femando Road Newhall, California

Star Route.L, Box 14 Las Vegas, Nevada

Kiger, John He Desert Game Range Ass' t. Refuge Manager

Lard, Claude F. Mgr., Kofa & Cabeza Prieta Game Range

Box 1032 Yuma., Arizona

Bureau of sport Fisheries & Wildlife

1914 - Box University Park, New Mexic,

Larson, Parry A.

Lee, Jim

New Mexico Game & Fish Dep t,

Ass' t. Information Officer Bureau of Land Management

Dept. of the Interior Washington 25, D. C.

Agency Mailing Address gg!2

sonard, Albert Bureau of Land Management

epak, Joseph W* U. S. Public Health Service

c~olm, Merlin A* Nevada Fish and Game Comm.

cColm, Mrs. Merlin A.

kKnight, Tom

U c h a e l , T. J.

Yllezzo, Sam

Dept. of Geography University of Cal i fornia

at Los Angeles

Student University of Arizona

Nevada Fish & Game C m .

Dept. of the In te r io r Washington 25, D. C.

Las Vegas, Nevada

Box 73 Aus t i n , Nevada

Box 73 Austin, Nevada

Los Angeles, California

924 N. orris-Avenue Tucson, Arizona

Box N N Yerington, Nevda

brgan, Hrs. Elizabeth 712 Vegas Drive - Las Vegas, Nevada

loel, Floyd C.

Cckard, James We

U. S. Fores t Service Fores t Service Building Ogden, Utah

Chief, Ranger - Lake Mead 1204 Avenue I National Recreation Area Boulder City, Nevada

N a t ional Park Service latent. Rav Arizona Game & Fish Dept. Box 61

Seligman, Arizona

?owell, Lawrence E. Arizona Game & Fish Dept. Room 111 - Capitol Annex Phoenix, Arizona

h f f a l t , William C. Student 902 E. Elizabeth Colorado S ta te University Ft. Coll ins, Colorado

~ ~ S S O , John P.

Bureau Sport Fisher ies & Building 45, Federal Center Wildlife Denver, Colorado

Supervisor, Arizona River Basin Project 1608 N. Old Colony Arizona Game & Fish Department Drive

Mesa, Arizona

xi i

Simmons, Norman M.

Sleznick, James Jr.

Smith, Roger A.

Weaver, Richard A.

Webb, Paul M.

Wel.les, Mrs. Florence B.

Welles, Ralph E.

Welsh, George W.

Williams, Nelson R.

Refuge Mgr., Cabeza P r i e t a Game Range Bureau Sport F i sher ies & Wildlife

Lake Mead National Recreation Area National Park Service

Ass' t Mgr., Kofa Game Range Bureau Sport F i sher ies & Wildlife

Ca l i fo rn ia Department of Fish & Game

Arizona Game & F i s h Deparment


Arizona Game & Fi sh Department

U of N a t Las Vegas, Nevada

- Box 415 Ajo, Arizona

Box 656 Boulder City, Nev

Box 1032 Yuma, Arizana

Box 638 Niland, Cal i f .

5602 W. "Plariposa Phoenix 31, Arizon,

Box 283 Beatty, Nevada

Box 283 Beat t y , Nevada

801 Metcalf Rd. Kingman, Arizona

Las Vegas, Nevada

Wilson, Gene H.

Wood, John E. --

Yoakum, Jim

Bureau Sport F i she r i e s & Wildlife Box 436 E. Ias Vegas, Neva

New Mexico Sta te Universi ty Las Curces, New Me

Wildl i fe Spec i a l i s t Box 1551 Bureau of Land Management Reno, Nevada

x i i i

DESERT BIGHORN COUNCIL

1 9 6 3 AWARD

'Ock Darning

FOR OUTSTANDING CONTRIBUTIONS TO LIFE HISTORY STUDIES AND THE MANAGEMENT OF

THE DESERT BIGHORN SHEEP

T H E 1962 DESERT BIGHORN COUNCIL AWARDS COMMITTEE CHOSE MR. OSCAR V. DEMING AS RECIPIENT O F T H E COUNCIL AWARD. THIS AWARD IS PRESENTED FOR OUTSTANDING CONTRIBUTIONS TOWARD T H E WELFARE O F T H E DESERT BIGHORN SHEEP IN T H E

U N I T E D STATES AND MEXICO.

xiv

"TAG-A-LONG"

Photo by

JIM YOAKUM

. A HISTORY OF THE BIGHQRN SHEEP I N CZNTRAL HEVADA

Merlin A. McColm, Wildlife Manager Sierra D i s t r l ct

Nevada Fish and Game Commission

INTRODUCPIOEJ

Them is a r ldenk tha t the bighorn sheep existed on' at l eas t four mountain ranges in Central Nevada within the memory of man, A t present, only one of these ranges supports a population of bighorn rrheep and it appears that the size and range of t h i s population is much reduced,

DISTRIBUTION

Toiyabe Ran@

. - Past - Bighorn sheep apparently existed i n the f'ull length of the Toigabe Rsngs south of Austin and in the Mount Gdhghan-Hall Creek-Cowboy Rest area north of Austin uhen the central part of the s ta te was f i r s t settled in the 18601s.

The Toiyabe Range is a major group of aotmtains about U O miles .in length that runs north and south through the central

- - -- --pi&-of--the=state,- - This-range - e n d s - - - 80th-of the-old- -- - -

mining community of Austin , n d 40 miles north. Big Smoky and Grass Valleys border the east side of the range, and Beeee River and Carico Lake Valleys bound the west. South of Austin the range is characterized by high rugged peaks, (the two highest< baing Bunker H i l l and Arc ~ o ~ l j both of which have elevation. in excesa of ll,m feet, North of Austin the rangs i s l m r i n elevation and the terrain is leas rugged. The highest muntain i n t h i s part of the range i a Mount U g h a n which has an elevation of 10,200 feet.

I&. Bert Bcree, an e lderu , life-long resident of Austin, recalls that hie father, Hr, Tom Acree, apoke of seeing mountsin sheep in the Birch Creek area of the Tombe Range between 1876 and 1878. A t tha t time, according to Mr, Acree, h i s father was employed as a ioremau for the cattle company of Booker, Russell and Bradley and he spent much of his t h e uorking in the Toiyabe Bange immediately south of Austin.

Hr, George Dory of A u s t i n recalls that h i s stepfather, Mr. Nathaniel Kivett, told him he had aeon wild sheep a t the head of Wnlll Creek and Cawbop Rest while he was hunting mustangs for the U,S, Forest Service in the early 1900~s. Xr. KiVBtt, who i s no longer living, was employed by the Forest Service shortly a f te r it was organized. According t o the Austin District Forest Ranger, the Toiyabe National Forest was organized in 1908. The Hall Creek-Cowboy Rest area is a short distance north of

Mount Callaghan. Hall (1946), identified a part of a skull tha t was found 28 miles north of Austin as belonging t o Ovis canadensis nelsoni. This skull was apparently found i n the same general a r e m i c h Hr. Kivett was reparted to bave seen Kild sheep.

Fz. Charlie Keough is one of the few old timers still l iv ing in Central Nevada who nas familiar with the bighorn sheep in the ear ly days. M r . Keough was born i n Austin in 1884 and he spent most of h i s l i f e ranching i n the south end of the Toiyabe Range, H i s father was a livestock operator before him and it was while herding ca t t l e and sheep f o r his father tha t he first came i n contact with bighorn sheep. M r . Keough presently Uves in Peavine Canyon located .in the south end of the Toiyabe Range.

Between 1907 and 1937 M r . Keough believes there were 300 t o 400 bighorn in the Arc Dome-Twin Rivers area. After 1937 he said they became very scarce. He ki l led several bighorn rsms on the white mountain tha t separates North and South Twin Rivers and ki l led other rams i n Belcher, Cove and J e t t Canyons. In 1916 Mr. Keough had the heads of two rams he had killed between the T#in Rivers mounted. These two heads were turned over t o the Nevada f ish and Game Department in 3.958 and were sent t o Hr. E. Raymbnd Hall fo r identification. Mr. Hall concluded that the skulls were tha t of neleoni* Xerriam, the Desert Bighorn Sheep.

--- - - - - -- - --- - _ - - _ _ _The - -- f&st -- - bighorn - she_ep_ s w e y made i n t h e - T o - g a b e ______

Range, of which there is a record, was conducted by the U.S. Biological Survey and the U.S. Forest Service in 1924, Mr. August Streshley of Austin who worked for the U.S. Biological Survey f o r many years, s t i l l has the notes he made on th i s survey i n his f i e ld diary. He and M r . Percy Nash of the Biological Survey and Mr . James McGowan, who was the Toiyabe National Forest Supervisor, packed in to South Twin River during the last week i n May of that year. They found fresh beds of a band of bighorn sheep (Mr. Streshley believes about 40 animals) on a ridge between the south fork and the middle fork of South M n River, They followed the tracks of this band in to the bluffs where they gave up the t r a i l . They did see one bighorn ram at the head of Belcher Basin.

An Austin resident, Hr. Ed J. Vigus, recal ls t h a t he saw three bighorn sheep rams in Smoky Valley along Nevada Highway 8A between Darroughfs Hot Spring and the mining town of Round Hountain in November of 1929. This i s adjacent t o currently occupied bighorn sheep range in the Toiyabes.

A bighorn ram was reported kil led by an Indian a t Gravelly Ford in Reese River Valley in 1937, and another Indian warking for Mr. Keough shot a ram that cane near the Peavine Canyon Ranch in July of 1938.

A crmrill band of bighorn sheep was reported aeen on Bpnker H i l l during the late 1930b. Skulls of this species an, st i l l ocursionally found in t h i s area. Bunker H i l l i s approxbxatelf 1 8 ' d l e s south of Austin,

Mrs. Jean Carver Matnay, who s and operates erla Station on 19evada Highuay 8A in Big Smoky Valley on the east side of the Towbe Range, reported seeing five bighorn sheep feeding in her bay corrQ on the opening day of the 1946 deer reason (octobes 6th).

- - - - ~ r . =i B. &ouch, a retired mining enginsir who.

u r e a in Anatin, redlI.8 that a bighorn ram spent =lost of the rupl~er of 1946 in Kingston CanJon above the Eingston h c h .

aluay8 s e n in the campmy of a large domestic bull. The. pair becams quite a local attraction, but according t o Mr. *

Crouch, the fkiendship was terminated when someone shot the sheep.

Another ram was seen at the mouth of Kingston canyon during the summer of 1947. SeveraJ. people saw thia animal, including. Mr. h u c h aqd Mr. horge Dam. T h h was the last report. of bigaom sheep -wing seen in t n i s portion of tne Tojyabe Bangee

A sheep harder working for Mr. St. John Labordo, formsc Austin rancher. &port& seeing-a m a a l l band of bighorn &eep in 9 ~ - m-ek &a in the t!nsirne-5 of 1957. . ~ e t ~ G e k basin is - - - - - - - -- - - - -- - - - - -- - - - - - - - -- - - - - -- - - - - - - - - - - - -- - - - - - - -- - - - - - - - --

jmt north of the h d e r - ~ y e Countp line and about three miles

It is very likely that bighorn Sheep no longer ex is t ip, the Toiyabe- Range north of Clear Creek. No evidence of their presence has .been- f owd north of t h i s drainage by Nevada Fish and Game Department personnel and no recent sight records have been received from other aourcea,

- - * Present .- During Harch of 1958, Nevada Fish and Game hparbmt .peraonael conducted the f i r a t Toiyabe bighorn sheep . -.

mmq in an attempt to gather information concerning distribution and relative abtuldance. The survey was conducted along the bsae of the east side of the Tombe Range between the extreme south end of the range and Aiken Creek. Fortpone sheep wars #potted by the tbret, department personnel that participated in -

the aurwy, Heavy anom were largely responsible for the succssa of the 1958 survey, since the aheep were forced out of the high country and down t o the base of the range.

he following is a summary of tho results of the first and arbaequent Towbe bighorn sheep surveys carried out by Fish and Came D e p a r t m e n t personnel.

Pear Elasla Enea Yearlin~a Unclasaif ied Total

1961 7 (seen dmiw summer range survey) ?

1962 2 9 1 0 12 * Does not include four sheep reported by a rancher.

The majoslty of sheep seen during the early spring survey3 were in Jett Canyon but eheep have also been seen in Broad, North Twin, Hermiles and Last Chance Canyons, A rancher reported seeing four bighorn 8heep at the mouth of Aiken Creek in March of 1958. Department personnel checked this area immediately after the report uas received and found fre8h sign but no sheep.

Sheep sign w a ~ ale0 found in this area in 1960, but again, -

no sheep were aeen. A ram uaa reported seen in Aiken Creek in the summer of 1952. U e a &eek f a 15 d b a aofih of the na~bm-mosti sighting8 made by game department personnel,

During the summer of 1961 the author saw seven mature ram3 on the big white reauntah between the Tuin Rivers. This is the same

ioned when ta -.-

h&t were kijled in this &ea- hwemr, sheep wsre also seefl in South Tuin River and Belcher bash ,

So far surveys have been conducted by plane, horseback and foot. None of the survey methods haw proved re= effective because of the extremely rugged terrain. A combination of foot and horseback work has produced the best results.

The present bighorn sheep population in the Toiyabe Range is almost entirely confined to a 40 mile attrip along the east side of the range between Wall Canyon t o the south and Clear Creek to the north. The center of the population appears to be in the North and South hrin Rivers area. The currently used range includes approdnvrtely 170 square miles.

Marmt Jefferson

Hall (op. cit.), report8 that a horn of a bighorn sheep was found on the mmmit of t h e south peak of Mount Jefferson.

Mount Jefferson ia located in the Taquima Range about 50 zriilea southeast of Austin. It is the highest Mountain in Central Nevada and has an elevation of 11,949 feet. It is bordered on the

. east by Monitor Valley and on the west by Big Smoky Valley. The top of this mountain forms a huge table but the sides are steep and rote - eepecially the west rride.

. .

No reparts of sighting8 of bighorn sheep on this mountain have been received during the past few years. Hawever., it i s rumored that sheep were occasionally seen on this mountain up t h r o w the late 1940qs.

Roberts Mountains

Mr. Peter Damele, a Lander County rancher, believed that . bighorn sheep existed on Roberts Mountains in the early days.

Roberts Mountains are located approdaately 40 d i e s northeast of Aust in , It is bounded on the wet by Garden Vslley an6 on the west by the Simpson Park Mountains. The highest p a k ie Botierte Creek Mountain which has an elevation of 10,Ul feet. Bugged limestone bluffs and crags are typical of the higher ele- Qations.

, . . - .

&.+Damele has owned and operated several ranches in the v i W t p of thia mountain during his l i fe and he presently. owns the Dry (h.eek Ranch ih the Simpson Park Mountains. H8 recalls that an

on picked up a bighorn sheep skull on Roberts g the ear ly 1908'b. The Indian, acc- to bn t o be more than casually interested in his

find ;as the horns made excellent material of whloh t o amake a "hondow he--ep-of a= lariat ,The -Indian, whose m- is Jim Buckskin,-is - - -

still 35-g and he resides in Carlin, Blevsda. Nr. Damela said that his-brother, Steve, told him of a bighorn sheep he eaw at the head of HcC1usky Creek drainage in the fall of 1908. HeClusky Czwek drainage is a l o w pass through the Sbp8on Park Mountains and is anLy a few miles from the baae of Roberts Mountains. .

No recent reports have been received of bighorn sheep occurring i n this range,

Morey Mountain

Mr. Robert W i l l i t m a , currenkly of TonoMh, recall8 that when he -23 a by, during the dd-l920(s, Tndiane who worked on hi8 parent@ ranch frequantlf hunted bighorn sheep on &bray Hountain.

Horey Mountain i s located in the Hot Creek Range appmximate- 1.y 60 miles northeast of Tonopah. It lies betmen Hot Creek Valley an the east and Little Fish Lake Valley on the west , It is a ~ w t o o t h -formation of rocks with an elevation of 10,209 feet.

Mr. W i l l l a m goes on to explain that a number of Indians that worked at the Hot Creek Ban& had a camp a short distance from the ranch house and that bighorn sheep skulls were a common

. sight around this camp. In later years he recalls that he occa- aional3j sau skulls in the South Six Mile Canpn area. Mr. Williams said he never did see a live bighorn in this area.

Another rancher who has l ived in t h i s same area for many years, Mr. John Titus, claims that he saw bighorn sheep on Morey Mountain during the 1930's. No aight records have been reported since that time.

POSSIBLE INFLUENCING FACTORS

The decline i n bighorn sheep numbers in Central Nevada parallels man's history of range use and follows a pattern typical of the arid west.

In an 1868 issue of the Reeae River Beveille, an Austin newspaper, an article mentioned that cattlemen were of the opinion that no Finer grassland range could be found anmere than in Reese River Valley where the grass was nearly three feet high.

The following is a quotation f r o m an article found in the August 18, 1873, issue of the Reveille "----Pmbably the canyon at the head of Reese River Valley is the finest f ie ld for aprtsmen i n the state; the stream and a= its tributaries abound in mountain t m u t as delicious as they are abundant. Grouse and sage fowl are as plentiful upon the hills 8s hesdipms in §an Pra~cfseo aab the heart sf the hunter is occasionally gladdened by a shot at a deer or antelope. In less than three days fishing our party captured nine-hundreci and twenty- ==seven=-speckled ape cimens of the--genus - sdlmo and- in a - f a r h o hunt a couple of shootists bagged fifty-three grouse and sage fowl. The feed i s excellent, the hills being covered with bunch grass and the bottoms with a luxuriant growth of meadow herbage. The head-waters of Reese River is the sportsmen's paradise, nature supplying all hia necessities except whiskey, a goodly mpply of which we recommend our sporting friends t o take along, in case of snake bite, pneumonia or water brash."

Newspaper reporting techniques are not the only changes that have taken place since this f lowery article was written. The h i l l s in t h i s area are no longer covered wi th bunch grass. The lush meadows mentioned have been invaded by brush or scoured out by erosion. The stream bed in many places is nothing mare than a di tch cutting deeper into the so i l after every rain or spring run-of f.

The livestock industry became important after the initial boom in mining. The peak of the cattle industry w+s reached around 1900 while the domestio sheep industry reached its peak in the early 19Z01s. Mr. Vigua, of Austin, claims that around 1910 there were. over 25,000 head of cattle being grazed in the Toiyabe Range. Mr. Vigus operated a ranch in Big Smoky Valley and recalls t h a t many individual ranches ran several thousand head of cattle. During t h e early 191)01s t ran- sient sheepmen moved in and grazed thousands of sheep on ranges

t ha t &re' already h e a w stocked by local ranchers.

In addition t o domestic livestock, thousands of mustangs roamed the range. Attempts were made t o control this animal on Natonal Forest land8 but mustang numbers were not rea l ly brought under control un t i l a f t e r World War 11,

A t present there are probably fewer livestock gra& on the public range in Central Nevada than a t any time ,since the land was f i r s t settled, Several drought years combined with the' cumu- l a t ive effects of 100 years of range abuse have reduced the livestock industry t o a rewant.

".- h e r were so uncommon when Central le;Pada was f i r s t set t led

thaf'.&h encounter with t h i s animal was usually h u g h t t o the attention of the loca l newspaper, Deer remain6d f a i r l y acarce un t i l the mid-1920's and then started t o increase f a i r l y rapidly, This situation was not peculiar t o Nevada alone as Aldous (1945) reported that i n 1925 there wasx not one mule deer problem area in the intermountain states, During 1929, Mr . Torgerson, Austin District Forest Ranger, estimated tha t the xnule deer population between Austin and Summit Creek in the Tolyabe Range, (a distance of about 40 miles) was about 500 and he believed the7 were increasing. By the mid-1930ts the mule deer poptilation i n the Toiyabe Range had reached incredible proportions. Same Austin reside& claim that when the Toiyabe deer herd reached its peak that-508 t o 1,000 deer could be counted on almost any summer evening in Kingston Canyon alone, During the spring of 1938 '

the U.S. Forest Service conducted the f i r s t spring deer ride along - - --the-foothi-1;1s=of-the-east- side of-the- T o Q a b + w e 0 -- On-this -Sirst--- - - - - - -

r ide 1,299 deer were counted i n a distance of seven miles. The U,S, Forest Serirlce was the f i r s t t o express alarm over the size of the Toiyabe deer herd and made every effor t t o i n i t i a t e a deer reduction program, Finslly, in 1 9 0 , two special antlerless hunts we- held i n the Toiyabe me.

The deer herd eruption was not confined t o the Toiyabe -8. It took place over all of the central part of the state. Continued depletion of brush ranges have resulted in a steady decline i n deer numbers since the i r peak i n the 19301s. Attempts t o control the deer population by hunting have met with l i t t l e success.

- !Che US. Forest Service and the Bureau of Land Manage- ment are i n the process of establishing range carrying capacities based on detailed range s w e y s and they are adjusting domestic livestock use accordingly. #any range rehabilitation projects in the form of crested wheatgrass reseedings have been completed and many more are planned. These reseedings should ultimately take a considerable amount of grazing pressure off of the high ranges.

Hunting

Whether hunting had a great influence on past bighorn sheep populations i n Central Nevada cannot be known. However, i f the bighorn was ever subjected t o heavy hunting pressure, it

would have been duri the period of greatest 'mining and livestock act iv i ty (1862 - 198. It was during this period that the human population reached i t s peak. Probably more s i ~ i f i c a n t was the nature of the population, Many people l ived in iaolated local i t ies and they undoubtedlg lived off the land t o the extent it was possible. Logging and mining operations were carried on in the heart of bighorn sheep ranges on several occasions. Fortunately the bighorn normally inhabits country that discourages all but the most persistent and energetic hunters. fans that were passed in an attempt t o protect t h i s animal were often ignored by the loca l people, Bighorn sheep ,were hunted openly as recently a s 20 years ago, even though the season had been closed since 1917.

M r . Keough thinks that he killed about 16 bighorn rams in the Arc Dome-Twin Rivers area in the Toiyabe Range between 1907 and 1938. During this same period he knew of several bighorn taken by other hunters.

The number of bighorn sheep ki l led by hunting has probably declined steadily with the decline in human population. I l legal hunting is l e s s and less a problem as a resu l t of improved law enforcement,, and probably more important - the change in at t i tude of the general public.

The f i r s t law passed t o control hunting of the bighorn sheep uas %n 1893, me season opened A q m t 1, and ran through November 30. There was no bag limit. In 1895 the season was changed t o September 1, t o December 31. Hunting seasons on bighorn

- - --- -- - - ~_=sheep=.were=;cloaed-in~191~,~- - - -=- - -:- -- P - ---

I n 1962 t h e Toiyabe Range was opened t o the hunting of bighorn sheep f o r the f i r s t time since 1917. Twenty permits were issued for the t a k b g of rams with horns that had a three- quarter curl or better. The two week season ran frola September 9, t o 23. -

Disease

If d o k s t i c sheep diseases were ever a threat t o native bighorn populations there is no record of it now. Accordiag to Mr. Keough, sheep scabies was prevalent i n domestic sheep un t i l dipping started in the 1890ta. He beliavea that t h i s disease was G g e 4 eliminated by 19U. Mr. Keough recalls that he saw one old bighorn ram on the side of Arc Dome in the Toiysbe Range in the early 19OOts that he believes may have had aheep scabies. Parta of the animal's ears, t a i l and nose were miasing and there were bars patches of hide where hair had fa l len out,

Some Characteristics of tha Present R a w -

Existing bighorn sheep range i s a natural refuge tha t includes the most rugged portion of the Toiyabe Range. Much of th i s area i s inaccessible t o domestic livestock and, t o some extent,

deer. Water is abundant. Small streems are found in a l l major drainages and springs are nmaerous throughout the high country. Annual precipitation on the high ranges averages 12 t o 15 inches a Y-•

The high ranges, where the bighorn spends most of the year, are in the Boreal and Bansition Zones while the lower ranges are in the Upper Sonoran. A s far as is known, the lower ranges are used only for short periods during the winter and spring months.

I3FE HISTOBY

Very l i t t l e is known about the l i f e history of the bighorn in the Toiyabe Range. Breeding is %ho&t t o occur i n October and November, and lambing in A p r i l aad May. Hawsvsr, them are no obaervations on which t o base these .mnclueions,

-During the mid-l920'a, several ewes in a band of domestic sheep that had been herded i n the Toiyabe Range south of A u s t i n gave birbh t o hybrid offspring as a result of croeeing' wi6h bighorn sheep. The euea belonged t o the Birch Creek Banch and were thought t o have been bred the prerioua October o r November. The lambs were born in A p r U and most of them died. However, one sera waa raised t o araturity and it was kept as a pet by the owner of the ranch.

During most of the year the bighorn sheep are found i n the cool altitudes of the limber'pine be l t snd they come down t o the lower slopes only when forced by heavy snow o r are attracted by the

- f irsLgrem gr&h_iahtheespxring .- __-___ _ - ___ - - -- _- _ - ---_ --

mCLwIa

The bighorn sheep i n Central Nevada were confined t o rather smsll, isolated areas and they were not present i n large numbere within the,m-ry of maxi, They disappeared early in the 20th Century i n the Toiyabe Range north of Bustin and on Roberta EZountaias, W e small. populations lingered on Into the 19308s on Morey Mountain and possibly in to the 1940% on Mount Jefferson. While the bighorn eheep still eldsts in the Tolyabe Range south of Austin, its numbers have declined and its range has shrunk. On the surface it appears that the decline i n bighorn sheep numbera is linked with general range deterioration,

Drrring the last two years the U, S. Forest Service and the Bureau of Iaad Management have speeded up range conservation programs. These programs may eventually have far reaching effects on game habitat since moat of Nevada~s big game rangee are administered by these two agencies. If these present programs bear ftuit, it is within the realm of possibility that bighorn sheep populations may once again be establiehed on some of thei r former ranges. Perhaps the bighorn sheep has survived the most crit ical period,

Aldoua, Clarence H. 1945. A Winter Study of Mule Deer in Nevada. Journal of Wildlife Management, 9 (2) : U5-151,

Hall, E o Raymond 1946. Mammals of Nevada, University of California

. - Press, Berkeley and Ins Angeles, Galif. 642,

H60. Correspondence with levada Fish & Game Dept.

McColm, Merlin A, 1958-1962. Uscellaneous reports tram the f i les of the Nevada Fish and Game Dept,, Austin, Nevada,

F&em Biver Reveille UnEmown issue, 1868. Bol. XVIII, August 18, 1873. From the f ib s of the Lander Comty Court Houas, Austin, Nevada.

U.S. Forest Service 1929-1938, Miscellaneous reports from the files of the A u s t i n District Ranger Station, Austin, Nevada.

1962 PROGmSS AND HUNT REPORT--NEVADA

Ray Brechbi l l Nevada Fish and Game Commission

Hiko, Nevpda

Last f a l l saw t h e completion of the 10 th d e s e r t bighorn sheep hunt -he ld : i n t h e S t a t e of Nevada. Another new a rea was opened t o hunting i n 1962-- : Area 17, i n t h e Toiyabe Mountain Range i n Nye County. Twenty (20) t a g s were @ issued f o r t h i s a r e a -a n d four (4) sheep were taken. A 1 1 four (4) animals were R k i l l e d above t h e 10,000- foot elevation. . The sheep taken were a l l considered b: t o be i n good condi t ion- - al l were ve ry f a t ; and had -good t e e t h and no t i c k s . t:Hunters i n t h i s new a rea were warned t h a t t h e area was extremely d i f f i c u l t t o

hunt , and were advised t o provide f o r a t l e a s t a one-week period i n t h e area. / It was t h e opinion of the game manager, who supervised t h i s hunt , t h a t the re was 1 not a s i n g l e hunter who was properly equipped f o r the hunt. . Several of t h e ':.hunters s t a t e d t h a t t h e country w a s "-- just too rough t o hunt in." i, 2- L

A t o t a l of 530 app l i ca t ions were made f o r the 120 t ags a v a i l a b l e i n t h e !'five (53 hunt a r e a s , an increase of 231 app l i ca t ions over t h e 1961 hunt when : 100 t a g s were a v a i l a b l e . A s usual , Area B-2, t h e Sheep Range, was t h e most

popular , with 1 7 4 . r e s i d e n t s making app l i ca t ions f o r t h e 30 t a g s a v a i l a b l e , .and 80 non- residents making app l i ca t ions f o r t h e f i v e ( 5 ) nonresident t ags which were avai lable . There were 130 a p p l i c a t i o n s f o r 35 t a g s i n Area-B-3, which was nea r ly double t h e 72 app l i can t s i n 1961. There were 16 app l i cab t s r fo r t h e 10 t a g s i n Area B-1, 60 made a p p l i c a t i o n f o r t h e 20 t a g s i n 'Area 21, and 70 made ap- p l i c a t i o n f o r t h e 20 t a g s i n Area 17. .Odt of . the 1'20tag holders , 18.3% were re-

_ _ ~p-ea2- hunters .: _ __- __ __ __- ___---_- - - _--_ - - __- - _-- p- --- . - =

For the first time s i n c e bighorn sheep hunting s t a r t e d i n Nevada, non- r e s i d e n t s were g iven a chance a t t h i s t rophy animal. Five (5) nonresident t a g s were authorized by t h e Nevada F i sh anbGame Commission f o r Area B-2, t h e Sheep Range. These t a g s were authorized i n t h e l a t e spring of 1962 and no spec ia l

p u b l i c i t y was g iven o u t concerning them. I n s p i t e of t h i s , 80 app l i ca t ions were received f o r t h e f i v e ( 5 ) t a g s , which shows the i n t e r e s t t h a t t h i s type of hunt holds f o r non- residents . A l l f i v e (5) of t h e t ag holders were r e s i d e n t s of Ca l i fo rn ia . A l l b u t 2 o r 3 of the nonresident app l i ca t ions came from C a l i f o r n i a , these few being r e s i d e n t s from Arizona., Out of t h e 5 non- residents , 4 were successful

A t o t a l of 33 bighorn rams were harvested during t h e 1962 hunt--from Area B-1, 4 ; Area B-2, 13; Area B-3, 9; Area B-21, 3 ; and t h e new Area B-17, 4.

The average Boone and Crocket score during t h e hunt i n Areas B-1, B-2, and B-3, was 145, which was c lose t o s i x (6) po in t s lower than t h e p a s t th ree (3) year average. The l a r g e s t trophy sheep k i l l e d during t h e 1962 hunt was taken on the Sheep Range i n Area B-2. The Boone and Crocket score on t h i s sheep was 182-2/8 which should p lace it among the top 20 heads.

A s i n p a s t y e a r s , a l l da ta co l l ec ted i n Are2lb.B-1 and B-2, and manning of the checking s t a t i o n s i n these a reas were handled by t h e Desert Game Range person- n e l . Hock j o i n t s were co l l ec ted and turned over to D r . Edward Fountain f o r continued s tud ies on radioact ive uptake. Nearly i d e a l weather condi t ions prevailed

d u r i n g t h e hunt i n Areas B-1 , B-2, and B-3, a s opposed t o l a s t y e a r ' s stormy weather ; however, t h e hunt r e s u l t s were n e a r l y t h e same f o r bo th years . Sheep were s i t e d by hun te r s from t h e tops of mountains t o the bottom of the a l l u v i a l f a n s .

One new change was made i n t h e hunt r e g u l a t i o n s . S t a r t i n g with the 1962 hun t any person who drew a t a g became au toma t i ca l ly d i s q u a l i f i e d from enter ing t h e fo l lowing y e a r ' s drawing.

Hunters u t i l i z e d 337 sheep-hunting days i n Areas B-1, B-2, and B-3 t o har- v e s t 26 sheep, o r about 13 days per sheep. Hunters observed a grand t o t a l ,of 671 sheep i n Areas B-1 and B-2, and 145 sheep i n Area B-3. Nineteen (19) sheep were r e p o r t e d by h u n t e r s i n t h e new Area B-17. The average dressed weight of sheep taken from t h e d i f f e r e n t hun t ing a r e a s was: Areas B-1 and B-2, 107 l b s . ; Area B-3, 102 l b s . ; Area B-17, 130.5 l b s . The k a v i e s t f i e ld- dressed weight was ob ta ined from a sheep t aken i n Area B-17. T h i s sheep was es t imated t o be 11 y e a r s o l d , and d re s sed o u t a t 152 l b s .

Following a r e t h e d a t e s of hun t s which were he ld i n each quota uni t :

Quota U n i t Season Dates

B- 1 Pin twa te r Dec. 14-17 B- 2 Sheep Range Nov. 24 - Dec. 9 B- 3 Area Outs ide Sheep Range Nov. 24 - Dec. 17 B-17 Toiyabe Range Sep. 9-23 B-21 S i l v e r Peak Area Sep. 16-30

----Both=Area s=B-+7-and- B--2 1- h e l d S e p t e m b e ~ -hunhs . - The - ear-1-y- h u n L wa s -he ld-in-Area - B- 21-i ===

i n o r d e r t o g a t h e r d a t a from sheep a t an e a r l i e r p a r t of t h e yea r than it was I d u r i n g t h e November hunt l a s t yea r . Th i s may p a r t i a l l y e x p l a i n the hunter success ,

dropping from 50% t o 15% i n t h i s a r e a . Area B-17 he ld i t s e a r l y hunt because it was f e l t t h e t i t might have been d i f f i c u l t , weather-wise, t o hunt a t a l a t e r da t e a t . ' such h igh e l e v a t i o n s .

S ince 1958, t h e sheep h u n t s - i n Areas B-1 , B-2, and B-3 have been held under ?

i d e n t i c a l r e g u l a t i o n s . The season d a t e s , by a r e a , have been t h e same, the number of t a g s t h e same, and hunt ing r e s u l t s v e r y n e a r l y t h e same; however, k i l l l o c a t i o n s ' and t h e weather c o n d i t i o n s dur ing t h e hun t s have v a r i e d . A s they say , i n Las ~ e g a s , ; " I t ' s 10 t o 1 t h a t n e x t y e a r s r e s u l t s w i l l be comparable t o t hose of t h e pas t f i v e ( S ) . y e a r s , i f -t h e hunt mechanics remain t h e same."

1958 F a l l Hunt 24 Days 80 30 39.0 1959 P a l l H u n t 24 Days 80 - 36 47.4 1960 F a l l Hunt 24 Days 80 2 7 35.0 1961 F a l l Hunt 24 Days 8 0 2 2 36.7 1962 F a l l Hunt 24 Days 80 2 6 35.5 1963 F a l l Hunt 24 Days 80 28 (28--?) 38.7 (38.7--?)

During t h e 1962 hunt on Area B-2, t h e Sheep Range, two ( 2 ) hun te r s , c i t e d by t h e Federal Game Agent, were taken t o t h e U . S. Commissioner's Court i n Boulder C i t y , and f i n e d $50.00 and $35.00, r e s p e c t i v e l y . These sheep were con- f i s c a t e d and tu rned over t o t h e S a l v a t i o n Army. The hun te r s were c i t e d f o r not

having taken a mature animal, although t h e sheep d id have approximate 3/4 c u r l s . One of t h e personnel supervis ing t h e hunt n i c e l y phrased i t , when he asked one of t h e hunters " . . . i f he was a f t e r a grand slam o r a lamb slam." The average age of t h e sheep harvested i n Areas B-1, B-2, and B-3, i n 1962 was 6 . 8 y e a r s , wi th a spread i n ages from 2-1/2 t o 16 yea r s . Counting annual horn r i n g s was t h e method used t o age a l l t he sheep.

During the l a s t 10 bighorn sheep hunts i n Nevada 250 sheep have been harves ted . One hundred and f o r t y sheep have been aged using the horn annual growth r i n g s method. Of these sheep 15, o r approximately 10.776, have been i n the 0- t o 4-year age c l a s s . Boone and Crocket records have been recorded on 201 normal sheep heads. Using t h e a r b i t r a r y Boone and Crocket score of 125 and below a s a des igna t ion f o r young animals, it was found t h a t 21 sheep out of t h e 2 0 1 , ~ o r 10.4%, could b e c l a s s i f i e d a s young. Although it appears t h a t the re is some c o r r e l a t i o n between annual horn r i n g s and Boone and Crockett sco res i n the young age c l a s s sheep, much more work i s needed i n c o r r e l a t i n g ageing techniques of Desert Bighorn sheep.

Again, t h i s y e a r , a l l hun te r s were given an indoc t r ina t ion before t h e hunt , a s t o what was a l e g a l animal. The problem of harves t ing a few younger rams during t h e hunt seems t o p e r s i s t . This i s t h e f i r s t year t h a t a hunter has a c t u a l l y been - taken t o c o u r t and f i n e d f o r t h i s v i o l a t i o n . A t o t a l so lu t ion t o t h i s problem seems nea r ly impossible, considering t h e type of hunt and t h e pressure on t h e hun te r t o score.

A proposed new road from Las Vegas t o Lake Mead and then up Lake Mead t o Echo Bay on t h e Overton A r m of t h e Lake w i l l soon make it poss ib le t o fo l low a

-- -- -- -large=-loop=E~om-Las-Vegas=to=Overton-and--return~ -Th-ls-new-road-wi=l=l===cut-through- t h e Muddy Mountains i n an area t h a t , up t o t h i s t ime, was nea r ly inaccess ib le , except by jeep o r boa t . It w i l l be i n t e r e s t i n g t o a s s e s s any e f f e c t t h i s new highway may have upon t h e bighorn sheep i n t h i s area. Several sheep each year a r e k i l l e d by automobiles on t h e Hoover Dam highway, and such accidents may well occur on t h i s new road. A s one of our Conservation Agents put it: " I t ' s going t o make a -- wonderful poaching road.',

Sheep hunters a r e requi red t o f i l l out a hunter r epor t form a t t h e end of t h e hunt. A blank i s l e f t on these forms f o r t h e i r remarks pe r t a in ing t o t h e hunt. The following quotes a r e t y p i c a l of the hunters ' w r i t t e n remarks: "I saw s ign i n a few places b u t ' d i d not see any sheep." "I hope t o know more about t h e i r h a b i t s be fo re hunting again." "Very d i f f i c u l t t o hunt--nobody-knows o r w i l l t e l l you anything about them." "Should be a longer season." "Season should be held before t h e r u t t i n g season." " A l l t h e sheep seemed t o be i n exce l l en t condition." '"Tough hunt." "Excellent hunt." "Season should be held when rams a r e more available." "I underestimated sheep hunt ing , b u t I want t o t r y again i f it takes f i v e years." "Most hunters on t h e i r f i r s t sheep hunt a r e very surpr ised and sometimes a l i t t l e h u r t a t how tough a hunt it i s , b u t it i s t h i s same toughness which makes t h i s hunt s o popular and makes Mr. Desert Bighorn such a d e s i r a b l e trophy animal.

NEVADA -- DESERT BIGHORN SHEEP ' -- SUMMARY OF ALL HUNTS 11 ALL HUNTS

T o t a l Tags T o t a l (Days) TAGS AVAILABLE

(Number A c t u a l l y Hunted) YEARS SEASON B-1** B-2** B-3** B-17** B-21** - - --

S p r i n g 5 0 195 2 (18) (48 ---

S p r i n g 6 0 195 3 (25) (53) - -

S p r i n g 12 48 1954 ( 1 2 ) (48) (15) - - -

(Number / ~ c t u a l l y / I

Hunted) / 5 0 1

(48) /

NUMBER SUCCESSRlL Number % T o t a l (% SuccessEul) SuccessEul Hunte r

B-I** -- B-2** B-3** B-17** B-21** Hunters Succ. *

I 1955 NO HUNT HELD I --- NO HUNT HELD --

I

F a l l 2 5 1 5 4 0 25 1 1956 (22) (25) (12) - (37) 1 -- (100) (8.3) 26 70.2 ---

I

Fa 11 1 0 30 20 6 0 2 1 9 4 195 7 (16) ( 7 ) (30) (20) ( 5 7 ) (28.5) -- (63.3) (20.0) 25 43.9

1 0 3 5 35 80 I

F a l l I 3 16 11

Fa 11 1 0 1959 (24) ( 8 )

Fa 11 1 0 196 0 (24) ( 9 )

F a l l 1 0 1961 (24) ( 7 )

Fa 11 1 0 1962 (24) ( 8 )

60 242 , 368 2 0 4 0 730 17 125 92 4 12 1

TOTAL (216) (48) (236) (346) (20) --- (68818 (34.5) (53.0) (26.6) (20.0) (30.0) 250 36.6 --- (38) -- I

-k Success f i g u r e s were based on t h e number o f hdmters who a c t u l l l y hun ted . **B- 1 P i n t w a t e r Range I

B- 2 Sheep Range I 1952-1953 were gu ided h u n t s B- 3 C l a r k and L i n c o l n C o u n t i e s I 1954-1956 were s u p e r v i s e d h u n t s 7 Toiyabe Range I 1957-1962 were sup- supervised h u n t s 8 - 2 1 Esmeralda County

k i l l e d

'I

I

t I

I

I I

! -1 I

. . I I -.

No. - 1. 2. 3 . 4. -5 6. 7. 6. 9 .

10. 11.

. 12. 13 1L. 15 . 16. 17.. 1e. 17. 2G. 21.

' . *\. K t . Bighorn

o r Sheep ~ i l l e a - Range Since 1952 - S i l v e r Peak 1 2

h Toiyabe Grant - liillow Creek - - Bald &. Pahranagat -

17 Pintwater SheepLas Vegasl2S A r r o w Cayon 2 Meadow Valley 5 Monmn bits. b bddy Lits. 39 - Feed -ibck Potosi ?Kt. 11 B i r d Spring 3 Table Nou ta in 2 Devil s Peak 2 UcCwllough Mtn 13 22. Luning Summit - Eldoradu narlhe 7 23. Quartz CIountain H a r t Ktn. 1 24. Cane Spring Road - '.. \: j S p i r i t Etn. 1 25. mite Eountains -

I A ! * L I X JLN I - Range Since 1952 . I S i l v e r Peak 1 2 I ., 1

I I

SheepLas Vegasl2S A r r o w Cayon 2 Meadow Valley 5

B i r d Spring 3 Table Nou ta in 2

UcCwllough Mtn 13 - 22. Luning Summit ,-' \. - Eldorado narlke 7 23. Quartz Uounta5n . \ ;

Hema&ez Corzo - We a r e condidering opening a l imi ted hunting season i n .

Mexico i n the near f u t u r e . ' I wonder i f I could have a copy of t h i s paper be fore i t appears i n the t r ansac t ions s i n c e i t contains much information of a p r a c t i c a l a spec t about hunting t h a t w e could p r o f i t by.

Brechbil l - Yes, t h i s afternoon o r tomorrow.

Simmons - Did I understand you t o say t h a t you have some c r i t i c a l range i n your hunting a reas?

Brechbil l - I ' d l i k e to tu rn t h a t quest ion over t o Dr. Hansen.

m s e n - I can only speak f o r t h e Desert Game Range and we do have some areas where t h e r e a r e more sheep than what the re should be, f o r the range.

Simmons - I n these a reas have you asked hunters t o r e t u r n stomach samples?

~ r e c h b i l l - Y e s , on t h e Game Range and ou t s ide i n t h e county.

Simnons - DO you in tend to continue t o c o l l e c t stomach samples?

Brechbill - I ' m s u r e t h a t the Game Range w i l l continue t o c o l l e c t samples.

Question - What e f f e c t does o r w i l l trophy hunters have on hunters success?

~ r r c h b i l l - W e do have them bu t as long a s we have a few each year we w i l l be g e t t i n g t h e same percentage and i t i s only trend in£ ormation anyway.

-- - -- . - - -- - .- - -- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -

Wilson - The Nevada S t a t e Law says a l e g a l ram is one wi th a 3 / 4 c u r l and the f e d e r a l l a w says one has t o be a mature animal wi th a 3 / 4 c u r l . What i s a 314 c u r l ram? Perhaps the Council could c l a r i f y t h i s matter . This is a problem i n law enforcement and nowhere is i t described o r defined '

i n Wri t ing . The S t a t e boys and I have even been kicking around the idea bf whether we need a 3 / 4 c u r l law o r not. W e can' t r e a l l y use i t so do w e r e a l l y need i t?

JortaX - *at would be wrong wi th saying on our regu la t ions "one male bighorn sheep". I know i t s p r e t t y d r a s t i c b u t i f w e pub l i c ize the trophy animal a spec t , we r e a l l y wouldn't be doing anything d i f f e r e n t than we a r e doing now.

Bishop - Whp n o t r e q u i r e a l i c e n s e f o r hunting, e s p e c i a l l y f o r trophy animals?

~rd - You're on my p e t s u b j e c t now. I n Cal i fornia , t h i s regula t ion f o r hunting Standards i s up t o the commissioners no t t h e l e g i s l a t o r s and perhaps i t is i n t h i s s t a t e .

&o*eS - (shakes 'head).

&J - No! A l r i g h t , I ' 11 go on t o another thing. A 1 (Jonez) i f we r e l a x t h i s thing w e w i l l remove a l l s tandards and requirements. I don' t bel ieve i n t h i s - There should be some standard. Sheep horns show a d e f i n i t e r e la- t i o n s h i p w i t h the s k u l l and face . These could be determined and standards s e t t h a t can be enforced and taken i n t o cour t . These a r e l e a s t standards, good, bad o r i n d i f f e r e n t .

Groves - I ' d l i k e to co r r ec t myself. A 1 (Jonez) reminded me t h a t there a r e some standards t h a t could be inser ted by commission regulations.

Hansen - I ant ic ipa ted t h i s subject would come up s o I brought along some pictures of our Corn Creek sheep. One of a year l ing with p rac t i ca l l y a 3/4 c u r l and a 34 year o ld with horns well p a s t the usual 3/4 c u r l mark. Consequently, w e w i l l have t o e s t ab l i sh d e f i n i t e standards of measurements.

Welles - ( to Graf) - Did you r e a l l y mean tha t i t doesn' t matter whether the standard is good, bad o r ind i f fe ren t?

G r a f - It does make a difference. I d idn ' t mean i t qui te l i k e tha t , but you s e t up a standard, i t might be good o r i t might: be bad but a t l e a s t you have a po in t you can measure by.

Welles - But we should always be looking f o r a b e t t e r standard.

Graf - Yes, I ' m a l l f o r tha t .

LOOSE THINKING

Ralph E. Belles Park Naturalist

Death Valley National Monument California

When I first mentioned the title of this paper to the program chairman I was.thinking in terms of odds and ends of observations and ideas not necessarily relatC ed to each other or important enough in themselves to be included in any assignment previously undertaken by me. Since then the subject has been mentioned on several occasions with such a variety of semahtic connotations as a result that I eventually fled to the dictionary for rhet- orical support for its use. There I found that *loose endsfl means afinal, relatively minor matters still to be taken care ofa, This was more or less what I had in mind although I had not thought of the subject matter as being sither of a firznl or relatively &or n a t ~ r e , It seems tc! me that the life history of the bighorn as we now know it, is filled with loose ends -- half-recognized factors in their survival pattern -- tentative @omlusions based on incomplete observations, or in some instances, on no observations at all -- and questions asked but unanswered.

- -- .- - - - - .- -. . - - - - - - - -- - - - - - - - - - - - - - -- - - - - -- --- -- - - - - - -

Loose ends\are not damaging as long as they are recognized as such, but too often we find ourselves with a handful of'loose ends which appears to be a good strong usable base for action until the weight of applications falls through it like a sieve,

One of the ways this hap~ens is through the error of mistaking a question for an answer. A question asked is a loose end until it is tied down by an answer. Yet we are sometimes strangely misled into believing that the recognition of a problem is its solution -- that knowing -what questions to ask means that we h o w the answers. This can be like trying to put a jigsaw puzzle together' without knowing that some of the pieces are missing -- or perhaps there, but belong to another picture.

This leaves us struggling with a problem which cannot be ansvered because we do not-possess the material from which a sound solution can be forged -- the data from which a productive project c an be launched.

Still another connotation arises when a dominating factor is-removed from an environment in such a way

t h a t t h e remaining elements a r e l e f t , a s the saying goes, a t loose ends -- suddenly disorganized by the removal of a coordinating agent on which they had become dependent,

Then the re i s t h a t persona l i ty ahich seems t o be a laays a t loose ends -- the m i s f i t who makes up the in- t e l l e c t u a l breadl ines throughout the world -- hovering i n the shadows of learning, subs i s t ing from ,.rehashes of other peoples? handouts because t h e i r own ntina i s too disorganized t o produce anything of i t s own.

And f i n a l l y t h e r e i s t h e type of loose end t h a t i s l e f t when ac t ion i s taken based on the considera t ion of but one element i n a complicated problem.

Now a l l these phases of loose-endedness have a common denominator i n t h a t they represent something t h a t i s incomplete -- unfinished o r unorganized, uncorrelated. O r , a~ ld perhaps most importantly, unsup~or ted , f o r i t seems t o me that t he unsupported statement offered a s evidence i s t h e most undesi rable and dangerous loose end of a l l . -

I n r e t ro spec t it would appear t h a t it was a t l e a s t p a r t i a l l y from the acceptance of a mass of such loose ends t h a t t h e g r e a t burro-bighorn f a l l a c y was born -- l a rge ly from ca re l e s s o r malicious statements always made, . of course, by o ther people,

I was r i d ing down the f l o o r of Death Valley one time with an eminent geologis t who had spent more time i n his f i e l d t h e r e than- m y other man a l i v e , I :.asked him what a s t r eak of l i g h t colored rock running along the c r e s t of a d i s t a n t mountain might be and he began t o t e i l me-what he thought an6 as he tz lked I began t o virite down what I could. g e t of it. Suddenly he turned t o me and said, nWhat a r e you doing?* I s a i d , n I l m put t ing i t d0wn.B He sa id , flCut i t out. I ' l l t e l l you when t o put i t dom. You :asked me what I thought, and I ' m t e l l i n g you what I th ink -- but I don' t publ ish what I think. I publish what I knowem

Publishing only what we know and never what we th ink aould e l iminate many loose ends i n our l i t e r a t u r e of the bighorn, of course. I n f a c t , i t would p r a c t i c a l l y elim- i n a t e t h e l i t e r a t u r e 1 Our book,-WThe ~ i g h o r n of ~ e a t h Valleyn would never have been wkitten -- or t o say the l e a s t , xould have been very sho r t -- had w e put down only what we h o w -- only those threads of knowledge which could be %oven - i n t o a f i n a l p a t t e r n of the wnole f a b r i c of bighorn survival .

So what I am s t ruggl ing x i t h i s not t he idea of eliminating loose end thinking, but r a the r of recognizing it, understanding it and learning t o evaluate i t and t o produce

prac t i ca l r e s u l t s with it.

For example, any population estimate of the number of bighorn i n Death Valley w i l l always have t o be based on loose ends of information or loose end data, and w i l l consequently remain a loose end i n i t s e l f . As long as t h i s i s properly evaluated and understood there i s notharm i n t h i s . But should such an estimate be accepted as a proven fac t , and be used t o suggest an overpopulation of the region and an indication of a need f o r hunting it could conceimbly become catastrophic.

I n any case a population figure, even though it should r e f l e c t an exact and posit ive count, r emains a loose end u n t i l i t i s correlated t o the en t i r e biota i n which it was made. The omission of any single f ac to r such as the time of year the count was made, the r e l a t ive forage conditions, the r e l a t i v e prec ip i ta t ion fo r tha t year correl- a ted t o the prec ip i ta t ion of the year before and the year before t h a t and so on and so on through the en t i r e l i s t of f a c t o r s ad infinitum. Neglected loose ends can lead t o dead ends.

I have a l i s t of loose ends which 1 struggle with off and on and which threaten t o f a l l i n t o t h i s category. I n general, they take the form of questions which I c a n t t answer. Here a r e some about the 90% lamb mortality in Death Valley. m a t causes it? How are you going t o determine the

- _ -_taus-e--ess-xou c a m f ind- s ick Jambs -or -dead- lambs2soon enough f o r successful autopsy? I n an area l i k e Death V what could you do about it i f you did determine the cause? Would it be v i s e t o do anything a b z it i f you could? Is it n o t possible t h a t the high mortali ty i s actually a construct- i v e fac tor i n the prevention of dangerous build-ups and die- o f f s such as took place i n the Tarryalls?

Is it t r u e -- or possible -- t h a t deer represent a potent ia l ly c r i t i c a l competition t o the bighorn? Is it possible t h a t we should have been eonsidering them much more dangerous t o bighorn than burros were once considered t o be? After all, we have on record several areas where deer seem t o t h r i v e and bighorn do not, and by the same token areas where - bighorn th r ive and deer do not -- such a s the Panamint Range i n Death Valley. Big loose ends a l l 3

Are w e c lear i n our minds about #Hunting surplusR i n bighorn ecology? What do we mean by whunting surplus^? How do we determine i f one exis ts? I s it a f t e r a l l , necessary that one must e x i s t before hunting -- controlled hunting -- can be permitted? Are there not some grounds for believing that some harvest i s considered beneficial i n a normal biota

without considera t ion surplus

How about stomach analyses? What c an they r e a l l y t e l l us about food h a b i t s o r food requirements unless they can be cor re la ted t o feeding behavior and t o a l l the o ther f a c t o r s i n t h e b io t a contr ibuting t o t he surv iva l pa t t e rn of the animals concerned? mat was dominating the browsing a c t i v i t y of t he animal when taken -- t he nature of the food? The g enera l condi t ion of the animal when i t found the food? The type of l eadersh ip present? The weather, the t e r r a in , and the time and d i s t ance from water? m d how about t h e com- pos i t i on of t h e herd from which t h e animal was taken -- t he age c l a s s and sex, with spec i a l reference t o reproduc'tion, which may temporari ly dominate both feeding and watering behavior? - X a s t h e animal taken i n i t s normal home range i n a normal year? O r had i t been forced i n t o a s trange a r ea on emergency r a t i o n s by a c r i t i c a l drought, the drying up of food and water a t i t s home base?

Le t t s look b r i e f l y a t the matr iarchal system. How much depends on t h e o ld lady t o whom the band seems t o look f o r almost a l l dec i s ions governing i t s survival pat terns? She seems t o decide when, where and what t o ea t , t o d r ink, t o s leep and t o be a f r a i d of. The o thers follow her example, making use of t he knowledge s to red i n her bra in much as we d id a few mi l l ion years ago. g i l l he r decisions about human encroachment decide t h e ul t imate surv iva l of her race? How important i s she i n es tab l i sh ing and perpetuat ing.capt ive

s_s-om in4& pen-s-a b-1% --the-ne eds--of_ -2r-e sent - day xessmc management? In view of t h e f a c t t h a t i t took the o r ig

a1 matr iarch a t Corn Creek severa l years t o nownn her lamb, would it no t be dangerous i f not a c t u a l l y ca tas t rophic t o allow he r es tab l i shed s t r a i n t o be broken by allowing the ewes born and ra i sed i n c a p t i v i t y t o be removed from t h e i r already accepted environment? O r a t l e a s t should we not make c e r t a i n t h a t any ewes so removed a r e ac tua l ly surplus t o t he o r i g i n a l perpetuat ion of t he o r i g i n a l s t r a i n ?

T h i s brings us t o the point of what a r e we ac tua l ly doing t o insure t h e i r survival? Is wri t ing papers t o and f o r each o the r t o be t he f i n a l object ive of t h i s conference? Is what we say or do he re going t o decide the i s sue , o r should we be spending more time t ry ing t o reach the t ax payer and t ry ing t o convince h i n t h a t public lands and the th ings t h a t l i v e t h e r e a r e aor th saving? O r should we leave t h a t t o Yalt Disney, whose ground s q u i r r e l s tour t h e world on the backs of t o r t o i s e s and ahose rams f i g h t t o t he death t o the tune of the UAnvil Chorusn? But l e t ' s not s e l l Disney shor t . gespi te the f a c t t h a t he runs t h e biggest boloney fac tory i n t he aor ld he has a l s o done more t o save the bighorn than a l l o ther fac- t o r s i n t h e world put together! Cer ta in ly we a l l wish he could be more accurate. 9is p ic tu res lzave the a i r buzzing

with loose ends. 9ut t h a t ' s not the only place we f ind them.

There i s a short preface t o the next phase of t h i s discussion. F or some reason which has never been qui te c l ea r t o mo, it has been considzred out of order f o r an author t o object t o c r i t ic i sm of h i s work, no matter hoar unjust i f ied the c r i t ic i sm might be. I do not propose .to argue tha t point -- t h a t loose end -- here. But I do have some questions regarding t h i s area of the Counc i l~s objectives.

Are we not here dedicated t o the search f o r t r u t h -- f o r f a c t s -- t o accuracy i n what w e say -- and. write? O r do w e want t o leave t o those younger than we who w i l l follow us i n this work, a legacy of carelessness with regard t o these matters? Is any aord sacred -- e i the r spoken or writ ten -- beyond the degree t o which it contributes t o knowledge of i t s subject matter? And a r e not f a c t s the very substance of knovrledg e?

My a t t en t ion was recently cal led t o a review of our book about bighorn i n the Journal of B i l d l i f e ?!ai:agement, i n uhich the' revieaer, who had spent several years i n a bighorn area f o r the Fish and Wildlife Service, m&es some rather remarkable observations .v~hich i l l u s t r a t e my point.

The f i rs t one t h a t a t t rac ted my a t ten t ton was this: mThe authors a r e a husband and wife team who hsse demonstrated with t h i s publication t h a t ohe does not have t o be of the

---p~oEesslonal-- cLass-to -make- a: reaL1-y-vaauable contr-ibution- to- -- - ---

ivi ldlife management, provided he has the a t t r i b u t e of an in- t e l l i g e n t , unquenchable curiosity.*

'Nov, t h a t sourided complimentary when I f i r s t read it, but ac tua l ly i t ' s a harpoon disguised as a lo l l ipop i f I ever saw one. Curiosity of any qual i ty or quaati ty i s not the only qual i f ica t ion necessary f o r writing a book. !2= have tha t . And I would be interested i n h i s def in i t ion of professional c lass . By the time the book was writ ten I had been employed zs a n a t u r a l i s t f o r nine years by the National Park Service. And I had b een going along a l l t na t time thinking I - was professional. And besides that I got a passing grade i n Ifatural Science i n High School and a C i n fres'man Biology a t S z n Jose State. By ~ i f e got a P i n the sane course. Yie s a t next t o each other i n the f ront rov and our understanding of biological s i tua t ions developed rapidly f r o a then on.

The next statement which struck me disclosed a loose end i n the book. The reviewer gicked up the f igure o f 6 from the summary t o quote as the number of years GS si-ent i n tile f i e l d . This f igu re was tht? r e s u l t of editoriz.1 con- fusion and referred only tb-.the intensive phase of our program

from December 1954 t o Karch 1961. It ignored t h e opening paragrash 09 t h e i n t r o d u c t i o n i n which t h e beginning of our ~ ~ o r k cas g iven a s of January 1950. T h e r ~ i s q u i t e s depre- c i a t i o n between 11 years of work and 6.

I n %he same paragraph t h e revie-i~er says t h a t t h e book I f represents about 130 days of d a y l i g h t observa t iog of bighoril i n t k ~ e f ield.11 The summary g ives t h e Gov~r-nment t a i l y of hours of i n t e n s i v s f i e l d work a s 1693. Dividing t h a t f i g u r e by t h e r e v i e ~ f e r 1s 150 days g ives a d a y f s xork of 1 3 hours . I d i d n ' t k n o ~ t h e r e was t h a t much d i f f e r e n c e between t h e agenc ies . Divide 1593 by t h e Park S e r v i c e f s '8 hour day and you come up v i t h 212 days i n s t e a d of 130.

Anil f i n a l l y , t h e reviewer s a i d t h ~ i t he " f inds hirnsslf i u qx ize complete agreemen-G with t h s a u t h o r s f i n t e r - p r e t a t i o n of t h e i r f i e l d f i n d i r g s , with on2 ra-tiler notable exception. T h i ~ i s i n thz: ma t t e r of Lasing an es t ima ie of t ~ e number of bizhorn i n Death Vaiiey ::ationai ?Jonusent on waterhole counts . A t o t a l populat ion of 915 animals was i m - puted f r o n only 174 animals a c t u a l l y t a l l i e d . This would akyes r t o be i n v a l i d , as would t h e reasonairlg t h a t i f la q u a r t e r of t h e t o t a l populat ions i n a givcn a r e a were s ighted a e x e r e lucky i n d e c d f . Iil v i e ; of ti12 adjnit tedly small, s c a t t e r e d , and p o s s i b l g nomadic populat ion of bighorn i n Death Valley, i c would seen b e s t t o av3ia lucking othl?r tlxin u l t r a -coase rva t ive est i rnstes f o r mnnagement purposes u n t i l r e a l l y f a c t u a l popula t ion i a t a a r e obta inable by means of

-- aoce-ehausti-KeAtecimiques . n ---- -= -- - - - - --- -- - -

This l z s t paragraph almost makes m e monder i f h e really read t h e boobyor d i d sorn:.; old Indian t e l l him about it!

Tile e s t ima tes were no'^ mzde from a a t e r i ~ o l e couiits a lone but fron a11 sheep seea aliywhere i n the Xonument a t any time. Thz f i g u r e s he took viere from 2able 12, 2ages 149-150, Eighorn Cerlsus Surveys i n 3ea.th 'LTa-l;.y from 155 t o 161. The

' r e r n a r k a b l ~ t h i n g about t h a t c h a r t i s t h a t i t conta ins 6 c o l u s of f i g u r e s from which ou: r e v i e a e r chose but two s i t h which t o do h i s loose-ended thinking.

Xere a r e t h e t o t a l s f o r your considerat ion:

1955 7

1955-59 1969-61 . Seen &st. Szen ? s t . Seen Fs t .

By t h e s e f i g u r e s you w i l l s ee t h a t th? t o t s 1 t a l l y was n o t 174 bu t 612.

Had he read t h e d i scuss ion of Table 1 2 i n t h e book he would have founu on 'page 156 that we suggested t h a t f o r t h e

f + r p o s e ~ of d i s c u s s i o n thr f i g u r e s be rounded out t o 900 as -the a c t u a l m~ximn. That 30 per c e n t be d26ucted f o r e r r o r s in censusing due t o ram over lap and t o provide f o r annual lamb m o r t a l i t y , l z a v i ~ 600 a s t h e a c t u a l ninimum. Tho 905 i s given t o i n d i c a t e t h e lamb crop a t i t s peaz and t h e 605 represents xhat w e b e l i e v e t o be t h e averzge car ry ing capac i ty of t h e t o t a l b i o t a when annual lamb m o r t a l i t y has r e s t o r e d t h e balance around January 1 of each y2ar.

Our reviewer a l s o dec lared a s i n v a l i d our reasozing t h a t i f a q u a r t e r of t h e t o t a l popula t ion i n a given a r e a ;eke s i g h t e d w e were lucky indeed.

I n t h e f i r s t p lace t h i s s tatement on page 1 5 1 -#as made i n a d i s c u s s i o n of t h e 1955 census only. The v a l i d i t y of this reasoning i s sup1:orted by t h e f a c t that during t h e 1955 census s e counted 20 bighorn on t h e e n t i r e west s i d e of t h e Xonument i n t h e Cottonwood and Fanamint Mountains. By Febru- ary of 1961 we had a c t u a l l y counted 217, o r over 1 0 t imes the 1955 count i n the sane a rea .

H i s i m p l i c a t i o n t h a t our populat ion d a t a a r e n o t n r e a i l y factualw l s a v e s a l o o s e end of t h e most i n s i d i o u s ~ ~ a t u r e . If i t i s n o t f a c t u a l , hat i s it -- f i c t i o n a l ?

And hat more exhaus t ive techniques could be used t o o b t a i n t h i s data than t h e way w e d i d it. A t l e a s t it exhausted us -- and has now probably exhausted you.

- -- - - - - - .- -- - - - - - --- - - - - - - - -- - -- - - - - - - - - -- -- -- - .- - -- - - - -. -

So I w i l l c lose by t i e i n g down one more l o o s e end. Last yea r , I f m a f r a i d , I might h a w l e f t t h e impression t h a t no r e p o r t from o t h e r observers could be regarded as v a l i d . I don ' t want t o l e a v e that impression. You can be l i eve t h a t o ld Ind ian -- if hers t e l l i n & -t& t r u t h 1

WATER METABOLISM IN DESERT MAMMALS

With special Reference to the Desert Bighorn Sheep

William G. ~radley% University of Nevada

Southern Regional Division

Introduction

Mammals which inhabit the desert regions of the world are exposed to two major interrelated physiological problems: the maintenance of an adequate water balance and the maintenance of a suitable temperature range. The higher temperatures so typical of deserts often present the problem of an additional water requirement for temperature regulation.

Although these problems are well known, especially to anyone i ivwg in the deser-6, surprisingly littie is hiown concerning the water relationships of mammals native to the desert. This report reviews the literature concerning water metabolism in desert mammals and offers suggestive conclusions which may be of value to those working with desert mammals and, in particular the desert bighorn sheep. - - - _ - - _ _ - _- - _ - --________.-_-_

The water exchanges which take place in mammalian systems may be classified as follov~s:

(1) Intake of water drinking water free water in food oxidation of hydrogen (metabolic water)

of water in the urine

the feces by evaporation from the lungs and skin (~vaporative cooling by sweating and panting is a means of reduction of.heat load by the expenditure of water. This is an additional loss added to the water normally lost from the lungs and skin.)

* This paper was written while the author was attending the University of Arizona, Department of Zoology, as a National Science Foundation Science Faculty Fellow.

Dill (1938) classified animals living in the deserts into those which must take in water by drinking and those which may remain in water balance from the water found in their food. A more meanin ful classification was used by K. and B. Schmidt- Nielsen (19527. They separated desert mammals into those who regularly use water for temperature regulation and those who avoid temperature extremes and do not normally use water for temperature regulation. In general, the rodents, lagomorphys, and carnivores fall into the latter group and the larger grazing or browzing mammals into the former. Table I is a compilation of significant features of the water relationships of selected species and should be referred to for details and for an understanding of this yeport.

Mammals which do not norm all^ emend water in the regulation of temperature

It is well hown that many small rodents live in desert areas where drinkin water is not available over long periods of time. Buxton (1923 7 has gathered information on animal life in deserts but did not deal specifically with the physiology of water metabolism. Members of the family Heteromyidae kept in captivity on a diet of dry food are reported by Stephen (1906), Biley (19231, and Howell and Gersh (1935). Ecological studies of desert mammals by Vorhies and Taylor (1940) and Vorhies (1945) conducted in Arizona point out the relationship of the microclimate and.diet to an understanding of water relationships. Even earlier, Sumner (1925) clearly pointed out that desert

- - b-u-r-ro-Ging-an rodents survive -ibTnoC~t-lC.hhabb~tt~ in the desert by avoiding .--. B5d-e-memeerr-f dehydration lr9.T7r)-~SStatedddd both by --. --- =

that burrowing marnmals are more numerous in the deserts of the world. In forests only 6% of the mammals live below ground as contrasted with 723 in the deserts.

Only recently has the water metabolism of desert mammals been given serious attention by physiologists. The ~chrnidt-~ielsens, in investigating the water metabolism of Dipodomys merriami, have pioneered the way to a better understanding of water relationships in small mammals. Reviews and discussions of water metabolism which are especially valuable are those by the Schmidt -Nielsens (l952), Bodenheimer (1957 ) , and Chew (1961).

From the studies of the Schmidt-Nielsens and collaborators (1948a, 1948b, 1948c, 1949, lgwa, 1950b, lggc, 1951, 1952, 1953) and B. Schmidt-Nielsen (1954, 1955), the following generalizations may be drawn. Dipodomys merriami can maintain water balance on water obtained from its food (metabolic water plus a small amount of free water in the diet). 1t conserves water by avoiding heat stress, reducing evaporation, and producing dry feces and concentrated urine. Other heteromyids have similar adaptations for living in the deserts.

Small rodents of t h e family Cricetidae appear t o be l e s s adapted t o the North American deser t s orhi hies and Taylor, 1940; Vorhies, 1945; Lindeborg, 1952; Chew, 1955). Species of the genera Peromyscus and Onychomys need some succulent food. t o maintain water balance. This i s especial ly t r u e of the genus Neotoma. The s tudies of Vorhies and Taylor (1940) and Lee and MacMillan (1959) both s t r e s s the importance of succulent food, especial ly cactus, i n the d i e t . Schmidt -Nielsen, e t a l . (1948a), a f t e r a study of Neotoma a lb igula under l a b o r a t o r y ~ o n d i t i o n s , s t a t e d t h a t it i s adapted t o l i v i n g i n the deser t not by a b i l i t y t o conserve water but by i t s a b i l i t y t o feed on cac t i .

Members of t h e rodent family Sciuridae which l i v e i n deser t s a r e diurnal and therefore come i n contact with higher environmental temperatures. Hawbecker (1947, 1953, 1958), i n h i s s tudies of C i t e l lus nelsoni, pointed out t h a t t h i s diurnal ground squ i r re l avoids heat s t r e s s by being ac t ive during the e a r l y and l a t e hours of t h e summer day and, while d i e t i s la rge ly governed by a v a i l a b i l i t y , succulent food i s consumed when ava i lab le during the summer months. Bartholomew and Hudson (1959, 1961) and Dawson (1953) have investigated a closely re la ted species Ci te l lus leucurus. Their findings show tha t t h i s ground s q u i r r e l i s adapted t o t h e deser t environment by a tolerance t o dehydration, production of a concentrated urine, a tolerance t o hyperthemia, avoidance of excessive heat s t r e s s , and the consumption of succulent foods. Other members of t h i s family such as Cynom s fulvus i n Asia and Ci te l lus tereticaudus and + Ci te l lus mo avensis i n the United Sta tes enter es t iva t ion when

- -- - -- - 8he =veget a=b&=on--d~Ies -up - and- suc cuaent -f ood--2 s--no - l o n g e ~ -ava=iclable ==-

( ~ o r h i e s , 1945; Bodenheimer, 1957; Ehrtholomew and Hudson, 1961).

Lagomorphs which a r e so common i n our Southwestern deser t s a r e la rge ly nocturnal. Jack rabb i t s ( ~ e p u s cal i fornicus , L. a l l e n i ) have no burrows f o r avoidance of h e m t h o u g h they - a r e commonly seen "shaded up" under vegetation during the heat of the day. However, they endure more heat s t r e s s than any of the mammals discussed so f a r . Vorhies (1945) reported t h a t jack rabb i t s i n Arizona used green grass a s food a f t e r the winter r a ins but tha t these r abb i t s switched t o a d i e t of mesquite and cactus during the a r i d ea r ly summer months. The Schmidt-Nielsens (1952) concluded t h a t although sweat glands a r e absent, considerable water i s l o s t by e v a ~ o r a t i o n from the skin. Further, they thought t h a t the la rge highly vascularized ears m i g h t play an important pa r t in temperature regulation.

Among carnivores there appears t o be no major d i f f i c u l t i e s i n maintaining water balance a s long as they do not use water f o r heat regulat ion ( ~ c h m i d t - ~ i e l s e n s , 1952). The North American carnivores common t o deser t s such as Vulpes, Canis, Taxidea, and Lynx a r e l a rge ly nocturnal and avoid heat s t r e s s . Marais (1914) found t h a t a w i l d dog ( ~ y c a o n p ic tus) was the only .

medium t o large s i z e mammal not t o suffer from an absence of avai lable water during a prolonged drought i n South Africa.

The major adaptations i n the mammals considered s o f a r a r e the conservation of water and the avoidance of temperature extremes. K. Schmidt -Nielsen (1954) pointed out t h a t upon exposure t o abnormally high temperatures the kangaroo r a t w i l l use water f o r evaporative cooling by sa l iva t ion . This emergency heat regulation cannot continue f o r long. Since the re la t ive surface area i s greater i n a small than i n a la rge animal, a small animal which uses water f o r temperature regulation uses comparatively large quant i t ies . He calculated t h a t the theore t ica l water losses t o keep the body temperature constant under deser t conditions would be 21.57 of body weight per hour i n the kangaroo ra t , 4.796 per hour in the jack rabbi t , 1.47y per hour i n man, and 0.77 per hour i n the camel. Evaporation ra t e s under ac tua l desert conditions i n the southwestern United States were 1.2470of body weight per hour f o r the donkey and 1 .413 fo r man. Therefore, except a s an emergency measure f o r short periods of time, temperature regulation by the expenditure of water i s 3mpossible i n small desert mammals.

Mammals which normally expend water i n the regulation of temperature

Khowiedge or? the water re la t ionsnips or' t ne la rger mammals inhabiting deserts and a r i d regions of t h e world i s inadequate. Bodenheimer (195'7) discussed many of the la rger ungulates of the Old World deser ts . Antilope subgutturosa and Equus hemionus are known t o migrate t o water i n the deser ts of

- - --&Gxew_ _( 1 92 6), _ hew ever,-- state s_t%t Sx-se-_?z&e ls_ _ -_ - =

never drink i n the Gobi Desert. Bodenheimer s t a t e s t h a t a l l of t h e la rger mammals of the Sahara Desert ( ~ d d a x , Oryx ~ a z e l l a ) do not drink f o r many months a t a time. ~ a r r u t h ~ [ 1 9 9 5 ) believed t h a t i n Arabia Oryx bea t r ix can do without drinking for indef in i te periods. B u * F ( m e p o r t e d a small gazelle ( ~ a z e l l a arabica) a s occurring on islands i n the Red Sea which a r e without any permanent water sources. Bryden (1936) found t h a t many of the larger mammals of the Kalahari Desert of South Africa were i n good condition a f t e r several months without a source of drinking water. Bodenheimer a l s o s t a t ed tha t many of the la rger mammals of the Kalahari do not need water but pointed out the importance of large succulent f r u i t s , tubers, and bulbs a s sources of food. Although the physiology of these mammals i s unmown, the many observations recorded i n the l i t e r a t u r e indicate tha t a t l eas t some of the la rger mammals may go for long periods of time without drinking.

Water requirements of the la rger mammals l iv ing i n the southwestern deserts of North America a r e not accurately known.

A study of the Desert Bighorn Council Transactions reveals no uniformity of opinion a s to the water requirements of deser t sheep. Monson (1958) f e l t that most of the sheep on the Cabeza Prieta Game Range i n the summer of 1956 did not drink

from July 1 u n t i l 6 months l a t e r . He a lso reported the poss ib i l i ty t h a t desert sheep l i v ing i n the California desert may never drink. Graves (1961) believed that , under conditions of maximum temperatures and minimum green food, most desert sheep on the Cabeza Prieta and Kofa Game Ranges w i l l water every 3 t o 5 days. Wells and Wells (1961) reported that desert sheep i n Death Valley drink every day during hot weather i f they are near water but t ha t periods up t o 3 days without water are not uncommon. They could find no evidence tha t sheep could survive without f ree water durin the winter or a t higher elevations. K. Schmidt -Nielsen (1956 7 found t h a t domestic sheep, donkeys, and camels can go without water f o r approximately 3, 4, and 12-17 days, respectively. There i s some basis fo r believing tha t the large mammals of our southwestern deserts need water more frequently than do similar animals of the Old World deserts.

While the mechanisms of water metabolism of most large mammals i s not well known, the physiology of certain domestic mammals character is t ic of a r i d regions has been rather extensively studied. Lee and Phi l l ips (1948) have studied the adaptabili ty of l ivestock t o climatic s t ress . The presence of sweat glands in c a t t l e and t h e i r importance i n evaporative cooling i s pointed out by Dowling (1958) and Nay (1959). However, the greater heat tolerance of Bra'nman cows does not appear t o be correlated with efficiency of sweating but with

\ t h e i r greater surface area per un i t weight which i n turn resu l t s i n greater heat dissipat ion by convection, radiation, and vaporization (Dukes, 1955). Their lower basal metabolism may

Lso- -be-an - important - factor=_in increased heat tolerance. _ ___-_

The water metabolism of the camel has been investigated by the Schmidt -Nielsens and collaborators (1956, 1959). !Their work has been reviewed i n the transactions of the Desert Bighorn Council ( ~ o p l i n , 1960) so it w i l l not be considered i n de ta i l . Adaptations i n the camel fo r l iv ing i n a r id regions include a tolerance t o dehydration, a tolerance of hyperthermia, and a concentrated urine.

Koplin pointed out the dangers i n attempting analogies between the water metabolism of the camel and the desert sheep. He f'urther s ta ted t ha t it i s not known i f desert sheep could to lera te dehydration or hyperthermia nor was the extent of urine concentration known.

A t t h i s time (1963) the physiology o f the water metabolism of the Merino sheep is comparatively well known. Since they a r e closely related and l i ve i n similar environments there i s some jus t i f ica t ion f o r attempting an analogy between the mechanism of water balance in the Merino sheep and those of the desert sheep.

It Is believed t h a t the Merino, a race of domestic sheep (0vis a r i e s ) , i s derived from the Moulflon (0vis musimon), ( ~ r a s e r x Short, 1959). The Merino, which appears t o have originated i n a hot, a r i d environment, has been stocked on ranches throughout the southwestern United States . It i s noted fo r i t s a b i l i t y t o " s h i f t fo r i t s e l f " on our western ranges and only recent ly a f t e r water development and other improvements have been made has it been largely replaced on many ranches by other breeds. The Merino has adjusted well t o the a r i d inland plains of Austral ia and some eight mll l ion a r e found north of the Tropic of Capricorn (Macfarlane, - e t -* a 1 3 1 9 s ) . The Merino and deser t sheep both belonging t o t h e genus - Ovis l i v e i n hot, a r i d environments and may be considered ecological equivalents. Physiological adaptations which allow them to-survive i n similar environments a r e probably comparable.

During the l a s t decade a great deal of work on the physiology of the Merino sheep has been conducted i n Australia. Dukes (1955) has reviewed the temperature re la t ionships of a number of domestic animals and concluded t h a t sheep t o l e r a t e the higher environmental temperatures be t t e r than other animals studied. In many areas of Australia sheep a r e held i n open pastures without shade. Temperature regulation by sheep subjected t o summer temperatures a s high a s ll5OF i s mainly by panting ( ~ e e 1 9 s ; Macfarlane, e t a l . , 1958; Brook and Short, 1960a, 1960b). Brook and Short z n f u d e d from t h e i r comparative study of sheep with and without sweat glands that , although swea=t&ng=dAd=occu~=in- t h e -Merino -sheep, - i-t-was- of- lesser-- -- - ---

importance. They did point out tha t shorn sheep were more e f f i c i e n t a t sweating. Riek, e t a l . (199) concluded t h a t sheep on a moderately adequate d i e t K s s t e d i n more e f f i c i e n t temperature regulation. Although shorn sheep sweat more e f f ic ien t ly , t he insu la t ing propert ies of wool i n protecting against rad ia t ion i s considered advantageous. Macfarlane, e t a l . (1958) s ta ted t h a t r e sp i ra t ion . ra t e s a r e twice a s high i n s h o r n sheep a s unshorn sheep i n the summer months and tha t the shearing of sheep l i v i n g on the a r i d open plains adds t o t h e i r heat load. Evaporative cooling by panting and sweating increases water demand and i n the summer Merinos drink about 1 2 times a s much as i n the winter.

Since la rge amounts of water a r e used during the summer i n heat regulation, other possible physiological adaptations, such a s tolerance t o dehydration, a re of i n t e r e s t . The Merino does not have a la rger volume of body water than sheep l i v i n g i n more mesic regions ( ~ u d t z - ~ l s e n , e t a 1 1961). Macfarlane, e t a l . (1959) found tha t the Merino c a n ~ i i k s t a n d a water los s o r 3 p of i t s body weight. Although not c lear ly understood they pointed out t h a t an important factor i n being able t o withstand t h i s extreme dehydration was the a b i l i t y t o maintain plasma volume. In a l a t e r paper (Macfarlane, e t a l . , 1961) they concluded tha t a f u l l rumen containing w a t e r u p 7 0

13% body weight could provide much of the extracellular loss during dehydration. Over half of the water lost, however, would be from intracellular sources resulting in a decrease in plasma and an increase in hemoglobin and plasma proteins in the blood. However, the rugged cardiovascular system allows circulation to be maintained with viscous blood of reduced volume.

They further stated that in the dry, hot summer the sheep can survive for 6 to 10 days-without water. Urine output fell sharply after 2 days without water. During the early stages up to 1.6 liters of water a day was passed. After the third day urine output-was below 300 milliliters per day and by the sixth to tenth day below 100 milliliters of thick muddy fluid. The urea concentration during dehydration rose to 3.2 osmoles. Other papers concerning the function of the kidney in sheep pointed out that urea excretion is by an active transport of urea in the region of the loop of Henle Schmidt-Nielsen, et g., 1958; McDonald and Macfarlane, 1958 f . The functional efficiency of the kidney is also borne out by studies which showed that Merinos can drink water with high concentration of sodium chloride (~eirce, 195'7, 1959, 1960; Potter, 1961). This is advantageous in semi-arid regions where natural waters contain high concentrations of sodium chloride and also where saltbushes of the genus Atriplex which contain high concentrations of sodium chloride are important food sources.

It can be seen that the Merino sheep compares favorably with the camel in the number of physiological adaptations for

-- ---- - ---deser-t-living. --:Both have-a -thick-coat - for protect-ion--aga solar radiation, a concentrated urine, the ability to utilize saline water and foods, a tolerance to dehydration, and some degree of tolerance to hyperthermia. However, there is not as wide a diurnal range of temperature in the sheep as in the camel. In surmner the diurnal range is from 3.6 to 5. b°F compared to a range of 7 to ll°F in the camel (~chmidt-~ielsen, - et -* a1 1956b; Macfarlane, -- et al. ,, 1958).

Summary and Conclusions

Desert mammals, on the basis of their water metabolism, may be classified into two basic groups: one group, consisting mainly of smaller mammals such as rodents, lagomorphs, and carnivores does not expend water for temperature regulation but survive in the desert even without drinking water by utilizing succulent foods, conserving water in urine formation, and avoiding heat stress by burrowing and nocturnal habits. Some members-of this group such as kangaroo rats and pocket mice can obtain their entire water needs from metabolic water and the small amount of free water in their dry foods.

The second group, consisting of the larger desert ungulates, are unable to avoid conditions of heat stress and most expend some water in the regulation of temperature. More information is needed concerning the water requirements of these - animals. Although field observations indicate that some members of this group can do without drinking water indefinitely, studies on domestic animals do not confirm this. On the contrary, such studies indicate that during the hot, arid summer months when succulent foods are at a minimum, water must be taken in by drinking at least every 2 or 3 weeks. Two large domestic mammals, the camel and Merino sheep, show parallel physiological adaptations for an existence in the desert. These adaptations, which include tolerance to dehydration and hyperthemia, conservation of water in urine formation, and ability to take in salts in water and foods, should be looked for in wild desert ungulates.

Since the Merino and the desert bighorn are in the same genus and live in similar environments they may be considered as' ecological equivalents. It appears that the number of physiological adaptations concerning water balance in mammalian - systems are limited and parallel adaptations for living In the desert may be found in the desert bighorn and Merino sheep. Cert-a-inlg %he research and fadMgs an mter metabolisn! M the Merino sheep can be used as a model and should stimulate similar research on the physiology of the desert bighorn.

Studies of the-Merino sheep suggest that better utilization of desert bighorn range could be brought about by

--deve-lopment -of- more -watering- areas. - - These -watering-areas- shouldd

--- - =

be located so as to be available to bighorns at least every 2 to 3 days during their normal movements. A general climatic shift towards increased dryness has occurred in the Southwest since the last pluvial and may well be responsible for a decline in bighorn sheep numbers. However, it is probable that the desert bighorn is better adapted to xeric conditions than has been previously suggested. With modern management techniques providing suitable watering areas, it is likely that a sizeable populatfon of these sheep may be indefinitely maintained in the Southwest.

I

Table I. Major f e a t u r e s of t h e metabolism of s e l e c t e d mammals 1 I I

I

Minimum sum- Use o f Conc. Tolerance I, Normal Behavior i n Major adap ta t ions Spec ies mer water water i n of t o i temperature r e l a t i o n t o f o r water References

requirements tempera ture u r e a dehydrat ion range h e a t s t r e s s conservat ion I /I

Kangaroo r a t Metabol ic None, - 22.8% Low, dea th f Moderate - Avoidance Avoidance of hea t Schmidt- . (Dipodomys water p l u s s a l i v a t i o n be fo re body h y p e r t h e m i a by burrow- s t r e s s and extreme Nie lsens merriaml'f f r e e water a s emergen- water i s 97-104OF ing and conserva t ion of e t a l . (1952) I i n dry foods cy measure much reduced noc tu rna l water

1 h a b i t s Antelope Met abo 1 i c None, 17.0% - High, a t Hype r themia Diu rna l , Tolerance t o de- Dawson (1948); ground water p l u s s a l i v a t i o n l e a s t 25% : 99-110'~ avoidance hydra t ion and Bartholomew & - s q u i r r e l succulen t a s emergen- of body , by use of hyperthermia, Hudson (1959), ( C i t e l l u s foods cy measure weight I burrows concent r a t e d (1961)

leucurus) I and shade u r i n e , avoids I I h e a t stress, and I succulen t foods

Pack r a t Metabol ic None, - 11 .O% Low, dea th Unknown - Avoidance Avoidance of h e a t Schmidt- (Neotoma spp. ) water p l u s s a l i v a t i o n i n 4-9 days by burrow- stress and use of Nie lsens

h ighly a s emergen- on d i e t o f i n g and h igh ly succulen t et a l . (1948a) succulen t cy measure? dry food nocturna l foods

h a b i t s Schmidt - Nielsens

I n c a p t i v i t y et a l . (1948a) cy measure

mia Diu rna l , Tolerance t o de- Schmidt- (Camelus h i g h h e a t hydra t ion and Nielsens dromedarius) stress hyperthermia and e t a l . (1956)

concent ra ted u r i n e Diu rna l , Tolerance t o de- Macfarlane

i a h igh hea t . hydra t ion and e t a l . (1961) by pan t ing , weight 11 101-106°~ s t r e s s hyperthermia and 1/3 by sweat- in^ . I concent ra ted u r ine "

Man Water w i th High water 6.0% Low, up t o / ' 98-100UF Diurnal , Permanent water Adolph (1947) - (Homo meals and l o s s bv 12% bodv h i g h h e a t s u ~ ~ l v and - - 1

- A A "

Sapiens) dur ing per- sweat ing weight s t r e s s modi f ica t ion o f iods of rest I, microenvironment

j/

Literature Cited

Adolph, E. F., (ed. ) . 1947. Physiology of man in the desert. Interscience, New York. 357 p.

Andrews, R. C. 1926. On the trail of ancient man. Putnam, New York and London. 375 p.

Bailey, V. 1923. Sources of water supply for desert animals. Sci. Monthly 17:66-86.

Bartholomew, G. A., and J. W. Hudson. 1959. Effects of sodium chloride on weight and drinking in the antelope ground squirrel. J. Mamm. 40: 354-360.

Bartholomew, G. A., and J. W. Hudson. 1961. Desert ground squirrels. Sci. American, November, p. 107-116.

Bodenheimer, F. S. 1957. The ecology of mammals in arid zones, p. 100-137. - In Human and animal ecology, UNESCO.

Brook, A. H., and B. F. Short. 1960a. Regulation of body temperature of sheep in a hot environment. Australian - J . Agr . nesearcn 11 : 402-407.

Brook, A. H., and B. F. Short. 1960b. Sweating in sheep. Australian J . Agr . Research 11: 557 -569.

Budtz-Olsen, 0. E., J. D. Cleeve, and B. A. Oelrichs. 1961. Total body water in Merino and Rommney Marsh sheep estimated by alcoholic (ethanol) dilution. Australian J. Agr. Research 12681-688.

Buxton, P. A. ,1923. Animal life in deserts. Arnold, London. 176 P-

Carmthers, D. 1935. Arabian adventure. Witherby, London. 208 p.

Chew, fa. M. 1955. The skin and respiratory water losses of Peromyscus maniculatus sonoriensis. Ecology 36:463-467.

Chew, R. M. 1961. Water metabolism of desert-inhabiting vertebrates. Biol. Rev. 36: 1-31.

Dawson, W. R. 1953. The relation of oxygen cornsumption to temperature in desert rodents. J. Mamm. 36:543-553.

Dill, D. B. 1938. Life, heat and altitude: physiological effects of hot climates and great heights. Harvard Univ. Press, Cambridge, Mass. 211 p.

Dowling, D. F. 1958. The significance of sweating in heat tolerance of cattle. Australian J. Agr. Research 9: 5'79-586.

Dukes, H. H. 1955. The physiology of domestic animals. Cornstock, Ithac, N. Y. 1020 p.

Fraser, A. S., and B. F. Short. 1960. The biology of the fleece. A n W l Research Laboratories Tech. Paper No. 3, Commonwealth Scientific and Industrial Research Organization, Australia, p. 5-81.

Graves, B. D. 1961. Waterhole observations of bighorn sheep. Trans. Desert Bighorn Council, April 4-7, p. 27-29.

Hawbecker, A. C. 1947. Food and moisture requirements of the Nelson antelope ground squirrel. J. Mamm. 28:115-125.

Hawbecker, A. C. 1953. Eslvironrnent of the Nelson antelope ground squirrel. J. Mamm. 34:324-334.

Hawbecker, A. C. 1958. Survival and home range in the Nelson antelope ground squirrel. J . Mamm. 39: 307 -215.

Howell, A. B., and I. Gersh. 1935. Conservation of water in the rodent Dipodomys. J. Mam. 16:l-9.

Koplin, J. R. 1960. New developments on water requirements on the Desert Game Range. Trans. Desert Bighorn Council, April 5-8, p. 54-57.

Lee, A. K., and R. E. MacMillan. 1959. Utilization of vegetation as a water source by coastal and inland populations of the desert woodrat. Bull. Ecol. Soc. Arner. 40: 48.

Lee, D. H. K., and R. W. Phillips. 1948. Assessment of the adaptability of livestock to climatic stress. J. Animal Sci. 7:391.

Lee, D. H. K. 1950. Studies of heat regulation in the sheep, with special reference to the Merino. Australian J. Agr. Research, 1: 200-216.

Lindeborg, R. G. 1952. Water requirements of certain rodents from xeric and mesic habitats. Contr. Lab. Vertebrate Biol., Univ. Michigan 58: 1-32.

Marais, E. N. 1914. Notes on some effects of extreme drought in Waterberg, South Africa. Rept. Smithsonian Inst. for 1914, pa 511-522.

Macfarlane, W. V., R. J. H. Morris, and B. Howard. 19%. Heat and water in tropical Merino sheep. Australian J. Agr . Research 9: 217 -228.

Macfarlane, W. V., R. J. H. Morris, B. Howard, and 0. E. Budtz- Olsen. 1959. Extracellular fluid distribution in tropical Merino sheep. Australian J. Agr. Research 10: 267 -286.

Macfarlane, W. V., R. J. H. Morris, B. Howard, J. McDonald, and 0. E. Budtz-Olsen. 1961. Water and electrolyte changes in tropical Merino sheep exposed to dehydration during summer. Australian J. Agr. Research 12:889-912.

McDonald, J., ahd W. V. Macfarlane. 19%. Renal function of sheep in hot environments. Australian J. Agr. Research

Monson, G. 1958. Water requirements. Trans. Desert Bighorn Council, April 8-11, p. 64-66.

Nay, T. 19s. Sweat glands in cattle: histology, morphology, and evolutionary trends. Australian J. Agr. Research 10: 121-128.

Peirce, A. W. 193. Studies on salt tolerance of sheep I. The tolerance of sheep for sodium chloride in the drinking

- --- - - - - =~a-ter-7-Austra-lian J.--Agr. -Research 8:711-7-22, =

Peirce, A. W. 1959. Studies on salt tolerance. of sheep 11. The tolerance of sheep for mixtmes of sodium chloride and magnesium chloride in the drinking water. Australian J. Agr. Research 10:725-735.

Peirce, A. W. 1960. Studies on salt tolerance of sheep 111. The tolerance of sheep for mixtures of sodium chloride and sodium sulphate in drinking water. Australian J. Agr. Research 11: 548-556.

Potter, B. J. 1961. The renal response of sheep to prolonged - ingestion of sodium chlorid;. ~ustraliah J. Agr. ~esearch 12: 440-445.

Riek, R. F., M. H. Hardy, P. H. K. Lee, and H. B. Carter. 199. The effect of the dietary plane upon the reactions of two breeds of sheep during short exposures to hot environments. Australian J. Agr. Research 1:217-230.

Schmidt -Nielsen, B., K. Schmidt -Nielsen, A. Brokaw, and H. Schneiderman. 1948a. Water conservation in desert rodents. J. Cell. and Comp . Physiol. 32: 331 -360.

-Nielsen, K., B. Schmidt -Nielsen, and A. Brokaw. l948b. Urea excretion in desert rodents exposed to high protein diets. J. Cell. and Comp. Physiol. 32~361-380.

schmidt -Nielsen, K., B. Schmidt -Nielsen, and H. Schneideman. 1948~. Salt excretion in desert mammals. Am. J. Phsiol. 154: 163-166.

schmidt -Nielsen, K., and B. Schmidt -Nielsen. 1949. The water economy of desert animals. Sci. Monthly 69: 180-185.

schmidt -Nielsen, B., and Ko Schmidt -Nielsen. l99a .' Do .. kangaroo rats thrive when drinking sea water. Am. J.

. physiol. 160: 291-294. . .

Schmidt -Nielsen, B. , and K. Schmidt -Nielsen . l99b. Pulmonary water loss in desert rodents. Am. J. Physiol. 162:31-36.

Schmidt-Nielsen, B., and K. Schmidt-Nielsen. 199~. Etraporative water loss in desert rodents in their natural habitat. Ecology 31:7 5-85.

Schmidt-Nielsen, B., and K. Schmidt-Nielaen. 193. A complete account of the water metabolism in kangaroo rats and an experimental verification. J. Cell. and Comp. Physiol. 38: 165-181.

Schmidt-Nielsen, K., and B. Schmidt-Nielsen. 1952. Water

Schmidt -Nielsen, K., and B. Schmidt -Nielsen. 1953. The desert rat. Sci. American, July, p. 73-78.

Schmidt -Nielsen, B. 1954. Water conservation in small desert rodents, p. 173-181. In J. L. Cloudsley-Thompson, (ed. ), Biology of deserts. Institute of Biology, London.

Schmidt-Nielsen, K. 1954. Heat regulation in small and large desert mammals, p. 182-192. In J. L. Cloudsley-Thompson, (ed. ), Biology of deserts. I%titute of Biology, London.

Schmidt-Nielsen, B. 1955. Urea excretion in white rats and kangaroo rats as influenced by excitement and by diet. Am. 3. Physiol. 181: 131-139.

Schmidt-Nielsen, K. 1956. Animals and arid conditions: physiological aspects of productivity and management, p. 368-382. In G. I?. White, (ed. ), The future of arid lands. Am. AGOC. Advancement Sci., Publ. No. 43.

Schmidt-Nielsen, B., K. Schmidt-Nielsen, T. R. Houpt, and S. A. Jarnum. 1956. Water balance of the camel. Am. J. Physiol. 185: 185-194.

Schmidt-Nielsen, B., H. Osaki, H. V. Murdaugh, Jr., and R. OtDell. 1958. Renal regulation of urea excretion in sheep. Am. J. ~hysiol. 194: 221-228.

Schmidt-Nielsen, K. 1959. The hysiology of the camel. Sci. i American, December, p. 1 0-151.

Stephen, F. 1906. California mammals. San Diego, Calif. 3 3 p .

Sumner, F. B. 1925. Some biological problems of our southwestern deserts. Ecology 6: 352-371.

Vorhies, C. T., and W. P. Taylor. 1940. Life history and . ecology of the white throated wood rat, Neotoma albigula albigula Hartley, in relation to g r a z i n g m z o n a . Univ. Arizona Tech. Bull. No. 86.

Vorhies, C. T. 1945. Water requirements of desert animals in -. the southwest. Univ. Arizona Tech. Bull. No. 107.

Wells, R. E., and F. B. Wells. 1961. The bighorn of Death Valley. Fauna of the National Parks of the United States, Fauna Ser. No. 6.

BRADLEY - (Discuss ion ) \

adle ley - Are we j u s t i f i e d i n saying t h a t there is some p a r a l l e l i s i between the sheep and the camel and i f so can we use the information gained from the camel t o apply t o deser t bighorn sheep and i s t h i s information appl i - -

cable t o management?

~ r a f - Certainly, you a r e j u s t i f i e d i n saying there i s some paral le l ism, s ince they a r e l iv ing i n s imi l a r ecological niches and you a r e j u s t i f i e d a s f a r a s applying t h i s t o the management of the bighorn. Let 's say, assuming the sheep can go 6 t o 8 days withoug water but t h i s i s the extreme. So l e t s use t h i s a s the extreme and t r y to give the sheep the bes t conditions posi ible t o increase and not make them e x i s t i n the extreme conditions.

Bradley - I have i n the conclusions recommended t h a t water should be made availabae t o them every 2 t o 3 days during t h e i r normal movements. But a t the l a s t minute a f t e r looking over t h i s group and rea l iz ing a l l the v a s t experience here I was r e luc t an t to make t h a t statement.

Welles - I don't think you should h e s i t a t e to make a management suggestion here. It would ce r t a in ly be a mistake to l i m i t then (sheep) to a range without water and expect them to survive.

- Question (Park Service) - You draw analogies between sheep and camels. Has

anyme done this between differelit races ef sheep frtm azras likk che Toyabe Mountains and the Colorado i n respect i o water metabolism?

Bradley - I s v e looked i n t o t h i s i n the l i t e r a t u r e and one of the general izat ions that can be made i n both animals and plants is t h a t i f they have plenty -

of water they a r e wasteful of i t bu t i n many cases when i t i s withdrawn - -- - -- - - heycn-c-- -. - - - - - -- - -

e r t a i n l y g e t along withoiiCit;--I- beliE-tliat-thegGGs-~iis has a l a rge range of to lerance t o such fac tors a s temperature, both cold and heat, water, e tc . I f these forms f i nd themselves i n a s i t ua t i on t ha t is extreme they can of ten ad jus t t o i t .

Hernandez Corzo - Is there any use of metabol water i n the sheep, espec ia l ly from f a t s ?

Bradley - Let m e r e f e r t o Schmidt Nielsen on th i s . He says t ha t metabolic water i s being formed by every organism there is. The problem is t h a t f o r most animals t h i s source i s n ' t enough to meet the water requirements.

Hernandez Corzo - But you could determine t h i s by using radioact ive mater ia l and so fo r th , even i n prote ins , too, perhaps?

Bradley - Oh, yes: There i s metabolic water i n prote ins , i t i s n ' t a s high a s i n f a t s , though.

Hernandez Corzo - Y e s , but i t s t i l l is not high enough to supply the requirements.

Goodman - You mentioned t h a t there may be other mechanisms tha t allow sheep to go f o r periods without water. It has been suggested (source unknown) tha t comparable to Allen's Rule pa r t i cu l a r ly i n regards to horns, the large horns may be f o r cooling and how about def icat ion f o r the removal of body head?

Bradley - On defecat ion f i r s t , I have a f e e l i n g t h a t the water l o s s i n defecatiQq would be more d r a s t i c than the poss ib le e l lminat ion of heat . A s far as - Allen ' e Rule, I simply don ' t know of anything i n the l i t e r a t u r e about the l o s s of hea t from the horns.

Hansen - I n our penned sheep i n the summer when the humidity has r a i s e d quite high and r a p i d l y , the horns of the sheep have become qu i t e wet and these then w i l l d ry ou t i n a few days, a s the humidity goes down. To me it ind ica ted a c e r t a i n amount of moisture was going i n t o the horn sheath and apparen t ly evaporation w a s taking place.

EXOTICS AND THEIR IMPLICATION

Wil l iam Graf Department o f Biology San Jose State College San Jose, Ca l i fo rn ia

-

Exotics f a l l i n t o two categories i n t h i s country - the desirable , ones and the undesirable ones. The c lass i f i ca t i on depends largely on whether you are f o r o r against the exotic. I f you are fo r the exotic, it becomes the f i n e s t animal imaginable and i s the solut ion t o a l l wi ld- l i f e management problems. I f you are against it, it takes on the character ist ics o f a v i l l a i n , complete wi th horns and pitchfork.

I n t ruth, ne i ther point o f view is -correct. Rarely does an exot ic solve a l l problems, Actualty,exotics have d e f i n i t e l im i ta t ions and are nn m , ~ n , I I a.nAaw =!! ~andE$Fons sfid under a!! situ=-!-i=nsi Sms exGj-ic= I." -u, C. " I . U.."".

do f u l f i l l a useful r o l e and provide a so lut ion t o a problem under some conditions, and whi le l im i ted i n t h e i r usefulness, the exot ic i s not necessarily the a r c h v i l l a i n t h a t he i s so of ten painted. .

- - - - - - - -- Curiously, t h e basis fo r considering the exot ic i n these two l i g h t s

S t a s - f rm--ne and -the samtKs6urce and--i s based on tbe- same-mnceDt theory. I t i s one o f those cur iaus s i tua t ions where a Yheory" & t n be used t o achieve two completely apposite conclusions.

This basic concept or theory i s b r i e f l y t h i s : Exotics have suoerior powers o f c o m ~ e t i t i o n and surv iva l over a nat ive and w i l l therefore crowd out the nat ive i n h i s own environment,

' This i s a most ve rsa t i l e concept; i f you need a rgplacemenl- fo r a depleted area, t he exot ic cannot be disputed as the solut ion t o the problem. On the other hand, i f a nat ive i s dec l in ing where an exot ic i s present, then there i s t he perfect answer t o the problem; obviously the exot ic i s the cause o f the decl ine o f t he nat ive species.

So commonplace i s t he b e l i e f i n t he super io r i t y and i n v i n c i b i l i t y o f t he exot ic t h a t t h i s i s now widely quoted without reference or source as one o f those t ru ths t h a t no one questions, Few books today dealing wi th the natural history, d i s t r i b u t i o n or ecology of.our nat ive animals f a i l t o mention t h i s "principle".

Where d i d t h i s b e l i e f have i t s o r i g i n and how t rue i s i t ? The author

appears t o - be no less than t he eminent bo tan is t o f the past century, S i r Joseph 0. Hooker. Hooker was t he ass i s tan t surgeon and the botanist attached t o t he sh ip H.M. ''Erebus" on t h e Ross expedition t o t he a n t a r e i d i n 183943. This be1 i e f i n t h e supe r i o r i t y o f exot ics i s qu i t e thoroUghl# discussed by Thomson (1922) and anyone in terested i n t h i s subject should 4 read Chapters 13 and 14 o f t h i s excel l en t book. In h i s account o f the Tasmanian f lora , Hooker (1860) states, "When I take a comprehensive view o f the vegetation o f t h e Old World, I am st ruck wi th the appearance it presents o f there being a continuous current o f vegetation ( i f I may so f a n c i f u l l y express myself) frm Scandinavia t o Tasmania; Along, i n short, t h e whole extent o f t h a t a r c o f t he t e r r e s t r i a l sphere which presents t h e greatest con t i nu i t y o f land. I n t h e f i r s t place, Scandinavian genera, and even species reappear everywhere from Lapland and Iceland t o the tops o f t he Tasmanian alps, i n r ap id l y diminishing numbers it i s true, but i n vigorous development throughout. They abound on t h e Alps and t he Pyrenees. pass on t o the Caucasus and Himalayas, thence they extend along t he ~has ia . hountains, and those o f t h e peninsulas o f l ndia and those o f cey lon and t h e May layan arch i pelago (Java and Borneo), and a f t e r a h ia tus o f xO, they appear on t h e a lps o f New South Wales, Victor ia, and Tasmania, and beyond these again on those o f New Zealand and t h e Antarc t ic Islands, many o f the species remain unchanged throughout: It matters not what t he vegetation o f t h e bases and f lanks o f these mountains may be; t h e northern species m y be associated with a!plne forms of Gernanici Siberian, Orients!, Chinese, American, Maylayan, and f i n a l l y Aust ra l ian and Anta rc t i c types; bu t whereas these a re a l l , more o r less, loca l assemblages, t h e Scandinavian asserts h i s pi-erogat i v e o f ub iqu i t y from B r i t a i n t o beyond i t s ant ipodes.I1

Here we have t h e ' lsuperiori ty" o f t h e Scandinavian o r northern f l o r a -- -

---- -advanced.=Darwi-n=apparentI-y--was-quick t o - se i ze upon th is- theory -and of----- --- -

a l l places t o express th is , i r o n i c a l l y enough, chose t o put t h i s i n t o words i n h i s "Or i g i n o f Species" ( 1875) where he states: "From the extra- o rd i nary manner i n whi ch European product i ons have recent l y spread over New Zealand, and have seized on places which must have been previously occupied, we may believe, i f a l l t h e animals and plants o f Great B r i t a i n were se t f ree i n New Zealand, t h a t i n t he course of t ime a mul t i tude o f B r i t i s h forms would become thoroughly natura l ized there, and would exterminate many o f the natives. On the other hand, from what we see now '

occurr ing i n New Zealand, and from hardly a s ing le inhabitant o f t he southern hemisphere having become w i l d i n any par t o f Europe, we may doubt, i f a l l t h e productions o f New Zealand were se t f ree i n Great Br i ta in , whether any considerable number would be enabled t o seize on places now occup i ed b y our nat i ve p i an i s and an i ma l s. "

A. R. Wallace, t h e eminent zoogeographer o f h i s time, was quick t o fo l low and i n " Is land L i f e " (1880) stated t h e following: "The f i r s t important fac t bearing upon t h i s question i s the wonderful aggressive and coloniz ing power o f t h e Scandinavian f lora , as shown by t he way i n which i t establ ishes i t s e l f i n any temperate country t o which i t may gain access. About 150 species have thus established themselves i n New Zealand, of ten tak ing possession o f large t r a c t s o f country; about the same number a re found i n Austral ia, and near ly as many i n the A t l a n t i c

States o f America, where they form the commonest weeds. Whether o r not we accept Mr. Darwin's explanation o f t h i s power as due t o development i n the most extensive land area o f the globe where competition has been most severe and long-continued, the fact o f the existence o f t h i s power reamins, and we can see how important an agent it must be i n the formation o f the f lo ras o f a l l lands t c wnich these aggressive plants have been able t o gain access.11

There we have it - t h e s u ~ e r i o r i t v o f northern forms, animals and glants, over southern hemisphere forms. Although only Scandinavian or northern forms are classed as superior, it i s no great step t o extend t h i s power t d a l l exot ics and I have no doubt t ha t t h i s i s the o r i g i n of our present generally a'ccepted concept of the " superior i ty o f exoticsf' theory wi th i t s impl icat ions o f "uncont ro l lab i l i t y and domination and destruct ion of natives" t h a t i s so commonly expressed and accepted.

Let us examine the problem a b i t more r e a l i s t i c a l l y . F i r s t o f a l l , a rather simple and basic p r i nc ip le i s involved here. This p r i nc ip le i s th is :

I . A l l p lants and animals are the product o f t h e i r environment through evolution.-

2. Every species, therefore, has special adaptations t o fit i t s part icular ' environment, and species developed elsewhere w i l l not have the same e x a d adaptat ions or envi ronmenta I character i s t i cs.

- - -- - - - -- -- -- -- --I=* -foI lows;--the~efot=e,-that-th i s-bei ng the -mse, a I I-plant- animals are better adapted t o t h e i r naf ive environment which produced them than would be an exo t i c from some other evolutionary source. I ron ica l ly , it was Darwin who l a i d down these very pr inc ip les i n the very same book- i n wh'i ch he acciaimed the super i o r i t y o f the I1exot i cv. The important th ing i s not i hat a great man i s not i nfa l I i b l e, but t h a t when three o f the greatest b i o l o g i s t s o f t h e i r t ime f a l l i n to the same error, the r e s t o f t he world i s apt t o fol low i n t h e i r footsteps and w i l l perpetuate tha t error, as it has been fo r the past hundred o r more years, t o a point where it becomes an unquestioned fact.

The American philosophy-with regard fo exotics i s a schizophrenic one, based upon t h i s comnon fal lacy. This has led t o some serious impl icat ions and practices.

I , On the one hand, we have used the exot ic as a cure-a1 l and a sor t o f b i o logi cal " get- r i ch-qu i ck" scheme, or. as a sor t o f nationwide sportsman's t ranqu i l i zer from which many are gradually waking up wi th a serious headache and empty pockets.

Today, a f t e r a few heady successes, and i n sp i te of decades o f countless fai lures, we s e m t o be introducing exotics, especial ly game birds, i n some areas w i th t h e f r a n t i c and g r im determination o f a confirmed

gambling add ic t on ' a s l o t machine binge, t r y i n g t o h i t t he a p e r f e c t l y good, sound business i s going bankrupt.

2. On t h e other hand, the re are others who spend t he and t ime belaboring the exo t i c and blaming him f o r a l l the have been v i s i t e d upon t h i s land.

jackpot wh i l e

ir energies i l I s t h a t

I n both cases, ser ious impl icat ions follow. Such an a t t i t u d e leads t a t h e neglect o f our own super ior animals t o a po in t where t h e oppor- t u n i t y t o do sanething f o r them i s l o s t forever. Not on ly that, but i n t h e process t he basic cause o f t h e decl ine i s l o s t and t h i s may lead t o add i t i ona l losses o f bas ic resources. Further, t h e "hate a l l exot ics" contingent, by los ing s i g h t o f t h e i r t r u e object ive, w i l l neglect t he very t h i n g they seek t o preserve.

The end r e s u l t i s t h a t very l i t t l e i s gained i n a l l but a very few cases by e i t he r t h e pro- o r a n t i - exot ics fact ions, and i n almost a l l cases everyone loses a t l eas t f i n a n c i a l l y i f no t b i o l og i ca l l y .

The few cases where bene f i t s are derived could j u s t as well be deferred u n t i l a l l hope f o r t h e na t i ve i s gone, o r by c a r e f u l l y apply ing t h e basic b io log ica l p r i nc i p l es o f ecology, genet ics and evo lu t ion t o the in t roduct ions being made.

Under no condi t ion d o -l consider it j u s t i f i e d t o introduce exot ics i n t o areas where nat ives a r e s t i l l present.

- Leas-Lof a l l do I cons i der it _des i rab l e _or _good judgm""f0 _ i n t ro - -- =---. &-- - - ----- - - -- - - - - - - --

duce migratory o r w i de-rang i ng species whose probable success i s m o s t - -

un l ike ly , and f o r obvious reasons.

Complete I y i I log i ca l and contrary t o a l I evo lu t ionary and genet i c p r i nc i p l es i s t he p rac t i ce o f t r y i n g t o introduce a hybr id i n t o w i l d habitat. Such a product i s by t he very nature o f i t s evolut ion a s t r i c t l y a r t i f i c i a l product, and thereby u n f i t t o surv ive i n a w i l d env i ronment .

It a l l leads me t o one simple conclusion, and t h a t i s t h a t our w i l d l i f e b i o l o g i s t s o f t h e f u tu re must be be t t e r grounded i n the basic p r i nc i p l es o f genetics, ecology, evolut ion and zoogeography.

What i s t h e e f f e c f o f a l l t h i s on game management i n general and the Desert Bighorn s p e c i f i c a l l y ? The s i g n i f i c a n c e , i s most profound from the standpoint o f co r rec t ing f i r s t the f a l l a c y and then using our knowledge t o determine t h e s ign i f icance of t h e APPARENT SUPERIORITY o f the exo t i c and t h e vulnerabi l i t y o f the native. I f an exot ic w i l l surv ive where a na t i ve cannot, o r i f an exo t i c i s d isp lac ing an ex i s t i ng native, we can draw on l y one conclusion. Th is conclusion i s t h a t the once favorable hab i ta t o f t h e native, t h a t habr ta t which evolved and maintained it, has changed, o r i s changing. I f it w i l l harbor an exot ic then it must be tak ing on an aspect which happens t o fit the exotic. Cer ta in ly t he su i t a b i i t y o f hab i ta t f o r the exo t i c i s not determined by

design - t h e exot ic j us t happens by chance t o f i t i n to the changing conditions. Our establishment o f exotics i n the past cer ta in ly bears t h i s out - the l i s t of fa i lu res far exceeds the successes, and it w i l l continue t o be so i n t h e future.

Should we f i n d a na t ive decl in ing or vanishing with o r without t he presence of an exot ic competitor we shou I d f i r s t o f a l l ask oursel ves, fm i s t h i s s ~ e c i e s declininq?" The solut ion t o the problems should not be t o reach for t h e panacea, t he %xo t id t as a remedy, f o r t h i s i s apt t o be cos t l y and, i n t h e long run, no so lut ion t o the problem. As i n t h e case of the treatment o f a disease, it i s t h e basic cause t h a t should be treated, not t he symptom, o r i n our case the decl in ing numbers o f our species by bols ter ing these with exot ic additions. By t rea t ing the problear from the standpoint o f the cause, we w i l l not only probably correct t h e problem but i n a l l p robab i l i t y save t h e nat ive species. I f we t r e a t t he symptom, we may temporari ly solve t h e problem but, i n the long run, t he same basic cause may destroy both t h e habitat and the exot ic wi th it. For it i s usual ly the change i n habi ta t (environment) which threatens the existence o f a species.

~ ~ a i n , i f an exot ic i s 'krowdingW out a na t ive we shou I d not a t t r i b u t e t h i s t o super io r i t y of t he exotic, but should seek out the reason why e nat ive cannot Survive i n a habi ta t i n which it was produced and where it should be superior t o any invader. I n short, t h e exot ic can be our warning barometer t o chang i ng envi ronmenta l conditions. With t h i s c lea r l y i n mind, we should then make every e f f o r t t o r e c t i f y the factors t h a t are destroying or changing t h e habitat o f our nat ive forms and t r y

in-tain-and-re-establish-the conditions t h a t will-permit-a-superi- form t o maintain i t s e l f .

The introduct ion o f an exot ic should be a last- di tch resor t under condit ions t h a t obviously cannot be changed and under which a nat ive cannot and w i l l not maintain i t s e l f . This i s t he case o f our agr icu l tu ra l lands on which the various forms o f nat ive small and b ig game have been displaced, and where such exot ics as the pheasant and Hungarian partr idges have become established.

I cannot consider t h i s t he so lut ion fo r our wilderness species. Here we must correct and remedy the cause o f t he decline o f such as t h a t o f our Desert Bighorn sheep. I am confident t h a t on many areas the bighorn could be brought back i n numbers jus t as great as any exot ic t ha t we may now introduce and t h a t any exot ic now introduced would fa re no bet ter than does the native.

A l l too of ten t h e exot ic i s merely a p o l i i i c a l l y expedient so lut ion t o the problem, simply because it makes the most spectacular gesture f o r t he publ ic i n the press. In the end it not only solves nothing, but spends a great deal o f money t h a t could be bet ter used fo r the correct ion o f the nat ive 's problems. O f course, the correct ion o f land uses and abuses which often l i e a t the base o f the changing environment which

causes t h e dec l ine o f our nat ives i s not a pleasant problem t o face, and unfor tunate ly few people, and p a r t i c u l a r l y admin is t ra tors w i th a pol ;tical tenure, w i l l face such problems r e a l i s t i c a l l y .

F i r s t o f a l I, i f an exo t i c i s introduced i n the face o f land abuses, i t w i l l merely add t o t h e problem of our na t i ve by placing t he add i t iona l burden o f competi t ion on an already overburdened na t i ve f i gh t i ng for surv ival . Secondly, there i s an ever- increasing ,awareness among the land- owning pub l i c t h a t it does not have t o put up w i t h game on i t s land, a l l legal ownership designation o f game t o t he cont rary notwithstanding. I n other words, i n s p i t e o f t he f a c t t h a t the law says the game belongs t o t h e pub1 ic, t h e law a l so recognizes t he f a c t t h a t t he land belongs t o the owner and t h a t h i s land use comes f i r s t , and t h a t i f there i s a c o n f l i c t between land use and t he game, then t h e game w i l l have t o go. Whether we l i k e it o r not, t h i s has been upheld i n courts too o f ten t o bearguedm I t would, therefore, be even more d i f f i c u l t t o m a i n t a i n on p r i va te land animals which a r e not even na t i ve t o the area. I n fact , the in t roduct ion o f an exo t i c b i g game species where it might encroach upon p r i va te land could lead t o lawsui ts and damage claims against t he state.

On t h e o ther hand, 1 cannot f i n d grounds t o uphold those who claim t h a t exo t i cs have ext raord inary powers o f su rv iva l and dispersion t h a t makes it impossible t o cont ro l them once they have become established. That exot ics have done, and can do, a great deal o f damage under ce r ta in condi t ions i s a l l t o o true. Exot ics i n which man has'no in te res t o r which have l o s t t h e i r economic value t o man and a re therefore neglected a f t e r being established, can become overabundant. However, t h i s can

d=qmstrated for -nat i ves under t h e same c i rcumstances. - -Ex& ks _ _ _- -- -

on small is lands wi thout any natural con t ro ls w i l l , o f course, m u l t i p l y t o a po in t where they can and w i l l eat themselves out o f house and home. However, a s im i l a r a r e . fenced and contain ing nothing but nat ives on a mainland area would end up p rec ise ly the same way. The Kai bab Forest i s a good case i n po in t on a not-so-smal l scal'e-and without benef i t o f fences.

The u n c o n t r o l l a b i l i t y o f t h e New Zealand deer population so o f ten .

quoted i s simply not true, and i s another example o f a misconception o r f a l l acy repeated wi thout bene f i t of source o r fact . I personal ly found New Zealand deer under cont ro l i n a l l areas where any rea l control was being applied, o r i n force. I n a l l s e t t l e d areas t he deer were e i t he r gone o r a t a very low populat ion level. The inev i tab le -303 B r i t i s h i s j us t as persuasive as our 3/34) t h a t reduced t h e deer populations i n t he United States du r i ng ' t he past decades around t he t u rn o f the century. I n New Zealand areas where professional deer " cu l le rs" were supposed t o be t r y i n g t o stem t h e t i d e o f t h e hordes o f deer supposedly overrunning the forests, I found t h a t these cu l le rs , by t h e i r own statements t o me, were shooting on ly areas where they could k i l l a t least 18 t o 20 deer per week - t h e po in t o f d iminishing re turns from t h e i r own economic standpoint. When t he minimum f i g u r e o f 18 was reached they moved t o more p r o f i t a b l e areas and l e f t t he 16 o r 17 deer t h a t they could have k i l l e d per week t o

breed up t h e stock for future years. This was the best demonstration o f sustained-yield management t h a t 1 have ever had demonstrated t o me. Cul l ing blocks ran from 75 t o lOW square miles i n area per two hunters, and the general publ ic was not allowed t o shoot on these blocks, for obvious reasons. Riney (unpublished manuscript) found tha t on heavi ly hunted areas the fawn survival was 40% compared t o 10% on unhunted w i l der- ness areas. Aside from the red deer (Cervus e la~hus ) which i s widespread i n New Zealand, I found t h a t t h e other species (7) o f deer were h ighly localized and showed very l i t t l e i f any spread outside o f the general areas where they were released 70 t o 80 years ago.

As a f i n a l argument, t he opponents o f exotics always hold up the carp as the examole o f exot ic superior i ty. That t h i s exot ic has established i t s e l f i n many o f our waters cannot be denied. Neither can it be denied t h a t i n many o f these same waters the nat ive species have declined and the carp has prospered. The question t h a t needsto be asked here i s t h i s : I s the establishment and domination o f the carp and the decline o f the nat ive f ishes due t o any super io r i t y over natives under the nat ive environmental conditions, o r i s it due t o super io r i t y under conditions unfavorable t o the nat ive? Can it be fac tua l l y stated t h a t those waters i n which the carp has taken over have not been a l tered by man so tha t they are no longer t h e waters i n which our nat ive f ishes evolved and prospered3 Would the ca'rp have been ab le t o establ ish i t s e l f i n dominant numbers under o r i g ina l na t ive habi ta t? While there are exceptions t o a l l rules, sportsmen and w i l d l i f e b io log is ts are of ten a l l too quick t o use the exot ic as an easy way out o f a problem and as the scapegoat fo r man's own s tup id i t y and fa i l ings .

n-someone te l - l s-me -that i-t i s imposs i b l e t o extermi nate,-or--even - --

t o control an exot ic once it has been introduced, I am a b i t skeptical. I have been t o l d t h a t t h e Barbary sheep i s get t ing out o f hand i n New Mexico and t h a t it cannot be controlled. Whether t h i s i s t r u e I cannot say, ce r ta in l y I have no quarrel wi th New Mexico or the Barbary sheep. I f ind tha t dur ing t h e past three years one 10-day season wi th a maximum number of 284 hunters a f ie ld , and two 9-day seasons with 54 and 377 hunters a f i e l d respectively, have been held. During these 3 seasons, a t o t a l o f 160 animals were taken. Cer ta in ly a reduction o f numbers was achieved. But t o speak here o f an extermination, or even a control, i s t o me ridiculous. Only when a l l seasons and a l l bag l i m i t s are removed, can we speak o f "extermination" intent. Nor can one l i m i t the hunting t o a few professional bounty hunters as i n Neu Zealand. The Barbary sheep . released on *he Hearst Ranch i n Cal i forn ia has maintained i t s e l f on1 y on a r e l a t i v e l y small area around the headquarters o f the ranch. It has not spread and established i t s e l f outside o f the ranch, although the oppor- t u n i t y exists. One does hear rumors o f deer hunters shooting ltstrange looking goats" outside of t he ranch.

So fa r as our Desert Bighorn goes, I feel most strongly t h a t it i s a mistake t o replace it wi th exotics before we make an honest attempt t o re-establish it on former ranges. Some o f thase ranges need rehab i l i - tation, sane need only the re- introduct ion of the bighorn. It would be no more d i f f i c u l t , and far less expensive, t o obtain nat ive bighorn fo r

establishment than t o buy expensive exotics. There would be less res is tance t o t h e re- in t roduct ion o f natives?frorn landowners nearby,than t o t h e in t roduc t ion o f strange l ivestock w i t h perhaps unpredictable consequences. Nevada p a r t i c u l a r l y has many ranges where t h i s could be done--perhaps t h e best areas f o t such an undertaking. Many o f these already have nuc le i o f sheep on them and need on l y the r e h a b i l i t a t i o n of range and t h e protect ion needed. Ce r ta i n l y t h e Barbary sheep has demonstrated no super ior q u a l i t i e s f o r sus ta in ing a b i g game hunting pressure, as indicated by past f igures. Nor have t he Ca l i f o rn i a herds demonstrated any super ior surv iva l powers under poaching pressure. These animals repor ted ly considered f o r in t roduc t ion for Nevada would provide nothing t h a t t h e bighorn cou ld .not dup l i ca te and exceed i n qua1 i t y , adaptabi l i ty , and product iv i ty .

Oregon has demonstrated t h i s q u i t e conclusively, and w i t h t he lessons learned t he re t h i s could probably be improved upon i n Nevada. There i s nothing t o ind ica te t h a t the Barbary, or t h e ibex f o r t h a t m i t e r , i n A f r i ca a r e having any be t te r luck su rv i v i ng i n t h e eroded and over- grazed and d r i ed ou t h i l l s o f t h e i r na t i ve land than our Desert Bighorn i n s im i la r areas i n Arizona, Nevada, and New Mexico. Nor w i l l these species improve upon t h e bighorn i n s i m i l a r areas. I n areas o f be t te r ecoiogical condi t ions the bighorn woujd do as wei i o r bet ter and deserves by a l l bas ic laws and l og i c t he f i r s t chance.

I n sumnation, our po l i c y w i t h regard t o exot ics

ever be introduced where a I. No exo t i c should -- ----- s t i l l present.

2. No e x o t i c should occupied by a na t i ve spec ranges f o r res tock ing and

3. No exo t i c should

should be t h i s :

ever be introduced i n t o an area formerly ies when t h a t na t i ve i s s t i l l ava i lab le from other re-establ ishment.

be considered unless the re i s a rea l need for it, determined by a thorough invest igat ion by competent b io log is ts .

4. NO exo t i c should be introduced wi thout f i r s t making a thorough invest igat ion of t he ecoloqv and economy o f t h e exo t i c both i n i t s o l d and new home.

5. No exo t i c in t roduct ion plan should be considered f o r approval before a proper s i t e f o r in t roduct ion i s avai lable.

6. ~ i g r a t o r y o r wide-ranging exot ics should not be introduced because o f the h igh p robab i l i t y o f f a i l u r e and because o f t he p o s s i b i l i t y o f ending up i n areas where they a re not wanted.

7. Hybrid exotics, because of t h e i r very a r t i f i c i a l o r i g i n , should not be considered as potent ia l introductions. Such a product, o r ig ina t ing i n an a r t i f i c i a l environment, cannot be expected t o succeed i n a wi ld env i ronrnent .

8. I f a na t i ve determi ne the reason as a replacement.

species i s decl ining, the f i r s t step should be t o f o r t h e decline, before any exo t i c i s even considered --

9. I f t h e cause o f the dec l ine can be determined, determine i f t h i s cause can be corrected.

10. I f t h e cause can be corrected o r halted, then every e f f o r t should be made t o r e h a b i l i t a t e o r re- estab l ish t h e na t i ve species.

II. I f t h e change i n condi t ions i s such t h a t no cor rect ion o r h a l t can be made, then a replacement w i t h a proper exo t i c should be considered. Th i s replacement should f i t i n t o t h e w i l d l i f e pa t te rn o f t he area.

12. I f an exo t i c i s spreading beyond t h e area o f intended range, a l l con t ro l s outs ide o f t he area should be removed so t h a t it can be removed as qu i ck l y as it appears i n new areas where it i s no t wanted.

References Cited:

Darwin, Charles, 1875. The O r i g i n of Species, 6 t h Edi t ion, London.

Hooker, Joseph Dalton, 1860. The Botany o f the An ta r c t i c Voyage o f - - --- -

HiM I-D ix&VFry-S t i p s - Erebus and-Terror--i n-Fh e-y& rs- 1 83.9- 1 843. Par t I l l F lora Tasmniae, Vole I, p. C i i i . Covent Garden, London.

Thomson, G. M a p 1922. The Natu ra l i za t ion o f Animals and Plants i n New Zealand, Cambridge Un i ve rs i t y Press, London.

Wal lace, A. R.) 1902. Is land L i fe , 3rd Edit ion, M a d i I Ian and Co,

GRAF - (Discussion) - Dale - We wouldn't have a l o t of our problems today i f the Indians had

had more s t r i c t immigration laws. I th ink we a r e on dangerous ground t o assume t h a t n a t i v e spec ies have the advantage over the exot ics and can hold ou t aga ins t them. Perhaps condi t ions have changed and c e r t a i n l y o the r exo t i cs l i k e r a b b i t s and s t a r l i n g s have adapted i n the a r e a s of many n a t i v e s . Maybe the barbary sheep i n New Mexico i s b e t t e r adapted to t h e condit ions t h a t exist the re than the bighorn?

Graf - We j u s t h a t e t o g ive up a r e a l good theory! I think that i f you look i n t o t h i s some more you might f i n d t h a t the re i s something to these genera l i za t ions and b a s i c p r inc ip les t h a t I have l a i d down. I'll t e l l you what I found about the New Zealand r a b b i t s , the same r a b b i t a s found i n A u s t r a l i a , where the same problem e x i s t s . When they took the sheep o f f an a r e a and premitted the range to come back to i t s n a t i v e condit ion t h e r a b b i t s would dec l ine almost to the disappearing point . This was worked o u t by Dr. Howard of Davis (Ca l i fo rn ia ) . He was over there j u s t be fo re I went t o New Zealand. I found t h i s to be t r u e where the range was i n i ts n a t i v e condit ion, the r a b b i t was no problem. But I do agree wi th you, we don ' t know whether t h e barbary o r some other exo t i c i s s u i t e d t o changing condi t ions b u t we a l s o don ' t know that i t i s and we are j u s t guessing. - - we a c t u a i i y have no grounds but i f w e knew W'ME you s a i d than i r : would be b e t t e r because of the changed condi t ions . I ' d say f i n e , we have no choice. We've g o t to do i t . But we don' t know t h i s . IJe do know t h i s one th ing t h a t b a s i c a l l y the n a t i v e , a s the r e s u l t of i t s evolut ionary progress i s bound to be b e t t e r s u i t e d t o i t . What the degree of ch - - - - ----a- -- know t h a t an t h e na t ive .

Dale - I d i d n ' t want t o g ive you the impression t h a t I thought t h a t the barbary ought to be introduced.

Graf - No, No! I d i d n ' t g e t t h a t impression.

Dale - The thing t h a t makes m e a l i t t l e more a f r a i d of the barbary i s tha t perhaps the na t ive bighorn c a n ' t hold its own today aga ins t the barbary.

Graf - Well you a r e adding a burden i f you in t roduce the barbary on bighorn sheep. Everything e l s e being equa& o r even i f the bighorn i s a l i t t l e b e t t e r off t h e r e and b e t t e r adapted, a s long a s the barbary survives , i t j u s t adds one more mouth f o r every one produced there. I n competition i t i s indisputable whether barbary sheep, Merino o r c a t t l e o r anything i s b e t t e r su i t ed . You a r e p i l i n g jus t

\ one mdre load on t h a t "camel's back" f i g u r a t i v e l y speaking and tha t i s why I say t h a t u n t i l we know and we a r e a l l admitting t h a t we don' t know o r e l s e we wouldn't a l l be here. We know y e t too l i t t l e about t h i s animal (bighorn sheep) and i t s s t i l l here and t h i s i s where i t d id develop and the barbary d id develop a long ways from here. Actual- l y the barbary i s e x i s t i n g on very precarious ground i n i t s na t ive h a b i t a t . Its i n a s bad shape i n Africa a s our bighorn i s as f a r a s I can learn . And f o r much the same reasons too.

6� night - I ' d j u s t l i k e t o add a comment from Aus t ra l i a on the e x o t i c s i t u a t i o n . The New Zealand r a b b i t s were n o t competing wi th n a t i v e animals because none w e r e around, whereas they were i n Aus t ra l i a and were competing wi th the g r e a t v a r i e t y of n a t i v e marsupials t h a t e a t more o r l e s s the same s o r t of things, and y e t by the 1880's the r a b b i t was thoroughly e s t a b l i s h e d over much of Aus t ra l i a a s a pes t . A s something t h a t could ou t compete any of the smal ler n a t i v e marsupials . Here i s a good example of an exo t i c being brought i n and outdoing t h e na t ives on i t s own grounds.

Graf - - I ' d l i k e t o s e e t h a t demonstrated under con t ro l l ed condi t ions . There a r e too many va r i ab les t h e r e as long a s you've got man wi th h i s s t i c k y . thumb messing around i n t h e whole bus iness , t o put the blame on any one animal. I ' m no t defending the r a b b i t s . I do know t h i s , t h a t i t s the same r a b b i t t h a t is i n bo th New Zealand and Aus t ra l i a and i n New Zealand without any o t h e r con t ro l b u t pu t t ing a fence around an a rea and taking the sheep o f f , you can g e t r i d of i t . I t 's been demonstrated under con t ro l l ed condi t ions . I don ' t know i f t h i s has been demonstrated i n A u s t r a l i a so i t may b e t h a t you a r e r i g h t . Up t o now a l l I know i s t h a t t h i s i s a v e r y popular assumption and I was taught t h i s when I was a s tuden t b u t ~ b e f o r e I f m convinced I ' d want t o see some con t ro l l ed checks. I ' m w i l l i n g t o be shown.

Deacon - I n genera l I agree w i t h you and your genera l i za t ion but I take exception ( t o some of Gra f ' s comments) you seem t o f e e l t h a t the n a t i v e is b e t t e r adapted than any exo t i c . But from my viewpoint where you are missing t h e boat i s i n the broad sweeping genera l iza- t ion . It i s my contentinn t h a t a genera l i zed kind of animal l i k e

i-s-b et-t-er-a-dap-t-ed--b-ec-a-Gse--'be--is-- ge*era-l izFddttiri =s-= species which evolved t o a s p e c i f i c environment i n any one place. Therefore, t h e carp has been a b l e t o take over i n many places i n t h i s country i n s treams t h a t have no t been a l t e r e d except by the introduc- t ion of ca rp .

Graf- Are you s u r e t h a t the cond i t inns you speak of have not been a l t e r e d . Show m e a stream today i n most of . t he country t h a t has no t been a l t e r e d . I t ' s a tough one t o argue. The carp , l i k e the r a b b i t is another example of the th inking I was d iscuss ing. I t ' s used a s a c l a s s i c a l example, l i k e the r a b b i t of Aus t ra l i a bu t 1 'm n o t saying t h a t the ca rp might not crowd ou t some n a t i v e somewhere. This i s bound, to happen b u t genera l ly speaking a n a t i v e has t o be b e t t e r , . everything being equal and everything being unchanged, i s going t o be the super io r t o any e x o t i c because t h a t i s where i t has developed i t s c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s . It had t o o r i t wouldn't become a na t ive .

Deacon - I ' m f a m i l i a r wi th the midwestern streams i n which the carp has become e s t a b l i s h e d and apparent ly the re has been very l i t t l e human in te r fe rence . I ' m not saying the carp has done a g r e a t deal of damage but i t h h a s become es tab l i shed there . There a r e o ther examples of f i s h e r i e s and I think t h e r e i s room f o r argument, here.

A B I O ASSAY AT NEVADA TEST SITE

Edmund L. Fountain Hajor, Veterinary Corps United States Army Assigned a s Veterinarian Nevada Operat ions Off ice Atomic Energy C-iss ion

: For the past two years I have talked t o t h i s group about f a l l ou t

from the tes t ing of nuclear devices and the t ransfer of i t t o the

biosphere. Today I sha l l discuss an investigative program a t NTS tha t

i s supervised by me and is designed t o answer some of the questions we

have been concerned with regarding radioactive fa l lou t .

In October of 1957 thir ty- five head of grade hereford c a t t l e were

purchased from a rancher located north of the Nevada Test Site. These

animals were moved t o the t e s t s i t e a f t e r purchase. In I958 sixteen

have raised

replacements f o r the animals sacr i f iced i n our investigative program

-since tha t t i m e . The animals i n the Nevada Test Site herd are managed

i n the same way local ranchers handle t he i r herds. They range over the

Frenchman and Yucca F la t s area of NTS. We do not attempt t o keep them

from grazing i n contaminated areas. A mixture of cottonseed meal and

s a l t .is provided a t the water points. All animals are numbered and a

hea l th record i s kept for each individual.

Sample animals a re obtained from two oeher herds operated by the

University of Nevada. They are located a t Knoll Creek and Delamar Valley,

Nevada. Knoll Creek i s approximately four hundred a i r miles north of the

Test Site. Delamar Valley i s one hundred miles due east . The Delamar

Valley herd approximates conditions i n the v ic in i ty of the t e s t s i t e

and i idd i rec t ly affected by f a l l ou t t ha t i s produced by t e s t a c t i v i t i e s

53

a t NTS. The Knoll Creek herd is not affected d i rec t ly by NTS ac t iv i t i es

and the radioactive isotopes observed there a r e the r e s u l t of world wide

fa l lou t . These two herds ac t as controls fo r our Nevada Test Site herd,

Five animals from each of the herds a re sacr i f iced i n Hay and

November. The sampling program consis ts of a cow-calf p a i r ( a t time

of sampling), a year l ing ( a t time of sampling), a two year old (a t time

, of sampling), and a three year old (a t time of sampling).

The animals a r e shot i n the cranium with a r i f l e . A complete post

mortem examination i s then conducted on each sacr i f iced animal. A

portion of the thyroid, eye, spinal chord, l i v e r , lung, hear t , costro-

chondral junction of eighth r r b , adrenal, kidneys, re t icu lar - rmen

fo ld , and colon, is submitted to the Armed Forces In s t i t u t e of Pathology,

Washington, D. C. f o r microscopic examination. Evidence of injury or

- - - - - --damage-- to--the - t tssues as a--result--of - r a d i a t f o n i s the -primary -concern- - -

of t h i s examination.

Muscular t i s sue , l i v e r , thyroid, bone (proximal t h i rd of the femur,

d i s t a l th i rd and costro-chondral junction of the eighth r i b ) and rumen

contents are secured from each animal. A pooled fecal sample from

each herd i s a l so obtained a t time of sacr i f ice . 'Ihese samples

are processed and the leve ls of radioact ivi ty present areddetermined

by the University of Nevada and the Southweern Radiobiological Health

Laboratory of the United States Public Health Service.

The animals of the NTS, Knoll Creek, and Delamar Valley herds have

been exposed to the f u l l spectrum of f a l l ou t f i s s ion products over the

past s ix years as produced by USSR and U. S. Test programs. There has

been an uptake of many of these isotopes by the animals. A t only

one time has the Radiation Protection Guide, a s established by the

Federal Radiation Council fo r humans, been exceeded. A t the end 131

of Hardtack Phase I1 the level of I i n the thyroids of the NTS

c a t t l e were s l i g h t l y above the Radiation Protection Guide for humans.

This level dropped rapidly a f t e r cessation of t e s t a c t i v i t y and was

almost undetectable the following Spring. 144 106

Ihe isotope pa i r s , Cesium-Broesodymium , Rhodiuxn-Ruthenium 95

and Zirconium-Niobium a re produced i n the f i s s ion process i n r e l a t i ve ly

large amounts. They a r e present i n the rumen and f eca l samples obtained

fruan the t e s t animals. These isotopes are not readi ly metabolized and

apparently pass through the alimentary canal without absorption. Small

amounts may be incorporated i n the t issue of the animal, but the bulk

of the ac t iv i ty simply passes. through with in jes ted material. They

Barium-Lanthanium are present i n the rumen and fecal samples.

Low l eve ls a re a l s o obaerved in bones of the animals. The a c t i v i t y is 40

roughly equal t o the amount of Potassium , which i s a natural ly occurring

isotope. Ihe l o w levels. of these isotopes and the small mounts tha t

absorbed by the animal indicate they a re not a t h rea t t o the heal th of the

animals.

13 7 Cesium is abundantly produced i n the f i s s i o n process. It i s

metabolized by the animal and is present i n the l i v e r and Prusculature. 137

W e have observed more Cesium i n the muscle than l iver . The amounts

observed i n the NTS c a t t l e have been the sameas tha t measured i n muscle

samples procured a t random from other areas of the United States. l h i s

element i s absorbed raadi ly when present i n the biosphere and could

bee- of concern t o us. A t the present time the levels are low and

are not dangerous.

65 zinc i s present in the l iver and muscle samples. Since Zinc

is not a f i ss ion product, it is surmised that the isotope i s produced

by activation of naturally occurring elements within the range of the

neutron flux. It i s interest ing t o note th i s element is readily

absorbed by the animals and i s present i n higher levels a t NTS than the.4

other two areas. - k

131 -3

Iodine is mtabolized hg the animals and i s rapidly incorporat&" -, . . . .

i n the thyroid. This isotope i s of in teres t and concern because of the -

a b i l i t y of the thyroid gland t o concentrate it. A large amount of the

isotope is pr~duced i n the f i ss ion psosess and a high percentage s f the -

- amount tha t becomes available t o an animal or man is rapidly deposited

in the thyroid gland. The isotope is secreted in the milk of ca t t le .

This method of entering the food chain and the possible exposure

of infants and young children t o the isotope secreted i n t h i s manner

has been and is a cause fo r concern. A t the present time we have

not observed levels t h a t are f e l t t o be deleterious t o man or animal.

Continued observation invest'igation i s being conducted i n t h i s area.

90 , Strontium i s present i n the bones of our sample animals. It

has not been appreciably higher than samples procured from other areas 90

of the United States. The indication i s that Sr levels are a resul t

of world wide rather than local fallout. These observed levels have bean

very low and are not a caase fo r concern a t th is time.

In summary I would l ike to say that for the past six years dample

animals have been kil led from three herds of .beef ca t t l e in widely

scattered areas of Nevada. Samples from these animals have been

submitted to the Armed Forces Inst i tute of Pathology to be examined

nicrosco~icallyr for possible damage to the tissues from radiation.

Other samples have been secured and processed for levels of radio-

isotopes by the Univerafty of Nevada and the Southwestern Radiological

Health Laboratory, USPHS. The animals in the herds were handled as

normal range ca t t l e and special precautions were not taken to protect

them from radiation.

A t th is time they have not exhibited any deleterious affects -

from ranging on those areas most highly contaminated by tes t ac t iv i t ies

a t the Nevada Test Site. Ihe reproduction rate has been as high or

higher than in comparable herds of ca t t le i n Nevada. The calves

Our observations through s ix years of operation of the Offsite

Animal Investigation Project indicates that the level of radiation

necessary to produce observable dainage to range ca t t l e w i l l have

t o be considerably higher than that which has been present on the

Nevada Test Site since October of 1957.

THE BIGHORN SHEEP O F LAKE MEAD NATIONAL RECREATION AREA

BY

James Sleznick, Jr. Park Ranger

Lake Mead National Recreation Area Boulder City, Nevada

An agreement in 1936 and 1947, and approved by the Secretary of the Interior, between the Bureau of Reclamation and the National Park Service established Lake Mead National Recreation Area. Both agencies a r e part of the Department of the Interior. Under this agreement the National Park Service supervises the activities, plans and developments within the area. The Bureau of Reclamation administers Hoover and Davis Darns, which were built by that agency. The 3000 square miles a rea contains approximately 240 miles of the Colorado River system, 93 miles of the Grand Canyon and several canyons of smaller magnitudes,

The creosote bush (Larres sp. ) is the typical desert indicator plant of the area. In the higxer elevations we find Joshua trees and finally in the highest portions a pinon pine-juniper community. This

-- - - - -- altitudinal-range-varies-from 517-feet to 6140-feet-above sea-level.--------- Precipitation i s approximately six inches per year.

The desert bighorn sheep a r e one of the largest mammals to be found in the Recreation Area. This animal has been reported in'many locations,including Iceberg Canyon, the Overton Arm, Boulder Canyon, Windy Canyon and the Davis Darn region.

I would like to relate to the council some of my observations of bighorn sheep as seen in the Black Canyon; that portion below Hoover Dam and above the landing known a s El Dorado Canyon. Observations were made from a boat with about one-half dozen from an automobile.

A total of 567 sheep were counted during 108 sightings over a period of two years. The majority of the sightings were made on the Nevada side of Lake Mohave. The largest herd seen at one time, however, was a group of 23 sheep grazing inside the fence on the Arizona side of Hoover Dam. On the lake I have seen groups of 18 sheep on the Nevada side and 13 sheep on the Arizona side. I once counted 35 sheep while patroling approximately 60 miles of shoreline in Black Canyon in one day.

The sheep seem to prefer certain accessible a r eas of the canyon, i-1 Crosscurrent Rapids, the Gaging Station, Indian and Roaring Rapids on the Nevada side a r e popular. On the Arizona side, Indian Rapids, Cranes - nest Rapids, and Monkey Hole have had large sheep groups from time to time. All these locations tend to have a good browsing condition during Low water.

July, August and September appear to be the best times for seeing bighorn in the Black Canyon. At that time they can be seen feeding on the lush vegetation that develops along the shoreline. Each summer the water level of Lake Mohave is lowered for agricultural and other requirements and as the mudflats and washes a r e exposed a relatively heavy growth of grass and other annuals appear. Bighorn have been observed to stay in these general a reas for periods up to several weeks. During the winter months vegetation along the shoreline i s underwater forcing the sheep to browse further inland.

At night the sheep stay along the precipitous canyon walls and move down to the mudflats around daybreak. They sometimes spend the entire day along the lake feeding on annuals, tamarix and nearby mes - quite trees. On a few occasions rams have been seen breaking up barrel

The lake appears to be an important source of water for the sheep, especially during the hot summer months. There a r e several seep walls and springs along and away from the lake and some animals may rely on this source exclusively. At Ringbolt Rapids I have found several drip springs that have been enlarged by sheep and apparently used a s a source of water. Sheep using these and other hidden watering places can move through the canyon country and never be seen by personnel in boats.

The mating habits of the bighorn can sometimes be seen in the summer as the animals feed near the water. Ewes have been seen taking on rams in July and August. My earliest sighting of lambs this year was February 25th. Last year the lambs were also seen in February. Young lambs show a curiosity towards boats but they do not permit observers to get too close.

Competition among the r ams for ewes has never been observed to be very keen. On two occasions I have watched a ram stand off suit- ors , but generally speaking there seems to be a harmony among the sheep here. Rams of all sizes appear in these mixed bands during the summer. One time hatchery personnel at Willow Beach watched a pair of rams butt for an estimated half hour, but this to my knowledge has been the only Long encounter reported in my present tenure at Willow Beach.

During the summer seas on the individual and groups of sheep can sometimes be approached very closely. Rams' do not seem to fear an approaching boat, but an alarmed ewe can excite a whole herd to climbing a canyon wall or racing across a wash. Remarkable pictures of sheep can be had a t this time of the year with relative ease.

Bighorn sheep a r e Lost from the area by several means. Once an animal broke i t 's leg and was found by a visitor in a remote wash only to die a few hours later. Road kills occur on both sides of the dam. I recall two or three animals being killed last year by motor vehicles. Las t September I found a 314 curl r a m floating in the lake near the hatchery. It's horns were worn indicating i t must have rubbed on the gravel = - ~ut5um of the iake before fimtiag to the surface. I suspect that the aaimai accidently drown when it either fell into or was forced into the lake. Public hunting is permitted in the Recreation Area with the exception of the designated closed areas.

- -- - .- - - - -- - --- - - The -feral burro is another-animal- that we have-at La-ke--Me-zd?-- Burros a re generally seen iu the late afternoon and heard a t night. They apparently water a t the lake's edge a t that time and then return t~ the remote washes after filling up. Competition between the burro and the bighorn might occur a t the wash level for the available plants. At other times the sheep utilize the less accessible canyon walls and rim rock while the burros use the flatter land further away from the lake.

Generally speaking, the bighorn sheep is a popular and much looked f o r member of the Lake Mead fauna. Many visitors, both local and from far away places, have expressed job in being able to see sheep while out on the lake. Campers have watched sheep feed and play within sight of the campground. At night, the campfire conversation about bighorn a re interesting and stimulating. The bighorn sheep of Lake Mead National Recreation Area a r e truly animals not soon forgotten by visitors to this area.

SOME DESERT BIGHORN REFLECTIONS

Gale Monson Branch of Wildlife Refuges

Bureau of Sport Fisheries and Wildlife U. S. Department of the I n t e r i o r

Washington, D. C.

This i s the second consecutive year I have missed a Desert Bighorn Council meeting, and jus t now it doesn't appear t h e chances of my-ever attending another are very good. Though I an no longer on the scene, my i n t e r e s t i n and concern fo r our favori te animals has not lessened, and I w i l l always hope t o keep i n touch with what i s happening t o and fo r them. What I have t o present today a re jus t some of the thoughts I have been turning over i n my mind during the past year, none of them profound. I hope they may be of i n t e r e s t and even of st imulation t o some of you.

Desert bighorn populations are of the grea tes t i n t e r e s t t o us. How many are present i n any range of desert mountains, why there should be more i n one range than i n another, how they are d i s t r ibu ted a t d i f fe ren t seasons, and so on, a re not only fascinat ing subjects but some of the most p rac t ica l we can deal with. I would lske t o discuss a par t icu la r s i tua t ion i n some d e t a i l , t h a t of the r e l a t i v e number of bighorns on the Desert Game Range i n Nevada and the Kof a Game Range i n Arizona. -- ------------- --- - - - --- -. -- -

Lacking more prec ise information, and considering tha t actual l imi t s of deser t bighorn habi ta t a r e d i f f i c u l t t o define, I think I can say with some accuracy tha t there are about 26 townships of habitat i n the Desert Game Range, as compared t o 11 townships i n the Kofa Game Range. There i s roughly two and one-half times as much bighorn habi ta t i n the former as i n the latter. The estimated bighorn population of the Desert Game Range i s 1,500 animals, which i s 6.6 times as great as the estimated 225 on the Kofa Game Range. Stated more graphically, the bighorn density on Desert Game i s 56 animals per township, while on the Kofa i t is only 20 animals per township, o r 65 percent less .

Why should t h i s be so? The obvious answer is tha t the ~ e s e r t Game Range i s more blessed with food and water, but t h i s can be questioned. I have seen both a reas , and know the Kofa Game Range very well. No one would say the Kofa comes anywhere close t o being overused by bighorns or mule deer, whether we are lboking a t water or vegetation. Could it be tha t . food be t t e r su i ted t o the bighorn's physiology i s present i n greater quant i ty on the Desert Game' Range? I doubt t h i s , too. There appears t o be a good va r i e ty of nu t r i t i ous plants, grasses and browse and fo-rbs, on the Kofa, possibly a be t t e r var ie ty than there i s on the Desert Game Range.

We become more perplexed when we r e a l i z e t h a t roughly two- thirds of the supply of Desert Game Range bighorns, or about 1,000 animals, i s i n a s i n g l e mountain range, t h e Sheep Range, which conta ins only about seven townships. This works o u t t o a densi ty of nea r ly 145 animals per township, o r over seven times a s much bighorn densi ty a s on t h e Kofa and 5% t i n e s as much as on the .balance of t h e Desert Game Range. I f a r e l a t i v e abundance of food and water is t h e reason f o r t h e Sheep Range's product iv i ty , then ~7hy a r e t h e r e no'bighorns whatsoever i n a g rea t d e a l of country i n Nevada, Utah, and northern Arizona t h a t i s qu i t e similar t o the Sheep Range?

There i s no ready answer t o such questions. It does appear t h a t the d e s e r t bighorn's dens i ty i s governed by f a c t o r s too s u b t l e f o r us t o d i s- cern. Since these f a c t o r s may r e s t on a complex and e a s i l y disarranged n a t u r a l equat ion, it would seem t h a t the less we d i s t u r b him a ~ d tamper wi th h i s environment, t h e b e t t e r chance w e have of keeping t h e d e s e r t bighorn on t h e scene..

h o t h e r and r e l a t e d source of wonderment i s t h e d i s t r i b u t i o n of deser t bighorns wi th in the S t a t e of Arizona. Why are they confined mainly t o the 1 ---- - .. L V W S D L , h o t t e s t , ~ i i d iiiiist a i d seci5.ons of the stace? The historical and archaeological record shows t h i s has always been t rue . No evidence e x i s t s t h a t bighorns ever l i v e d i n r e c e n t geological times i n appreciable numbers anywhere i n t h e s t a t e except from the Baboquivari Mountains and t h e Phoenix a r e a w e s t and northwest t o t h e Black Canyon of t h e Colorado River, excluding the f a i r l y well-vegetated and watered Hualpai Mountains. An exception -- - - - --- - -- - --- - --. - - - - -- - - - --- -- - - - - - could-be the genera l ly unforested Pelonci l lo ~ 6 G X Z i n T ~ i n T h e T o u t h ~ along t h e New Mexico l i n e , which represents a s o r t of i s l a n d of bighorn h a b i t a t t h a t reached over t o include the Big Hatchet Mountains i n New Mexico, and poss ib ly some low-lying mountains i n extreme northern Chihuahua. The bighorn now has p r a c t i c a l l y vanished from t h i s area. I have no answer t o t h i s r i d d l e of d i s t r i b u t i o n , unless i t be a matter of r e l a t i o n s h i p with the mountain l ion . This l a r g e predator i s almost absent from southwestern and western Arizona, where the bighorns are . I note t h a t i t i s a rare animal on t h e Desert Gme Range, bu t I do not know i t s former or present s t a t u s i n the Peloncil lo-Big Hatchet region.

Some of t h e most p ic turesque and most i n t e n s e l y i n t e r e s t i n g d e s e r t bighorn h a b i t a t i s found i n t h e g ran i t e and l ava mountains of northwestern Sonora, and i n Baja C a l i f o r n i a and T c r r i t o r i o de Baja Ca l i fo rn ia Sur. The American h a b i t a t of bighorn skeep i s contiguous w i t h t h a t i n Mexico. I advocate t h a t our, two coun t r i e s work together i n what i s sure ly a common i n t e r e s t more assiduously than we have i n the pas t . Time i s s h o r t , s ince t h e r e z r e evidences t h a t a l l may not be well wi th t h e Nexican populations. Recent v i s i t s t o the Pinacate region ind ica te t h a t biqhorns nay aJready have disappeared from t h i s a r e a where once they were described a s p l e n t i f u l .

While a t Kino Bay during our 1961 Conference, I talked t o S r . Fel ix , who operates a boat landing i n the area, concerning bighorns. S r . Fel ix expressed alarm over t h e i r welfare i n the nearby S i e r r a Chichichora, south of Pico de Johnson. This s i e r r a i s the southernmost point of bighorn habi ta t i n Sonora. He r e l a t ed how a shor t t i m e before a party of hunters had arrived i n the v i c i n i t y with a plenitude of firearms and hunting equipment, jeeps, and a loca l guide, and had been successful i n wiping out an e n t i r e band of bighorn-rams, ewes, and lambs. It would not take many par t ies of t h i s nature t o quickly exterminate the bighorn i n Sonora .

The amount of protection required by bighorn sheep populations has been a subject of much debate. I have already touched on t h i s t o some degree. I think it i s p re t ty w e l l established t h a t the bighorn sheep i s a comparatively in to le ran t animal regarding any s o r t of continuous human disturbance, and addit ional s teps t o guarantee t h a t bighorns w i l l be un- molested i n s ign i f ican t ly large portions of t h e i r ranges need t o be taken. Camping, prospecting, and road building a c t i v i t i e s i n bighorn habi ta ts need t o be controlled, especial ly considering the po ten t ia l increase i n these a c t i v i t i e s i n future years. Off-road vehicular t rave l especially poses a problem There seems t o be no easy solut ion t o such control chal- lenges, but t h e i r th rea t t o bighorn populations must be continually ham- mered on u n t i l public opinion i s moved to the point where something w i l l be done ._ - Perhaps--a res-oluti-on-t-o t h i s effect _ fr-om the Counci 1-would be = - - - -- -- a helpful s t a r t i n g point. I am convinced t h a t , i f the present i n e r t i a continues much longer, the days of the bighorn i n t he a r i d Southwest and Mexico a re surely numbered.

One more subject for cogi ta t ion, and t h i s paper w i l l end. I have tota led a l l bighorn s igh t records from the Kofa and Cabeza P r i e t a Game Ranges during the l a s t 8 years, 1955 through 1962, and find tha t on the Kofa a t o t a l of 651 rams were seen as compared t o 602 ewes. This i s a r a t i o of 52 rams t o 48 ewes, or an almost 1:l sex r a t i o . I would regard t h i s a s a natural r a t i o , unless somehow disproved. It suggests tha t good management would include maintaining th i s r a t i o . On the Cabeza P r i e t a Game Range, the data give us 317 rams t o 328 ewes, which r e su l t s i n a sex r a t i o of 49 rams to 51 ewes,again prac t ica l ly a 1:l ra t io .

THE WYNNE.-E~IWARDS TREOKY APPLIED TO DESERT BIGHORN SHEEP

Winston E. Banko Bureau of Sport Fisheries and Wildlife

Washington, D. C.

F i r s t off l e t me clear up the obvious question regarding the ident i ty of Wynne-Edwards and provide you with a thumbnail description of bis theory. Then I w i l l attempt t o re la te the concept t o the desert bighorn sheep and t h e i r dispersion, behavior and population levels .

Professor V . C . Wynne-Edwards , is Regius Professor of Natural History, University of Aberdeen, Scotland, and a former student of the farnous animal ecologist Charles Elton. But what i s more pertinent here is his authorship of a brand new book ANIMAL DISPERSION I N REUTION TO SOCIAL BEXAVIOR (1962, Hafner Publishing Company, New York, $10.25).

Don't be fooled by the technical sounding, cloud 9 t i t l e . This book, containing d o c m n t e d evidence and a f ' u l l account of his theory, i s a king s ize but eminently reads6le volume. It is, I think, destined to become a classic. One reviewer has already cal led 2% "eLe -ask -jqu*-t e-jnt~I~i5.~-~n nat-jd Ms"arcj sfnce ZL-rlas Darwin's ORIGIN OF SPECIES." Be t h a t a s it may, it i s my opinion tha t the Wynne-Edwards t r e a t i s e throws new l i g h t on answers which have puzzled wildlife biologists for years.

* Now the paper cover on the book says t h a t the point of I

- - . - - - - -- - - -- - -- -- - 3 & d b y - s l o a z -QQynne;-Edwaras-i s largTly a novel one, and it is, the theory rest ing q o n factual material drawn from the whole animal kingdom. In expounding his new concept, which was not apparent t o him mtil a f t e r he had surveyed the evidence, the good Professor deals with the mechanism by which the population densi t ies and dispersion of animals are controlled. In addition t o the cent ra l themes of population balance and social behavior, the volume t r e a t s many co l l a t e ra l topics of general interest--nsethods of communication among animals, longevity, polygamy, tradition, mimicry, cannibalism, and a host of other social phenomena, a l l of

1

which turn out i n some way o r other t o be relevant tb dispersion and population levels. Further, Wynne-Edwards performs t h i s comprehensive task with facts , logic, and reason--refreshing t o those of us unschooled i n the mathematical Jargon of the modern animal population s t a t i s t i c i an .

Now f o r the theory i n a nutshell. Did you ever t r y boi l- ing down 653 fac t- f i l l ed pages? I can do no be t t e r it seems than quoting i n pa r t f r o m a book review which appeared i n the - IBIS (NO. 4, Vol. 104, Oct., 1962) by E. M. Nicholson, a noted student of animal populations, a s follows:

"This review can only summarize briefly the s ix hundred closely reasoned and fact- fi l led pages i n which Professor Wynne-Edwards has made a comprehensive review of animal behaviour i n seeking t o show that many of i t s unexplained features can be interpreted as 'epideictic' displays 'to t e s t the population density and stimulate responses which w i l l hold it a t or restore it t o the optimum'. He points out that where we can s t i l l find nature undisturbed by human interference, there i s generally no indication that the habitat is run down or destmctively overtaxed. On the contrary, the whole trend of ecological evolution seems t o be towazds the highest s ta te of productivity that can be b u i l t up within the limitations s e t by the inorganic environment. Chmnic over-exploitation and mass poverty occur only as a kind of adventitious disease almost certain to be swiftly suppressed by natural selection.

"How does this powerful and all-pervasive selection operate and where can we detect it at work? If each species maintains an optimum population-density on its own account, not only w i l l it be providing the most favourable conditions for i t s own survival, but it will automatically offer the best possible living t o species dependent on it for food. This ca l l s for a homeostatic control system asadgous to, and no l e s s coxnplex than the physiological systems that regulate the internal environment of the body and adjust it t o meet changing

- ---needs .-Such a- control system -cannot*-be -based eithe on individual or an interspecific selection. It pre- supposes group selection and implies that, irrespec- t ive of different degrees of gregariousness or solFtariness, all animals becoze members of societies which form an organization capable of providing conventional competition. Sucb competition must prevent a direct struggle for existence, which would perma- nently damage the habitat, by substituting abstract goals such as possession of ter r i tory or attainnaent of a s ta tus carrying with it the undisputed right to use available resources. Individuals which f a i l to achieve such status are excluded from reproduction and may be displaced from the most suitable habitats, but they do no< unless i n quite abnormal circumstances, continue tc? f ight or compete for food against those which have achieved status through conventional competi t ion. For t h i s purpose acceptance as members of a social group i s equivalent to possession of individual t e r r i to ry and every gradation between the two i s i l lus t ra ted.

"The necessary mechanisms t o achieve the degree of population regulation which demonstrably i s achieved i n nature are therefore the existence of organized competition capable of continuously adjusting popula- t ions to resources by enabling changing pressures on resources t o be sensed and by bringing about corresponding aajustments i n f'uture population density. The particular devices and conventions used may and do exhibit endless diversity. O w i n g to t h e i r inherently ' a r t i f i c ia l ' nature, they also permit and even encourage extravagances of ornament, voice, o r behaviour, i n sharp contrast t o the relentlessly u t i l i t a r i an products of other types of selection. The vital importance of such regulation Just i f ies large demands on the time and energy of an.lmals concerned, but fa i lure t o interpret correctly the actions involved has led obsemers i n many cases to regard them as pointless and bizarre.

"Wh& are these actions? k birds, they include territorial activi ty and song, communal display, and roosting, and mass f l i gh t s such as the mysterious 'dreadst - of nesting terns and gulls. Among aquatic invertebmtes Professor me-Edwards s b w s reason to believe that the adespread vert ical daily move-

- ments of crustacea and many planktonic animals have a-similar function, -as -do the- pecuar-mass=-dances-of-- whirligig beetles and the noisy choruses of a number of shoaling fishes and crustacea such as snapping o r pistol-shrimps. In mammals the caterwauling of cats, roaring of stags, and choruses of vizcachas are outstanding examples. Among insects, the well-known 'mat ing f l ights ' of ants and invasions of locusts are extreme examples of s h h phenomena. One of the main requirements for success i s synchronization and this is usually achieved by concentration a t identi- fiable seasons and times of day, dam and dusk being the simplest and most favoured, as in the familiar dawn chorus of a l l the singing birds i n a neigh-- hoad during the breeding season."

So much f o r the general theory. E. M. Nicholson paints with a wide brush however, and it i s u s e m a t this point t o see how well our specific knowledge of the desert sheep can be made to fit the broad conceptual panorama l e f t by the esteemed professor. -

A t this point it i s Important t o recognize t ha t relating the desert sheep populations to the Wynne-Edwards theory i s only possible because the bulk of the bighornst hsbitat remaining,

I

especially the forage, i s yet essentially unmodified by man. Were the situation otherwise, interpreting the concept for this species

'might not be valid, fo r the natural regulation of animal numbers may be, and often is, thrown out of balance by man-caused factors-- as any wildlife biologist knows.

While the job of applying the Wynne-Edwards concept to management of wildlife species is ultimately a job best l e f t to the indiddual biologist, I think we can make sone useful obsekations within our collective experiences to t e s t the theory i n a general way. For i f Wynne-Edwards i s correct, and I at leas t can f ind no openings for serious criticism, then inferences inportant to the management of desert bighorn sheep may be drawn on the basis of what is already known. In some cases existing programs could be carried forward with greater conf'idence, or perhaps new actions implemented without further or mare intensive researches. Thus, Wynne-Edwards' theory may be of the greatest practical value t o us.

If the dispersion and density of desert bighorn sheep populations are essential ly self-regulated within Hmits of the food S L X ~ ~ , =S i n 4 i c ~ t ~ d b-y the Wjmie-Ed'~t& At&e~~f , then the overall validity of his thesis might be first and most simply tested by asking ourselves i f we know of cases where overutilization of forage 'by 'bighorns has resulted, with a consequent mortality i n the population. Apparently this has not happened, or at l eas t it i s not common, for widespread range damage by bighorns would be a topic new to most

-- * - --- - -. - - -- - deed.-eet66e ---- -- - - -- - - - - -- -- -- - of us. opposite problem appears to edst - - that of measuring the degree of forage utilization, so l i t t l e and irregular are use patterns evident..

It should also be mentioned that these desert sheep, like other ungulates, are f a r along i n the evolutionary scale envisioned . by man. Although their social order may appeaz to be loose and unorganized to us, it i s actually of a relat ively high order when compared with many forms of animal l i f e . One cannot read the monograph by Welles and Welles ( 1 % ~ ) without being impressed with the social aspects of desert bighorn sheep behavior. Thus, we are assured that the social framework eldsts i n this species t o provide the nec- e s s q testing and response mechanism fo r the homeostatic o r self- regulatory population density and dispersion machinery Wynne-Edwards talks about.

Other than the obvious significance of mating, what social relationships play the most v i t a l role i n regulating dispersion and density? Since the ab i l i t y t o i n f l i c t physical damage lies close to the source of animal behavior i n societies, l e t us look a t "fighting" aspect of bighorn ram behaeor. Wynne-Edwards gives us the general rule i n the animal world as follows:

"Threats constitute a very common type of communication. In most anilnals thei r prime use i s intraspecific, as

shown by the fac t tbat the organs used t o convey them are often not present i n individuals, but only perhaps i n the adult males . . . . However it may be conveyed, threat implies a power t o hurt on sufficient provoca- tion, but it has come t o provide a conventional method of repelling r ivals without resorting to wholesale bloodshed and fights to the death. Direct competition can thus ass^ symbolic forms, and decisions between r ivals can be reached by abstract conventional methods. "

Ih the l ight of these general remarks, comments on bighorn behavior by Welles and Welles become mre meaningful. "Fighting w i t h other males is a much publicized but l i t t l e understood phase of bighorn history . . . . The evidence of this report points strongly towards a r i t u a l i s t i c emphasis on the interpretation of the activi ty . . . certainly it has nothing to do with premating collection and maintenance of a 'harem' or ewe herd; nor does it seem to result i n the elimination of one ram from participation i n mating act iv i ty with a certain ewe . . . . Rams seem t o be uninter- ested i n a contest with an inferior opponent."

But yon rimy say the question of h4)r a given bighorn society. acts to regulate dispersion and density is the crucial one. I agree. Let US deal with dispersion first. Consider again the general statement of Wynne-Edwards.

"Of the, sociable ungulates some a t leas t have communal - t e r r i to r ies -within which they spend- much or-aXk40f-their -- - -- -

l ies , though they may be continually moving from place t o place within them so as to take advantage of the best that the hour o r season can offer i n the way of cover o r grazing . . . . The dispersion of gregarious species . . . in which the individual claims no private property but enjoys an vnspecified share i n the coma- n a l territory of the herd t o which it belongs, resembles tha t of the schools of certain fishes such as Catostomus . . . . So long as the group i s capable of regulating i ts nunibers through control of the b i r t h rate, or by means of the social hierarchy and competitive pressure o r persecution, expelling any unwanted surplus, comrmmally held te r r i to r ies constitute a system of dispersion as practical and efficient as any other."

Now for the correlative bighorn statement by Yelles and Welles, "As a factor i n the distribution and survival of bighorn, food hsbits and feeding behavior emerge close t o the top of the l ist , for we have here what amounts to a conservation program a l a bighorn, with four main points: (1) By eating very l i t t l e of any one plant a t a time, the bighorn seldom destroy a plant by browsing. (2) By

constant traveling while feeding, they allow plants t o recover. (3) BY wide dispersal i n smal l bands, they f l r t he r minimize browsing damage. (4) By thei r ab i l i ty t o subsist for indefinite periods on completely dormant and even dead plant material, they can with i m m u n i t y survive droughts resulting in the decimation of many other species of desert animals. (5) Their apparent ab i l i ty t o substitute green forage fo r free water allows them t o reach distant food supplies that otherwise would not be available to them."

Thus faz the theory seems t o fit the bighorns1 case history. ~ u t we sti l l have the mst vital question of all left t o answer. How does the social machinery of bighorn sheep act as a population valve, stepping up recruitment when population levels are low in relation to food and equally important, cutting down surpluses before the capacity of the forage i s exceeded. Let Wynne-Edwards again provide the general background.

"Many experiments have been made in the laboratory on population growth and regulation: a l l have yielded fundamentally similar results . . . . Crowding per se can have a depressing effect even i n the presence of abundant food. When experimental populations such as these are exploited or cropped, by regularly destroying a proportion of thei r members i n a manner that parallels predation , . . the recruitment rate is found to respond . . . by rising. In none of the expe did mortality ever result f r o m starvati

-- -- ---- --A 0%-numbers -always--took- place i n advance emergency . . . . One to one matings between and female animrrls appear very extravagant, especially where the males (which contribute so ILt t le materially to posterity) are as big or bigger than the females, equally numerous, and excessively fecund. "

But one may say it seems.evident from a number of field studies including those of Ock Deming, the WeUes's and others, that the obvious reason that there are not mre bighorns i s due chiefly t o the high loss of lambs. Yearung sheep, in relation to young lanibs couited, are few--whether i n Death Valley or some other habitat. Yet no one has been able t o pin down and identify the predominant causes of lamb losses.

Offhand, the combined causes of lamb mortality i n any given population, acting independently of population size, would appear to l i m i t the size of the adult sheep papulation. But this concept conflicts with the Wynne-Edwards theory which says, i n effect, that characteristics inherent i n the social organization, being population dependent, would af'fect both the number of lambs dropped and, t o a varying degree, their sumdval.

The Wjmne-Edwards theory i s not yet provable for bighorns a t this point, but I suspect that he is closer t o the answer than those of us who have been looking for population control factors which sre independent of population density. How else could the "barvestable surplus" of game populations generally be explained if Wynne-Edwards or a similar theory did not exist? Do we hold that the bighorn is an exception?

Thus, we come to the third and l a s t phase of these discussions, that concerning management implications. If the Wynne- Edwards concept i s valid, including facets which t h e does not per- at m~ to ernlore here, what does this mean i n terms of bighorn sheep management? It i s my personal opinion that the following measures would then be indicated:

1. Bighorn sheep managers- need t o take a new and harder look at use of bighorn range by other rumisants, particularly livestock and deer, with a view of elimbating or reducing such uses where possible.

2. Hunting, -through homeostatic processes, acts to Increase recruitment in established and secure big- hmm p p d s t i n n e e Enmmr, *&re m y ?e ~ ~ ~ s + - ~ in harvesting eves as w e l l as rams i n equal numbers If hunting i s perndtted.

3. Because home range traditions have been s h m to be

-- - -- -- - -- -- ---- a prbary factor goire- the distribution .of bighorn- populations, - and picuieering- is--slow-'liecaae-=ofr--;= substantial bafiiers ta isolated ranges, transplanting bighorns to suitable empty habitats would be a mnre efficient management use of animals than hm- vesting end should be accorded a higher priority and be more actively pursued.

4. Water development as a general measure of management should be approached cautiously and w i t h specific needs of bighorn populations in mind. If use of the resultant developed water by other range competitors, such as deer or Uvestock is envisioned, then the development proposals should probably not be carrled out.

5 . Considering the limited averal l productivity of desert for&e p a t species, in&ducing closely related exotic herbivores within eventual range of bighorn habitats. is potentially inimical insofar as bighorns are concerned.

Ws.concludes my.discussion. Frankly, I don't expect you to accept w h a t ' I've said without better evidence than I've been able

to conjure ug within my a l l o t t e d spas of t ime. Nevertheless, my talk will have served i ts purpose i f it has stimulated your thinking. After 0, a new theory is only a d i f fe ren t way of thinking about a subject. Professor Wynne-Edwards' book packs a l o t of na tura l history meaningful to game managers between i t s sturdy covers, and I recommend i t s acquis i t ion by each of you who puzzle over simple r i dd le s i n the animal kingdom. In the meantime I'll do my b e s t to answer your questions.

BANKD - (Discussion)

(The tape w a s no t complete but M r . Welles makes some comment tha t indicates conf l ic t ing ideas and M r . Banko answers him)

Banko - I ' m not f u l l y prepared to defend t h i s concept. It 's one of the most i n t e r e s t i ng theories to come to my a t ten t ion i n recent .years but I ' m wi l l ing to discuss it fur ther at t h i s t i m e .

Wood - The Wynne-Edwards paper you discussed here, I can ' t r e a l l y say i t is a new concept. It 's been with us qui te some time. He did make it qui te general through the animai -kingdom, but the same theory has been presented by men i n this country and Australia. So, i f you want some other data on t h i s regulation of population the g rea t e s t source of pros and cons a r e summarized i n an a r t i c l e by Cline and several others

here. I j u s t want t o support your statement. There i s n ' t anything bas ica l ly new here s ince they a r e r e a l l y Darwin's o ld concepts ro l led out to include everything i n the animal kingdom and we can apply them.

Banko - In t ha t sense i ts good.

Graf - Yes and I'll help you defend them anytime you want help.

Goodman - There is a man in California who makes the statement that tk bes t game management he can f igure out is just to put a fence around something and then jus t let it go by i t s e l f . The management here is t h a t these animals have some inborn homeostatic mechanism and the bes t thing you can do about i t is to learn about i t and then jus t let i t go.

Banko - No, I think w e have enough problems remaining a f t e r we apply th i s man's theory tha t i t ' s going to keep our generation and several others busy trying to unravel the mess we a r e stuck with. If man's existance within h i s envirnment was a s a primitive force instead of a modern dynamic force, what you say would be true, but we have a l l

so a l te red the charac te r i s t ics of the face of the ear th tha t we're beset now with the problem of trying to make sense out of i t and of get t ing the most out of what i s l e f t and i n t h i s l i gh t we need some general theory to guide us a s to what forces a r e i n action and i n operation beyond that which man can bring about.

A DESEFtT BIGHORN STUDY : PART ONE

Norman M. Simmons U. 3. Fish and Wildl i fe Service

aabeza P r i e t a Game Range Ajo, Arizona

' I. Int roduct ion

The bottom rung i n t h e ladder ts wise management o f a w i l d - l i f e species i s a e c i e n t i f i c a l l y planned study o f an animal's behavior i n i t s n a t u r a l h a b i t a t .

f a Apr i l , 1962, the Bureau o f Sport Fieherise and W i l d l i f e i n i t i a t e d a b a s i c t h r e e yea r s tudy o f t h e a c t i v i t i e s o f d e s e r t bighorn sheep (&is canadensis) on t h e Cabeza P r i e t a Game Range, Arizona. Much o f t h e f irst yea r of t h i s s tudy has been used i n reviewing l i t e r a t u r e , l i d t i n e t h e a tudy a rea , ob ta in ing and e r e c t i n g instruments, and get- t i n g the " f e e l a o f t h e p r o j e c t . It i a much too e a r l y f o r oonclueioae, but we have come up wi th some i n t e r e s t i n g observatione and techaiquee of study. I would l i k e t3 present t o you a t ' thie time an in t roduc t ion t o o u r s tudy a rea , some o f the techniques used i n the study, and some c a m e n t s on a few o f o u r bighorn observations.

II,.. . Descript ion o f t h e Study Area . .. . . . . . .

Ihe Cabeza R i e t a Gaae Range l i e s along approximately 50 miles of t h e ~r izona-Sonora border. Its 660,000 acres accupy por t ions o f Yuma and Pima Counties i n aouthweetern Arizona,

Osolofcy This r e g i m is charac ter ized by a s e r i e e o f low, rugged,

northwest t rending mountain range8 eeperated by wide, a l luvium-f i l l sd va l leys . Elevatione range from 695 f e e t a t Las Playas, a dry l a k e bed, t o 3,323 f e e t i n t h e Growler Mountaine--a di f ference o f 2,628 f e e t .

'he conformation o f the mountain ranges i s o f two types . 'he s ier ra- type mountains a r e narrow, jagged backbones o f c r y s t a l l i n e g r a n i t e and metaaorphic rock. The L i t t l e Ajo, Agua Dulce, Granita , Bryan, Hohawk, P in ta , and Tule Mountains a r e of t h e a i e r r a type . The meea-type mountain8 a r e oomposed pr imar i ly o f bedded valaanice and a r e r e l a t i v e l y f l a t Qr gen t ly inc l ined massive blocks cu t by recen t ly - eroded canyons. The Childe, Growler, and p a r t s o f t h e Cabeza R i e t q Mountain6 f a l l i n t o t h i s c l a s s .

Climate The Game Ranpe i s i n t h e most a r i d p e r t o f Arizana, r ece iv ing -

l e s s than f i v e inches o f r e i n during an average yea r . The western end o f t h e Game Range has rece ived l ee8 than t h r e e inches o f r a i n i n t h i r t y o f t h e p a s t s i x t y yea r s ( I n s t i t u t e of A tmsnhe r i c Physics, 1960).

A l m o s t h a l f t h e Game Ranee's y e a r l y p r e c i p i t a t i o n f a l l s between J u l y and September. b e t of t he maderetely heavy p r e c i p i t a t i o n o f t h e eummer comes f'ram t h e Gulf of Mexico. It i s o f a showery na ture , and t h e r a i n s e r e u s u a l l y accompanied by e t r o n g winds and blowing dust . Winter p r e c i p i t a t i o n i s f r e q u e n t l y aseoc ia ted wi th l a rge- sca l e cyc lonic s torms coming wi th p r e v a i l i n g weeter ly winds. Winter p r e c i p i t a t i o n i s o f t e n l i g h t e r b u t o f longer dura t ion then summer r e i n s . Snow and h a i l a r e uncommon on ' t h e Game Ranpe.

Humidity i s v e r y low on t h e Game Range. The summer months of May and June a r e t h e dr ie8. t o f t h e year. Humi.ditiee o f 2 pe rcen t have been recorded i n t h e Yuna4bhawk area.

Temperatures on t h e Game Range normally r i a e i n t o t h e middle tr high 60's iii tha e f t s r n c o n and us'l;al?y s t a y above freezing a t n i g h t dur ing t h e co ldee t p a r t o f t h e year . Summer temperatures reach v a l u e s w e l l over 100 degreee i n t he a f te rnoon hours .

Vegete t i o n The Game Ranpe i s i n t h a t f l o r i s t i ion o f t h e Sonoran

-DeTe-It-~CC al7Fd.-th-8 Arizona- B s e r t - (Odum, 195 The a r e a i-s-~her~cterize-d----- -=

by t h e ubiqui toue c reoso te bueh (Lerrea t r i d e n t a t a ) t h a t f i l l s t h e broad v a l l e y e . Along drainage p e t t e r n s a r e euch l a r g e r ehrube and t r e e s a s mesquite (Proeo* u l i f l o r a ) , catclaw (Acacia e . i), ironwood (0lnega

. t e a o t a ) , and pa lo v ! ! c i d i u u i m i c r a p h y l l u m ~ ~ e unders tory o f p l a n t s c o n s i s t s of annual g r a s s e s and forb8 and euch pe renn ia l shrubs a s t h e bur- sages ( ~ r a n s e r i a dumaaa and F. d e l t o i d e s ) and b r i t t l e bueh (Encel ia f a r i n o s a ) . The upper bajadas and e rod ing mountain s l o p e s suppor t a r i c h e r f l o r e , a s t h e ooarser s o i l s a l l ow a deeper f n f i l t r a - t i o n o f ra inwater . Here, above the palo verdee and ironwoode, tower the g i a n t saguaros (CarneEiea j z i p n t e a ) . The rocky e lopes a l s o support a v e g e t a t i o n r i c h i n l e r g e members o f t he l i l y and amary l l i s fami ly , no tab ly t h e a g m e s and no l ines . Cholla c a c t i ( h u n t i a ) o f s e v e r a l s p e c i e s abound throughout t h e a rea .

Wi ld l i fe . Over 30 spec i e s o f b i r d s r e s i d e on t h e Game Range (Moneon,

1958). They inc lude euch b i r d s a8 the golden eag le ( A R u A ~ ~ chrysae tos) , t h e r e d- t a i l e d hawk (Buteo j amaicensis), t h e mourning dove (Zenaidura macroura) Gambel' s q u a i l (Lophortyx pambelii) , t he roadrunner -(~eacoccyx c a l i f o r n i a n u s ) , t h e c m m n raven (Gorvus co re r ) , and the LeConte's t h r a s h e r (~oxost,oma l e c o n t t i ) . The Game Ranpe l i e s i n t he pa th o f swarms of e p r i n ~ migrants , m ~ s t n o t i c e a b l e o f which a r e t h e white-winged doves (Zenaida a s i a t i c a ) .

ZF,s i e p t i l e e and i n e e c t e found on t h e Game Range a r e t h o s e t h a t a r e n a t u r a l l y adapted t o t h e a r i d cond i t i ons o f the a r ea , wi th impervioue integumente and d ry e x c r e t i o n s . Some r e s i d e n t mammals such ae t h e kangaroo r a t (Dipodomys) and t h e pocket mouse ( P e r o ~ n a t h u s ) have developed remarkable secondary adap ta t ions . These animals can l i v e i n d e f i n i t e l y on dry seeds and do not r s q u i r e f r e e water (Odum, 1-9). ' h e l e s s a r i d e a e t e r n p o r t i o n o f t h e Game Range suppor ts t h e g r e a t e r popu la t ions of l a r g e mammals. The Growler and Agua Dulce Wountains mark t h e m e t wes tern ex tens ion o f mule deer (0docoileue heaionus) range. This a r e a a l s o suppor t6 many o f t h e Sonoran an te lope (Antilooapra americana) and j a v e l i n a (Peca r i t e j r c u ) , though t h e e e animals a r e found l e a s f r e q u e n t l y throughout most o f t h e Game Range. Bighorn eheep oacupy n e a r l y a l l o f t h e mountainous a reas , and t h e g rey f o x (Uroc on c inereoarpenteus) , bobcat (Lynx - ruf'ue), and coyote i s lai&oam t h e v a l l e y s and lower .lopes.

111. His to ry o f Land Use

The a v a i l a b l e d a t a on human ocaupat ion o f t h e d e s e r t encompassing t h e p re sen t Game Range p r i o r t o 1500 have been pieced t o g e t h e r by a n t h r o p o l o g i s t s i n v e r y r e c e n t yea r s , A major archaeo- l o g i c a l s i t e survey of t h e Game Ranpe wae conducted i n 1962 and 1963. fn?ormatlon p t h e r e d from t h i s survey was camoared wi th da ta from ad jaoen t a r e a s and a gene ra l p i c t u r e o f t h e p r e h i s t o r y o f t h e s tudy

e~was- formed _----=-_ --. __ - _ - - - - -- --

The advances o f i o e dur ing t h e Upper P l e i s tocene epoch, some 125,000 y e a r s ago, caused t h e r a i n b e l t s o f t h e world t o move i n toward t h e equa to r (Beale and Hoi je r , -1954). A s a r e s u l t , t h e Sonoran Desert area rece ived more r a i n f a l l du r ing t h e P le i s toaene g l a d a t i o n s than du r ing pe r iods when g l a c i e r s were receding. Perhaps dur ing euah p l u v i a l pe r iods , t he p r e ~ e n t d e s e r t was more h a b i t a b l e and supported r e e i d e n t popula t ions o f e a r l y man. It i s p o s s i b l e t h a t bighorn eheep i n h a b i t e d t h i e a r e a a t t h e eame t ime t h e f i r e t humane were the re . In t h e m a j o r i t y o f re ferences a3nsul ted , t h e au tho r s t heo r i ze t h a t t h e sheep oroseed t o Alaska From S i b e r i a on i c e a s e a r l y a s t h e mid-Pleisto- cane and then spread eouthward a long t h e western mountain cha ine u n t i l t hey reached t h e l i a i t e o f tolermnce f o r v a r i o u s environmental factor . ( ~ o r n a d a y , 1914; Ober, 1931; Cowan, 1940).

About 5,500 yeare be fo re t h e b i r t h of C h r i s t , t h e r e began a per iod o f dry, ho t c l imate . 3ome'anthropologiate be l i eve t h a t t h e Sonoran Desert waa unoccupied by man dur ing t h i s per iod. Then, about 2,000 B.C., another p l u v i a l per iod began. Some o f t h e f i r s t evidence o f human occupat ian of t h e p re sen t Game Ranpe was dated t o t h i e per iod. Theae e a r l y humane, perhape immigrating from t h e nor th , have been named t h e San Megui toe . Their- s t one t o o l e and s l eep ing c i r c l e s have

been found i n and near a l l mountain ranges on the Game Qange.

From about 1,000 B.C. t o nea r ly 1,000 A.D., t h e Armagosa people, succes so r s t o t he San Dieguitos, occupied t h e Sonoran Desert . They l e f t s t o n e t s o l s from New Mexico t o t h e C a l i f o r n i a dese r t e .

Af te r 700 A.D., t h e f i r s t Yuman Indiana aame i n t o t h e Game Range a r e a f r o m t h e west and t r a v e l e d through t h i s d e s e r t west o f t h e Growler Val ley . East o f t h e Growler Valley, t h e Hohokam people suc- ceeded t h e Armagoeaa, l eav ing t h e i r c h a r a c t e r i s t i c red-on-brown po t t e ry .

I I me Sand Papago Ind ians came upon t h e scene around 1450 A.D.

lhey roamed t h e a rea west o f t h e Growler Val ley between t h e Gulf o f C a l i f o r n i a and t h e Gila River . The Papago Indians occupied t h e more h a b i t a b l e a r e a they l i v e i n today e a s t o f t h e Growler Velley. Membere o f both e t h n i c groups probably hunted d e s e r t bighorn sheep, used t h e i r meat f o r food and t h e i r p e l t s and horns f o r c lo th ing , decorat ions, and u t e n s i l s . Both Sand Papago and Papago Indians were encountered by e a r l y Spanish exp lo re r s ( ~ a y d e n , 1963).

Recorded h i s t o r y of t h i s l i t t le- known p a r t o f t h e Sonoran Desert began wi th t h e a r r i v a l o f t h e J e s u i t missionary Francieco Eusebio Kiao i n 1687. He i e o r e d i t e d a s t h e f i r s t t~ t r a v e r s e and map t h e whole o f Pimeria Alta, t h e neme then eppl ied t o southern Arizona and no r the rn Sonora. He t r a v e l e d seve ra l t imes i n t h e a r ea o f t h e infamous Camino de l Mablo ( t h e Devil '8 ~ i ~ h w a ~ ) . He v i s i t e d Heart Tank (which he c a l l e d Aguaje de l a ~ u n s ) i n t he S i e r r a P in t a , and crossed=--the=Cabeza-PrIe-taaa&untaine to-Tinajaa-ALtae (which he-named- - _ -_

Agua ~ e c o n d i d a ) , and t r a v e l e d no r th a long t h e Gila b u n t a i n e t o t h e Gila River (Bolton, 1936).

For 20 yeare a f t e r Padre Kino's dea th i n 1711, no Spaniard i s known t o have en tered t h a t po r t ion of t h e Sonoran Desert i n Arizona. Then i n t e r e s t was revived i n t h e a rea , and once epa in mis s iona r i e s v i a i t e d t h e miseions and Indian v i l l a g e s . They cont inued t o work i n Arizona u n t i l about 1920, when t h e b e l l i g e r e n t Apache Indians forced them t o abandon t h e i r missions.

The d e s e r t encompassing what i s now the Cabeza P r i e t a Game Range remained r e l a t i v e l y unt raversed by o t h e r than nomadic Sand ' Papago Ind ians u n t i l the U.S.-Mexican uer o f 1846. Af ter t h e war, t he gold rush t o t h e p l ace r s i n S a l i f o r n i e began. The Gila F iver and t h e n e a r l y w a t e r l e s s Camino d e l Mab lo became p r i n c i p a l immigration rou te s . Over 400 gold- eeekers a r e s a i d t o have perished on t h e Camino d e l Mablo ( ~ r ~ a n , 1925).

In 1853, the Game Range became p e r t of' t h e United S t a t e s ae a r e s u l t o f t h e Gadsden Purchase. The fol lowing year , t h e Boundary Commiaaion under W. H. Emory began i t s survey of t h e new i n t e r n a t i o n a l boundary. Records w r i t t e n by members o f t h i s survey pa r ty a r e t he

b e e t e e r l y d e s c r i p t i o n s o f the f l o r a and fauna o f the southern p a r t o f the Game Range (Ibid.) .

After 1854, minere and o the r immigrants flowed i n t o the area t h a t now inc ludes t h e Game Range t o e x p l o i t the r i c h e r copper deposi ts i n Ajo, Arizona. There was then e marked increase i n u t i l i z a t i o n o f game animals f o r food. The e f f i c i e n c y o f the hunter wae improved by f i rearms w i t h r i f l e d bores, so t h a t game wae more e a e i l y obtained.

In 1894, t h e i n t e r n a t i o n a l boundary was re-eurveyed. A b i o l o g i c a l eurvey o f t h e a r e a along t h e boundary was aimultaneoudly conducted by Major E. A. Mearns. In 1907, Dr. D. T. McDougel, member o f t h e Carnegie Ibsert Botanical Laboratory i n Tucson, l e d a s c i e n t i f i c expedit ion a long t h e southern boundary o f t h e preeent Game Range t o the Sierrm Pinacate i n Mexico. Several bighorn sheep were co l l ec ted during t h i e expedi t ion (Hornaday, 1908). b

By 1915 t h e mining a c t i v i t y irom Growler k u n t a i n e eee t through Ajo had increased oonsiderably wi th t h e establiehment of a copper o r e reduot ion p l a n t i n Ajo. Four t o f i v e thoueand people occupied t h i s r o a r i n g mining camp. Even wi th t h e increase i n population i n Ajo, however, t h e v a s t deeer t weet o f t h e Growler k u n t a i n e remained v i r t u a l l y unoccupied.

. The a r e a encompassing the Cabeza R i e t a Game Range hae changed l i t t l e s ince t h e e a r l y 1900'e. The a r e a i s sti l l unoccupied except f o r a- fkw--Indiana- l i v i n g - j u s t eas3 -of , the-&o~ler ~ u n t ~ . = = I n ~ l B 5 . 2 , - - - -- -

Game Range was e s t a b l i s h e d by p r e s i d e n t i a l proclamation, w i m a r i l the p rese rva t ion o f deee r t bighorn sheep and antelope. Since the e a r l y yea r s of World War 11, .the Game Range a r e a has received almoet continuous use as an a e r i a l gunnery range, bu t t h i e has eerved t o keep it i n i t s r e l a t ' i y e l y unoccupied s t a t e . .

Thus t h e Gabeza P r i e t a Game Range i e a unique and i d e a l etudy area. Here man i e permit ted t o examine t h e deeer t bighorn end i ts environment i n n e a r l y p r i s t i n e condit ione.

IV.. Methods and Meterdale

Man may e n t e r a p r i s t i n e area t o l ea rn what na ture i e , but, i n eo doing, he w i l l introduce p o s s i b i l i t i e e o f d i s t o r t i o n through h ie own presence. The s c i e n t i f i c method o f inves t iga t ion i e a meam of I supplanting and c o r r e c t i n g our sense impreseions, which a r e l i k e l y to be i n f i r m and e r r i n g R (Schneir la , 1 9 0 ) .

m i s s i n g

S e l e c t i n ? the s tudv a r e a A l a r g e p a r t o f t h e f i r s t year of t h e bighorn s tudy was spent

g e t t i n g t h e " eeln o f the bighorn h a b i t a t and t r y i n g t o s e l e c t a l i m i t e d area i n which f i e l d work could be cancent ra ted . Two mountain ranges , t h e s i e r r a P i n t a and the S i e r r a Ague Dulce, were chosen a s t h e p r i n c i p a l s tudy a r e a s . These ranpes a r e r e l a t i v e l y easy t o r each from Ajo, a r e mostly R e e from t h e dangers o f a e r i a l gunnery p r a c t i c e , and support r e l a t i v e l y l a r g e and c m c e n t r a t e d p p u l a t i m e o f d e s e r t bighorn. Both mountain r a n e e s a r e s i m i l a r i n geology and f l o r a , and both con ta in permanent water suppl iee .

Co l l ec t ion o f weather da t a Recording weather s t a t i o n s were i n s t a l l e d i n t h e s tudy a r e a

dur ing l a t e 1962,-one i n t h e S ie r r a Agua Dulce and one i n t h e s i e r r a P i n t a . These c m s i s t o f s tandard U. S. Weather Bureau i n s t r u ~ e n t s h e l t e r s houeing r eco rd ing 30-day hygrothermopaphs. F i f t een p rec ip i- t a t i o n gages were i n s t a l l e d i n the v a l l e y s surrounding t h e S i e r r a Ague k l c e and S i e r r a P in t a and on the lower s lopee o f t h e s e ranges. Sinca t h e gagea could no t be checked soon a f t e r every r a i n , they had t o be modified t o reduce t h e r a p i d evaporat ion normal i n t h i s d e s e r t . The c o m e r c i a 1 type p l a e t i c Tru Chek gages a r e charged wi th minera l o i l t o reduce evapora t ion t o a n e g l i g i b l e amount. Dr. Roger Hungerford o f t h e Univers i ty o f Arizona designed t h e o t h e r type o f gage used i n t h e s tudy area . Th i s gage c o n s i s t s of a 4* i n c h diameter Coleman funne l i n s e r t e d i n t o a ga l lon jug. A t l e e s t 100 m i l l i l i t e r s o f kerosene a r e poured i n t o t h e jug t o r e t a r d evaporat ion. The gape oan then be bur ied i n t h e ground so t h a t o n l y t h e funnel shows. When t h e gage c o n t a i n s r a inwa te r t h e amount o f _wa te r i n millililter-a-max-bbeeemul tipli-e-Llz __ _ __- - ---- =---3 ---- - -- - c o n s t a n t 0.00773 t o g ive t h e record o f r a i n f e l l i n inchee.

kea ther da t a a r e supplemenfed w i t h micro- cl imatic da t a ga thered . dur ing each obse rva t ion o f bighorn sheep. These l ~ t t e r da t a a r e gathered

a s c l o s e a s p o s s i b l e t o t h e observed bighorn each hour un le s s a n o t i c e a b l e change i n weather cond i t i ons warrant8 a d d i t i o n a l measurements. A hand- a s p i r a t e d peychorometer opera ted by a rubber bulb a i r pump i s used t o determine the r e l a t i v e humidity. Instantaneous- reading thermometera a r e used t o measure a i r temperature a t about t h r e e f e e t above t h e ground and a t ground l e v e l . A i r speed i s recorded by a simple p l a s t i o wind meter. Inc iden t l i g h t readings a r e taken with a General E l e c t r i c Type PR-1 exposure meter. Percent cloud cover is est imated by t h e observer .

The e f f e c t of c l i m a t e on bighorn sheep has been l i t t l e s tud ied . By c o n t i n u o u ~ l y measuring weather cgnd i t i ous i n t he 'study a rea and b y record ing the micro-climete i n the immediate a r ea o f the-observed bighorn while a l s o r eco rd jng t h e i r a c t i v i t i e s , we hope t o determine some o f t h e e f f e c t s on bighorn o f t h i s f a c e t of t h e i r environment. However, many environmental f a c t o r s w i l l tend t o mask t h e e f f e c t s o f c l ima te on bighorn a c t i v i t y . These f a c t o r s w i l l be n e a r l y impossible tc~ e l imina te

from t h e s tudy and must t h e r e f o r e b+onsidered i n t h e f i n a l a n a l y s i s o f t h e i n f l u e n c e of c l ima te on bighorn.

Observat ion and r eco rd ing o f biphorn a c t i v i t g : Desert bighorn sheep were most o f t e n loca t ed a f t e r thoroughly

s e a r c h i n g l i k e l y t e r r a i n wi th b inoculars . Once bighorn sheep a r e l o c a t e d , a 20-power t e l e scope i s o f t e n used t o s tudy them. The success o f t h e obse rva t ion o f t e n variee ' d i r e c t l y wi th t h e d i s t a n c e between the observer and t h e eheep.

Wherever pose ib le , a bighora,between t h r e e and seven y e a r s o l d was e e l e c t e d f'rom a group, and 'its movement8 were recorded i n d e t a i l on a e t anda rd obse rva t ion form (Fig. 1). This age b racke t waa chosen because it inc ludes t h e most product ive sheep i n t h e herd and i s there- fo re o f mast i n t e r e s t t o t h e Game Manager. The a c t i v i t i e s o f o t h e r bighorn were a l s o recorded, b u t i n d i v i d u a l meandering8 were not followed i n t h e r eco rds . It was a s a u ~ e d t h e t ' t h e a c t i v i t i e e o f t he bighorn .

e e l e c t e d f o r r eco rd ing purposes were, on t h e average, t y p i c a l ~f the moveaents of' t h e remainder o f t h e . a d u l t s i n t h e gmup.

Distances moved by t h e sheep a r e es t imated p e r i o d i c a l l y during eaah hour t o determine t h e i r r a t e o f movement. It seemed necesenry t o d e s c r i b e i n eome way t h e t y p i c a l r a t e s o f b igharn mwement. Therefore, t h e i r r a t e e o f movement a r e c l a s s i f i e d i n t o such d i v i s i o n s a s run, a slow o r s a p i d walk, and a meander. The time bighorn spend f eed ing an v a r i o u s p l a n t epec i e s i s be ing recorded i n o r d e r t o q u a n t i t a t i v e l y d e s c r i b e t h e i r obeerved f e e d i n g h a b i t s .

- - ---- - - --- - - - - - -- - - - - - -. --

The movements o f each g&up o f b ighwn under. obeervat ion a r e be ing p l o t t e d on t r a c i n p c l o t h ove r ly ing U. S. Geological Survey a e r i a l photographs. These photographs, having a s c a l e o f 2.8 inchee t o 1 mile, a r e o f e x c e l l e n t q u a l i t y , making accu ra t e p l o t t i n g o f bighorn movements poss ib l e . Froa these d a t a w i l l come informetion on d a i l y a n d -s e a s m a 1 c r u i s i n g r a d i i o f t h e sheep. The v a r i o u s l o c a t i o n s o f bighorn s igh t ing8 during e e c h = n t h a r e p l o t t e d on .a l a r g e topographic map t o i n d i c a t e t h e mbnthly d i s t r i b u t i o n o f obeerved sheep.

Ind iv idua l bighorn a r e followed and t h e i r a c t i v i t i e s recorded f o r s e v e r a l csnsecut ive days, if pose ib le . Some sheep have auoh d i s t i n c- t i v e i n d i v i d u a l c h a r a c t e r i s t i o s t h a t t h e i r rn~vemente oan be i n t e r m i t - t a u t l y t r a c e d over a per iod of month8 o r years . Plane a r e being made t o maik t h e horns of ;heap w i t h dye so t h a t i n d i v i d u a l s can be more e a s i l y recognized over long pe r iods o f time. The marking technique has been developed by Dr . Char les Haneen and was descr ibed by him a t a prev ious meeting o f t h i s c m n c i l .

Observat ion o f o t h e r w i l d l i f e s ~ e c i e s - Obeervatione of animals t h a t c l o a e l y a s s o c i a t e with t h e dese r t

b i g h w n a r e a l s o recorded. Preda tor f e c e s a r e c o l l e c t e d a t every oppor-

Observer Time

Date

Notes I I I I -I Wind

Precip. Humidity $ Clouds $ Sun Index Elev. Slope dir. Slope q'p Terrain

Edge Peak bvine Wash Geol.

Dcm. Veg. Cactus Brush Grass Wee6 Bare

Spring Tank Grow

MUlt d' Jw. 8 AaultQ JUV. 9 Lamb

- _-_--_Feeding--- Browse Forbs Grass Cactus Mineral Water

Bedding Rirmin. Rest.

Traveling Plarm M a n other

D i s tame M ( Ws t fr Q Ab

vp Dawn Contour File Grouped Scatter

Alert-Watch Man Ungulate Other Unk.

Xghting Playing Nursing

Figure 1.- BLghorn observation f o m

tun i ty . Hair found i n t he f e c a l mater ial i e examined and, if poesible, c l a s s i f i e d by the observer. Some speoimens have been co l lec ted f o r i den t i f i ca t ion by experts .

V. Some Early Observations

- . Eavironmental influenoee: Ibponaohg: So f a r I have not obeerved bighorn sheep o r 'sign more than 300

yards from rugged, h i l l y , o r mountainous t e r r a i n on the Game Range. The oaves and rook overhang8 t h a t abound i n a l l t h e mun ta in rangee on the &me Range a r e used f o r ahe l to r from t h e sun during hot summer monthe, but the aheep apparent ly have l i t t l e need f o r t h i e ahe l t e r during the winter.

:Avai labi l i ty and distribution o f food end weter IXlring winter months, bighorn may tend t o feed i n thb well-

vegetated waehee l ~ c i n g the lower-foothills. Sheep have been obeerved fesdiag i n euch assae eeveral times t h i e winter. Sheep'sign beoame common In the lower waehea during the winter. IXlring the winter, the - - l a rge waterholes a r e r a r e l y v i s i t e d by eheep. When they do water a t the l a rge - tanks, it i s ueually. during a winter draught .' Only a few of the emnll, temporary pothole watera i n a mountain range can be ohecked, so us have l i t t l e idea o f how of ten they need f r e e water i n the wintbr. _ _ _ _ I -have _seen_ them e a t eucculedxa euch a 1 c a c t i i n t h e wlnter, eo poaeibly - -- -- -- - - -- -- - -- -

t h i e should be considered ae a s ign i f i can t emroe of winter mgieture.

:Effects of Other Wildlife . . b e q u i t o s , bees, and t ioke were obeerved bothering aheqp,

espec ia l ly during the spring.and summer monthe. Bighorn heve been obeerved e h a k i n ~ t h e i r e a r s when w s s u i t o e have bean th i ck i n t he a i r and when t i cke are present on the vegetation. Sheep, moderately t o heavi ly infee ted with t i cks , have been co l lec ted i n munta in ranges near the Game Range. A l l eheep observed have appeared f r e e of ser ious ec toparaa i te i n fea t a t ion .

Local ranchers have observed deser t bighorn i n t h i s area feeding with t h e i r c a t t l e and domestic shes?. This i a a r a r e occurrence, though s imi l a r aeeociationa have been obeerved i n o ther e t a t e s . I n the e a r l y 1920'8, a bighorn ram bred a %mbouillet ewe belonging t o a Sand Papago Indian family l i v i n g near the eoutheast corner o f the Game Range. Several generat ions o f hybrid eheep reeul ted Prom t h i e match usgr grave, 1962).

Preliminary data ind ica te no s ign i f i can t predation on bighorn sheep on t h i e Game Range. I have examined about 420 predator f eca l depoeite from t h e va l l eys and mountain rangee o f the Gam Range t o date. After f i e l d inspect ion, those containing mammal remains were campared with a reference ca l l ec t ion of mammal ha i re . Predator fecee containing

. l a r g e mammal remains were s e n t t o a e p e c i a l i e t f o r i d e n t i f i c a t i s c . O f t h e more than 420 f e c a l depoei te examined, on ly four conta ined l a r g e mammal remains. Two o f t h e depoe i te contained b i ~ h o r n aheep h a i r , and two conta ined an te lope h a i r . The f a c t t h a t the fecee conta ined ungulate remains i s n o t n e c e s s a r i l y evidence o f predat ion, a s you well know. Much mare s tudy of t h e r e l a t i o n e h i p e between preda to rs and bighorn sheep i e needed.

Coyotee and golden eag les have been observed a e e o c i a t i n g wi th bighorn, e s p e c i a l l y a t waterholee dur ing h o t summer'monthe. Ueually t h e eheep watched t h e predatore come i n t o water, but eeemed t o ehow no nervoueness o r f e a r i n t h e i r preeence. Some o f t h e coyotes eeemed q u i t e fearf 'u l o f t h e bighorn and would o f t e n make a wide detour around them. A golden e a g l e perched very c l o s e t o some watering eheep l a s t summer. Some of t h e aheep watched t h e e a g l e a s i t c f r c l e d i n t o land, b u t none o f them eeemed nervoue.

In March o f 1965, however, two golden eag les were seen swoop- i n g very c l o e e t o eome ewes and lambs i n t h e & f a Mountaine, Kofa Game Range. These sheep seemed nervous, and one ewe r o s e up and pawed a t an e a g l e a e i t eped by. The eag les eoon l e f t t h e band o f eheep without h u r t i n g any o f them.

The d i r e c t i n f l u e n c e . o f man on t h e a c t i v i t i e e o f t h e bighorn i e probably n e g l i g i b l e i n t h i s i s o l a t e d Game Range. The bighorn a r e sometimes v i s i b l y d i s tu rbed by t h e preeence o f man and h i e norke, bu t i n . t h i s a r e a t h e die turbance i s only teaporery .

Here t h e bighorn a r e one o f t h e most approachable o f a l l l a r g e mammals. Their r e a c t i o n 8 t o humane a r e v a r i a b l e , bu t g e n e r a l l y t h e eheep tend t o t o l e r a t e t h e preeence o f man. Sheep have fed, watered, end bedded from 15 t o 100 f e e t from where I e a t t ak ing notee. However, on o t h e r oacaeions bighorn have run away i n f r i g h t a t t h e e i g h t o f a man i n a whi te e h i r t appear ing euddsnly on t h e sky l ine about a mile away. The sheep approach humane more r e a d i l y than they a l low t h e l a t t e r t o approach them.

V I . Mecussion -. During t h e f i rs t year of t h e s tudy o f t h e a c t i v i t i e s o f t h e

d e s e r t bighorn on t h e Cabeza P r i e t a Game Range, much time was spen t i n an i n t r o d u c t i o n t o t h e s tudy area. Studiee o f t h e geology and h i s t o r y o f t h e Game Range were near ly oompleted. L i t e r e t u r a on t h e dese r t - bighorn eheep was reviewed, and obeervs t ion techniques were re f ined . Basic weather ins t ruments were i n s t a l l e d , end obeervatfoge o f bighorn eheep a c t i v i t i e s were made. However, t h e houre o f recorded bighorn a c t i v i t y a r e y e t to3 few f o r m r t h y ana lys ie .

A review o f some o f t h e l i t e r a t u r e on d e s e r t bighorn I n d i c a t e s a l a c k o f b a s i c informat ion about t h e h a b i t s and t h e environment of t h e s e animals. Eben t h e information we do have about the sheep i n one a r e a Is o f t en no t comparable wi th informst ion gathered i n another a rea . .We need a s tandard method o f ga the r ing information on t h e d e s e r t bighorn

eo t h a t our l i m i t e d da t a may be pooled. The Deeert Bighorn Council can develop euoh s tandard r e s e a r c h techniques through sugges t ions from i t s membere and t h e wsrk o f i t s Techniaal S t a f f .

L i t e r a t u r e Ci ted

Bcale, R. L. and H. Hoijer . 1954. An i n t r o d u c t i o n t o anthropolo.pg. The MacMillen Co., N. Y. 648 pp.

Bolton, H. E. 1936. Rim of Chrietendom. The MacMillan Go., N. Y. 644 PP.

Bryan, K. 1925. The Pepago country, Arizona. U. S. G. S. Water Supply Paper 499. Wt. P r i n t i n g O V i a e , Wash. D. C. 438 PP.

Cowan, I. M. 1940. DLatr ibut ion and v a r i a t i o n i n t he n a t i v e sheep of f i r t h America. Amer . Midland N a t u r a l i s t , 24(3) :505-588

Hornaday, W. T. 1914. American n a t u r a l h i a t o r y . Ohas. ~ c r i b n e r '8

Bone, N. Y., Vol. 11. 332 pp.

. 1908. Camp-fires on d e s e r t and lava . Chae. Scr ibner ' a Sone, N. Y. 366 pp.

I n s t i t u t e of Atmoepheric Physice. 1960. Arizona a l imate . The Univ. o f Ariz. P r e s s , Tucson. Loose l e a f . n.p.

?bnaon, G. 1958. Birde of t h e Cabeza P r i e t a Game Range. Ulpubl. (mimeo.) l e a f l e t , U. 9. Fieh and Wi ld l i f e Service, Waeh. D. C; 4 PP*

Ober, E. H. . 1971. Mountain eheep of' C a l i f o r n i a . Ca l i f . Fiah and Game, 17(1) :2?-39.

Odum, 1959. Fundamentals of ecology. W. B. Saundere Co., Philadelphia .

Schne i r l a , R. C. 190. Rela t ionship between observet ion and experimen- t a t i o n i n t h e f i e l d etudy o f behavior . b t h o d o l o e y and Tech. f o r the Study o f Animal Soc. Annels of t he N. Y. Acad. o f S c i . , 31 (6) :1022-1042.

SIMMONS (Discussion)

Kel ly - Have you not iced any d i f fe rence i n populat ions between the two types of mountains t h a t you have, the s i e r r a and the mesa type mountains?

Simmons - I know very l i t t l e about populat ions on the Game Range. Perhaps Gerald Duncan o r some o t h e r one t h a t has been the re longer than I, can s a y something about tha t . I spend most ,of my time on the s i e r r a type b u t there i s a d i f fe rence i n t h e environmental condi t ions between t h e two. That ' s a good quest ion and we l l taken. Perhaps w e ' l l f i n d o u t something about t h i s during t h i s s tudy.

Welles - Do you keep a c h a r t of the i d e n t i f y i n g c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of the sheep you s e e o r what do you j o t down t o t r y t o remember. them?

Simmons - I take as complete notes on t h e i r c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s a s poss ib le and t h i s s h e r I in tend t o have a form w i t h a s i l h o u e t t e of the sheep t o record t h i s information. It i s t o be primari ly f o r t h e marked animals we spray.

Welles - I have a f e e l i n g t h a t we s t i l l have a tendency t o l e t t h i s way of i d e n t i f y i n g sheep go wanting f o r the time when we can mark them.

Simmons - Yes, I agree!

Welles - I n o rder t o do t h i s though w e must be a b l e to apply ourse lves and be w i l l i n g t o acquaint ourse lves wi th them.

-- - -- - McCo lm- - -You-said- ehe -area- was--in- p r i s t i n e condi-tion- and did =you--aZso-=say t h e r e was grazing?

Simmons - I d o n ' t be l i eve I s a i d the re was grazing but there i s grazing e a s t of t h e Growler Mountains and a few o t h e r places. But nea r ly p r i s t i n e condi t ions west of the Growler Valley. I suppose I should have q u a l i f i e d t h a t . There i s no use west of the Growler Valley because of t h e presence of the A i r Force.

Hansen - Is t h i s a research program you have o r i s i t a management study?

Simmons - M r . Barcley!

Barcley - , S t r i c t l y a management study.

Welles - You s a i d t h a t much more study was needed about the predator s i t u a t i o n . A t the r i s k of s l i g h t i n g some of my ve ry good f r i ends , I ' d l i k e to know why much more study is needed because I can ' t f i n d anything i n the l i t e r a t u r e anywhere t h a t ind ica tes any s i g n i f i c a n t predation on bighorn sheep anywhere i n the southwest. I can ' t see why t h i s keeps coming up, t h a t we need more study on predation.

Simmons - No s tudy has been made of the predators i n the sonaran d e s e r t a rea . We don ' t know whether there i s o r i s n ' t predation on sheep.

Welles - Alright! We don' t have evidence t h a t there is. Let me put i t t h i s way. I wonder why there a r e so many sheep when there i s so much predation. If there i s no evidence t ha t there is , why do we have con t ro l measures i n s t i t u t e d . I thought t h a t there had to be a need f o r something before we d id i t . I was on my way out to one of our G a m e Ranges one time and I met the government trapper and i n conversa- t ion wi th him he was t e l l i n g me of a l l the predators there tha t he had been taking. So I asked i f they had been having trouble and he sa id , yes, they have. So, I went ou t t o t he headquarters and t r i e d to f i n d ou t what the t roub le w a s and no one knew w h a t i t was.

Barclay - We're not going to go i n t o th i s . It w i l l take up the r e s t of .the morning.

Morgan - I was going to answer t h a t one by r e f e r r i ng to the t a lk Ralph (Welles) had l a s t year. You can ask these guys and they w i l l answer anyway you want, and I think w e have always had an idea of what we were doing on the Game Range a s f a r as our coyotes and bobcats. This w a s l i k e the man you.asked about the bighorn i n your area and he answered t ha t anyway you wanted him to. I think you brought t h i s up, d m a t Hermosillo.

Welles - You mean by tha t , t h a t I shouldnt continue bringing i t up, t ha t t h i s i s j u s t another' one of those 'loose Ends t h a t you were talking about.

Morgan - No, I think you know t h a t the trapper w i l l give you any kind of --- - -_answer-if- he-thoug

Cecil Kennedy - Predation is one of the phases i n bighorn sheep management t h a t we entered i n t o b l i nd ly but i t has apparently shown a l i t t l e e f f e c t on our a rea (San Anreas Refuge). We applied t h i s tool of management t o i t immediately when we t r i e d to save a vanishing species of our North American fauna. I have no proof the re t h a t predators were d e t r i - mental bu t we had very few sheep there when we applied the predator program and we have the sheep there now.

Dale - You s a i d something about standard ways of ge t t ing information. I don't: l i k e to see a man who s t a r t s out a s you here o r Welles s t a r t ed ou t , be t i e d t o standards. When you have t o f i gu re your own ways, then you can come up with ways t ha t no one e l s e has thought o f . This i s s o r t of a precaution, l e t s not t r y t o ge t our standards u n t i l we a r e p re t ty wel l advanced i n our research on the bighorn.

Deming - I think t ha t Norm (Simmons) can s e t t l e the question on predation on bighorn sheep by modifying h i s statement from we don' t know, to 2 don ' t know.

Simmons - On t h i s s t a n d a r i z a t i o n I clidn' t mean t o imply t h a t a person's hands would be t i e d by a s tandard form. For example, D r . Hansen i s working on some aspects of t h e ecology and behavior of the bighorn t h a t I a m i n t e r e s t e d i n and he doesn ' t know exac t ly what I am i n t e r e s t e d in . I f we had a minimum requirement f o r information to be gathered. That i s , i f he took temperature and humidity, e t c . under condit ions comparable to my da ta c o l l e c t i o n then w e can use h i s information to an advantage. That shouldn ' t t i e him down.

Dale - J u s t so long as he doesn' t become a technician.

Simmons - I agree wi th tha t .

Introduction

A NATIONAL WILDLIFE SERVICE FOR MEXICO

BY

D r . Rodolfo Hernandez Corzo Director General de Caza

This is only a br ief technical report . It i s intended to give a broad general account of the s t a tu s of w i ld l i f e management i n Latin America, taking Mexico a s an example, and pointing out what we consider t o be the main problem f o r fu tu re evolution. It i s based on the experience of our experts i n the Service, although w e do not have many a s yet , and on s c i e n t i f i c information obtained from others with be t t e r preparation i n the f i e l d .

It i s a l s o meant to c a l l a t ten t ion to the s ignif icance of an e f f i c i en t technical ly organized wi ld l i fe service i n regard to the soc i a l and economic development of our countries, s ince i t is a branch of public administration. A very important branch, indeed, because i t deals with a natural resource a t the nat ional level. More advanced countries, pa r t i cu l a r ly the U.S.A. and Canada, have provided us with the examples of t h e i r experience and the know-- ledge of t h e i r spec i a l i s t s , and now i t is a good opportunity to present before you our consideration of the task ahead, because we a r e planning fo r the

~

progress of our service , f o r be t t e r preparation of our personnel, and f o r an expanded col laborat ion from both the technical and the administrative points of view. -

- - - - - -- - -- ---===---- -=- - - -- . --- -. -. - - -- = - -- .-

The philosophy, general policy and operations necessary f o r t h i s s tep ahead a r e b r i e f l y exposed i n the following.

The Problem ,

Wildl i fe administration i s , a s a matter of f a c t , a ra ther young idea i n Latin A m e r i c a , a t l e a s t i n i t s modern sense. Like other phases of the tech- n i ca l administration of natural resources, there have not been a s yet more than a few s p e c i a l i s t s i n the f i e l d . Broadly speaking, and we repeat, we a r e taking Mexico a s our point of view, w i ld l i f e management has been very frequent- l y reduced t o the regulation of the hunting sport;and a ra ther loose regula- t ion a t tha t . Important as t h i s is , i t represents only a special area of a c t i v i t y within a much wider f i e l d . To enforce hunting regulations i t takes only knowledge and prac t ice f o r the preparation of the season and bag l i m i t s , the ins t ruc t ion and direct ion of a special police force, and the administra- t i ve o f f i c e t o take care of the permits and other o f f i c i a l duties.

Wildl i fe management i s much more than that . It deals with a national renewable resource of g rea t b io t i c , soc ia l and economic importance. It deals with something tha t , according to our const i tut ional laws, does not belong individually to anybody, but to the country a s a whole. It i s a national heritage. Thus i t i s the duty of every c i t i zen to preserve, increase, develop and cor rec t ly make use of t h i s wealth, thinking of i t a s of something with

much wider economic and s o c i a l impl ica t ions than t o provide the means f o r the s a t i s f a c t i o n of a s p o r t , hunting, va luab le a s t h i s is . W e know t h a t the pro- t e c t i o n qnd r a t i o n a l use of land, water and f o r e s t s go along wi th good management of w i l d l i f e . .

-

I n o the r words, there is , and i t i s our duty to see t h a t the re w i l l always be w i l d l i f e f o r the hunting s p o r t , and there e x i s t s w i l d l i f e f o r many other purposes j u s t a s valuable a s the s p o r t , and the preservation of i t i s the main reason f o r a good w i l d l i f e adminis t ra t ion . This includes the scen ic , c u l t u r a l , academic and s o c i a l va lue of w i l d l i f e , a s wel l a s i t s economic and technical importance as an element of the f o r e s t and a s an i r r e p l a c a b l e l i n k i n biolo- g i c a l e q u i l i b r i a .

Lat in America means twenty c o u n t r i s a l toge the r . Mexico and some others l i k e Braz i l , Argentina, Chile and Venezuela, may be considered now i n the s t a g e of t h e " take-off" f o r s o c i a l and economic development. I n our country, f o r ins tance , t h e r e Is a s t rong d r i v e going on towards i n d u s t r i a l i z a t i o n , f i n a n c i a l and monetary s t a b i l i t y , more jobs f o r more and b e t t e r prepared people, higher s tandards of l i v i n g , expansion of educational f a c i l i t i e s , widen- ing of publ ic h e a l t h a c t i v i t i e s , urbanizat ion, and so f o r t h . This represents a g r e a t and d e s i r e d technological advance, b u t a t the same time, more pressure on w i l d l i f e . It i s a transformation of the country, a r e a l ' l pac i f i c revolution" as American p o l i t i c i a n s l i k e to c a l l i t , but w e have t o see t h a t i t a l so helps and not harms our w i l d l i f e , so s e n s i t i v e to the advancement of human technology.

For t h i s reason w e have a l ready learned t h a t t h i s t ransformation w i l l n o t render i ts f u l l b e n e f i t s , i n f a c t t h e danger of f r u s t r a t i o n i s always present unless we simultaneously r e a l i z e some profound changes i n our adminstrat ion

-- _- ---= techniques-and-policies , par titularly- those--dealing with- n a t u r a l -resources .- -.- There is c e r t a i n l y a g r e a t d i f f e r e n c e between t h e management of small and medium s i z e e n t e r p r i s e s , and taking c a r e of the complex endeavours tha t a b ig and w e l l developed na t ion implies.

There was a time when we used t o th ink of land, f o r e s t s and w i l d l i f e a s something f o r anybody t o appropr ia te j u s t f o r t h e taking. U n t i l abused s o i l s have g r e a t l y degraded and severa l b i o l o g i c a l species w e r e a t t h e border of ex t inc t ion . Those days a r e gone by now. That i s , we began to do something f o r the preservat ion of our f o r e s t s u n t i l we now have a complete technical and admin i s t ra t ive organizat ion a t t h e f e d e r a l l e v e l , the SUBSECRETARIA DE RECURSOS FORESTALES Y DE CAZA, with the ca tegory of a S t a t e Department. It deals wi th f o r e s t and hunting problems. Fishing belongs i n a d i f f e r e n t Department.

I n t h i s way w i l d l i f e is beginning to a t t r a c t na t ional a t t e n t i o n i n i t s f u l l meaning. And t h i s i s vhy w e b e l i e v e i t i s time now to prepare f o r the next s t e p , t h e transformation of what has been pr imar i ly a hunting regula t ion o f f i c e i n t o a r e a l NATIONAL WILDLIFE SERVICE. In t h i s way we should be ab le to match wi th in the SUSECRETARIA the g r e a t , and of course, deserved a t t e n t i o n t h a t a l ready command f o r e s t problems. We a r e s u r e t h a t t h i s i s a highly important s t e p .

Operations

Several important tasks l i e ahead of us. Besides education and d i f fus ion of the new ideas , a p a r t of the job i n which many advances have been made, we

need technical personnel and s p e c i a l i s t s i n w i ld l i f e , we need to study and do research on our species and i ts peculiar problems, we have to prepare an e f f i c i e n t and i l l u s t r a t e d group of wardens, and we a l so need to e s t ab l i sh refuges and sanctuar ies f o r w i ld l i f e , and game breeding s t a t i ons f o r the progress of the spor t , and a l l t h a t is necessary to ac t ive ly protect species menaced with ext inct ion.

And t h i s i s not a l l . We have t o s t a r t a s soon a s possible on several p ro j ec t s f o r the r e s to ra t i on of some species which already a r e i n a c r i t i c a l s i t u a t i o n i n d i f f e r e n t regions of the country, and we have to work on the modi- f i c a t i o n and betterment of the "habitat" i n considerable areas , and on many o ther spec i f i c l i ne s of s imilar act ion. We w i l l have to modify even our game l a w s and regulations, as well a s the s p r i i t with which w i ld l i f e has to be contemplated by soc ie ty and protected by soc i a l i n s t i t u t i ons . As a matter of f a c t our proposal cons i s t s of twelve d i f f e r en t points a s large areas of work.

A l l t h i s w i l l take, of course, a g r ea t deal of study, preparation of personnel, organization and, a s is na tura l , a program of investments. I f w i l l not be simple, but we a r e sure t ha t i t w i l l mean, besides the d i r e c t benef i t fo r ourselves, a good example f o r other Latin American countries i n the same soc ia l s tage of development. On the other s ide , there can be no doubt t ha t you, a s fe l lows with the same i n t e r e s t s , w i l l be looking forward f o r the r e s u l t s of our next endeavour.

Co1 laborat ion

F ina l ly , a f t e r t h i s bz'ief exposit ion of what we think an important problem - -if or--most=of-=our2coun~~ies ,-I= wish-to f-inish -w&th-a- f ew-words-ask-ing-=f 0s-the tech- -

n ica l collaboration t h a t the s p e c i a l i s t s i n t h i s country w i l l be glad to give. Your knowledge of w i l d l i f e problems and wi ld l i f e management is grea te r than ours and so is your experience and resources. Many of you can give us or ientat ion, and severa l of your i n s t i t u t i o n s can help i n the preparation of spec i a l i s t s i n t h e f i e l d of w i ld l i f e , e i t h e r a s s c i e n t i s t s o r as administrators. There a r e a l s o some very concrete aspects i n which your contribution could be almost immediate and equally valuable. I r e f e r t o the res tora t ion of . spec ies using poss ib le expedients t h a t you may have. And there i s a l so the important contribution f o r the pa t ro l l ing of the border and other common f r o n t i e r problems tha t we have, l i k e the control of predator species, i n which you a r e already helping.

We a r e contemplating indeed the p o s s i b i l i t y of organizing a r e a l program of technical collaboration, with mutual e f fo r t s , which could be proposed and discussed i n due opportunity.

This time, however, we wanted t o advance f o r you some schematic information about our ideas and plans on the subject , to prepare your minds accordingly. It is merely a communication of our problems and of the way we intend to face them. But we know t h i s i s enough to r a i s e your sympathy and des i re to contribute t o our success. After a l l communication i s an essen t ia l s tep fo r understanding, and understanding fo r good w i l l and collaboration, which we know e x i s t .

HERNANDEZ mRZO

- (Discussion a f t e r presenta t ion of above paper and movie on sheep reconnaissance

i n Baja, C a l i f o r n i a )

Charles Kennedy - What spec ies were you r e f e r r i n g t o ?

Hernandez Corzo - ~ i ~ ' game species mainly.

Barclay - I think, D r . Corzo, i f you want help from the F i sh and Wi ld l i f e Service i n t h e S t a t e s be assured t h a t i f you j u s t write i n and any of them would b e most happy t o help. Don't you th ink so? (Directed t o F i sh and Wi ld l i f e Service personnel from t h e Washington o f f i c e ) .

Answer - Y e s , sure ly!

Barclay - On t h i s research, you write to e i t h e r our regional o f f i c e o r to the Washington o f f i c e . I know t h a t ' s t h e same w i t h the s t a t e s and a l s o D r . Wood.

Hernandez-Corzo - Y e s , thank you! -

Wood - Is t h i s a shor tage of the personnel a v a i l a b l e to you o r a shor tage of the department t o pu t the personnel t o work?

Hernandez Corxo - Both of them! We don't have t h e money t o run t h e department . a s we th ink i t should be run but even i f we had the money we don ' t have the-peop le-_trained- in-f i s h -and-wildlif e=to-take-the_-Jobs .--Nor=da=;we=-- have good o r we l l prepared men to be wardens. W e have a small group bu t i t is n o t enough.

Wood - Is t h e Univers i ty of Mexico equipped t o have a f i s h and w i l d l i f e program?

Hernandez Corzo - They have s t a r t e d t o have a program now, bu t j u s t s t a r t i n g .

Goodman - Po you know i f they are going to put a road down south on the Gulf s i d e t o La Paz?

Hernandez:Corzo - There i s a road there a l ready b u t i t is i n a p r e t t y rough condition. Considering the present s t a t u s of t h e bighorn there , perhaps t h i s i s a h e l p i n s t e a d of a hindrance. However, when the road i s paved and landing s t r i p s t h a t w e a r e working on a r e accomplished, w e w i l l be b e t t e r a b l e t o c o n t r o l poaching, i n t h i s area . You know t h a t sheep hunting was p roh ib i t ed i n Mexico over 40 years ago and i t is s t i l l prohibi ted . We know t h a t every year from 60 to 75 sheep a r e taken (poached) and to e l iminate d iscr iminat ion, without g e t t i n g i n t o a discussion of 3/4 c u r l , w e now have a proposi t ion before our government to put the whole thing under l e g a l aspects . I think we should open a season but a w e l l cont rol led one. We should charge people accordingly f o r 60 to 75 permits annually. This would help support our program with wardens and guides. This i s a good idea a s long as i t goes along with the establishment of refuges , l i k e Puertos Condido and perhaps two more places along the peninsula.

Larsen - I understand that Starker Leopold's book, 'Wildl i fe i n Mexico" was t o be translated in to Spanish. Can you t e l l m e more about th i s .

Hernandez Corzo - Yes! This book has already been translated and i s almost ready to go to press. It should be avai lable a t the end of this year or perhaps before.

B l GHORN BREED I NG

0'. V. DEMING, W I L D L I F E MANAGEMENT BIOLOGIST BUREAU OF SPORT F l SHERl ES AND Wl L D L l FE

LAKEV I EW, OREGON

l NTRODUCT l ON

I T I S DOUBTFUL I F ANY PHASE OF BIGHORN STUDIES HAS BEEN MORE NEGLECTED THAN THAT OF BIGHORN BREEDING. I T I S TRUE THAT WE HAVE ABUNDANT LITERATURE ON BREEDING MANNERISMS SUCH AS THE F I G H T I N G OF THE RAMS, THEIR AMOROUS PURSUIT OF THE EWES, AND HOW LONG I T TAKES FOR COPULATI ON, BUT L I T T L E THOUGHT OR STUDY HAS BEEN GIVEN TO WHY THESE THINGS OCCUR AND THE PHYSIOLOGICAL AND PSYCHOLOGICAL ST IMUL I THAT PROMPTS THEM. WE ARE ACCEPTING BIGHORN BREEDING I N MUCH THE SAME FASHION MANY OF US ACCEPT AUTOMOBILES. WE UNDERSTAND HOW TO START THE CAR AND MANEUVER THROUGH TRAFFIC AND COME TO A STOP, BUT WE HAVE NO IDEA OF WHAT I S GOING ON UNDER THE HOOD TO MAKE THAT SIMPLE PROCESS OF LOCOMOT l ON POSSI BLE.

BiGHOWN MANAGEMENT SHOULD OEAL WITH AN UNDERSiANOiNG OF CAUSES I F WE ARE TO PROPERLY EVALUATE EFFECTS. A POPULATION INCREASE CANNOT OCCUR WITHOUT LAMBS, AND LAMBS CANNOT OCCUR W l THOUT BREED I NG. L I KEWI SE, BREED l NG CANNOT TAKE PLACE WITHOUT CERTAIN REACTIONS W I T H I N THE ANIMALS PLUS OUTSIDE S T I M U L I THAT WE DO NOT AT THE PRESENT T IME FULLY UNDERSTAND. --- -- -- a=-----= ----

THE SOLE PURPOSE--OF THIS- PAPER- -IS TO STIMULATE-THINKIX%-;GON----- --

B l GHORN BREED1 NG I N THE HOPES THAT IF W I L L SOMEDAY LEAD TO A BETTER UNDERSTANDING THAT CAN BE APPL IED TO MANAGEMENT.

MOST OF THE CONTENTS OF T H I S PAPER THAT I AM PRESENT- I NG TODAY HAVE BEEN "LI FTED" FROM ONE OF MY OLD BIGHORN MANUSCRIPTS THAT HAS BEEN GATHERING DUST FOR THE PAST N INE YEARS, AND DUE TO I T S A N T I Q U I T Y MUCH OF THE INFORMATION MAY BE OUTDATED OR OUTMODED. AS THE PURPOSE OF T H I S PAPER I S NOT SO MUCH THAT OF IMPARTING INFORMATION AS I T I S THAT OF STIMULATING THINKING, I AM ASKING THAT YOU WITHHOLD C R I T I C I S M OF MY LACK OF INFORMATION ON WHAT HAS DEVELOPED ON THE SUBJECT SINCE 1953 AND CONCENTRATE ON HOW L I T T L E WE DO NOW, COLLECTIVELY AND INDIV IDUALLY , ON THE SUBJECT OF BIGHORN BREEDING.

THE BREEDING SEASON, AS DEFINED FOR THE PURPOSE OF T H l S PAPER, I S THAT PERIOD OF THE YEAR WHEN MATING BEHAVIOR I S EVIDENT AND COPULATION RESULTS I N F E R T I L I Z A T I O N OF THE OVA. T H l S I S THE D E F I N I T I O N USED BY BULLOUGH (1951) AND I S USED HERE TO FURTHER STANDARDIZE AN EXPRESSION THAT HAS BEEN USED RATHER LOOSELY I N THE PAST. I T I S NOT USED I N T H l S

PAPER TO DENOTE SEASONS OF PREGNANCY OR LACTAT l ON AS I S FOUND I N SOME EARLY LITERATURE.

C L A R I F I C A T I O N I S L I K E W I S E NEEDED ON SOME OF THE OTHER DESCRl P T l VE WORDS USED I N A D I SCOURSE ON BREED1 NG, POLYG- AMY I S A WORD THAT HAS A ZOOLOGICAL D E F l N l T I ON OF "THE H A B I T OF MATING W l T H MORE THAN ONE OF THE OPPOSITE SEX." T H l S I S S I M I L A R , BUT NOT I D E N T I C A L TO THE MORE POPULAR D E F I N I T I O N OF "THE PRACTICE OR C O N D I T I O N OF HAVING MORE THAN ONE W I F E A T ONE TIME," PROMISCUITY I S ALSO THE H A B I T OF MATING W l T H MORE THAN ONE OF THE OPPOSITE SEX, BUT T H l S I S I N D I S C R I M I N A T E MATING RATHER THAN OUR POPULAR CONCEPT OF POLYGAMY.

FOR THE PURPOSE OF T H l S PAPER, I T I S ASKED THAT POLYG- AMY, A S A P P L I E D TO BIGHORN SHEEP, BE DEFINED A S THE PRAC- T I C E OF THE MALE OF THE SPECIES HOLDING UNDER H I S CONTROL DURING THE BREEDING SEASON FEMALES OF THE SAME SPEC I E S FOR BREEDING PURPOSES. PROMISCUOUS BREEDING I S TO BE DEFINED AS THE PRACTICE OF THE MALE OF THE SPECIES HOLDING I N D I S - C R l M l NATE SEXUAL UN l ON Wl TH ANY FEMALE OF THE SAME SPEC l ES FOUND READY AND W I L L I N G TO BREED.

THE REPRODUCT l ON CYCLE

THERE HAS BEEN NO COMPREHENSIVE STUDY OF THE REPRODUC- T I O N CYCLE OF THE B IGHORN SHEEP, ALTHOUGH I T I S OFa PRIME - -- ----A=- -=-a==--- - - - -- - - - -

IMPORTANCE A S R E G A R D I N G - R A M ~ E ~ E R~T-I-O-S~-LAMB-PERCENTAGES, AND POPULATION INCREASES. THE REPRODUCTION CYCLE AND I T S SHORTER OESTRUAL CYCLE ARE WORTHY OF F U L L T I M E STUDY TO FURTHER MANAGEMENT'S NEED OF INFORMATION. I N VIEW OF THE LACK OF T H l S INFORMATION, I AM FORCED TO DRAW ON WORK DONE W l T H OTHER MAMMALS, P R I M A R I L Y DOMESTIC SHEEP, I N ORDER TO POINT OUT THE POSSIBLE AVENUES OF STUDY AMONG THE W l L D VARIETY.

T H E ' REPRODUCTION CYCLE OF ONE YEAR DURATION COVERS THE PERIOD OF BREEDING AND THE CORRESPONDING PERIOD OF NON- BREEDING. I T I S MORE EVIDENT I N THE EWE SHEEP THAN I N THE RAM, AS THE EWE HAS WELL-DEFINED OESTRUAL PERIODS FOLLOWED BY A PRONOUNCED SEASON OF NON-BREEDING. THE W l L D RAM I S SUSPECTED OF B E I N G CAPABLE OF SUCCESSFULLY BREEDING A L L MONTHS OF THE YEAR FROM T E S T I C L E SAMPLES EXAMINED, BUT EARLY SPRl NG AND SUMMER BEHAVl OR I N THE F I E L D INDICATES THE POSS l B l L l TY OF AN ANOESTRUS OR NON-BREED1 NG SEASON.

THE TWO MAJOR FACTORS THOUGHT TO CONTROL AND INFLUENCE THE REPRODUCTION CYCLE I S AN INTERNAL GONADAL RHYTHM AND CHANGES I N OR OF THE ENVIRONMENT. LESSER FACTORS THAT .

APPEAR TO AFFECT. THE REPRODUCT I ON CYCLE ARE DOMEST l CAT I ON AND CONFINEMENT. EACH W I L L BE BRIEFLY DISCUSSED.

THE INTERNAL GONADAL RHYTHM. - EACH SPECIES I S SUSPECTED OF HAVING AN INTERNAL GONADAL

RHYTHM THAT GOVERNS GENERAL SEASONS OF BREEDING, TH I S RHYTHM SUPPOSEDLY DETERMINES I F THE SPECIES CONCERNED BREEDS ONCE A YEAR OR SEVERAL TIMES A YEAR AND ALSO THE SEASON OF BREEDING. I T I S THOUGHT TO BE A HEREDITARY T R A I T CARRIED ON FROM GENERATION TO GENERATION AND I S CHARACTERISTIC OF THE SPECIES.

EVIDENCE THAT WOULD INDICATE THE PRESENCE OF AN INTERNAL GONADAL RHYTHM I N BIGHORN SHEEP I S MAN1 FESTED BY FOUR LAMB- ING DATES OF A NELSON EWE AT THE CORN CREEK SUB-HEADQUARTERS OF THE DESERT GAME RANGE WHILE I WAS STAT1 ONED THERE. THI S EWE HAD HER F I R S T LAMB ON A P R I L 16, 1950. SUCCEEDING LAMB- ING DATES WERE MARCH 20, 1951, MARCH 19, 1952, and MARCH 17, 1953. THE GREAT DIFFERENCE BETWEEN THE FIRST LAMBING DATE AND THE FOLLOWING THREE MAY HAVE BEEN DUE TO THE TYRO RAM OF 17 MONTHS OF AGE hWO PAY WOT HAVE AFFECTED FERT i i i Z A i i ON TiiE F I R S T T IME OR TWO THE EWE WAS I N OESTRUS, WH I CH WOULD ROUGHLY ACCOUNT FOR THE 2 7 DAY DIFFERENCE BETWEEN THE 1 9 5 0 AND 1951 LAMBING DATES. WITH L I T T L E CHANGE I N ENVIRONMENTAL CONDITIONS AT CORN CREEK DURING THE 1 9 5 0- 1 9 5 4 PERIOD, AN l NTERNAL GONADAL RHYTHM SHOULD HAVE- HAD A VERY GOOD MED I UM --- -

-INW-ICHTTMAKEE I T SE L F KNOWN ,

THE CHANGE OF THE INTERNAL GONADAL RHYTHM OF THE REPRO- DUCTION CYCLE FROM NON-BREEDING TO BREEDING I S THOUGHT TO BE DUE TO THE RELEASE OF TWO SECRETIONS OF THE ANTERIOR P I T U I T A R Y WHICH STIMULATE THE GONADS AND ARE THEREFORE KNOWN AS GONADOTROPIC HORMONES. BESIDES PROMOTING THE RAPID GROWTH OF THE FOLLICLES CONTAINING THE EGGS I N THE FEMALE AND CAUSING THE PRODUCTION OF SPERM I N THE MALE, THE HOR- MONES ALSO APPEAR TO CAUSE THE PERIOD OF RUT I N THE MALE AND OESTRUS I N THE FEMALE. I T I S KNOWN THAT ADULT AN IMALS OF SOME SPECIES, WHEN DEPRIVED OF T H E I R REPRODUCTIVE ORGANS, WlLL S T I L L EXPERIENCE THE BREEDING URGE DURING THE BREEDING SEASON, SO I T COULD WELL BE THROUGH THE STIMULATION OF THE HORMONES RELEASED FROM THE P I TU I TARY.

ENVIRONMENTAL INFLUENCES,

CLOSELY CONNECTED WITH THE INTERNAL GONADAL RHYTHM ARE EXTERNAL ENVIRONMENTAL FACTORS WHICH APPEAR TO DETERMINE

THE PRECISE T l M E OF BREEDING. THAT THE ENVIRONMENTAL I N - FLUENCES APPEAR TO BE STRONGER THAN THE INTERNAL GONADAL RHYTHM HAS BEEN DEMONSTRATED MANY T I M E S BY REMOVING ANIMALS FROM ONE HEMISPHERE AND PLACING THEM I N ANOTHER. THE INTER- N A L GONADAL RHYTHM AND THE ENVIRONMENT THAT NORMALLY WORK CLOSE TOGETHER, THEN BECOME DISORGANIZED AND CONFLICT BE- TWEEN THE TWO I S EVIDENT THE F I R S T YEAR, BUT THEREAFTER THE A N I M A L USUALLY BECOMES ADJUSTED TO THE NEW ENVIRONMENT AND BREEDS AND HAS OFFSPRING A T THE PROPER T l M E OF THE YEAR.

A SAMPLE OF SUCH RE-ADJUSTMENT I S FOUND I N TWENTY-ONE AUTUMN-BRED DOMESTIC EWES THAT WERE TRANSPORTED FROM ENGLAND TO CAPE PROVINCE, SOUTH A F R I C A LATE I N 1 9 3 2 , WHERE THEY LAMBED I N JANUARY 1 9 3 3 . WHEN THE SOUTHERN AUTUMN STARTED I N MARCH THE EWES A G A l N CAME l NTO BREEDING C O N D l T l ON AND THEY WERE MATED I N MAY. THEREAFTER THEY BRED ONLY DURING THE SOUTHERN AUTUMN. A LESS EXTREME EXAMPLE OF TH I S AB I C I T Y TO ADJUST WAS NOTED I N C A L I F O R N I A BIGHORN SHEEP (OVI S CANADENSIS CALIFORNIANA) BROUGHT TO THE HART M ~ A I N NAT l ONAL A N T t LOPE REFUGE I N NOVEMBER, 1 9 5 4 FROM BR l T l SH COLUMBIA. THE EWES, THAT HAD BEEN BRED I N CANADA, BEGAN LAMBING ON A P R I L 10, 1955. I N 1 9 5 6 THE LAMBING STARTED BE- TWEEN TWO AND THREE WEEKS LATER THAN I N THE PREVIOUS YEAR AND HAS M A I N T A I N E D THAT LAMBING PATTERN EVER SINCE. AN EXCEPTION, THAT PERHAPS DEMONSTRATES UNUSUAL POTENTIAL POWER I N THE INTERNAL GONADAL RHYTHM, WAS NOTED AMONG SPOTTED DEER BROUGHT FROM I N D I A TO ENGLAND, WHERE FOR SEVERAL SEA

- --- -THE-Y--PRODUCED-OFF--SPASON-OEESPR I NGS BEFORE BECOMI NG - TO THE CHANGED SEASONS.

L I G H T I N T E N S I T Y OR DAY LENGTH ARE ENVIRONMENTAL I N - FLUENCES THOUGH TO EXERT AN INFLUENCE ON THE REPRODUCTION CYCLE, BUT THERE I S MUCH CONTRADICTORY EVIDENCE AMONG D I F - FERENT SPECIES. LONGER DAYS ARE THOUGHT TO INFLUENCE SOME S P E C I E S OF SPRING BREEDERS AND SHORTER DAYS TO INFLUENCE SOME SPECIES OF F A L L BREEDERS. THERE ARE S T I L L OTHER S P E C I E S THAT CAME INTO BREEDING CONDIT IONS I N TOTAL DARK- NESS WHEN TESTED. I T APPEARS THERE I S S T I L L A LOT OF STUDY TO DO I N REGARDS TO THESE ENVIRONMENTAL INFLUENCES.

DOMEST I CAT I ON.

DOMEST I CAT I ON APPEARS T O I NFLUENCE THE REPRODUCT I VE CYCLE AS WE COMPARE THE BREEDING H A B I T S OF THE DOMESTIC DOG AND I T S W l L D BRETHERN THE WOLVES AND DINGOS, AND I T S DISTANT RELATIONS THE FOX AND COYOTE. THE DOMESTIC CAT L I K E W I S E HAS AN ALTERED REPRODUCTION CYCLE WHEN COMPARED WITH THE W l L D VARIETY. HOUSE M I C E ALSO D I S P L A Y CHANGES FROM THE PATTERN

OF MICE OUT-OF-DOORS, WHICH MAY HAVE BEEN INFLUENCED BY THE PROTECTION AND FOOD AFFORDED BY MAN. ...

CONFINEMENT.

CAGED OR CONFINED ANIMALS OFTEN D ISPLAY ERRATIC REPRO- DUCTION CYCLES AS COMPARED W I T H THE SAME SPECIES I N THE WI'LD. DOMESTIC .RABBITS FURN l SH A GOOD EXAMPLE. AND WE CANNOT D l S-

A DECADE AGO. AT THE ZOO O V I S CANADENSIS MEXICANA LAMBED I N MARCH, A P R I L AND OCTOBER. THE MOUFLON SHE.^ MUSIMON.) LAMBED I N MARCH AND OCTOBER; O V l S CANADENSIS N ~ N I LAMBED IN APRI L, MAY AND JUNE, WH I LEWS CANADENSI s CANADENSI s LAMBED I N FEBRUARY, A P R I L AND THE PART THAT CLIMATE MAY HAVE PLAYED I N UPSETTING THEIR D E F I N I T E BREEDING SEASON AS ESTABLISHED I N THE WlLD I S NOT KNOWN.

THE OESTRUAL CYCLE

THE BREEDING SEASON OF THE BIGHORN SHEEP USUALLY F I N D S THE RAMS READY FOR BREEDING BEFORE THE EWES, RAMS L l K E W l SE APPEAR TO HAVE A LONGER PERIOD OF RUT THAN THE EWES AS F I E L D OBSERVATIONS AND SPERM TESTS RUN ON W l L D RAM T E S T I S

I -CA ILTHEY-ARE XAPAB LE - OE--SUCCESSEULLY -BREED I NG.-FROM LEAST SEPTEMBER U N T I L A P R I L ON THE DESERT RANGES OF SOUTHERN NEVADA.

A S THE BREEDING SEASON REACHES I T S PEAK, THE SEX URGE OF THE RAMS I S ALL-POWERFUL. BUT TESTING DONE WlTH DOMESTIC RAMS SHOW THAT MANY OF THEM-WILL REFUSE TO BREED A EWE THAT I S NOT I N OESTRUS. THE FRENZIED M I L L I N G AND MOUNTING SO COMMON AMONG BIGHORN GATHERED AT WATERHOLES MAY BE PROMPTED BY THE PRESENCE OF ONE OR MORE EWES I N OESTRUS AND TEMPO- RARY HARRASSMENT OF EWES NOT I N OESTRUS CAN OCCUR DURING '

THE EXCITEMENT.

BIGHORN RAMS ARE PROMISCUOUS I N THEIR BREEDING H A B I T S AND W I L L MATE WlTH ANY EWE FOUND READY AND W I L L I N G TO BREED. EVEN FEMALES OF OTHER SPECIES. WHEN I N OESTRUS. ARE NOT ENTIRELY IMMUNE TO THE AMOROUS ADVANCES OF OUR'DON JUAN OF THE RIMROCKS. EARLY LITERATURE OFTEN MENTIONS RAMS AND THEIR HAREMS, IND ICAT ING A STATE OF POLYGAMY, AND T H I S MAY APPEAR TRUE ON AREAS WHERE THE B l GHORN POPULAT l ON I S SMALL AND BANDS ARE WELL ISOLATED FROM EACH OTHER BY WIDE DISTANCES. I N SUCH CASES THERE MAY BE ONLY ONE RAM I N A BAND, OR ONE RAM THAT CAN MAINTAIN A CERTAIN AMOUNT OF DOMINANCE OVER THE

OTHER FEW RAMS THAT GOES BACK TO A DOMINANCE S l M l LAR TO THE PECK ORDER OF FOWL THAT WAS ESTABLISHED WHILE THE RAMS WERE SUMMERING TOGETHER. T H I S WOULD BE THE EXCEPTIONAL CASE AND NOT THE RULE.

B E S I D E S F E R T I L I Z I N G THE OVA OF THE EWE WHICH ALLOWED THE GROWTH OF AN EMBRYO, I T APPEARS THAT THE RAM ALSO I N- FLUENCES THE GESTAT l ON PER1 OD OF THE EWE THROUGH THE LAMB. S T U D I E S OF 2,499 GESTATION PERIODS I N DOMESTIC EWES I N IDAHO ( T E R R I L L 1 9 4 7 ) SHOWED THAT THERE I S CONSIDERABLY MORE S I M I - L A R I T Y I N THE GESTAT l ON PER1 ODs OF EWES MATED TO THE SAME S I R E S THAN WOULD HAVE BEEN EXPECTED BY CHANCE ALONE. I T I S THOUGHT THAT A LARGE PART OF THE S I M I L A R I T Y WAS CAUSED BY THE COMMON HERED l TARY FACTORS WH l CH EACH S l RE TRANSM l TTED TO H I S SEVERAL OFFSPRI NG, AND THAT HERED l TARY FACTORS HAVE MUCH MORE INFLUENCE ON LENGTH OF GESTATION THAN ANY OF THE ENV l RONMENTAL FACTORS STUD I ED.

BIGHORN EWES EXPERIENCE A MORE REGULAR, PERIODIC BREED- I N G PER1 OD THAT SHOWS EVIDENCE OF BE ING CYCLIC, I F THEY ARE LIKE THElR DOMESTlCATED SISTERS. !N DOMESTIC EWES NON- PREGNANT FEMALES W I L L COME INTO HEAT FOR AN UNDETERMINED NUMBER OF REGULAR INTERVALS DURING THE BREEDING SEASON. T H l S PER1 OD OF HEAT, OR OESTRUS, WHERE THE EWE I S RECEPTl VE TO THE RAM AND CAPABLE OF FERT I L l Z A T l ON I S THE PEAK OF THE OESTRUAL CYCLE.

I T I S CONTENDED THAT THE OESTRUAL CYCLE OF FEMALE A N I - MALS I S STIMULATED AND STARTED BY AC.TIVE SECRETIONS OF THE P I TU I TARY. ONE SECRET I ON, THE FOLL I CLE- ST I MULAT I NG HORMONE, STIMULATES IMMATURE ANIMALS APPROACHING THE AGE OF PUBERTY AND THOSE THAT ARE I N ANOESTRUS, OR NON-BREEDING CONDITIONS. I T ACTS ON THE GERM1 N A L E P I T H E L I U M OF THE RAMS TO PROMOTE SPERM- PRODUCTION, AND I N THE EWE CAUSES THE RAP I D GROWTH OF THE F O L L I C L E S CONTAINING THE EGGS. THE SECOND HORMONE, KNOWN AS THE L U T E l N l Z l N G HORMONE, HAS THE PRIMARY FUNCTION OF S T I M U L A T I N G THE L U T E l N l Z A T l O N OF THE OLD F O L L I C L E C E L L TO FORM THE CORPUS LUTEUM AFTER OVULATION. I T I S ALSO S A I D TO STIMULATE THE GROWTH AND FUNCTION OF THE NON-GERMINAL I N T E R S T I T U A L T I S S U E I N BOTH OVARIES AND TESTES.

THE OBESTRUAL CYCLE OF THE DOMESTIC EWE AVERAGES 16 DAYS DURATION WlTH A RANGE OF FROM 1 4 TO 20 DAYS. THE LENGTH OF OESTRUS AVERAGES 30 HOURS W l T H A RANGE OF 2 0 T O 42 HOURS. THE USUAL T I M E OF OVULATION I S ONE HOUR BEFORE THE END OF OESTRUS. FEMALES THAT EXPERIENCE MORE THAN ONE PERIOD OR OESTRUS A YEAR ARE CALLED POLYOESTRUS.

FROM THE EVIDENCE I HAVE BEEN ABLE TO'GATHER, I T AP- PEARS POSSIBLE THAT THE W I L D EWE HAS A VERY L I M I T E D T I M E WHEN SHE CAN BE "BEGOT W I T H C H I LD" DURl NG THE OESTRUAL CYCLE. THE ACTUAL T l M E INVOLVED WlLL REMAIN UNCERTAIN U N T I L WE HAVE INFORMATION ON HOW LONG THE SPERM OF THE RAM W l L L RE- M A I N ACT I VE ENOUGH I N THE VAG I N A OF THE EWE TO AFFECT PENE- T R A T I ON AND FERT l L I Z A T ION OF THE OVA WHEN I T 1's RELEASED.

I N DOMESTIC SHEEP I T HAS BEEN PROVEN THAT THE BREEDING URGE OF RAMS W l L L A S S I S T I N B R I N G I N G A EWE INTO OESTRUS, AND RANCHERS OFTEN USE A "TEASER RAM" TO E X C I T E THE EWE AND HAS- TEN THE PERIOD ,OF HEAT BEFORE BREEDING THE EWE TO THE RAM OF T H E I R CHOICE. THE A C T I V I T I E S OF RAMS AROUND THE EWES I N THE W I L D S MAY BE MORE B E N E F I C I A L THAN DETRIMENTAL,

DOMESTIC EWES I N OESTRUS R E A D I L Y ACCEPT SERVICE FROM A RAM OR RAMS, AND A EWE B E I N G BRED BY SEVERAL RAMS I S NOT UN- USUAL, AND I N THE CASE OF LOW- FERTIL ITY RAMS, I S H I G H L Y BEN- E F I C I A L , THE WILL INGNESS OF EWES TO BREED WHEN I N OESTRUS WAS DEMONSTRATED BY A NELSON BIGHORN EWE ON THE SHEEP RANGE THAT L I F T E D HER T A I L TO F A C I L I T A T E ' B R E E D I N G WHEN MOUNTED BY A RP.M. P!?OBABIY THROUGH THE ST-IMULAT ION OF THE LUTE lb l !Z!NG HORMONE THAT STARTS THE MACHINERY OF PREGNANCY I N MOTION, I T I S ONLY A SHORT T l M E AFTER THE F E R T I L I Z A T I O N OF THE OVA WHEN THE EWE LOSES INTEREST I N BREEDING AND W l L L NOT ACCEPT SER- V I C E .

M I N I M U M AND MAXIMUM BREEDING AGES

T E R R l LL ( 1 938) D I D CONSIDERABLE EXPERIMENTAL BREED1 NG Wl TH E'I GHT MONTHS OLD DOMEST l C RAM LAMBS I N IDAHO AND OB- T A l NED A FERT I C I T Y F l GURE OF 81%. DR. CHARLES HANSEN SENT ME INFORMATION CONCERNING THE BREEDING OF A RAM LAMB AND A MATURE EWE A T CORN CREEK THAT RESULTED I N A LAMB BORN ON JUNE 13, 1961. T H I S RAM LAMB WAS THE ONLY RAM W l T H THE EWE DURING THE BREEDING PERIOD, AND DR. HANSEN CONCLUDED THAT W l T H A GESTATION PERIOD OF 1 7 3 DAYS THE RAM LAMB WAS ONLY S I X MONTHS OLD AT THE T I M E OF CONCEPTION. ANY OTHER CALCU- LATIONS, SUCH AS THE RAM LAMB MAKING EARLY OR LATE SERVICE WOULD RESULT I N A GESTATION PERIOD OF E I T H E R SEVEN MONTHS OR F I V E MONTHS.

THE PATRIARCH OF THE DESERT GAME RANGE PENNED BIGHORN I S OLD JOE, WHO SERVED H I S F I R S T EWE AT 1 7 MONTHS OF AGE AND I N 1 9 5 8 S I R E D S T I L L ANOTHER OFFSPRING AT THE R I P E- O L D AGE OF ELEVEN. OLD JOE WAS THEN RET I RED TO THE "BUCK PASTURE", BUT

I N 1 9 6 1 WAS ATTEMPTING COPULATION W l T H A YEARLING RAM. ABOUT A L L WE CAN CONCLUDE FROM H I S 1 9 6 1 EFFORTS I S THAT AT THE AGE OF 14 H I S P I T U I T A R Y WAS S T I L L FUNCTIONING.

ALSO A T DESERT GAME RANGE WE HAVE A RECORD OF A NELSON EWE B E I N G SUCCESSFULLY BRED AT 1 7 MONTHS, ALTHOUGH HER LAMB WAS TOO LARGE FOR HER TO DROP AND SHE DIED DURING PARTURI - TION. THERE I S AN UNCONFIRMED MONTANA REPORT OF A BIGHORN EWE THAT GAVE B i R T H TO A LAMB AT 1 7 YEARS OF AGE. I N GEN- ERAL, THE FEMALE OF THE SPECIES REACHES PUBERTY AND THE M I N I M U M 'BREEDING AGE SOONER THAN THE MALE, BUT HOW A P P L I C- ABLE T H I S I S TO OUR BIGHORN SHEEP I S NOT KNOWN.

REPRODUCTION MAY BE RETARDED AT BOTH ENDS OF THE L I F E CYCLE OF BIGHORN, A S I S INDICATED BY THE 8 1 % F E R T l L l T Y OF 8 MONTHS OLD DOMEST l C RAMS COMPARED W l T H 93% AMONG THE ADULT ONES. ALSO, A S NO W I L D A N I M A L 1 S KNOWN TO HAVE AN ESTABLISHED MENOPHASE, OR CESSATION OF OVERAIN FUNCTION, B l GHORN EWES CAN BE EXPECTED TO DECREASE I N F E R T l L l TY AS THEY GROW OLDER, BUT CAPABLE OF WEF'ROYJCTION TO SOME EX- TENT DURING T H E I R D E C L I N I N G YEARS.

BREEDING BETWEEN SPECIES -

--- -- - - - -- -

-WE-HXVE-~CCONS-I-DERABLE-EVI-DENCE--THAT--MEMBERS- OF-THE -SHEEP------ =

F A M I L Y CAN CROSS BREED W l T H EACH OTHER AND THAT THE OFF- SPRING ARE F E R T I L E AND CAN L I K E W I S E REPRODUCE.. P U L L I N G ( 1 9 4 5 A ) RECORDED THE UN l ON OF A NELSON B l GHORN RAM AND A DOMESTIC EWE THAT RESULTED I N TWIN DAUGHTERS. THESE DAUGH- TERS WERE THEN BRED TO THE RAM THAT S IRED THEM AND THEY I N TURN PRODUCED LAMBS. AN A R T I C L E I N THE C A L I F O R N I A WOOL GROWER, NOVEMBER 5, 1 9 3 5 RELATED OF A DOMESTIC EWE ON THE CHARLES J. BELDEN RANCH AT PITCHFORK, WYOMING, G I V I N G B I R T H TO A LAMB THAT WAS PROBABLY S IRED BY A ROCKY MOUNTAIN BIGHORN RAM. DESERT MAGAZl NE (SEPT. 1 9 4 9 ) CONTAl NED AN ART ICLE PER- T A I N I N G TO SEVEN DOMESTIC EWES I N THE HERD OF PETE E L i A S OF AUSTIN, NEVADA THAT DROPPED LAMBS S I R E D BY A W I L D RAM ON WINTER RANGE I N THE NEW PASS AREA.

BREEDING EXPERIMENTS AT THE SAN DlEGO ZOO A DECADE OR MORE AGO DEMONSTRATED THAT CROSS BREEDING BETWEEN DIFFERENT SPECIES OF THE Wl LD SHEEP ALSO PRODUCED FERT l LE OFFSPRING. AT THE ZOO THE MOUFLON SHEEP WAS SUCCESSFULLY CROSSED WlTH PEN I NSULA. NELSON. AND ROCKY MOUNTA l N B I GHORN AND THE -RESULT-

FEMALE OF ANOTHER GENUS THAT I S I N OESTRUS I S NOT UNCOMMON, AND A NUMBER OF RECORDS HAVE BEEN COLLECTED BY MYSELF AND OTHERS !IF BIGHORN RAMS ATTEMPTING COPULATION W l T H FEMALE BURROS, HEIFERS, COWS, AND EVEN W l T H EACH OTHER. A MALE BEAR A T ONE OF THE NATIONAL PARKS CLASPED AN UNWARY WOMAN I N THE LOVE EMBRACE 'WHEN SHE VENTURED TOO CLOSE AT THE ' WRONG T I M E OF THE MONTH.

I N REGARDS TO THE INTRODUCTION OF EXOTIC SPECIES I N OR NEAR H A B I T A T , OF CLOSELY RELATED N A T I V E SPECIES, I WOULD L I K E TO QUOTE FROM BURNS (1953) WHO HAS THE FOLLOWING TO SAY ON THE SUBJECT OF H Y B R I D I Z A T I O N .

"HYBRIDS RESULT I NG FROM CROSSBREED I NG MAY BE PHYS I - CALLY STRONGER I N D I V I D U A L S , AS I S SOMETIMES THE CASE W l T H A MULE, BUT T H E I R F E R T I L I T Y I S USUALLY REDUCED, AND MANY T I M E S THE OFFSPRING I S NOT AS VIGOROUS AS I T S PARENTS. WERE MAM- MALS TO ENGAGE I N SUCH CROSS-COPULATION, I T I S QUITE L I K E L Y THAT RACES WOULD SOON BE EXTERMINATED, AS HAS ALREADY HAP- PENED W E R E MAMMALS HAVE BEEN INTRODUCED INTO AREAS WHICH CONTAIN CLOSELY RELATED SPEC I ES. FOR EXAMPLE, AS A RESULT OF THE INTRODUCTION OF THE AMERICAN B I S O N INTO EUROPEAN RE- - SERVES, THE PURE S T R A I N OF-THE EUROPEAN WISENT HAS NEARLY BEEN LOST. THE TRAMSPLAMTATIQM OF RED DEER FROM SOUTHERN EUROPE I N T O NORWAY RESULTED I N THE EXTERMI NAT I ON OF A N A T I V E RACE, FOLLOWING H Y B R I D I Z A T I O N . AS RECENTLY AS 1910 THE IBEX

-- - =WA-S-RE-..;I-N=T=RODUCFD- I NTO-THE-CARPA-TH-I AN -MOUNTA I NS-OF-GENTRAL- EUROPE, TOGETHER WITH TWO ASI ATI C SPECIES, THE BEZOAR GOAT AND S l N A l T I C GOAT. ALL THREE SPECIES INTERBRED W l T H THE RE- SULT THAT THE BREEDING SEASON CHANGED SO THAT THE YOUNG WERE BORN I N MIDWINTER, AND THE OFFSPRING PERISHED YEAR AFTER YEAR. A YET MORE DISASTROUS RESULT HAPPENED WITH THE LARGER S I B E R I A N RACE OF ROEBUCK, WHICH WAS INTRODUCED INTO CZECHOSLOVAKIA, WHERE I T INTERBRED W I T H THE N A T I V E SUB- SPECIES. THE LARGER S I Z E OF THE FETUS I N THE N A T I V E DOE MADE B I R T H IMPOSSIBLE. THEREBY W I P I N G OUT NOT ONLY THE YOUNG, BUT ALSO THE NATIVE FEMALES AND DEMONSTRATED HOW E A S I L Y A RACE CAN BE EXTERMINATED BY THE VERY MEANS WHICH l NSURE I T S EX I STENCE."

STERl L l TY

JUST AS I BYPASSED WORD-BY-WORD DESCRIPTIONS OF THE P H Y S I C A L ASPECTS OF B l GHORN BREED1 NG, AS LITERATURE ABOUNDS W I T H GRAPHIC EXAMPLES OF RAM AND EWE BEHAVIOR DURING- THE RUT, I AM NOW GOING TO ELABORATE A S MUCH AS I POSSIBLY CAN ON SOME OF THE FACTORS THAT MAY OR MAY NOT INFLUENCE STER-

l L I T Y I N B l GHORN SHEEP, BECAUSE THERE I S SO L l TTLE WRIT- TEN ON THE SUBJECT AND THERE I S SO MUCH MORE WE NEED TO

TEMPORARY STERI L I TY.

TEMPORARY S T E R I L I T Y AMONG EWES AND RAMS I S A NORMAL S I T U A T I O N AMONG DOMESTIC SHEEP, AND U N T I L WE KNOW MORE ABOUT I T I N THE W l L D VARIETY, I T SHOULD BE TAKEN INTO CONSIDERA- T I O N WHEN EVALUATING LAMB PRODUCTION I N THE WILDS. FROM BREEDING EXPERIMENTS CONDUCTED AT THE WESTERN SHEEP BREED- I N G LABORATORY AT DUBOIS, IDAHO, I T WAS FOUND THAT OVER A TEN YEAR PER1 OD ONLY 85% OF THE RANGE EWES BECAME PREGNANT THROUGH NATURAL SERVICE. AND THAT I N D I V I D U A L RAMS AND EWES EXPERIENCED- AN . OCCAS I ONAL YEAR OF STER I L I T Y PRECEEDED AND FOLLOWED BY YEARS OF F E R T I L I T Y ( T E R R I L L 1940 , T E R R I L L & H A Z E L 1 9 4 7 ) .

I F THE ABOVE I S ALSO TRUE OF THE W l L D SHEEP, LAMBING ON THE DESERT GAME RANGE OVER MOST OF THE PAST F l FTEEN YEARS HAS BEEN CLOSE TO THE MAXIMUM THAT CAN BE EXPECTED UNDER RANGE CONDITIONS, AND ALTHOUGH 1 0 0 LAMBS TO 1 0 0 BREED- I N G EWES IS THE REPRODUCTIVE POTENTIAL, THE MANAGEMENT POTENTTAL, OR WHAT WE CAN EXPECT TO WORK WITH, I S CLOSER TO 80 LAMBS TO 1 0 0 BREED ING EWES. ORTHODOX LAMB-EWE RATIOS,

-- --- --- --THA=T=I-NGLUDE-EWES-. BELOW--THE-AGE--OF--PUBERT-Y AND-OTHER- N0N.r .-;.. - - _ - _-

BREEDING EWES, WOULD BE EVEN LOWER THAN THE MANAGEMENT PO- T E N T I A L . VIEWED I N T H I S LIGHT, SOME OF OUR LAMB-EWE RATIOS THROUGHOUT THE COUNTRY ARE NOT AS POOR AS THEY MIGHT SEEM A T F I R S T GLANCE.

AGE CLASS S T E R I L I T Y . - STERILITY I N . T H E AGE CLASSES OF DOMESTIC RAMS I S COM-

PARATIVELY H I G H AT PUBERTY, DECREASES DURING MATURITY AND INCREASES A G A I N AT THE APPROACH OF OLD AGE. AS HAS BEEN PREVIOUSLY MENTIONED, BREEDING TESTS OF RAM- LAMBS I N IDAHO SHOWED 81% F E R T I L I T Y COMPARED W l T H 93% FOR MATURE RAMS. I HAVE NO INFORMATION ON F E R T I L I T Y OF EWES AT PUBERTY, BUT S T E R I L I T Y CAN BE CONSIDERED TO INCREASE WlTH AGE DUE TO FAC- TORS, SUCH AS LOSS OF TEETH, THAT WOULD INFLUENCE THE HEALTH AND POSSl BLE FERT l L l TY OF THE EWE.

TEMPERATURE.

I T I S KNOWN THAT H l GH TEMPERATURES ARE ASSOCIATED W l TH

THE DEGENERATION OF THE GERMINAL EP ITHEL IUM OF THE T E S T I S AND THAT RECOVERY MAY TAKE WEEKS OR EVEN MONTHS. SPERM I S EXTREMELY S E N S I T I V E TO HEAT, AND MAMMALS WITH SCROTEMS CAN ELABORATE F E R T l LE SEMEN ONLY WHEN THE l R TESTICLES ARE AT A LOWER TEMPERATURE THAN THE INTERIOR OF THEIR BODIES. WE MIGHT WONDER WHAT EFFECT TEMPERATURE HAS ON BREEDING AND LAMB PRODUCTION I N DEATH VALLEY AND OTHER AREAS THAT EXPER- IENCE H I G H TEMPERATURES DURING THE BREEDING SEASON AND LOW LAMB PRODUCTION I N THE SPRING.

THE EFFECT OF HIGH DAYLIGHT TEMPERATURES CAN BE OFFSET TO A DEGREE I F TEMPERATURES DROP CONSIDERABLY DURING THE NIGHT. SOME SPECIES OF MALES RETIRE TO HIGHER ELEVATIONS FOR A P-ERl OD OF T IME TO RECOVER FROM THE EFFECTS OF HEAT AT LOWER ELEVATIONS BEFORE RESUMING BREEDING, AND THE ELK I S KNOWN TO WALLOW I N COOL MUD THAT R E V I T A L I Z E S ENERGY AND RE- STORES THE PROPER TEMPERATURE TO AFFECT SPERM PRODUCTION. COLD TEMPERATURES HAVE THE SAME DETRIMENTAL EFFECT ON L I V E SPERM PRODUCTION, AND MAY AFFECT B 6 R I A L RACES OF RAMS, AL- THOUGH THE RAMS, BY MUSCULAR CONTRACTION OF THE SCROTUM ARE ABLE TO MOVE THE TEST!S CLOSER TO BODY HEAT.

OVERBREED D NG.

-- - - -- - - TEMPORARY STERI LI TY FROM OVERBREED I NG HAS BEEN ADVANCED

FROM=TaI-ME=-TO -T I ME A S--A-PROBAB tE--CAU SE -OF- -L-OW-P RODUCT-I-0 BIGHORN SHEEP: ON THE DESERT T H l S OVERBREEDING POSSIB WAS ATTRIBUTED TO WEATHER AND FOOD COND I.TIONS THAT L I M THE NUMBER OF EWES COMING I N OESTRUS AT ONE TIME, AND THE IN- CREASED ATTENTION THESE I N D I V I D U A L EWES RECEIVED FROM THE LUSTY RAMS.

TEMPORARY S T E R I L I T Y WAS SUPPOSED TO HAVE BEEN WIDE- SPREAD AMONG THE EWES ON THE DESERT GAME RANGE I N 1944. HOWEVER, S INCE THAT DATE, NO E V l DENCE OF STERl L l T Y TO ANY MARKED DEGREE AMONG THE EWES HAS BEEN OBSERVED, AND T H l S HAS BEEN SUBSTANTIATED BY THE HEALTHY LAMB PRODUCTION F I G- URES FROM YEAR TO YEAR OBTAINED FROM LAMBING CENSUSES. NO LAMB l NG CENSUS WAS CONDUCTED I N 1944. - DURING THE SAME 17 YEAR PER1 OD OF OBSERVATION, THE LAMBING SEASON OF THE NELSON B l GHORN ON THE REFUGE AVERAGED 34 MONTHS DURATION. WHICH I S

PRESENTED FOOD, WATER, AND CLIMATIC CONDITIONS s IMI LAR TO THOSE OF 1944.

OTHER EVIDENCE THAT SUCH S T E R I L I T Y DOES NOT OCCUR ON THE REFUGE INCLUDES THE FACT THAT THE BIGHORN EWE I S ENDOWED

BY NATURE WITH A T A l L LONG ENOUGH TO COVER THE EXTERNAL GENITALS AND T H l S T A l L I S MUSCULAR TO THE EXTENT THAT CON- SIDERABLE PRESSURE MUST BE USED TO FORCE THE T A l L AWAY FROM THE EXTERNAL GENITAL ORGANS. ANY ATTEMPT TO FORCE THE T A l L AWAY FROM THE GENITALS WlTH A FINGER W I L L SOON CONVINCE THE MOST SKEPTICAL PERSON THAT RAPE DOES NOT OCCUR AMONG B I GHORN SHEEP AND A EWE I S BRED ONLY WHEN SHE SO DESIRES.

OVERBREED l NG AND SUBSEQUENT STER I L I TY, TO OCCUR, MUST TAKE PLACE W I T H I N THE L I M I T E D PERIOD OF OESTRUS WHEN THE EWE I S RECEPT l VE TO THE OPPOSITE SEX. REGARDING THE HYPO- THETICAL "OVER-WORKED EWE", WE MUST NOT UNDERESTIMATE THE CAPACITY OF THE FEMALE OF THE SPECIES UNDER STRESS. TEST- I NG SHOWED THAT FEMALE DOMESTIC SHEEP KEPT I N OESTRUS BY THE ADMINISTRATION OF HORMONES, OUTLASTED AND WORE OUT SEV- ERAL RAMS... T H I S I N THE FACE OF EVIDENCE SHOWING THAT ONE RAM WAS KNOWN TO MOUNT 114 EWES I N ONE NIGHT, AS ATTESTED BY WET P A I N T ON H I S BRISKET BEING TRANSFERRED TO THE BACK OF THE EWES. HOWEVER, THERE I S MANY A S L I P T ' W I X T THE CUP AND THE L I P , AND MOUNTING I S N ' T NECESSARILY MATING.

I N A PERSONAL LETTER TO ME, DR. C L A l R E. TERRILL , THEN AT THE U. S. SHEEP EXPERIMENT STATION AND WESTERN SHEEP BREEDING LABORATORY, WROTE THE FOLLOWING CONCERNING THE POS- - S l B l L l T Y OF TEMPORARY S T E R I L I T Y FROM OVERBREEDING AMONG D0-

- ______=;MES_T=I_CaSHEEP=;,-- ;= - - - --- - ----=- -

"WE HAVE NO EXPERIMENTAL PROFF, BUT WOULD DOUBT IF STERl L l T Y FROM OVERBREEDING WOULD EVER OCCUR. I N MY OP l N l ON OVERBREED I NG -SHOULD I NCREASE FERT I L I TY, BUT THERE I S A RE- PORT THAT TOO MANY SPERM I N THE FALLOPIAN TUBES MIGHT I N- TERFERE WITH F E R T I L I Z A T I O N . T H l S I S BASED ON THE OBSERVA- T I O N THAT SOME DETERIORATING EGGS WERE PENETRATED BY MORE THAN ONE SPERM. THE ENTRANCE OF MORE THAN ONE SPERM MIGHT BE THE RESULT OF A DETERIORATING EGG RATHER THAN THE CAUSE. THERE ARE SOME REPORTS OF RUSSIAN WORK THAT BREEDING OF EWES BY MORE THAN ONE RAM INCREASES F E R T I L I T Y AND T H I S SEEMS REASONABLE.

S T E R I L I T Y - FROM GLANDULAR DISTURBANCES.

WE MUST NOT OVERLOOD THE POSSI B I L l T Y OF SOME S T E R I L I T Y I N BOTH SEXES BEING ACTIVATED BY ABNORMAL COND I T l ONS ARI S- ING I N THE P I T U I T A R Y THAT RETARDS OR STOPS THE SECRETION OF THE ESSENTIAL HORMONES CONNECTED WlTH REPRODUCTION. - THE FOLL I CLE-ST IMULAT I NG HORMONE AND THE LUTE l N l Z I NG HORMONE WORK TOGETHER I N CERTAIN P-ROPORTI ONS T O PROMOTE THE FUNCTION

OF REPRODUCT I ON. LABORATORY TEST 1 NG HAS ASCERTA l NED THAT -

THE ONE -HORMONE I S DEPENDENT ON THE OTHER TO BR-ING ABOUT THE CONDITIONS WHERE PREGNANCY CAN OCCUR,

S T E R I L I T Y - FROM DISEASE.

WE HAVE YET BUT L I T T L E INFORMATION I N REGARDS TO STER- l L l Z A T l O N THROUGH DISEASE I N BIGHORN SHEEP, MY LONE EXAMPLE I S A EWE I COLLECTED ON THE SHEEP RANGE THAT HAD D I E D FROM MALIGNANT OVARIAN CANCER. I N T H l S EWE THE INTERNAL REPRO- DUCTIVE ORGANS HAD BEEN ABSORBED BY THE CANCER AND FROM THERE I T HAD SPREAD THROUGHOUT THE BODY FROM THE BLADDER TO THE LUNGS, DR. E. R. QUORTRUP OF THE SAN DlEGO LIVESTOCK DEPARTMENT, WHO CONDUCTED THE LABORATORY WORK, CALLED TH l S EWE A frPATHOLOGICAL GOLD MINE" AND STATED THAT, TO THE BEST OF H I S KNOWLEDGE, T H l S WAS THE F I R S T RECORD OF ADEN0 CARCINOMA I N BIGHORN SHEEP, I T I S POSSIBLE WE S T I L L HAVE -OTHER rrFIRSTS" THAT REMAIN TO BE DISCOVERED.

THE RAM-EWE RATIO

WlTH THE DESERT FORMS OF B l GHORN SHEEP THE C R l T ICAL FACTOR OF THE BREEDING SEASON I S NOT THE MAXIMUM POTENCY

-- - _QF=IH E --RAM S&R_-HOW -M-NY-_EWES-THE_Y-ARE_-CAP ABL E L 0 L!EERLLJLLZ_LNG, - - - -- --

BUT. T H E . A V A I L A B I L I T Y OF THE EWES. DURING THE SHORT PERIOD OF OESTRUS I T I S I M P O R T A N T - T ~ T H E EWES BE WHERE THE RAMS CAN F l N D THEM, AS THERE I S NO F l E L D INDICATION ON THE DESERT GAME RANGE THAT THE EWES MAKE ANY EFFORT TO F l N D THE RAMS WHEN THEY ARE READY FOR BREEDING OR THAT THE RAMS MA1 NTAl N HAREMS AND SERVE THE EWES AS THEY COME INTO OESTRUS. WE MUST NOT OVERLOOK, HOWEVER, THE POSSIBLE POTENCY OF SCENT GIVEN OFF BY THE EWES I N OESTRUS, AS F I E L D EVIDENCE I N D I - CATES THAT SUCH SCENT MIGHT ACT AS A GREEN L l GHT TO A RAM A CONSIDERABLE DISTANCE AWAY AND DOWNWIND FROM THE EWE. A BREAKDOWN OF OBSERVATIONS OF BIGHORN ON THE REFUGE FROM 1946 TO 1953 AND TOTALING OVER 8,000 I N D I V I D U A L ANIMALS SHOWED THAT THE SEX RAT I 0 WAS WlTH I N ONE PERCENT OF BEING EQUAL. THE LAMB PERCENTAGES DURl NG THOSE SAME YEARS REMAl NED CON- S l STENTLY H 1 GHER THAN PERCENTAGES RECORDED ON OUTS l DE AREAS AND I N OTHER STATES WHERE BIGHORN SHEEP ARE L I M I T E D I N NUMBER OR WHERE F I E L D COUNTS SHOWED A PREDOMINANCE OF EWES.

I N ADDIT ION TO T H l S APPARENT EQUAL SEX RATIO THE BANDS WERE I N CLOSE PROXIMITY TO EACH OTHER WHICH ALLOWS THE RAMS CLOSE CONTACT W l T H THE EWE BANDS AND ELIMINATED TO A MARKED DEGREE THE P O S S I B I L I T Y OF EWES BEING BARREN FROM LACK OF I N- SEMINATION. I N AREAS WHERE SMALL, REMNANT BANDS ARE WIDELY

SCATTERED AND COMPARATIVELY ISOLATED FROM EACH OTHER I T I S POSSIBLE THAT THE SEX RATIO NEEDED I S UNBALANCED AND I T I S UNWISE TO ASSUME THAT THERE I S PRESENT I N THE IMMEDIATE AREA ENOUGH UNSEEN ANIMALS OF BOTH SEXES TO BALANCE THE RATIO OF THE ANIMALS THAT WERE SEEN. THAT THE SEX RATIO OF THE LAMBS DROPPED OVER A PERIOD OF YEARS BY AN I N D I V I D U A L EWE I S NOT ALWAYS EQUAL I S SHOWN BY TWO EWES THAT WERE CAPTURED ON THE DESERT GAME RANGE WHEN THEY WERE LAMBS. ONE EWE REMAINED AT THE CORN CREEK HEADQUARTERS AND I N FOUR YEARS GAVE BIRTH TO THREE EWE LAMBS AND ONE RAM LAMB. THE OTHER EWE GREW TO MATURITY AT THE ZOOLOGICAL SOCIETY OF SAN DIEGO AND GAVE B l R T H TO THREE RAM LAMBS. BIGHORN SHEEP I N SMALL l SOLATED BANDS ARE NOT THE BEST MEDIUM FOR OBTAINING EQUAL SEX RATIOS.AMONG THE I N D I V I D U A L BANDS AND EVEN THOUGH THE CENSUS OF AN ENTIRE STATE SHOWS AN EQUAL SEX RAT IO T H I S INFORMATION I S NOT APPLICABLE TO MANAGEMENT PLANNING UNLESS THE I N D I V I - DUAL BANDS OR HERDS ARE I N OCCASIONAL CONTACT W l T H EACH OTHER OR I N CLOSE PROXIMITY TO EACH OTHER SO THAT THE RAMS CAN TRAVEL FROM BAND TO BAND DURING THE BREEDING SEASON. I F AN OBSERVER FEELS HE HAS A SURPLUS OF RAMS I N ONE ISOLATED AREA HE SHOULD CERTAIN THAT THERE ! S NOT A SURPLUS OF EWES I N SOME OTHER I SOLATED AREA TO WHICH THE RAMS COULD BE TRANSPLANTED TO ADVANTAGE BEFORE DECLARING THE RAMS SURPLUS AND SUBJECT TO HARVEST.

- DURING THOSE SUMMERS THAT THE BIGHORN SHEEP ARE WATER-

I-NG-I-N-NUMBERS--[ T--13--POSS I BCE- FOR-A-REDUCED- NUMBER- OFFRAMS -

TO CARE FOR MOST OF THE EWES WA I T 1 NG AROUND THE WATERHOLES. T H I S WOULD NECESSITATE THE RAMS BEING D I V I D E D SO THAT SUF- F I C I E N T RAMS REMAINED AT EACH WATERHOLE USED BY EWE BANDS TO CARE FOR THE EWES. I T I S DOUBTFUL I F RAMS W I L L COOPERATE W l T H MANAGEMENT TO THAT EXTENT, AND EVEN THEN SOME EWES MAY NOT BECOME PREGNANT UNLESS A V I S I T TO A WATERHOLE TAKES PLACE DURING HER SHORT PERIOD OF OESTRUS. BIGHORN SHEEP, EVEN I N THE EXTREME HEAT OF THE SUMMER, ARE KNOWN TO REMAIN AWAY FROM WATER FOR PERIODS OF T IME THAT ARE OF LONGER DURA- T I ON THAN THE OESTRUS PERIOD. I T I S L IKEWISE TRUE {THAT THE BREED l NG SEASON OF THE SOUTHWESTERN B l GHORN SHEEP EXTENDS PAST THE HEAT OF THE SUMMER, AND THE WAIT ING RAMS AT THE WATERHOLES WOULD BE OF L I T T L E VALUE TO EWES THAT WERE ROAM- ING WIDELY AND MEETING WATER REQUIREMENTS FROM THE SUCCULENT PLANTS THAT FOLLOWED THE SUMMER RAINS. AT SUCH TIMES I T I S NECESSARY TO HAVE SUFFICIENT RAMS TO COMB THE COUNTRY AND SEEK OUT THOSE EWES THAT ARE READY FOR BREEDING.

W I L L I A M M. RUSH I S QUOTED AS SAYING THAT ONE RAM TO F I V E OR TEN EWES I S ABOUT RIGHT FOR BREEDING. I T MUST NOT BE OVERLOOKED THAT MR. RUSH WAS SPEAKING OF THE ROCKY MOUNT- A I N BIGHORN SHEEP WlTH A BREEDING SEASON DURING THE WINTER

WHEN THE ANIMALS ARE CONCENTRATED ON WINTER RANGE. UNDER SUCH CONDI-TIONS I T I S UNDOUBTEDLY TRUE THAT AN EQUAL. SEX R A T I O I S NOT NECESSARY. ON THE SOUTHWESTERN DESERTS WHERE VA1:IABLE C L I M A T I C CONDlT l ONS AND FOOD CONDIT IONS PREVAI L DUR.ING THE BREED I NG SEASON THE -SEX .RAT 10, TO ASSURE MAXIMUM LAMB.PRODUCTIVITY, MUST BE BASED ON THE NUMBER OF RAMS NECESSARY TO SERVE A-HIGH PERCENT OF THE EWES DURING T I M E S WHEN THE EWES ARE MOST SCATTERED.

LAST, BUT NOT LEAST, WE SHOULD CONSIDER THE POSSl B l L l TY OF LOW- FERTIL ITY RAMS I N LOW PRODUCTION AREAS AND THE POS- S I B L E NEED OF A HIGHER PERCENTAGE OF RAMS I N THE HERDS TO INSURE THAT A EWE HAS AN OPPORTUNITY FOR CONCEPTION BY MAT- I N G WITH SEVERAL RAMS.

A T THE PRESENT TIME NOT ENOUGH.EVIDENCE HAS BEEN COL- LECTED TO ESTABCISH A SEX RAT IO FOR THE DESERT BIGHORN SHEEP THAT W I LL ASSURE CONT l NUAL H I GH PRODUCT l V l TY I N THE HERDS AND FURN l SH SURPLUS AN IMALS FOR HARVEST I NG. PERHAPS THE ONLY ANSWER TO TH l S QUEST ION L I E S I N A LARGE, CONTROLLED AND ISOLATED STUDY AREA WHERE BREEDING CAN BE OBSERVED OVER A LONG PERIOQ OF T!ME AND THE %AM POPULATlON CAN BE SYSTEN- AT1 CALLY LOWERED UNT I L THERE I S A CORRESPONDING DROP I N THE LAMBING PERCENTAGES. SUCH AN AREA DOES NOT E X I S T ON THE DESERT GAME RANGE DUE TO THE INTERMlNGLING OF THE BANDS WHICH WOULD ALLOW OTHER RAMS TO REPLACE THOSE REMOVED FOR STUDY PURPOSES.

THE BREEDING SEASON

THERE I S CONSIDERABLE VARIAT ION AMONG BREEDING SEASONS OF BIGHORN SHEEP OF DIFFERENT SUB-SPECIES, AND EVEN W I T H I N THE SUB-SPECIES I N DIFFERENT B I O T I C COMMUNITIES. FIGURE 1 SHOWS SOME OF THE VARIATIONS I N BREEDING AND LAMBING SEASONS BETWEEN SUB-SPECIES OF BIGHORN SHEEP FROM ARIZONA TO MONTANA. T H l S F l GURE WAS COMP I LED I N 1954 FROM INFORMAT l ON AVA 1 LABLE TO ME AT THAT T IME, AND COULD PERHAPS BE GREATLY IMPROVED BY THE ADDIT ION OF INFORMATION THAT HAS BECOME AVAILABLE DURING THE PAST N INE YEARS.

W I T H THE EXCEPTlON OF THE HART MOUNTAIN RECORD, WHICH WAS BASED ON ONLY ONE YEAR OF OBSERVATION, THE BREEDING AND LAMBING SEASONS WERE ESTABLI SHED FROM. CONS I DERABLE I NFORMA- T ION, WHICH I N CLARK COUNTY, NEVADA EXTENDED OVER THE BET- TER PART OF A DECADE. TO BE BRIEF, THE FLGURE SHOWS THAT I N GENERAL, THE EARL1 EST AND LONGEST BREED1 NG SEASONS ARE I N THOSE AREAS WITH THE MILDEST CLIMATES OVER THE GREATER PART OF THE YEAR, AND THE LATESTAND SHORTEST. SEASONS ARE I N

F I G ~ E I. I

SOME LAMBING ANTI BREEDING SEASONS OF NORTH AMERICAN BIGHORN SHEEP

MBlNG AND BREEDING I

THOSE AREAS WHERE THE CLIMATE, I N GENERAL, I S MORE FOR LONGER PERIODS OF T I M E .

SEVERE

V A I \ I A T I O N S I N BREEDING AND LAMBING W I T H I N THE SUB- SPECIES ARE NOTED I N CLARK COUNTY, WHERE BREEDING BEGINS ABOUT M I D- J U L Y AND TERMINATES ABOUT THE F I R S T WEEK I N NOVEMBER A T 500 TO 2 , 0 0 0 FEET ELEVATION ON BOTH S I D E S OF THE COLORADO RIVER, AND BEG1 NS ABOUT THE MIDDLE OF AUGUST AND TERMINATES ABOUT THE F I R S T WEEK I N DECEMBER AT THE 3 , 5 0 0 TO 1 0 , 0 0 0 FOOT E L E V A T I O N ON THE SHEEP RANGE.

I N A GENERAL A N A L Y S I S OF SUCH WIDE V A R I A T I O N S OF BREED- I N G SEASONS AMONG D I F F E R E N T SUB-SPECIES AND I N DIFFERENT AREAS, WE MIGHT EXAM1 NE THE CORRESPOND l NG LAMB l NG SEASONS AND EVALUATE WHAT EFFECTS LAMBING HAS ON SETTING THE EX- TREME L I M I T S OF BREEDING. FIGURE 1 SHOWS THAT THE LOWER SONORAN RACES OF BIGHORN, BREED AND LAMB LARGELY DURING D 1 F- FERENT MONTHS THAN DO THE BOREAL RACES, ALTHOUGH AN OVERLAP MAY BE FOUND THAT M I G H T BE INFLUENCED BY THE ELEVATIONAL RANGE OF THE SHEEP D U R l NG THE BREEDING AND LAMBING SEASON.

I N SOUTHERN NEVADA THE NELSON BIGHORN SHEEP BREED AND LAMB E A R L I E R A T THE 500 FOOT ELEVATION THAN THEY DO AT THE 5,008 FOOT ELEVATION. L I K E W I S E , I N SOUTHERN ARIZONA, THAT I S EVEN MORE SO ENTRENCHED I N A ' T R U E DESERT ENVIRONMENT, THE SHEEP BREED AND LAMB EVEN E A R L I E R THAN THEY DO A T THE 500

- FOOT+&JAT-l ON-I-N-NE-VADA - -- -- -- . - -- -- - - --- --- - -- . IN MAMMALS, ALTHOUGH THE BREEDING SEASON I S VARIABLE

FROM A SHORT PERIOD OF T l M E ONCE A YEAR TO SEVERAL T IMES OVER MOST OF THE YEAR, THE GESTATION PERIOD IS SET W I T H I N RATHER D E F I N I T E T l M E L I M I T S . I N DOMESTIC SHEEP THE GESTATION PERIOD HAS AN 18 DAY SPREAD THAT VARIES FROM 141 TO 159 DAYS WITH AN AVERAGE OF 1 5 0 . I T I S THESE VARIATIONS I N GESTATION PERIODS, THAT I N THE DOMESTIC SHEEP ARE INFLUENCED BY THE BREED OF SHE.EP AND EVEN THE I N D l V I D U A L RAM, AS WELL A S THE PERIOD OF PUBERTY AND -THE DATES WHEN THE EWE EXPERIENCES HER PERIOD OR. PERIODS OF OESTRUS, THAT ACCOUNT FOR LAMBS THAT ARRIVE BEFORE AND AFTER THE MAJORITY OF BIRTHS. ,

I N THE NORTHERN RACES OF BIGHORN SHEEP SUCH EARLY AND LATE LAMBS COULD ENCOUNTER C L I M A T I C CONDITIONS DETRIMENTAL TO THE l R SURVl VAL AND E N V l RONMENTAL FACTORS ',:OULD THUS DETERMI NE THE T l M E OF THE LAMBING SEASON BY E L I M I N A T I N G OFF-SEASON LAMBS THAT WOULD HAVE BECOME ADD l T I ONAL OFF-SEASON BREEDERS.

THE DESERT RACES OF BIGHORN SHEEP ARE SUBJECT TO THESE EARLY AND LATE A R R I V A L S AMONG THE LAMBS, BUT DUE TO THE COM- PARATIVELY M I L D C L I M A T E OF 2 0 0 OR MORE FROST-FREE DAYS A YEAR, AN EARLY LAMB HAS A GOOD CHANCE FOR SURVIVAL AND A LATE- LAMB

FAVORED TO CARRY OVER THE F I R S T WINTER. THESE EARLY AND LATE LAMBS REACH PUBERTY AT DIFFERENT DATES AND EVEN D l F- FERENT MONTHS, AND SUCCEEDING GENERATIONS OF THESE TWO EXTREMES W I DENS THE BREAK AND SLOWLY SPREADS THE BREED I NG AND LAMBING SEASONS U N T I L I T I S CHECKFD BY THE SHORT PERIOD OF THE YEAR UNSUITED TO LAMB SURVIVAL. I T WOULD THUS APPEAR THAT THE DURATION OF THE BREEDING SEASON OF BIGHORN SHEEP I S GOVERNED BY WHAT WE MIGHT- TERM A r tSURVIVAL SEASONII OF THE LAMBS.

ADVERSE WEATHER CONDIT I ONS APPEAR TO I NFLUENCE BREED I NG TO A LESS EXTENT THAN LAMB SURVIVAL A S I S ATTESTED BY THE BREEDING SEASON OF SOME BOREAL RACES THAT EXTENDS INTO DECEMBER AND JANUARY.

MANAGEMENT NEEDS

W I T H MY L I M I T E D INFORMATION I HAVE T R I E D TO POINT OUT -

THE !MPORTANGE OF BREEDING AND FACTORS GONTROLLING BREEDING I N REGARDS TO BIGHORN UNDERSTANDING AND MANAGEMENT. I FEEL THAT WE HAVE SOME'PRESENT DAY MANAGEMENT PROBLEMS THAT WOULD BE SOLVED, OR A T LEAST UNDERSTOOD, I F WE HAD A MORE COMPLETE P I C T U R E OF BIGHORN BREEDING, AND I T I S MY HOPE THAT T H I S IM- PORTANT SEGMENT OF MANAGEMENT AND RESEARCH Wl LL BE GIVEN THE

- -A--T-TENyI-ON;-L1-T-D ES-ERVE S -1-N-OUR-C00RD I NA-FED -t I-FE--H-I-SPO RY-AN D-------- MANAGEMENT STUDY THAT WAS ADOPTED BY T H l S COUNCI L I N 1962.

LITERATURE C I T E D

Buechner, H. K. (1960) The b ighorn sheep i n the Un i ted States, i t s present, past, and fu tu re . Wild1 i f e Soc. W i l d l i f e Monograph No. 4.

Bullough, W. S. (1951) Ver tebra te sexual cycles. John Wiley & Sons, New York.

Burns, Eugene (1953) Sex l i f e of w i l d animals, Rinehar t & CO., Toronto, N. Y.-

Couey, F. M. (1948) Rocky Mountain b ighorn sheep i n Montana. Mont. F i sh & Game Comm. B u l l . no. 2.

Davis, W. B. (1938) Summer a c t i v i t y o f mountain sheep i n Mount Washburn, Ye1 lowstone Nat ional Park. Jour. Mamm. vo l . 19, no. 1, p. 84-94.

and W. P. Tay lo r (1939) The b ighorn sheep o f Texas. Jour. Mamm. vo l . 20, no. 4, p. 440-445.

Dixon, J. S. and E. L. Sumner (1939) A survey o f deser t b ighorn i n Death Va l l ey Nat iona l Monument, C a l i f . F i sh & Game, vo12. 25, no. 2, p. 72-95.

_ - - H on_e-s-~-,A..~E._an~-N .- M .-F_r_o__st--CIC19!G2)- A -WA.yYmbg= b i- g h a m s h e e p _ - s tudy. Wyo. Game & F i sh Dept. Bu l l . no. 1 .

Jones, Fred L. (1950) A survey o f S i e r r a Nevada bighorn. Con t r i b . Mus. Vert. Zoo. U. o f Ca l i f . , Berkeley.

Moser, C. A. (1962) The b ighorn sheep o f Colorado. Colo. Game & F ish Dept.

Packard, F. M. (1946) An eco log ica l study o f the b ighorn sheep i n Rocky Mountain Nat ional . Park. Jour. Mamm. vo l . 2 7 , no. 1, p. 3-28.

P u l l i n g , A l b e r t Van S. (1945a) H y b r i d i z a t i o n o f b ighorn and domestic sheep. Jour. W i l d l i f e Mngmt. vo l . 9, no. 1.

(1945b) on-breedi ng i n b ighorn sheep. Jour. W i l d l i f e Mngmt. Vol. 9, no. 2.

Russo, John P. (1956) The dese r t b ighorn sheep i n Ar izona. S ta te o f A r i z . Game & F i sh Dept.

Smith, 0. R . (1954) The b ighorn sheep o f Idaho. S ta te o f Idaho, Dept. o f F i s h & Game, W i l d l i f e B u l l . no. 1 .

Spencer, C. C . (1943) Notes on t h e l i f e h i s t o r y o f the Mountain b ighorn sheep i n the T a r r y a l l Mounta of Colorado. Jour. Mamm. vo l . 24, no. 1, p.

T e r r i 1 1 , C . E. (1937) ~easurements o f reproduc t ive capac as an a i d i n s e l e c t i n g rams o f h i g h f e r t i l i t y Proc. Am. Soc. Animal Product ion.

ocky ns - 1 1 .

t Y

1938) Reproduct i ve capaci t y o f rambouiili e t t ram lambs as i nd i ca ted by semen t e s t s . Proc. A. Soc. Animal Product ion.

1940) Comparison o f ram semen c o i l e c t ions obta ined by t h r e e d i f f e r e n t methods o f a r t i f i c i a l insemi- na t i on . 33rd Annual Proc. Am. Soc. Animal Product ion.

and L. N. Hazel (1947) Length o f g e s t a t i o n i n range sheep. Am. Jour. Vet. Research, vo l . 8, no. 26.

. . -_Wa_r_b_ri~t~t0.n~,-V~.-an.d-E.~~~.-.McKensi_e~(_l9_3~7_)~-The~p1_It_u I t a r s lands --

o f ewes i n var ious stage o f reproduct ion. U. o f Mo. Ag. Exp. Sta. Research B u l l . 257.

Wells,. Ralph E. and Florence 9. Welles (1961) The b ighorn o f Death Val ley. Nat. Parks Fauna Ser ies no. 6.

DEMING - (Discussion)

Bishop - Did you say g rea t e r a c t i v i t y by males stimulated the f e r t i l i t y o r j u s t gave us a g rea t e r s t a t i s t i c a l pos s ib i l i t y?

Deming - Bet te r p o s s i b i l i t y of conception, espec ia l ly i f we have low f e r t i l - i t y rams which i s no t impossible i n our deser t conditions.

Fountain - You mentioned that a f t e r the reproductive organs had been removed the animal s t i l l came i n es t rous , is this true?

Dming - They came i n heat , had the breeding urge.

Fountain - I n what species?

Deming - Sheep! Domestic sheep!

Fountain - This i s n ' t t r u e i n most animals.

Deming - If you want t o t i e i t down, I'll give you the name of the Sargent whom I m e t in Fo r t Douglas who r e l a t ed t h i s t o me.

Fountain - He was the sheep breeder'!

Deming - No!

Fountain - Normally when you do an ovario-histerectomy they won't come i n - - _- es!Fw_s ,-.-p-4-----_- _- - - __- - _ _ -=._a - -- - - - - - -- - - - --

Deming - No, bu t they have the breeding urge.

Fountain - I don' t be l ieve so.

Deming - O.K., lets pu t i t down a s a fel low to ld me.

Simmons - J u s t a comment on your chart . On our refuge (Kofa and Cabeza P r i e t a ) w e have seen lambs i n January and i n June. This compares with your cha r t a n d ' i t appears t h a t ( h i s canadensis) mexicana has the longest spread of a l l the subspecies.

Deming - Yes! In some individual cases i t could be s t re tched ou t t o where no lambs are born during only two months of the year.

Duncan - I j u s t wanted t o quote something that I picked up from a bio-ecology book concerning the es t rous of domestic sheep. "The female sheep does not en te r i n t o es t rous with any cer ta in ty u n t i l stimulated by a sharp change i n temperature from day to night. "

J

Deming - I d idn ' t run across t h a t one. This whole subject i s so fragmentary t ha t i f a l l I've done today i s encourage some of you people i n t h i s audience who a r e ac t i ve ly working with bighorn to take an i n t e r e s t i n the subject of bighorn breeding.

Welles - Not only the mild cl imate but the hot cl imate l i k e t ha t found i n Death Valley wi th sheep l i v ing a t 900 f e e t tha t we have observed.

Hansen - That appears t o be t r ue a t the DRG too. Observations of young lambs o r breeding a c t i v i t y ind ica tes t h a t there probably i s only two months of t he year when lambs a r e not born.

Larsen - I remember a r epo r t recen t ly about domestic rams lacking i n f e r - t i l i t y because of t he heat so they were going t o keep them indoors to keep t h e i r body temperature down. You might think' t h i s would occur i n wi ld sheep, bu t why wouldn't this condit ion be overcome through n a t u r a l se lect ion.

Deming . - Thatt s t r u e they may be adjusted t o it. We dont t know.

Graf - I wanted t o comment on what Ock (Deming ) s a i d about mixing species. This is very important i n fu tu r e introductions of these animals i n new o r former range. In mixing, you mix t he e n t i r e evolutionary acquis i t ion. You scramb3e i t up and you may ju s t come out with something unsuited. This way even apply t o races and should be kept i n mind f o r f u tu r e reference.

' BIGHORNS AND SAPAGOS

Seymour H. Levy

Tucson Wildlife Unlimited

P. 0. Box 5172, !Tucson, Arizona

The Papago Indian Reservation is located in south-central Arizona. It

occupies almost 3 million acres in Pima, Pinal and Maricopa Counties. The . .

reservation is the second largest in the United States. It is about the

size of Connecticut and is larger than Delaware and Rhode Island combined. \

The major portion of the reservation lies in the Sonoran Desert. It con-

sists of wide arid d e y s and plains interspersed with mountain ranges '

which rise abruptly from the valley floor. The elevation varles 'fram 1378

feet on the northern boundry.3.n the Santa Rosa Valley to 7730 feet at .

Baboquivari Peak on the eastern boundry.

- Desert-Bi-@om- are- known--to -occur- in -most-of- the-ma-jor- -mountain--ranges--in- - -=---

the reservation, among which are: Sank Rosas, Cimarrons, Mesquites, Sierra . .

Blancas, Quijotoas, Saucedas, Coyotes, Ajos, Baboquivaris, and Sswtooths.

Indeed, Gale Monson, former Refuge Manager for the Kofa and Cabeza Prieta

Nstional Game Ranges, saw his first desert sheep in the Sauceda Mountains

on the reservation. According to the Fapago Indian Agency, sheep occur the

year around inathe Santa Rosa and Ado Mountains. National Park Service

Rangers see bighorn quite often in the Ajos. Arizona Game and Fish Depart-

ment field personnel report sheep in the Baboquivari, Coyote, Silverbell,

Sawtooth and Sauceda Mountains. Papago Indians report that sheep were - commonly seen in the Baboquivaris in olden days, according to Dr. Bernard

Font-, Ethnologist at the Arizona State Museum. Two of the finest rams

to be taken in Arizona were shot in the Sauceda Mountains just off the

aorthwest corner of the reservation. The Sand Tank Mountains, immediately

north of the reservation, are one of Arizona's finest sheep habitats. The

reservatica also affords excellent habitat for mule deer, javelina and

s n d l game animals.

The sheep, as w e l l as the other wildlife, are neither protected nor maaaged

on this reservation. You w i l l note that I distinguish between protection

and management. I prefer Aldo Leopold's and Trippensee's definition of

Gsme Management where harvest is part and parcel to Game Mansgement. Leopold

says: "Game Management is the art of d i n g land produce sustained annual. -

crops of wild game for recreational use." Tripensee states: "The field of

Wildlife Management has many sides and many angles. Fundamentally it is the

process of making Wii and witer pmducs susLtahed cmps ef wild a M s . "

The reason why I dwell on this distinction, as will be further explained

The Papago Indians are not bound by any state or federal hunting regulations.

Unless otherwise directed by the FBpago Tribal Council, any Fapago may take

any kind and amount of wildlife at any time. The Papagos, living in a land

of scarc%ty, have been forced to obtain maximum utilization of the native

plants and animals in order to survive. A representative of the United States

Indian Service in Sel ls relates that one of the Indian Police recently

(~ebruary 1962) shot seven sheep in the Santa Rosa Mountains. There is a

recent unconfirmed report of the slaughter of a herd of "antelope" east of

the Ajo Mountains. A band of ewes and lambs no doubt? Father Lambert reports

Indians shooting sheep in the Sierra Blanca Mountains three years ago,

according to Dr. Fontana. This is all perfectly legal, legitimate and, in

the eyes of the poorer Papagos, necessary.

According to the Bureau of Indian Affairs there are approximately 8000

Papsgos on the reservation. They are divided into 1200 families and live

in 73 scattered villages. The Papagos are one of the poorest tribes in

Arizona. There are about 430 families on

into two general income classifications.

families has, through education, training

themselves into the white man's econq.

- *

weuare. -go families fall

The first group of sane 400

or special adaptability, fitted

The second group, of about 800

families, maintains a precarious livlihood froan subsistence farming in

good years, small cattle holdings, wood cutting and increasingly from

seasonal off-the-reservation labor at the lowest possible wage scale. The

latter' group consists almost entirely of uneducated, non-English speaking

people whose incomes range from a bare subsistence level downward. They have

scratched desperately for subsistence and money from any possible source. We

can never' protect the desert sheep from people living under these conditions,

but=perhaps=with- a- good-sound -program _we can convince--themhathattmanagementtOf___ -

\

the sheep as well as the other gane is to their advantage.

Indian Reservations are the same as private lands fromthe hunter standpoint.

A non-tribal member cannot, without special license or privilege, hunt or

fish on an Indian Reservation. Many Arizona tribes have taken advantage of

the white man's xillingness to pay for their sports. The Fort Apache Indian

Rlbe realizes $57,950 income from the sale of hunting and fishing permits;

the Colorado River Indian Tribes $5,124; and the Hualapai Tribe $1,530 from

deer hunting permits alone. I understand that the ~ualapai may open their

lands for bighorn hunting. I have no total annual incame figure for the San

Carlos Apache Tribe, but they have excellent hunting and get a good return

from the sale of elk, turkey, javelina and deer hunting tags and fishing

permits. They sell at least $6,000 worth of game tags yearly. This is not

the only revenue brought in to the reservations. Additional income i s

derived from the sa le of gas and o i l , merchandise and groceries, room

renta ls and other services t o hunters and fishermen, not the l eas t of

which i s guiding and packing.

BUT THEW3 MUST BE AEU'IMALS TO HUNT AND HARVEST..

Tde San Carlos, Fort Apache and Navajo Indians have instigated management

programs f o r wildl i fe on t h e i r respective lands. The t r i b a l members as

w e l l as non-members a r e limited by game regulations. They have the i r own

Gane and Fish Commissions and full- time Indian Game Rangers commissioned

by the s ta te . And they do enforce the l a w s . These t r ibes have realized

the value, and economic benefits of sound game management and vigorous game

Bob Housholder, Arizona's senior sheep hunting guide, charges $1000 p r

hunter f o r a 12 day desert sheep hunt. He guarantees nothing but a good

-- huntrHe-gets -$250-f or -a--three day - jave-lina - hunt .- -It-is -his -opini-on-that -

the Rapago Tribe could ccnmnand and get $10 f o r a deer permit, $5 for a pig

permit and from $25 t o $50 f o r a sheep permit. He s ta tes further tha t the -

t r ibe could get no l e s s than $350 per sheep hunter for an Indian guide.

Although the Papago Indian Tribal Council has authorized the hunting of

smaLl game by non-tribal members with the purchase of a $10 permit, they do

not allow big game hunting by "outsiders". This is one very excellent and

feasible source of subsistence and money tha t they have not scratched. The

Papago Tribal Council, according t o a 11 February 1963 television news broad-

cast, has appealed t o Representative Morris K. U d a l l fo r Federal Aid because - the i r reservation lacks natural resources. The harvest of wild game for re-

creation is a resource the Papagos have not even touched yet.

The Arizona Game and Fish Department f ee l s tha t the best approach t o the

problem of game management on the Indian Reservations, as far as they are

concerned, i s t o l e t the request for cooperation i n establishing a hunting

season cane from the t r ibe t o the department. If the particular tr ibe is

ready for such a management program they w i l l i n i t i a t e the action. If they

are not and the department in i t i a tes the action, the proposals might create

mistrust and misunderstanding which would slow the entire program. The

Indians are rather reluctant t o turn over aqy use of their lands to white

men on a fee basis since, in l~lany of thei r minds, th i s represents a t e inter-

ference with something t h a t is theirs. This a t t i tude may reflect a dis t rus t

resulting fran his tor ical conflicts which occurred with the entry of white . -.

men into the southwest. It would be pradoxical in this instance, since the

Pspagos were one of the leas t persecuted and now are one of the leas t pro-

gressive, while the Apaches were perhaps the most oppressed and nsw are among

the more progressive.

It would appear then that our best chance for a successful desert bighorn

sheep management program on the Papago Indian Reservation would came with

the cooperation of the various Federal agencies that work directly with -

Indians and therefore, perhaps, more firmly entrenched in their trust. If the -

Iksert Bighorn Council along with the United States Fish and Wildlife Service

and the Arizona Game and Fish Depsrtment can interest the Bureau of Indian

Affairs, and i n pazticular Mr . Richard Scweitzer, B.I.A. developnent officer

at Sells, and the h b l i c Health Service i n t h i s program the batt le w i l l be half

-won. If they, i n turn, can convince the Papago Tribal Council of the economic

value of not only the desert sheep but the deer and javelina also, both the

Papago Indians and the wildlife w i l l benefit. Dr. Fontana, because of h is

vast knowledge of Papgo ways, w i l l be a valuable ally. If the Papago Indians

can be persuaded t o se t up an Indian Fish and Game Commission and cooperate with

the Arizona Game and Fish Department i n establishing a game management plan

with r e s t r i c t i v e regulations and trained Indian Game Rangers t o enforce the

orders, the Fapago Reservation could be transformed into a hunter's mecca.

It is not unreasomble t o believe tha t income from white hunters might reach

from $8,000 t o $10,000 or more annually. As Starker Leopold s ta tes i n

Wildlife of Mexico: 'Wherever possible, wildlife crops should be used f o r

sport hunting, since t h i s brings the highest values t o a conmnmity. Any

vil lage t h a t can create and maintain a mecca fo r the sportsmen w i l l , i n the

end, p r o f i t handsomely by it."

The i n s t i e t i o n and i n i t i a t i o n of sound game management f o r the desert bighorn

sheep and other wildl ife on the Fapago Indian Resermtion is a challenge that ,

I hope, the ~ e s e r t Bighorn Council w i l l accept.

Literature Cited

Anon., (1949) The Papago Developent Program. Haskell Inst i tute Print Shop.

Leopold, A. Starker (1959) Wildlife of Mexico. University of California

Press, Berkeley.

Leopold, Aldo (1946) Game Management. Charles cribh her's sons, N. Y.

Trippensee, R. E. (1948) Wildlife Management. McGraw-Hill Book Co., Inc. ,

SIGIU'IFICANT BIGHORN SLIDES

Florence B. ?rPelles Collaborator


The following letter, dated February 7, 1963, was sent to members of the Desert Bighorn Council:

Dear Fellow Member:

We are going to have a program at our nest meeting in Las Vegas in which d l members are,urged to play a part, It has to do with photography in its perspective as a means to an end -- an instrument to aid in the perception, accumulation and perpetuation of information about the bighorn or the factors bearing on his welfare.

In our own sphere we have been amazed at the information we have collected, sometimes without even being aware of it, in pictures -- pictures showing some significant facet in the pattern of bighorn life history -- or m y other p lan t 0s mhal for that mattes,

What the program committee and we are hoping for is that - - - - -- you--will--bring--any-and- all - slides - which--5ecord--or---i-llus--- - --

trate a significant fact or incident which has influenced your thinking and judgment in this field.

Remember it is the emhasis on content rather than the quality of the picture. Of course, the better the picture, the more effective it is likely to be, But to illustrate the point: In August of 1955 we took a picture of a ewe nursing a lamb at Virgin Spring in the Black Mountains of Death Valley National Monument, elevation about 2000 feet, temperature 1180 F. This was very early in our .field work and we attached no particular significance to the incident at the time. A couple of years later, however, we came across the slide, and being able by then to compare it to many other slides of ewes nursing lambs we were struck by these facts: The lamb was so biz that it had to fall on - -

its knees in order to reach unde5 the motherrs udder q d its horns were developed enough to compare favorably to a six or seven month old lamb. This started us watching other lambs from the point of view of trying to establish an average weaning age for Death Valley lambs. Therefore this picture became a significant picture. This is the type of picture that we hope you will bring and exhibit at the Council meeting. Further, it was from the study of

our pictures of them that we first realized how easily six month old ewe lambs could be told from six month old r am lambs.

No objection would be raised to your bringing pictures that you thought were just good pictures, of course1

We would appreciate your taking the time to look over the slides that you have, or even borrowing some from someone iwho will not be attending the meeting, and then letting us know what you will be bringing to the Council. We should have this information by March 15. But if we haven't heard from you, bring the slides anyway. Xe hope many different areas will be represented.

Looking forward to a great meeting in Las Vegas,

Sincerely yours,

Florence 'Zelles Slide Chairman 1963 Desert Bighorn

Council

- - -. ----- -- ---- - - - - - - -- - - -

~liies and descriptions of the subjects shown were presented by the following members:

Richard Weaver California Fish and Game Dr. Charles Hansen Bureau of Sport Fisheries and 13ildlife James Xiloairurn Bureau of Land Xanagement Charles W. Wendt Bational Park Service John Russo A1 Jonez Norman Simmons Norman Bishop Parry Larsen James Sleznick Tomy L. Sailey

Black and white

Gerald Duncan Bill Zeffalt

Arizona Game and Fish Dept. Nevada Fish and Game C ommission Bureau of S port Fisheries and gildlife Uational Park Service Bew Xexico Dept. of Game and Fish National Park Service Texas Game and Fish Commission

Bureau of S port Fisheries and Yildlife a a 11 21 .- n

RE-ESTABLISHING N!TITPE BIGHORN RANGES

Jim Yoakum Wildlife Specialist

Bureau of Land Management Reno, Nevada

When whiteman first crossed the Mississippi River and traveled to the Pacific Coast, he found bighorn sheep in fifteen western states (Buechner 1960:15). But by the 1940's bighorns had been exterminated in four states and in many of the remaining states, they were reduced to living in approximately ten percent of their endemic rangelands.

It is encouraging to note that within the past two decades--wildlife management has helped ze-establish bighorns in three of the four states where they were previously exterminated. Bighorns have been liberated also in many states where they were greatly decreased in numbers or areas of inhabitation.

Therefore, we can see that the technique of liberating bighorns in their - former native ranges has resulted in a significant management practice relative to the bighorn's future welfare. This paper's objective is to review and record the various bighorn re-establishment projects completed recently. No attempt was made to evaluate the transplanting techniques used, for each case warranted individual practices, but this paper should

- be an aid ,in this matter by providing sources of where this data may be sb.tained.-- -- - -- - - ------ -- .- -- ---- -- - -

Listed in Table 1 is a total of 20 transplant ventures in six different states. Not all reintroduction projects are listed, for many earlier attempts date back as far as 1922. Methods and techniques were not the same then as current transplant procedures. The transplants listed in Table 1 are all believed successful according to latest available information. It is noteworthy that each of the prominent bighorn subspecies, Ovis canadensis canadensis, g. 5. californiana, and 2. 2. nelsoni, have been successfully reintroduced in their native rangelands.

Apparently there is a number of questions that repeatedly arise when wildlife managers begin discussing the possibility of bringing bighorn sheep back to originally inhabited areas. It would be timely, I believe, if these matters were discussed in detail now, for they may have a bearing on future transplant plans.

1. Diseases: Can bighorns be liberated in ranges now utilized by domestic sheep? Although early records discuss the dangers of diseases (including parasites) transmitted to wild sheep by domestic sheep, one should bear in mind that the science of animal husbandry has greatly improved in recent years and epizootic.diseases are no longer common in domestic herds. The two Oregon transplants of bighorns are right in the middle of domestic sheep ranges and there are no current disease problems in that area.

2. Public Opinion: Certain attempts to establish bighorn populations in the 1930's and 1940's met with failure because of public attitude. Howeyer, public relations through range users, land management agencies, sportsmen, and wildlife agencies have changed the picture and we see more favorable attitudes toward transplants today.

Transplant Methods : Many of the first reintroduction projects liberated the animals with complete freedom in their new.environment. This practice was not as successful as recent ventures whereby ' the animals were retained in large enclosures before given complete freedom. The use of drugs and tranquilizers has greatly aided the science of handling animals. Helicopters and airplanes have facilitated transportation methods. Trapping techniques have improved from catching a single animal to whole bands of bighorns which may have a social affect on mortality. Consequently, it can be seen that the art and science of capturing, transplanting, and releasing animals has greatly iroprwed in the past 20 years and this has been of tremendous importance to success.

4. Natural Distribution: Some persons believe that it is not necessary to transplant big game for in due course of time surrounding populations wiil-mwe into vacuum habitat regions. .

- Th-i;s--is----p~obab'l;y-&me3 -but-, - in--over-SO ye aEs no- Cal-igornia- --- --

bighorns began approaching Oregon from either southern California or British Columbia! Transplants greatly speed distribution.

Since whiteman was possibly the greatest factor influencing the decline of bighorn populations, he can likewise be one of the biggest factors in bringing them back. This can be accomplished through such objectives as re-establislixg native wildlife on endemic ranges using up-to-date techniques in the art and science of wildlife management.

TABLE 1 - ReCENT BIGHORN m-ESTABLISEIMENTS TO

NATIVE RANGES

SUB-SPECIES STATE AND

DAT E

LITERATDRE CITED

REMARKS

- . -- - canadensis

Montana 1942-1962

South Dakota 1962

Oregon f 954

Personal Eleven d i f f e r en t t rans- conrmunication plants t o t a l l i n g 297

bighorns accomplished t o da te within the s t a t e of Montana. One herd released i n 1947 increased su f f i c i en t f o r a haryest i n 1955.

Nachtegal Twelve bighorns released 1961: 4 from Alberta. Plans a r e

to obtain more bighorns from 3bnta .a .

- w n g Zlwesty bighorns from Br i t i sh 1460 Columbia transplanted t o

H a r t Mountain National Wm- l i f e Refuge. Increased i n numbers around 200% i n f i ve years. Used now as a nucleus -

Oregon 1960 - 1961

Washing ton 1957

North Dakota 1957

Texas 1957 -1959

I se ly 1962: 36

Hailey 19-62

Eleven bighorns from Hart Mountain National Wildlife Refuge, Oregon transplanted t o the Steens Mtns., Oregon i n two separate releases.

Eighteen from Br i t i sh Columbia t o eastern Washington. Re- production has resul ted i n favorable increases. Two more transplants t o other areas i n Washington made from t h i s nucleus herd.

Eighteen bighorns from Br i t i sh Columbia l iberated. Popula- t i o n more than doubled i n f i r s t four years.

Sixteen bighorns from Arizona t o Texas. Although high mortali ty i n beginning, r e - production from sheep born i n Texas makes project appear successful now.

LITERATURe CITED

Buechner, Helmut K. (1960) The bighorn sheep i n the United States, i t s past , present, and future. The Wildlife Society, Mmograph No. 4 174 pp.

Deming, Oscar (1961) 1960 Bighorn Sheep Transplants at the H a r t Mountain National Antelope Refuge. In Desert Bighorn Council 1961 Transactions. pp. 56-57.

Amzonymous (1961) 1961 Annual Report, Game Division, Oregon State Game Commission, Portland, Oregon.. 178 pp.

Annonymous . (1961) Dakota sheep population increases. In: WildliSe - Review, Br i t i sh Columbia Fish gnd Game, V.aac i ew No. 7,

- -- -vo~~e--25-3~-pp .------ - - -

Nachtegal, Ralph (1961) Department introduces new game var i t i e s . In: South Dakota Conservation Digest, South Dakota Department of Game, Fish and Parks, Pierre. Vol. 28, No. 2, pp. 2-6.

Hailey, Tom (1962) Status of transplanted bighorns i n Textis. In: Desert Bighorn Council 1962 Transactions. pp. 129-130.

BIGHORN StfEEP OF THE JWGELES NATIONAL FOREST

bsr Charles E. Kennedy

Wildlife Biologist - Angeles National Forest

I will begin my short paper by explaining very briefly my duties as Wildlife Biologist on the Angeles National Forest. Most of qy time i s presently directed toward completing a Big Game Range Analysis on the Spngus Distr ict (Deer Herd U n i t #28C Newhall, State #95), which wil l provide information necessary t o complete a Rig Game Habitat Management Plan fo r the herd. When I complete the Saugns Herd plan I will start an .nalysis f o r the Son Gabriel Hta. deer herd (#29A, State #96) and the Angeles Bighorn. The Sangus Dis t r ic t is separated from the r e s t of the Angeles and I am detailed to the d i s t r i c t t o be nearer the work. Each month I spend a few days on the other d i s t r i c t s attempting to accumulate information about both bighorn and deer.

I came to--the Angeles just a year ago l a s t November and have only spent 11 days, 7 t r i p s i n sheep canntrg, so I have only a f e w wsheep factsR to use in my talk.

To begin w i t h I w i l l inser t a condensed outline of procedure we follow i n a Big Gvee Analysis and Big Game Habitat Hanagement Plan fo r the Angeles Bighorn.

Big Ovae F&nge Anslysis-Big Game Habitat Management Plan

-- u5-Department-.ofEishand-.Game__is -charged -with . _ f h s h s p r o t e c t i o n and management of fish, game and fur bearers i n California. The Forest Service has been given the responsibility fo r protection and management of u i ld l i fe habitat on national fores t lands.

Definition

Big game range analysis i s a composite of livestock and big game range survey~ made t o determine range condition, game occurrence, and population trends for use as a basis fo r management. The need f o r such management becomes more pressing each year because of the increasing demand by the public fo r hunting, the respon- s i b i l i t y of the Forest Service t o maintain or improve the habitat, the presence of big game i n excessive numbers on mamy ranges, and the increasing conq?etition between uses on national forest lands.

Minimum Standards

The minimum requirements for big game range analysis consist of the following :

-

1. Designation of herd unit boundaries.

2. Designation of seasonal ranges. 3. Designation of key areas for game.

a. Classification of condition and trend. b. Instal lat ion of 3-step transects. c . Utilization records for browse and/or other key plants. d. Pe l le t group counts. e. Track counts. f. Fenced exclosures. g. Other investigatiom.

Key areas are those portions of a range where use of food is most pronounced because of concentrated seasonal use o r fo r other reasons. Suchcareas wlll usually be Umited to that smaller portion of the yearlong range a r e gams find food and cover during severe weather. But thsy mqy also occur on other seasonal use areas such aa on the south slopes or i n areas of riparian vegetalAon on nonmigratory deer ranges, and on the summer range of migratory deer herd ranges a r e th is is the factor i n shortest supply. Key areas indicate and may limit, the number of animals a range can safely carry. Collectively, they are the key t o management of the entire big game range. 'Where key areas are situated immediately outside the fo res t boundary they -

should be type mapped t o complete the herd un i t picture.

Habitat inspections shall be made on representative portions of key areas. These representative portions shall be called inspection units or areas.

-

- - -- The bas~# irlspe ction Iml-nsed-in e g i o n -5- FSLL!! ths ~ - e n t - - - -- - - - -

browse bansect . (Either l / l3 acre be l t transect o r 1/L0 acre circular bel t . ) The& transects shall be used to obtain information on (a) a d forage supply, pressure or demand fo r forage, through pellet group counts and (b) effect of the degree of use on the resource, through condition and trend checks.

Big G a m Habitat Management Plans

After inspection areas are established, and initial data are compiled, a habitat management plan shall be prepared fo r each unit. Nl use w i l l . be made of any backlog of information on range or mbals possessed by the Department of Fish and Game. Such information as the relation of fawn survival by range condition, trends in animal numbers, the composition of the animals hamested, breeding and fawning dates and areas, wlll complement and strengthen the plan. Proposals fo r direct habit& hprovements, and for coordination of other k e s so a8 t o maintain or improve big game habitat values, shall. be included.* (1)

- (1) Renge Analysis Field Guide - Division of Range and Wildlife Management

California Region 1960.

Grazing on the national fores t lands i n California has been significantly reduced:

Cattle Sheep

But these reductions have had l i t t l e bearing on the habitat of the Angelea Bighorn, be cause colnn6rcial grazing privileges on the Angeles National Forest do not extend in to Bighorn range. The only active grazing permita on the fo res t are on the Sangus Distr ict some 25 milea to the Northweat of the Bighorn country.

DEER-SHEEP CCIMPETITION'Z

I have seen deer.three times i n sheep cauntrg. Sheep i n their winter rangea (lower elevations) are competing direct ly with deer-for thei r daily requirements. There is mtlchless competition on the snmazsr ranges.

Deer harveat figurea from recent years fo r L.A. Counts are as followst

Antemless Buck Anterless Permits

Eighty to ninety percent of these deer are taken on Angeles National Forest lands. For 1962 3% of the bucks (177) and 54% of the anterless (116) wre taken f r o m that portion of the forest where sheep occur. Most of these were taken i n the ChapamX#l loulands and mnrld have very l i t t l e direct influence on sheep. Some deer taken in the *High Mountainn country would have a more direct bearing upon aheep but due t o the rngged t e r r d n and inaccessibility of the sheep countrg few deer were killed that were i n di rect competition with sheep fo r food, water, etc. Aa we' gain a more detailed knowledge of where sheep range we can make better use of deer kill mapa t o evaluate the influence of the deer k i l l on sheep.

In addition t o the declining deer M11, deer pellet counts show a marked downward trend.

Carrying capacity f o r deer fluctuates witt weather patterns which often may produce a dry spell. extending from the last rain i n Feb., March, o r April u n t i l the f i r s t wintel rai-I comes i n the following Nov., Dec., or January. The 1962-63 dry spel l Fan. through 317 d ~ s e i h m t rain* - (1) Figures presented by W i l l i a m P. Dasman, Wildlife Specialist, Assistant to Division Chief, U.S. Forest Service, Region 5, a t the Dec. 1962 meting of the Board of Directors meeting of California Wildlife Federation.

this stage I could only guess a t the degree of parallelism between sheep population trends and deer population trends. Since sheep generally occupy higher elevations with higher precipatation levels, f luctuations i n carrging capacities probably do not vary so widely i n the i r home ranges.

PRESENT STATUS OF THE ANGELES SHEXP

Anselmo bwislspoke t o this group in 19602at La$ k-uces, New Mexico. l'Selmotl is still keeping excellent records of sheep sightings on the Baldy Dis t r i c t and ask me to report tha t the herd appears t o be. maintaining i t s e l f a t the same level.

On page 73 of his report Selmo reported, "There are some indications t h a t there are Bighorn i n the M t . I s l i p area, but reports are fragmentazy." We have now confirmed the presence of sheep i n the area. Our reconnaissance . has been mostly i n the M t . Waterman, Kratka Ridge, and Bear Carrgon drainage (an area roughly 6 miles long by 5 miles wide.) A t first we could f ind no ems. Finally, Selmo had a report of ewes seen i n the lower portion of Bear Canyon along a trail. Then i n December 1962, I jumped some sheep ant of bed and with jus t a second o r two to decide %hat they were, I put them - down as a ewe, a young ram and a yearling af unknown sex. Selmo and I naw f e e l t h a t there i s another band of sheep i n this area. I n numbers the band probably i s somewhat smaller than the M t . BalQr group. The few fac ts o r observations I have are mostly about this new band of sheep as follows:

- Summer Range

On several t r i p s during the f a l l of 1962 (7 days t o t a l ) we saw very heavy sheep sign and a t o t a l of 21 ams and 6 unidentified i n the 5 M t . Waterman area. But when Ronald Hein and I returned to the same locations on March 6, we found no sign. The l i g h t snow on Feb. 11 & 12 - had evidently caused them t o move t o lower climes.

Ample f ree water has been found i n each of the 3 or 4 small draws checked t o date. Study of the quadrangle maps of the area show a t l e a s t 10-12 more draws & springs t o be checked-to complete an inventory of the upper or summer range portion of this sheep area. So far it would appear tbt there is too much water t o make water hole counts prac t ica l in this area.

Food - Most of the browse and forbs i n this area are available t o deer and

sheep, so I w i l l discuss each plant separately and mentioh this problem of distinguishing sheep use from deer use.

(1) Dis t r ic t Ranger of the M t . Baldy Distr ict . (2) See page 72 of the April 5-8, 1960 transactions. (3) Game Manager I, California Fish & Game, Chino, California.

Cereocarpus ledi f oHus

Mountsin mohogany i s one of the preferreds and is also a staple food f o r sheep in the higher portions of the i r range. Mimy plants of this species growing on chutes or ta lus slopes show heavy use which I believe i s mostly sheep use.

Rhamm~9 Calif orniua

M o s t plants of the California Coffeeberry show some use and many show heavy use. It does not grou out on the chutes as does the Mtn. Mohogany so the browsing i n most cases i a more d i f f i cu l t t o assign as sheep use or deer use. It is commonly found more of*t;an i n draws and better sites, but I have seen marry individual plants growing i n locations e r e deer would probably not prefer t o graze because of the broken, rough terrain and therefore feel u s i s also a preferred staple fo r sheep.

I watched some ewes browsing this plant near Cat- anyo oh - (Mt. Balcly sheep area). It is wed on the low d n t e r ranges -but is leas a-mndant a t higher or summer ranges.

especially on the l o m r o r winter ranges are important t o sheep.

Glossopetalon Mevadense

This plant we found chewed down so closely on Waterman Mtn., growing under a f a i r l y close canopy of Jeffrey and ~onderosalthat Dick Weaver and I had t o p&j around quite a b i t t o find one with f d t on It. Deer may have been doing some of the feeding we observed on this plant but sheep were more abundant i n the area judging from the mmiber of sheep observed, the numerous aheep

'beds and pellets , and small number of deer observed, so much of the use was probably sheep use.

Epiogornrm spp . 8 Lupinus spp.

I n this heavily used area on Waterman both of these plants - -

were closely aaed.

(1) Also same Sugar Pine and White Fur.

Lambing Period

Ronald Hein and I saw two lambs on April 23, 1962 that were very young-still on shaky legs.

Lamb Survival

On March 1 2 , 1963, Hein and I returned t o the same area where we had seen the lambs i n April 62 and counted 12 ewes, 3 y ng rams, and 11 yearling lambs. Later we talked u i t h M r . Weismille &e we were still observing the sheep. He reports having counted 12 ewes and12 lambs numerous times during $he spring and fal l a t t h i s sane location, M c h is on a primitive road he uses t o reach his private property within the forest . This i s probably a re l i ab le observation and gives a good survival p ic ture (11 out of 12).

The sheep were very close a t first sight ing and moved off uncon- cerned but a t a steady pace feeding here and there. T h i s area i s probably the lowest l i m i t of t h e i r range and is very brushy but not the dense impenetrable chapparal which occurs jus t a l i t t l e lower.

J u s t as a matter of in t e res t I might add t h a t Ronnie Hein and I climbed up l a s t Apri l along this same route the sheep used. It was s teep and required ca rexu placing or" ones f e e t and. or"ten times nang- ing on or climbing up the brush. When we got up f a i r l y high and had hopes of seeing-sheep we jumped a verg nice 3-point buck.

Observing Sheep Range via Helicopter - -- - - - - . - - - - -- -- - - - - -- - - - - - - - -- - - --

Dick weaver-and I flew alongside M n Peaks making two passes and saw no sheep. Later a f t e r landing we saw two rams on th6 aide of Rrin Peaks lying where we must have flown over them.

Again i n l a t e October-I flew by helicopter over nearly a l l of the h$ghest sheep country and saw no sheep. O f course I did learn a qui te a b i t about the lay of the land and made some guesses (judging from trails, cover, and terrain) about ridges, peaks and areas where I hope t o f ind sheep.

CURRENT WORK

1. Where do they uinter? It looks l ike they may follow the snow down and from the l a y of the land you'd guess they drop in to Bear Caayon drainage. I hope to g e t some foot trips through here t o and f ind th& sheep i n winter. 2. How f a r West do they range? Dick Weaver and I were only able t o cover a short portion of the ridge west from Twin Peaks. We don't real ly know a t this time where t o draw the l ine for sheep occurence.

(1) Professop of Literature, Pomona College. (2) The road i s not open to the public.

CAN WE IMPROVE THE HABITAT?

Yes. I fee l sure we will be able to develop springs and improve water distribution af ter we get water sources tallied. We will also shortly be getting into a nursery se t up with potted shrubs of ths preferred species. In burned areas, on logged over areas, and on prepared sites, perhaps we can becom successful in increasing the quantity of preferred browse. I suspect we will find areas i n the lower elevations (winter range) where availabilitg of browse is the problem. We are mrMng a t this problem in much of our deer country with browsewagrs, clearings, band cut access routas and revegetation projects. S t i l l another project we are going t o t r y is t o replace Alder i n wet canyon bottoms with a f r u i t or mast producing tree. Trapping and transplanting Sheep to "pew nearn historical ranges holds some good potential i n our area.

On the Angeles National Forest we have a npeek-a-boon into the future. The Los Angeles millions are clamoring for recreation especially t o get away from the mad nrsh of the city. As tims goes on there wlll be more people getting into sheep counw. - Factam bnriing .)lo offset this impact aP p-le are the exhemew rmgh terrain, f i re closures, and various entry and use regulations imposed under the Hwild arean classification.

H o u w i l l the Forest Service meet this ever increasing demand for more recreation and still protect the sheep? The Big Game Habitat

- - - -- Management-Plan-W- meet - this- problem-head-on, - defwng--the=key-meaa,-- ------

the seasonal ranges and the herd unit boundaries. The.problem then w i l l be more specific; perhaps areas will be s e t aside exclusively for sheep. I n other locations partial exclusion of the public or seasonal exclusion may be the answer. We might find "entry by written p e a t only" a solution.

Perhaps a m chief problem is incomplete knowledge about Bighorn their numbers, their behavior, their habitat, their tolerance of man. What effect is being on the sheep by tha invasion of man? Can we inventory sheep w e l l enough to assess the wisdom of current management practices?

GOATS ON THE JUG- . (Read by Charles Kennedy)

Unfortunately Anselmo Leuis couldnlt attend the meeting this year. He did ask me t o extend his lfhelloll t o a l l of you and I have brought Kith me a l e t t e r Selmo m o t e i n reply t o a question about the use of goats fo r f i re- break maintenance. Somewhat against Selmols wishes I w i l l read it t o you and I ' m sure you w i l l agree t h a t Selmo w i l l then have contributed mightily.

It is appropriate t o consider goats a t this time because we have one liiring u i t h the Bighorns on M t . Baldy.

Selmol s l e t t e r :

Reference i s made t o your recent memorandum concerning the use of goats fo r maintenance of firebreaks on the Angeles i n 1917.

After considerable research and investigation, we f ind tha t goats were used on the Angeles on an experimental basis f o r the maintenance of firebreaks during this period. Although the preliminary hypothetic theory appeared sound i n that the goats would pay t h e i r keep Kith milk, meat and manure, certain b i o t i c f ac to r s and relationships as well as administrative d i f f i cu l t i e s precluded the successf'ul application of the theory i n practice. A s you know, the goat originated from the paseng, an a n i m a l re la ted t o c a t t l e and characterized by a long beard and rather poignant odor, especially among the males. These a t t r i b u t e s appeared to be contibutable t o others through association and offered s& di f f i cu l t i e s t o Forest Officers who were administr

-___pro je-c% .-Unfor-tunately, t -hese co-n-tibut able _qualit ies caused some on the p a r t of the general public and resul ted i n a degree of soc t o the Forest Officers which had not been anticipated.

I n addition the animals were possessed with a degree of pervisity which can only be equalled by a f rus t ra ted Russian delegate to the U.N. Herding was most d i f f icu l t , with the a n i m a l s constantly scat ter ing through the brush adjacent t o the firebreaks. One herder reported t h a t it w u l d be simpler t o herd a swarm of bees across the desert than t o keep the goats on the firebreaks. Applicants possessing this ability were immediately sol ici ted among the loca l apiar is ts , but unfortunately the Forest Officers conducting this phase of the study made the i r i n i t i a l approach t o an apiar i s t uho was i n the process of Ifrobbinglt this apiary of honey. Reports indicate tha t before questioning could be in i t i a t ed the Forest Officers became concerned with other matters and rapidly l o s t i n t e r e s t i n pursuing this phase of the problem, which on the i r recommendations was terminated and not reopened.

The harvesting of the by-products t o pay the maintenance of the animals caused considerable d i f f icu l ty . Although the goats could be driven out and the meat u t i l ized , approved methods f o r the harvesting of the milk and manure proved economically unsound on the basis of cost benefit r a t io as well as inherent biot ic weakness.

A s t he firebreaks were located i n country of steep and rugged topography and inaccessible, except by foot travel, means of harvesting the milk and manure proved an insurmountable obstacle. A t f irst the goats were lnilked

and the milk transported t o the nearest road by pack train. Unfortunately, the milk, on a r r iva l a t the road, had attained defini tely undesirable characteristics. Further study indicated t ha t due t o the chu r l i ke action of pack stock, plus the - high temperatures sustained by the containers i n transi t , it encouraged the process of bacteria action under Lnaerobic:conditions, which caused the milk t o become curdy and with an odor which was definitely objectionable and remim- scent of primitive sanitary fac i l i t i e s .

Preliminary studies were then in i t ia ted t o handle the milk by pipelines, but due t o the pipes heating up during-the heat of the day, it was manifestly impossible t o get the t e a t s of the goats i n to the pipes because of the sensi t ivi ty of this particular organ t o outside stimuli.

Hamst ing of the, manure proved most discouraging. Reports indicated that the manure t& deposited i n prodigious quantities. However, the method of deposition did not lead i t s e l f t o s t a t i s t i c a l analysis. Deposition on the most part was i n small piles. However, each band contained a high percentage of uninhibited animals, who evidently remained i n motion as deposition was made, resulting i n a deviation from the norm, thus negating a l l effor ts on the par t of the s ta t i s t i c ian t o arrive a t a normal curve or t o present, schematically, the problem f o r study.

I n addition, due ta the rapid desiccation of the small, round pellets and thei r lack of cohesion then dry, combined with the effect of the hill-creep, they were easi ly dislodged and under the pull of gravity were in constant movement toward the valley floor. Due t o their shape and the steepness of the topography, some of the p e u e t s attained considerable velocity i n their movements. There are numerous reports of eyeinjur ies t o administrative officers from t h i s cause, as well as sprained limbs due to the insecurity of footing and ag i l i ty demanded t o

- - avoid=thJ,~Jfa.&&~tfL -- - -. - - - - - - ---- ---- --

The project was abandoned &ring the first Santana Wind, when the pellets along the high ridge became airborne and were deposited i n the adjacent c i t i es i n the form of a "Black Rain," causing considerable agitation among the local citizenry as ue l l as stimulating research which resulted i n the development of such present day products as Air Wick and other aerosols.

By and large, and i n the long run, and notwithstanding the f a c t that th is study was abandoned we f e e l tha t with modern technical developments, such as the vacuum cleaner, etc., t ha t this project has defini te possibi l i t ies and merits reconsieration. Recommend that funds be requested fo r a preliminary stu* t o ascertain whether or not we are sufficiently technically advanced t o u t i l i z e this resource t o the best in teres t of the body poli t ic .

A REPORT ON THE FIRST NID-PUNTER AND SPRING BIWRII SHEEP CENSUS I N THE SAWA R E A

W A I N S , 1962-63.

John D. Goodman Associate Professor of Biology

University of Redlands, California

Although there are several population survey methods used by game biologists arid ecologists with varying degrees of success, few of the ordinari ly accepted ones - - l ine transect , driving, trapping, o r quadrat sampling--can be done with any success i n censusing Desert Bighorn Sheep, thus making thorough s t a t i s t i c a l treatment of any data assehbled almost impossible. Dependence i n the past has been upon direct observation of as large a segment of the population as possible i n a given area over a limited period of time, relying upon an "educated guess" f o r estimating the en t i r e population. Nowhere has t h i s been more t rue than i n the Santa Rosa Mountains.

-The most re l iable method t o date f o r censusing Desert Bighorn Sheep populations - has been the mid-smmr waterhole count, occuring as it does when-the sheep are concentrated i n the vi'cinity of more o r less perneat wzterhnles. 'his techiiqw has been used t a advantage ir, mst of . the desert ranges, including the Santa Rosas by Weaver and Blong, with the cooperation of various agencies and inst i tut ions, including the California Department of Fish and Came, the National Park Service, plus various interested individuals from universi t ies and colleges i n the area. Allowing the assumption tha t the composition of the sheep visit ing-the--summer-waterholes- ref lects-the--actwl--campositi-ononoffthX--- -

A

sheep i n the area at t h a t time ; also, assuming tha t the sheep observed over a two o r three day period (the length of time usually considered as a minimum f o r remaining a t any waterhole, .based on the assumption t h a t the sheep come t o drink not more often than every th i rd or fourth day) are all different sheep, scune very interest ing cbqara t ive data have been assembled regarding ewe-lamb-ram ra t ios over the past f ive surmters (not consecutive ,however) since the summer waterhole counts have been taken. None of the resul t s of t h i s study, however, are t o be included in the present paper.

Based on some experience, it is believed tha t nothing quite surpasses actual ly "hiking out" a canyon, when possible, with frequent stops f o r observation of sign and scanning the ridges and slopes f o r sheep. Furthermore, t h i s is the only pract ical method i n mid-winter and i n early spring, when sheep are not yet concentrated around the available permanent waterholes. With t h i s i n mind, it w a s decided t o attempt a m a s s saturation of a selected section of the Santa Rosa Mountains, covering every canyon and as much as possible the intervening ridges. I t was felt tha t if sheep were present i n any numbers they would possibly be seen by one o r more observers. Also, it was thought that by pa r t i a l ly saturating the area the chances of making errors of

observation of sheep i n one canyon on one day and seeing the same sheep - i n another l a t e r would be considerably reduced.

On Saturday, December 1, 1962, exactly f i f t y people, mostly University of Redlands college students, about a dozen of whom had hiked i n these mountains and about half a dozen of whom had observed sheep, took pa r t i n the census. A short briefing session, showing a moving picture of the area, of sheep of va r ims ages and both sexes, under different conditions, and a short discussion of the value of sign (sheep and deer t racks were shown, as well as droppings being passed aramd) presented by Mr. Richard Weaver of California Department of Fish and Game, w a s held on Friday night. Breakfast w a s served a t 6:30 a.m. i n the mouth of Snow Creek Canyon near Highway 111 i n San Gorgonio Pass. After breakfast another short br ief ing session was held and assignments were made. A report form on a f ive by seven card, as well as a map of the area including h i s canyon, was given each census taker. Most carr ied or were supplied with canteens of water and f i e ld binoculars. The hikers were i n s t r u a e d t o hike up t h e i r assigned canyons un t i l 1:00 p.m. (most were i n t h e i r canyons by 9:00, making a t o t a l of - a t least f a r hours of more or less continuous observation). They were instructed t o s top often and look and l i s t en f o r sheep, as well as t o keep constantly a l e r t f o r any sign they might encounter. Instructions were given as t o l ikely s ide canyons, the locations of waterhsles, etc. , in t h e i r canyons, It w a s thought that faas hours of hiking by enthusiastic, healthy young college age students would resul t i n t h e i r reaching i n most cases well up i n t o the areas of known o r

---- suspected-sheep-occupancy-. -- - - -- -

The resu l t s , when t a l l i e d , were somewhat disappointing. A t o t a l of nine sheep were observed, with sighting5 as follows: s i x i n the Asbestos Peak-Black H i l l area, the location of intense summer concentration; two i n Dead Indian Canyon, a prime spring lambing canyon, but seldom a good spot fo r winter observations; and one single ram i n the Snow Creek drainage. The hikers were i n approximately

'

f i f teen groups, with from two t o s i x i n individual canyons, depending on t h e i r s i ze and complexity. Some exceptionally hardy hikers took more than one canyon, crossing over intervening ridges t o reach an adjacent canyon. The s i x sheep were a t elevations of around 4,000 feet (2 ewes, 2 rams, 2 yearlings, not a l l seen together) , while the others, i n Dead Indian Canyon (approximately 2,400 feet) and Snow Creek (approximately 3,000 feet) were lower. The general report of - - - all groups w a s very much the same; tha t no recent-sheep sign was encountered by any group i n the lower canyon floors. Only one group, i n Snow Creek, got up t o 5,000 fee t , and they said tha t they observed fresher sign as they got above 4,000 fee t i n tha t canyon. However, t h i s is on the very edge of sheep range and it is more than a l i t t l e possible they had gotten in to deer habitat a t tha t point. None of the students i n t h a t g r q were competent t o determine sheep sign as d i s t inc t from deer sign, e i the r from tracks o r habitat , so it is as equally probable they were observing deer as sheep, o r both.

The most significant thing t o be derived from the census was tha t it w a s v i r tua l ly impossible with merely an enthusiastic though untrained poup of census takers t o observe many sheep i n the desert canyons of the Santa Rosa Mountains i n mid-winter. I t is a personal opinion t h a t had they stayed i n for four days instead of four hours t h e i r chances of success would have been l i t t l e better.

Where then, are the bulk of the sheep i n the Santa Rosa Mountains i n mid-winter? Is it possible t h a t many sheep escaped observation even when the canyons were hiked i n t h i s concentrated fashion? Probably at least twice the number observed escaped observation, o r at least t h i r t y sheep were present i n the ent i re area under observation. O f course, it is possible i n the San Bernardino bbuntains t o encounter tha t many sheep i n a single band on very favorable occasions. What is more l ike ly is tha t the sheep are extremely scattered, particu- l a r l y up in to high elevations, possibly well i n excess of 5,000 fee t .

In 1956-57 a student a t the University of Redlands, Mr. Edgar Bailey, spent the en t i r e winter surveying the Santa Rosa Mountains, canyon by canyon, beginning a t the extreme southern t i p and working northward. Large canyons, such as Wrtinez and Deep Canyons, were not covered adequately i n one weekend, but were hiked out only by returning two o r more weekends, while smaller canyons might be covered on Saturday and another canyon on Simday. This student had h i s own jeep and an exceptionally strong pa i r of legs, as well as complete dedication t o the task. I n the en t i r e winter, alkhough he hiked. out every m y o n as f a r as the chaparral o r pinon zone, plus hiking across most of the in ter- vening ridges, he saw only a single Desert Bigho,rn Sheep, a large ram near -the-top-of- Rabbi-t-Peak ,- at-the southly -end -of -the - range. -This-- - - - - -- -- - - bears out t h e experience of most of the hikers and rock hounds who spend so much time i n the Santa Rosa Mountains and i n other desert ranges through the more pleasant winter months. Either the bighorns are very wary o r are very widely scattered a t t h i s time, making not only observations but the finding of any fresh sign extremely d i f f i cu l t . Mr. Bailey's report i n sumnary stated that no fresh sheep sign w a s observed by him below the pinon zone and that repeatedly he found relat ively fresh tracks leading up i n t o the pinon zone and sometimes in to the chaparral but never down in to the lower canyon bottoms.

In addition t o the mid-winter sheep count, a spring lambing census was conducted by the Bi010m Department of the University of Redlands on March 16, i963. his-pmvkd, however, t o be an extremely poor day f o r i t--cold and very windy. Only four sheep were seen, a l l ewes, a t about 3,500 f e e t , close t o the highway between it and the edge of Deep Canyon. Hikers saw no evidence of sheep i n Dead Indian and Grapevine Canyons, both prime lambing areas as a general rule. A subeequent hike in to Dead Indian Canyon on April 20th also was unsuc- cessful i n observing ewes or lambs. I t is tentatively believed tha t the heavy use of t h i s area by the real e s t a t e development ac t iv i t i e s f ina l ly have affected the use of these canyons as spring lambing

areas, resul t ing i n t h e i r almost complete abandonment t h i s spring, -

whereas ten years ago as many as t h i r t y sheep were often using the combined Dead Indian-Grapevine canyon area f o r lambing. Figure 1. shows the area of the mid-winter count, held on December 1, 1962. Circles indicate part ies , not individuals, although some c i rc les may indicate a single'individual, o r two circles might indicate a single group in two canyons tha t were adjacent .

FIGURE 1 - Area of Sheep Count Dee 1, 1962 Circles designate areas investigated. 4

STUDIES CN 'IHE EFFECE OF ?HE DRUG, SUCCINYL01OLINE CXLORIDE ON DC&ESTIC SHEEP, RELATED TO ITS USE AS

AN A I D I N THE CAPTURE OF DESERT BICSIOFN SHEEP

Dennis W. Chew and John D. Goodman

University of Redlands, California

Since the ar r iva l of the projec t i le syringe gun and i ts use t o imnobilize wild animals i n conjunction with nicotine alkaloids, many reports, both published and unpublished, have indicated that nicotine alkaloids were causing deleterious and sometimes lethal side effects. Also, the mechanical and functional shortcomings of the syringe gun has been a constant topic of discussion.

It i s the purpose of t h i s p a p r t o present the resul ts from a preliminary study a t the University of Redlands which attempted:

1. t o f ind a more suitable drug which can be used on Desert Bighorn Sheep, Ovis canadensis nelsoni, with confidence i n i ts s a f e K

2. t o develop a more sati&actory means of delivery of the drug.

Chby the first of these w i l l be discussed i n the present report.

Buechner (1959) and Heuschele (1961) have expressed suckess --with-the=drug=Succiny lcholine- Ch1 mide -on many- types- o f wild- animal

Their optimistic reports pranpted the selection of t h i s drug t o immobilize domestic sheep, as a preliminary s tep because of the i r assumed similar i ty, both physiologically and genetically t o the Nelson B$ghorns.

The pharmacologic action of Succinylcholine Chloride is fu l ly described i n papers supplied with the drug and will not be included i n t h i s paper. Two brands of the drug were used, tT@elicintt (Abbott Laboratories) and "hectine" (Burroughs Wellcome and Company) . A standard salution of 10 milligrams per cubic centimeter w a s used in each t r i a l . Where t o t a l dosages less than 10 milligrams w e r e used, s t e r i l e water or s t e r i l e normal saline was used t o bring the volume up t o a t leas t 1 cubic centimeter. The drug w a s administered by a normal syringe with a 24 gauge needle. A l l shots were given i n the heavy muscle area of the upper thigh.

Six matured merino ewes (numbers 1-6) of the variety Rambouillet and one six-month-old male Suffolk sheep (number 7) were used. Table 1 lists the t r i a l s , dosage employed, t ine required t o produce e f fec t , duration of effect , and comnents on the .effects produced.

TABLE I.

Tr ia l Sheep Total Dosage Uose Txme Requlred Time Elapsed From No. No. Given 8 Route Mg./Lb. To Produce Innoculation To Pu l l

1 1 lmg./I.M. 0.01 no apparent effect

2 1 2 mg./I.M. 0.02 no apparent effect

no apparent effect

no apparent effect

no apparent effect

no apparent effect

3 minutes 24 minutes


A l l movements slowed down af te r 5 m h . but no hmbil izat ion, appeared fu l ly recovered by 14 min, -

2.5 minutes

3 minutes

3.5 minutes

5 minutes

3.5 minutes

4 minutes

3 minutes

4 minutes

1.5 minutes

4 minutes

2.5 minutes

22 minutes

30 minutes

25 minutes

26 minutes

32 minutes

28 minutes

29 minutes

45 minutes

1 hr. 35 mine

1 hr. 32 min.

TABLE I. CClNTINUED

Trial Sheep Total Dosage Dose Time Required T me Elapsed From No. No. Given 6 Route Mg./Lb. To Produce Innoarlation To Full

Body Wt. Imobilization Recovery $ Conrments

3 minutes 1 hr. 2 min. Artificial respiration

. given at 30 min. until recovery

4 minutes 53 minutes L Artificial respiration given at 30 min. until recovery


3 3 minutes 36 minutes

2 minutes . 42 minutes


1 minute 48 minutes

7 minutes Respiration arrested -- - - - - at--9--min .---- Artificial- -

respiration until 12 min. Expired at 15 min.

4.5 minutes 25 minutes



no apparent effect

no apparent effect

no apparent effect


no apparent effect

5 -5 minutes 15 minutes

TBBE I. CONTINUED

Trial Sheep Total Dosage Dose Tune Requlred Tme Elapsed Fran No. No. Given 4 Route Mg./Lb. To Produce Innoculation To Full

Body Wt. Immobilization Recovery 6 Comments

39 7 12 mg./I .Me 0.16 2.5 minutes 24 minutes

40 7 . 13 mg./I.M. 0.17 3 minutes 27 minutes

41 7 14mg./I.M. 0.19 2.5 minutes 43 minutes

42 7 15 mgw/IwMw 0.2 1.5 minutes 53 minutes

In a l l of the successful cases, the onset of drug action w a s heralded by a drooping of the head, trembling of the forelegs and hindlegs; the animal would then attempt t o walk, ataxia of a few seconds duration would be experienced a t t h i s point. The animal would then collapse, r o l l t o i t s side, attempt t o get up two or three times and then l i e still. Recovery from the drug appeared t o be the same sequence i n reverse. The animal would make two or three attempts t o get up, when on its fee t , marked ataxia of one t o three minutes duration w a s evidenced, followed by sudden and f u l l recovery.

Sheep number 2 w a s an extremely old animal, with no front tee th and no longer able t o run. In trials 20 and 21, it w a s noted t h a t the animal was effected 3 times longer than the other sheep, by a normal dosage. I n t r i a l s 22 and 23, artificial respiration w a s administered a t the end of 30 minutes and it was noted tha t the recovery time was shortened by approximately one third.

I t was found t h a t a r t i f i c i a l respirat ion could be administered eff icient ly and ef for t less ly by f i r s t placing t h e animal on its side with the anterior portion of its body higher than the posterior, then with an open palm, pushing the abdomen anteriorly. Large clouds of dust s t i r r e d up by t h e a i r expelled through the nos t r i l s gave a direct indication tha t the animal was receiving more air than before.

Sheep number 5 suffered fran a chronic cough and persistant sneezing. Two minutes a f t e r immobilization, respiration arrested. Artificial respiration was imnediately administered and appeared successful u n t i l t he air passage became obstructed. The animal

- -- expi-red-approximately-three- minutes l a t e r .- -A- general autopsy--revealed -

t h a t both the bronchi and the trachea were f u l l of mucous. Thick mucous was also found i n the lungs. In addition, approximately 25 percent of the lung t i s sue was grey and hard i n contrast t o the pink, spongy t i ssue i n the r e s t of the lung. No other gross abnormalities were noted.

The experience of the authors indicate tha t the drug Succinvlcholine Chloride is a re la t ive ly safe and effective drug t o us; on domestic sheep and possibly a i so on Ovis canadensis nelsoni. For mature ewes, there appears t o be a l a t i t u m &om 0.11 -= milligrams per h d . using a dilution of 10 milligrams per cubic centimeter on a sheep of about one hundred pounds, the user would have 1.3 cubic centimeters of freedom in the estimation of a proper . dosage for an animal of unknown weight. I t can be seen from examination of the table tha t approximately the same is true fo r yaung lambs. Cessation of cardiac action w a s not noted i n 32 successful t r i a l s . Even larger dosages may be used, fo r the L.D.50 of t h i s drug f o r domestic sheep w a s not established. However, it was an opinion t h a t t h i s point was not f a r off. Also, due t o the pharmacologic action of the drug, it is safe t o administer a subsequent larger dosage approximately f ive t o ten minutes following an insufficient dosage. There is also indication tha t a r t i f i c i a l respiration can

be employed successfully t o speed recovery from an overdose, or complications due t o poor health of the animal.

LITERATURE CITED : - B U E W R , H.K., HAFU?lOOftlI, A.M., LOCK, J.A. , 1959.

Using Drugs t o Control Game, Wild Life 1:4, - -' H E U S E L E , W.P., 1961.

Immobilization of Captive Wild Animals, Vet . kd., 56 : 8. --

SHEEP SKULL STUDY

John H. Kiger, A s s i s t a n t Refuge Manager Bureau of S p o r t .F isher ies and W i l d l i f e

Deser t . Game Range Us Vegas, Nevada

S k u l l s o r p a r t s of s k u l l s and o t h e r bones of t h e Nelson bighorn sheep have been c o l l e o t e d on t h e Deser t Game Range through t h e years . Hm- e v e r t hose we now have l a r g e l y r e p r e s e n t c o l l e c t i o n s w i t h i n t h e p a s t t h r e e years . Dr. Charles G. Hansen, our B io log i s t , has given s p e o i a l a t t e n t i o n t o promoting t h i s p ro j eo t . He has a l r e a d y used s k u l l d a t a i n s t u d i e s r e l a t i n g t o m o r t a l i t y , age ing techniques, horn growth and d i s t r iba ldon .

Ninety-two rams, 6 0 ewes and 1 5 lambs a r e r ep re sen ted i n our p re sen t s k u l l co l l ec t ion . Of t h i s number 28 rams, 29 ewes and e i g h t lambs a r e a l s o represented b y the lower jaws and one o r bo th horn shea ths*

We find most o f t h e s k u l l s more o r l e s s a c c i d e n t a l l y wh i l e performing o t h e r d u t i e s . Ve have made it a p r a c t i o e w h i l e i n the f i e l d t o keep a n e y e out f o r m o r t a l i t i e s . We e s t ima te t h a t 9 0 pe rcen t o f t h e s k u l l s have been found i n washes. Of t h e remaining 10 pe rcen t 90 percent a r e lamb and ewe sku l l s . P m s e n t reoords do n o t i n d i c a t e whether o t h e r remains were found w i t h eaoh s k u l l . I n my exper ience q u i t e a number of s k u l l s , e s p e c i a l l y those from sheep having been dead s e v e r a l yeass-,-am-not-aocompanied -by- any--othe r- parts- of-the -caroass .--The l o c a t i o n o f s k u l l s on this a r e a no doubt depends t o a g r e a t e x t e n t on t h e occurrence of c loudburs t t y p e r a i n s whioh cause f l a s h f loods through t h e washes. For a more accu ra t e de te rmina t ion o f where a m o r t a l i t y occurred we should cons ider whe the r o r no t o t h e r remains aocompany t h e s k u l l . No doubt some o f t h e s k u l l s a r e washed f o r some d i s t a n c e down canyon so t h a t t h e l o o a t i o n o r h a b i t a t where they a r e found may n o t i n d i c a t e where t h e animal died. This would e s p e c i a l l y be t r u e of ewe and lamb remains

When WB fid a mor t a l i t y , we of oourse record a l l t h e p e r t i n e n t da t a and if poss ib l e r e t r i e v e a t l e a s t t h e s k u l l , lower jaws, and horn shea ths . If f o r some reason we &me the m a t e r i a l i n t h e f i e l d , a numbered mta l t a g i s a t t a c h e d f o r i d e n t i f i c a t i o n . Sheep s k u l l c o l l e o t i o n s a r e recorded as a m o r t a l i t y on 5 x 8 i n c h cards. These . oards inc lude space f o r t h e i d e n t i f i o a t i o n number, da te , sex, age, how acqui red , c o l l e c t o r , p l ace and h a b i t a t , p a r t s co l l eo t ed , bone and t e e t h cond i t i on , oause o f d e a t h and h m lung dead. These i tems a r e u s u a l l y f a i r l y e v i d e n t exoept cause of d e a t h and t ime e lapsed s inoe dea th . As ind ica t ed i n a r e p o r t by D r . Hansen, i n 90 percent o r nore oases we have n o t been a b l e t o determine t h e cause of death. I n t he same r e p o r t he ooncluded from s t u d i e s m d e t h a t the time elapsed s i n c e dea th can be es t imated q u i t e a c c u m t e l y f o r the f i r s t f o u r years

Various t o o t h d i so rders have been noted q u i t e f requen t ly among sheep m o r t a l i t i e s on the Desert Game Range. Many of the o l d e r animals show missing t e e t h and badly worn and deaayed t ee th . In some oases the t e e t h matah very poorly. Several s k u l l s we now have show ind ica t ions o f bone in fea t ion , e speo ia l ly around t h e base of the horns.* Several skulls on d i s p l a y f o r t h i s group r e v e a l various a b n o n n a l i t i e s ~

For what it i s worth I have a summary of where most of our s k u l l s were found i n regard to h a b i t a t type. Keep i n mind t h a t t h i s breakdown on where s k u l l s were found may n o t coinoide with where t h e animals died. As it is, our p resen t d a t a has made no a l l m a n o e s f o r t h i s . Another p o i n t t o aonsider t h a t hasn ' t been oalcula ted i s the peroentage of t i m e s p e n t by personnel wi th in the var ious h a b i t a t types. For t h e present

, t ime t h e ao tua l a r e a d i s t r i b u t i o n may have more s ign i f i aance from the management standpoint . Any any r a t e he re a r e a oouple of breakdowns-

Ths first s e r i e s oonsis ts of m o r t a l i t i e s f o r whiah we have s p e c i f i a h a b i t a t data and inoludes most of the s k u l l s we n m h m i n the o o l l e o t i o n ( t a b l e 1) .

Table 1

Bighorn sheep m o r t a l i t i e s by h a b i t a t type**

. m e 8 - Ram3 - Iambs - Total - - -- Yellm=H=ne=- -. -3--------6---

Pinion- jun iper 11 27 Juniper 1 2 Juniper- Joe hua 7 5 Jos hua 2 3 37 Jos hua-areos o t e 1 1 Creosote 2 - 1 -

Totals 48 79 14 141

Another b r e a k d m m a s made from o l d e r mor ta l i ty reoords i n whiah only the general l o c a t i o n desor ip t ion was given b u t acoura te ly enough t o permit a f a i r determination o f h a b i t a t type ( t ab le 2).

*The Desert Game Range s k u l l d i sp lay was presented showing sex and age groups, t o o t h and bone eberrat ions, infeot ions , eto.

**The ewes and rams ranged i n age from 2 t o 15 years and lambs from 2 t o 6 months.

Table 2

~ i ~ h o r n sheep m o r t a l i t i e s by h a b i t a t type

Ewes - Rams - Lambs - Total - YelLm Pine 5 12 2 19 Pinion- juniper 2 3 58 6 87. Joshua 26 - 67 - 18 - 111 -

Totals

The reoords shw tht m a t m o r t a l i t i e s were found a t the e leva t ion of t h e Joshua type.

F'rom the s tandpoint o f management t h e r e i s no doubt m o h valuable information obta inable from the s k u l l s per se and t h e i r ooourrenoe as r e l a t e d t o va r ious environmental f a o b r s a f f e c t i n g oharao te r i s t ios of t h e population. When speaking here of s k u l l s we a r e including the lower jaws and horn s heatha.

1. Importanoe of t o o t h d isorders , rear, and bone infeot ions as mor ta l i ty faotors .

-

2- Variat ions between age and sex groups and individuals wi th in --- groups a-fhrbgard-to-t-es~---o-o-n-diti-O-n-* -*-- - -- -

3. Relation t h a t seasons of year, weather cyoles, and h a b i t a t -

oonditions may have on na tu ra l mortal i ty.

4. Other s k u l l ageing o r i t e r i a such a s poss ib le degree of s u t u r e oss i f ioa t ion and rates of bone growth.

5. Reason f o r d ispropor t ionate sex composition of s k u l l s found.

6. Horn growth (poss ib le o m r e l a t i o n w i t h h a b i t a t - conditions).

7. Rate of d e t e r i o r a t i o n i n the f i e l d under various exposures.

8. Obtain a l l s k u l l measurements and note espeo ia l ly those t h a t may express c e r t a i n d i f ferenoes between sexes and ages 0

Several o the r suggest ions of possible mer i t f o r t h e Desert Game Range may be t

- Determine a sys tematio method fbr mortality surveys.

Obtain and prepare good specimens representing all age and sex olasses for study and display purposes.

Compare sheep observations and mortality reoords with regard t o looation by sex and age.

Obtain Boom and Crookstt head measurements for hunting regulation pWp08 68 b

Tommy La Hailey, Biologist 1/ Texas Game and Fish Commission

.The program f o r trapping desert bighorn sheep on the Kofa Game m g e in Arizona and transplanting these sheep t o a holding pasture on the Blaok Gap W l d l i f e Management Area was in i t i a t ed in 1954. An agreement between the Fish and Wildlife Servioe, T i l d l i f e Management Ins t i tu te , Boone and Crookett Club, and the Arizoqa and Texas Game and Fish C d s s i o n s cgmprised the ombined e f f o r t s af t h i s project.

The holding pasture, located on the Black Gap PCildlife Management Rrea, whioh oonsists of 427 acres was designed t o confine the sheep and t o provide protection fram predators. The fence around the enclosure i s 8 f e e t high and i s constructed of heavy gauge mesh and barbed wire. Around the top of the enolormre fenoe, as an added protective measure, an e leo t r ic wire has been ins ta l led and oonnected t o two e l eo t r i c fenoe ohargers powered by two 6-volt ba t te r ies . The, ba t te r ies a r e changed a t 2-week intervals and recharged. Predator oontrol measures a r e carr ied out in t he vioinity of. t h e pasture t o provide maximum protection f o r the sheep. During the time in whioh the project has been i n operation, 23 mountain lions, 46 bobcats, and 65 coyotes have been removed from the surrounding area. In our tmpping operations we a r e res t r ic ted t o the use of s t e e l traps, using blind sets; no dogs are allowed on the area. To our knowledge, no sheep have been

- - & A m r s . _ __- - -- __ ___ - - _- - - - - _ _ -- - - _- _ _ -__ -

Since the f irst bighorn sheep was placed in the enclosure in 1957, the pasture has provided ample forage and water. We have had no shortage of vegetation f o r the animals other than the paucity of green feed during annual - dry periods. The enolosure has an abundance of feed available t o the sheep

sps.),

other speoies of vegetation are also available t o the sheep throughout the year. -h 1957, 1958, and 1959, when the sheep were being moved t o the holding pasture, d i f fe rent types of feed were provided f o r the animals near the watering s i t e s , but l i t t l e was consumed. Cottonseed cake (range dubes), oats, a l f a l f a hay,-and cut so to l were furnished, but only the so to l was taken by the sheep. The only feed supplement tha t i s being provided f o r the sheep now is a Moormanls 33-pound block of .concentrate containing a l l the essent ia l minerals plus vitamin A, Tfirramycin, and a s a l t content of .14 per cent.

A review of the number o f sheep moved t o Texas and the reporduction of

l/ work conducted under Federal A i d Project W-67-D, Big Horn Sheep - Development .

these transplanted sheep in the holding pasture through February 1962 was presented a t our l a s t meeting. By the end of lambing season i n 1962, we had raised 10 lambs. Tnese lambs were produced during the following yearsr 3 in 1960 (2rams. 1 ewe), 3 in 1961 (3 ewes), and 4 i n 1962 ( 1 ram, 2 ewes, and 1 undetermined). Loss in the adul t ews herd has limited each year's production potent ial t o three ewes per year. In 1960 and 1962 one s e t of twins was born each year. A ewe borned i n 1960 gave b i r th t o a lamb in 1962. This i s the f i r s t recorded reporduction from our Texas born sheep. This par t ioular ewe was observed being served on August 21, 1961, and gave b i r t h t o her lamb on Febnrary 21, 1962. From these observations, a 185-day gestat ion period was recorded f o r the animal. As f a r as it has been ascertained, no Texas-born lambs have been lost . Two lambs have been observed i n the holding pasture a t this time. Both lambs were born on approximately Maroh 24, 1963. A t the time t h i s report was prepared our t o t a l count of captive deser t bighorn sheep i s 4 adul t rams, 3 adul t ewes, 3 yearling ewes, 4 lambs from 1962 and 2 lambs t h i s year f o r a t o t a l of 16 sheep. PEe have s ix ewes tha t could reporduce. This i s the greatest number of females 'available f o r breeding purposes since the s t a r t of the program.

I f e e l t ha t the program a t t h i s time has passed one major obstacle, t h a t of t h e sheep reproducing i n the holding pasture. We have been suocessf'ul in raising lambs t o maturity and in turn have had reproduotion frcnn one of these animals. We a r e aware tha t with the small number of sheep which we have tha t many complications could ar ise; however, t he program has a br ighter fu ture than a t any time since i ts inception.

PKOGRESS REWR!l! FRDH THE KOFA GlWE R A N a

Oerald E, Duncan, Bureau of sport Fisheries and Wildlife Yma, Arizona

T h i s report i s i n two parts and deals with act ivi t ies conducted . primarily on the Kofa Game Range during the past year,

In the previous Council meeting, a paper discasaing winter lamb survey8 on the Kofa Game Range, was presented by George E ~ ~ t i . 8 . !he techniques and results of the f ive previous surveys were given, This year we again made the survey i n the same selected areas, It was conducted Harch 19th through March 22nd with f ive men participating.

A t o t a l of 90 bighorn were seen i n an area of approximately 20 square miles. O f the sheep seen, 12 were ram, 46 ewes, 29 lambs, one yearling ewe and two unidentified aheep, Seven of the rama bad-horns of one-half curl or l e s s and the other'five, horns of over one-half curl, Six ewe?lanh groups were located. The ewe-lamb d e r s of these groups were as follows: 9-7, 9-7, 8-5, 644, 6-3, 2-2. The ewe-lesb rztk f o r %ha groepa was L00:?5- The ewe-la& ra t io fo r the t o t a l number seen was 100 263.

The fikt day of the count was very windy and cold. The second day, somewhat more mild. The third day was quite wann and the

--- f i n a l mining, cloudy and cool, Noon temperatures ranged from So&dgggmerF,orthe=%f i-m t-day- to- 7 1 -degrees,Fr -on-. the- th.Jd - - - --- -

0

It had rained -i n the survey area on the 17th. Some 'of the larger tanka were recharged and water was found i n many mall rock depressions.

The survey was conducted entirely on foot, the most effective way we know of t o cover the terrain i n which we a m nost likely t o encounter ewe-lamb groups, This method may not necessarily hold t rue on other amas o r i n locating rams, I n some instances, after having located a ewe-lamb group, it has taken as long as an hour o r more to accurately count the number of animals i n the

O t b r than i n the ewe-lamb groups, f ive additional eves were observed, two singles and a group of three, One single had a:. distended udder and one of the group of three appeared to be pregnant.

The greatest distance between and the l e a s t was one-quarter one consisted of two ewea and away from the other.

ewe-lamb groups was f i v e miles, mile. O f the two closest groups, two lambs and could have dr i f ted

I n a discussion of lambing grounds, I believe a more applicable term i s needed f o r these more o r l e s s isolated areas i n which we find these ewe-lamb groups, Lad ing grounds indicates just that , a place of parturition. I n rea l i ty , par tur i t ion i s of very short duration. The rearing of the young i n the ear ly s e m i t i v e period, the period i n which we observe these groups, i s the mom important and of considerably longer duration, ,It would-appear then t h a t what has been considered lambing ground8 are i n r e a l i t y rearing areas, and par tur i t ion takes place i n any convenient locat ion within this area o r a short distance from it,

Several questions, t o which ue do not now have the answers, present themselves: When are these rearing are- selected, if such a sele,ction i s actually made? We have seen groups of ewes uithout lambs i n February. This would suggest tha t the sites are selected i n advance of par tur i t ion of any one of the group. Is the s i t e selected by any one individual o r does the group as a whole make the selection? We know there are individual leaders of bands' consisting of ewes, yearlings and lambs, but is this leadership i n e f f e c t p r io r t o the selection of a rearing area? How large are these areas and how i s it decided when the lambs of the group have developed enough f o r the--up-to-move- on?--It--is -reasonable-to-bel-ieve-that-the==---- - rearing area i s extended as the lambs gain strength and knou- ledge, but exact boundaries a re not known. The actual determining i m u e n c e t o move on may be an outside one, o r a combination of influences including lack of feed o r f e a r of remaining i n one location longer than necessary t o rear the young beyond the c r i t i c a l early stage of development,

I would l i k e t o r e l a t e an occurance of behavior i n a ewe-lamb group which includes. the apparent use of a nbaby-sittern, and possible t ra in ing activity, In this instance the % i t t e r w , a ewe, appeared to be accepted as such by the lambs. This ewe, having l a i n down f o r about 20 minutes with the lambs, got up and began t o browse away. The other ewes were close to the lambs but not i n s ight of the observer. The n s i t t e r n had covered a distance of about 50 o r 60 yards when the lambs arose as a group and ran a f t e r her, T h i s was followed by a short period of vigorous rock climbing cul.minating*na feeding period i n which each lamb joined i t s respective mother, a11 moving off

i n more o r l e s s aeparate directions of t h e i r individual choosing. For one reason o r another, one ewe apparently became alarmed and ran from the group, The lambs, without waiting f o r t h e i r mothers, ran a f t e r the alarmed ewe. A 1 1 but one of the ewes followed. After moving off f o r perhaps 200 yards, the alarmed ewe stopped and was joined by the others, A l l began t o feed.

Now w a s this alarm actual, o r staged f o r the benefit of t ra ining the lambs? If there is actual t ra in ing of lambs, i s it ent i rely the individual mother's responsibil i ty, a group responsibility, o r is an o lder mature ewe responsible f o r cer ta in stages of the

-ear ly t ra ining?

These are only a feu of the many questions tha t have ar isen as a r e s u l t of these surveys. I have not attempted t o answer them, only t o l is t some poss ib i l i t i e s which have been suggested through observations.

We are beginning t o gain an ins ight i n t o t h e s o c i a l s t ructure of one of the most important phases of the l i fe his tory of the bkghorn. If we have gained nothing more from these surveys, they have raised many questions which need t o be answered; qagst iom which would possibly not ban a e c u m d t o us otheniae. Observations of t h e nature we are obtaining on these surveys w i l l bring out the questions and some of t h e answers, More intensive study w i l l be required to fully understand the behav- i o r of the bighorn during this important period of t h e i r lFfe,

-wATERTERDmmT - - - - -- - - - - --

Water development f o r desert bighorn sheep has been' one of the major managemnt practices on the Kofa and Cabeza Pr ie ta Game Ranges since these areas were established i n 1939. We have several good developments and some not ao good. We have corrected deficiencies i n some of our e a r l i e r work and others have been wr i t ten off t o experience. For the most par t , the shaft-type tank, blasted out of so l id rock, has been the most sat isfactory f r o m the standpoint of acceptance by bighorn, reduced evaporation loss , storage capacity, and minimum of maintenance. For the past few years this i s the type we have been concentrating on i n our water development program.

There are four requirements t h a t ahould be met i n select ing a s i t e f o r this type of development; north exposure, so l id rock waterway, good rock structure along s ide the wateruay in to which the sha f t can be sunk, and a f a i r l y clean watershed which need

not be too large, It i s possible t o compromise somewhat on these requirements and a t i l l have a good tank. It i s f a r b e t t e r t o spend the extra time i n locating a desirable s i t e than to make adjustments f o r a poorer one,

Three tanks of this type were developed t h i s year, two on the Kofa and one on the Cabeza Pr ie ta Game Range. S i tes were selected on the basis of the most pressing needs a t the time. Two main tanks i n the Castle Dome Mountains on the Kofa Game Range went dry i n August of l a s t year, .These were L i t t l e White Tanks and McPksarson Tank, approximately four miles apart and the only large tanks i n the cent ra l portion of these mountains, Water could be hauled t o L i t t l e White Tanks but this is one of the problems we are t rging t o eliminate, It was decided t o develop additional water storage a t L i t t l e White Tanks f o r the following'reasons: The main exist ing tank i s exposed t o d i r ec t sunlight from l a t e morning through most of the afternoon, deer w e of tfie water i s considerable, and the s i t e was e a s i l y accessable by vehicle. The new development was completed i n 21 days a t a cost of approximately $2,800, The tank when f i l l e d w i l l hold about 9,000 gallons of water.

The other tank developed on the Kofa Game Range this year is located i n the same mountain range approximately three miles f r o m L i t t l e Whi&e Tanks and a l i t t l e fur ther f ron McPhearson Tank, The three tanks form a nearly equi lateral tr iangle. A l- though of the same type, an addition was made here t h a t wasn't necessary a t L i t t l e White Tanks. This was a deflection w U 1 and

-- -- s$4-l-to--deRect the-sand-and rock-carded -by--the-runofX=,-away--- ------- --

from the mouth of the tank. In a heavy runoff, as the water r i s e s i n the wateruay, it w i l l s p i l l over the sill and enter the tank re l a t ive ly f r e e from sand and rock. To col lect as mch water as possible from l i g h t runoffs, several amall'pipe were placed through the wall and ~$11 near the base, A s an example of the effectiveness of these pipes, a moderate ra in f e l l i n the area on Harch 17, resul t ing i n a l i g h t runoff i n this drainage. Approximately LSO gallons of water was collected i n the tank. T-&. ta&, .which was named Saguaro Tank, w i l l hold approximately 11,000 gallons when f i l l ed . The cos t was $3,100.

On the Cabeta Pr ie ta Game Range the greatest need appeared t o be an addition t o an old established natural tank series, Cabeza Pr ie ta Tanka. Rather than disturb the natural basins, a side drainage was selected which provided the necessary requirements. A deflection wall and s i l l , s imilar t o tha t a t Saguaro Tank, were constructed here. T h i s new development w i l l a lso hold about 11,000 gallons and provide needed water i n this very c r i t i c a l l y dry sect ion of the Game Range. The cost was about $3,500. This development took thirty days t o complete. The increased cost

and time was due t o increased distance from Yuma 'and the c o n s t rnction of one-half mile of access road,

A crew of four men, f o r e m , powderman, and tuo jackhammer oper- a tors , worked e f f i c i en t ly on these three projects with l i t t l e time los t . Because of the diatance'from Yuma t o the development s i t e s , the men worked 1 0 days a t a time and were off four days. The use of additional labor and cos t saving equipment, such as an a i r l e g t o a id i n d r i l l i n g and a scraper t o remove most of the muck, were employed.

Although these tanks are constructed primarily f o r bighorn sheep use, they are of v i t a l importance t o o ther f o m of wi ld l i fe as well. There a r e few tanka on the Kofa Range tha t a re not u t i l i zed by deer. Prac t ica l ly a l l of the tanks on both Game Ranges a re u t i l i zed by mourning and white-winged doves, qua i l and a large var ie ty of other birds, &en the coyote, fox and bobcat are frequent users of these waters,

Although we have more o r l e s s standarized the shaft-type tank i n our bighorn water development program, continued improvements will be made on e a r l i e r work and on natural tanks where improve- ment is practical fma tha staiidpaiiit of aeed aad cost. .h- pmvement of springs and seeps is a l so included i n the overa l l ua t e r development program,

BIGHORN SHEEP ON THE DESERT GAPE hiGE, irEViiDii

William C. Reff a l t

Wildlife. Management Senior

Colorado Sta te University

I would f i rs t l i k e t o make grateful acknowledgement t o Dr. Charles G. Hansen, Wildlife hnagement Biologist, Desert Game Range, Nevada; Dr. Hansen originated the idea f o r this study and made many helpful suggestions throughout the project. I would a l s o l ike t o thank Mr. Newell B. Elorgan, Refuge I h a - ger, Desert Game Range and Program Chairman of the Desert , Bighorn Council, f o r inv i t ing ne t o the Desert Bighorn Council Fleeting. Finally, I want t o thank the Colorado State University Forestry Qub f o r sponsoring my t r i p t o the council meeting.

mTRODUCTION -

- -- - Review- of- Li terature .--In- reviewing - the l i t e ra tu re - on-the- ,------- -

subject of d z e r t bighorn (Ovis canadensis nelsoni, 2. 2. mexicana) water requirements, one f inds a limited amount of quantita- - t i v e da ta has been collected, Halloran and Deming (1956) s t a t e t h a t water i s a l imit ing f a c t o r f o r desert bighorn opulat ions. Jones, F l i t t ne r , and Gard (1957) s t a t e tha t water i s the major f ac to r i n determining bighorn distributions. Koplin (1960) r e f e r s t o some of the work done by the ~chmidt-h.elsons on water metabolism of t e r r e s t r i a l ver tebrates and attempts analogies between deser t bighorn and other desert fauna. Several other references could be c i ted f ron the Desert Bighorn Council h- ceedings regarding the need f o r more water developments on the deser t areas. However, Van den Akl-er (1960)~ Wood (1962) and Koplin, in his 1960 paper, dl indicate the lack of def ini te '

information concerning bighorn water requirements and habits. !?elles and Yelles, i n t h e i r 1961 publication representing more than s i x years of study poifit out this lack of information on water requirements. They a lso ?resent data t h a t they collected a t a waterhole over a period of a month; data t h a t may give managws a firm basis f o r t h e i r summer waterhole counts. -

M r . Norman M. Simmons (wildlife Management Biologist, U. s.;. W. S., Cabeza Prieta Game Range, Arizona) i s currently involved i n a projec t t h a t may add significantly t o our knowledge of bighorn mobility, ecology and water requirements.

Objectives.--In l i g h t of the apparent need f o r quantitative data and with the suggestions of Dr. Hansen, I conducted a study during July, Bugnst and September, 1962 on penned desert bighorn (0. - c. nelsoni). The study was carr ied out a t t he Corn Creek Field s ta r ion of the Desert Game Range and had the following objectives:

(1)- To determine, under adequate control, the e f fec t ( s ) resul t ing from various periods when water i s withheld from a

.

penned bighorn.

(2) To attempt t o correlate drinking time with the amount of water taken, using the data collected a t the close of each nno-waterll period.

(3) To determine, if possible, the maxim& "no-watern period the sheep i s capable of withstanding without undue strain t o the physiological processes of the animal. -

The sheep used in the eqeriment were siblings born in cap- t i v i t y a t the Field Station. The primary t e s t animal ( ~ e r r y ) was - four years old and the secondary sheep (Crip ) was f ive. The sheep

- - -- were-located-in-adj acent -wire - pens--of appro;dmately -equal----size~------ - -

A shel te r i n the--southwest corner of each pen pr'bvided shade and a feed box on the eas t side of each pen provided nourishment.

Jerry received water i n a f i v e gallon bucket which was weighed and f i l l e d each day. Cripls water supply was a 55 gallon drum cut in b2.f and s e t in the ground a t the northeast corner of the pen. A recording hydrometer had been ins t a l l ed so tha t water fluctuations

. in the d m could be measured; thus su?plying data on approximate amounts of water consmd, the time of drinking, and the appoximate amount of da i ly evaporation. Evaporation data were also collected from a f i v e gallon bucket of the same type in which J&ry received water. This bucket was also weighed and f i l l e d each morning.

Ufalfa hay and oats were fed each day. This food was weighed before it was placed i n the feed box and again the follo1Jing morn-

.

ing t o determine consumption. I n general, the sheep were offered from 43 l b s . t o 6s lbs. of hay per day.

- ??atursl vegetation wi th in the two pens vas not equivalent.

J e r ry ' s pen contained a greater abundance and var ie ty of '$ant

species than did Crip1s. Some possible affects of this*- be discussed 'later. The t e s t animals were assumed t o be i n equdL physical condition and sufficiently similar in size, weight, physcho- logical and physiological condition t o just ify s t a t i s t i c a l analyses of the data collected. iio quantitative measurements of the above characteristics wsre made however and this provides a possible source of error. Crip had been injured a s a yearling and his right rear l eg crip2led. The affects of this injury on the t e s t results are unknown; however it i s believed tha t the injury would not affect the resul ts significantly.

- Jerry was the only animal used for the various length'ho-watert1

periods. The procedure used for these t e s t s may be outlined a s follows :

A. Water w a s withheld for periods of 24, 48, 72, and finally 96 hours.

(1) A t the end of each t e s t period, water m s given and the anomt of water consumed, and the time of actual drinking were recorded. -

(2) Notes az the ge i l e~a l appearance of the aaiiiial, his response t o the observer and the water, and his post-drinking actions zind behavior were recorded.

B. After the 96 hour period had been completed, the sheep was -

put-on a schedule of consecutive 48 hour waterless periods, each - -- - - - -

terminated r ~ i t h ~ - o f f e r ~ ~ f ~ 2 ~ l b ~ o T ~ ~ e r ~ ~ ~ -a attempt-to correlate weather data with the amount of water taken.

Crip was brought in to the experiment in August, 1962. His watering schedule was 48 hours nno-watertl, then water as desired with the watering days running concurrent t o Jerry's 48 hour schedule. The second animal was brought in to the eqeriment in an attempt to arengthen the s t a t i s t i c a l analyses of the data.

The data collected from the t e s t s were then subjected t o several s t a t i s t i c a l analyses including regression analysis, the binomial test f o r equal means, and an analysis of variance. Some of the data were also put on punch cards t o aid i n analysis.

Zhe scat ter diagram (Fig. 1) shows the computed regression l ines fo r the drinking time - amount of water consumed data. The coefficient of determination for Jerry i s 0.948 and fo r Crip it i s 0.810. This indicates tbt the tendency of- the sheep t o drink a t a constant ra te i s "strongn t o "very strongn; however, you can

readily'see from the i l lustration and the slope coefficients for the respective liries that the d r i n ! g rates do vary between the -- two t e s t animals. I would l ike t o make note here of the fac t that - .

in this calculation, and in all the remaining statist ical calculations, the number of observation points and the sample size are both small. The sample size, especially, points to the necessity for continuing the project in order that the s ta t is t ical re l iabi l i ty and therefore the quality of the interpretation may be enhanced. Observation points at both extremities need to be reinforced in number t o provide a more accurate estimate of the populstion para- meters envolved. In the case of Fig. 1, a larger sample of observations at and near the origin may indicate a need for k m a l b e a r rather than linear regression analysi s o

. - Ih connection with these two regression lines, a binomial ntll

. t e s t of equal means and an analysis of variance were applied to the data. The results, in both cases, indicate the possibility that the true means for the populations sampled are equal. However, since these calculations iwolve only the means of the sample, rather than the slopes of the lines, the results may not represent the characteristics with which we, as managers, are interested i n primarily. Application of other s ta t is t ical tes ts may result in a different answer regarding the two pop6Latioas.

Fig. 2 i s a scztter diagram for accumulated evaporation plotted against the amount of water consumed. The coefficfent of determination for this prediction l ine is 0.902 which indicates a %ely strong1r tendency fo r the sheep t o consume an amount of water correlated to ths amount- - ---a -.-- - of evwrahon--th-ttha3-Occurredd 5Eiit&-laStt-=- - -

time. I chose evaporatgon as a possible index of t o t a l weather stress on the animal, which might reflect the relaticnship between weather and the animal's drinkLng characteristics. It i s apparent in Fig. 2 that either a curvalinear or an additional linear corrda- tion l ine intersecting the f i r s t l ine a t the upper end will result as the observations a t the upper end increase. A sheep must have a drinking capacity, and a t that capacity, no matter how much evaporation has occurred, the sheep will be unable t o drink more water,

A s another aid in the analyses, some of the data collected were summarized on punch cards. Twelve cards ger day per sheep . were punched for a period of 15 days. Possible klationships were then checked and the results compiled. Although several possibili- ' t i e s were indicated, the limited number of cards punched (in relation t o the possible to ta l ) allows insufficient reliability for conclusions. If more data are recorded on punch cards, the number of cards per day may be reduced because of the inordinate time and resulting difficulties of analysis resulting from 1 2 cards per day per animal.

A s a supplement t o the data collected, a record of tenperature and. humidity, determined x i th a recording hygrothernograph instal led near .the pens, was compiled. These dzta provided the basic material f o r the investigation of weather influences on the drinking behavior of the sheep. Notes were also taken on the general condition of the animals, the i r response t o the t r i z l s , and other deta i ls of a general nature. The sheep used i n the increasing time trials (Jerry) remained i n good health throughout the study. He did become thin and sl ightly hollowed in appearance, but at no time was there any indication from his movements, ap2ear- ance, o r action, of undue. s t ress t o the animal. The t r i a l s were discbntinued a f t e r the 96 hour (4 day) period in order that sufficient time could be allowed fo r the weather correlation attempt. Also, the four day period represents the average time tha t sheep in the wild will voluntarily remain away from water and thus ap9eared t o be an optimum test ing period (Welles and Welles, 1961; Graves, 1961).

Fig. 3 presents a summarization of a l l the quantitative data collected on Jelrg during the study. As you can see from the graph, the daily means of temperature and humidity do not apparently - correlate with the water con-dj however, there appears t o be an inverse relationship between food consumption and water consumption. This relationship reaches i t s max imum proportions ~ d t h Jerry during the increasing time trials. On the th i rd day of the four day waterless period, Jerry a t e none of his hay. During the three day waterless period, Jerry a t e only 0.3 lb . of hay on the second

- - -- -- *.- W h e n ~ 3 ~ _ & e ~ - r s r e - p&on_the_ cons;~~tive_&h~clur sche&iLe ,pIclurIclur -_-.

the food consumption curve stabil izes somewhat. Consumption on the day water was given remains near 3.0 lbs. wkile the consumption on a "no-water" day was from 1.0 lb. t o 2.0 lbs.

Evaporation, as shown by the black cross bars also shows a relationship as exemplified by the regression l i ne i n Fig. 2. A t th i spo i&, I would l i ke t o refer back to a statement I made during the introduction, namely tha t the natural vegetation within the two Dens was not eauivalent in diversity or abundance. Jerry, a f te r reciiviag water, &d usually move to&d the faf e ~ d of the-pen and as he went, he muld feed upon the dry stems of the shrubs in his pen. He even fed occasionally while laying dorm. Crip was '

seen t o nibble once or twice on some of the vegetation in his pen . but not t o the extent that Jerry did. Neither of the sheep were seen t o feed on the natural vegetation during the waterless periods. Therefore, I do not believe that it would d q r e s s the food - water consumption relationship shown on the graph, but rather it appears that the relationship may be even more.pronounced than indicated.

Fig. 4 i s a representation of the data collected on Crip during the time he was on the 48 hour schedule. It shows, in general, the

POUNDS C C N S W D OR EVAPOUTED

O F N W C W l w I-' fu

ted here .as

. I - Water consmwd - - Accumulated evagoration

. / my cOpSumed

* - Data qwsti&ble

Fig. 4. Summarization of da ta co l l ec ted on Cr ip f o r t h e penned sheep study, Lug. 21, t o Sept. 15, 1962.

164

same relationships as Fig. 3 does fo r Jerry. In Fig. 4 however, I have plotted the daily max imum temperature and humidity rather than the daily means which were used in Fig. 3. Neither'of these two methods of presenting the temperature and humidity data have as yet shown gross relationships.

I do not believe t h a t the data collected in this p i lo t study Kill allow definite conclusions t o be made. The study does point out several areas i n which future study may be quite f rui t fu l . To extrapolate these data into management plans would not be justified; however, I believe they do justify a more intensive, and exacting research project in which the sample size could be raised t o the requirements and the controls could be s ta t i s t i ca l ly sound. In regard t o the sample size requirements, I have computed estimates based on the standard deviations obtained i n this study. There are two values necessary t o the project:

A. The number of animals t o be s a p l e d

B. The humber of observations needed on each animal

Qr computed estimates indicate that 35 animals should be sampled and that 35 observation points are needed for each animal. d project designed t o meet these sample requirements and having good s t a t i s t i c a l control should be able t o provide the desert, bighorn . manager with definite management techniques.

Water requirements of two penned bighorns (Ovis - canadensis nelsoni) were studied on the Desert Game near Las Vegas, Xevada during July, August, and September, 1962. The sheep were deprived of water fo r various periods of time and then the amount taken and the drinking t ine were measured rfhen water was given. Data on evaporation, tenperature, humidity, food consumption, and general notes on the animals' condition, appearance and reactions were recorded. Regression l ines were computed fo r drinking time - amount of water consumed. The analysis indicates tha t individual sheep have relatively constant drinking rates ( r = 0.948 and 0.810) but these ra tes d i f fer between the sheep. k regression amlysis of. accurmilated evaporation - amount of water consumed yielded a coefficient of determination of 0.902. This indicztes that possibly, with more study and research, the water consumed by a desert bighorn can be predicted from evaporation data collected during the period the sheep has been without water.

I,ITERATUBE CITED

Graves, B. D. 1961. Waterhole observations of bighorn sheep. Desert Ifighorn Council, 5 :27-29.

Halloran, A. F . , and 0. V. Deming. 1956. Water developments for desert bighorn sheep. U.S.F.W.S., M l d l . l.Sgmt. Ser. mt. No, 4, 12pp.

Jones, F. L., G. Flittner, .and R. Gard. 19.57. Report on a survey of bighorn sheep i n the Santa Rosa Mountains, Riverside County,

. Calif. F .W., 43 :1?9-191,

JCoplin, J. R. 1960. New developments on uater reauirements on the Desert Game Range, Desert Bighorn Council, 4:54-57.

Dan Akker, J. Be 1960. Human encroachment on bighorn habitat. Desert Bighorn Council, k :38-LO.

Wdles, R. E., and Florence B. Welles. 1961. The bighorn of Death Valley. Fauna of the N a t l . Parks of the U. S., Fauna Ser, No. 6, 2k2pp.

Wood, J. E. 1962. Ecology and the Desert Bighorn Council, Desert Bighorn Council, 6 :10-12.

BIGHORN SHEEP I N ANZA BORREGO DESERT STATE PARK

Dalton E. Merkel Department of Parks & Recreation

Barrego Springs, Ca l i fo rn ia

Before going t o ' a n y discuss ion on the Bighorn Sheep of Anza Borrego Desert S t a t e Park, i t might be apropos t o mention some of t h e physical f e a t u r e s and f a c i l i t i e s of t h e park.

Anza Borrego lies i n the northwest por t ion of t h e Colorado Desert. It borders R ivers ide County on t h e nor th and extends south t o within a few m i l e s of Baja Ca l i fo rn ia . There are es tab l i shed the p r imi t ive s t y l e campgrounds, and over 450 m i l e s of rou tes of t r a v e l wi th in t h i s u n i t .

The park c o n s i s t s of more than 480,000 a c r e s and e levat ions range from 6,000 f o o t peaks t o sea l eve l . 'The geography includes a l l o r por t ions of 14 mountain ranges wi th s teep, rocky canyons; badland a reas composed of t h e silts and sandstones of o l d lake and sea ljeds; l a r g e a l l u v i a l fans ; dry lake beds; and over 4 0 sp r ings o r water holes.

In t h e higher e leva t ions of Anza Borrego we f i n d Coulter Pine, Incense Cedar, Scrub Oak, Ca l i fo rn ia Juniper, Mohave Yucca and the Chaparral p l a n t associa t ion. On t h e mountain s lopes and fans a t lower e levat ions a r e Desert Agave, O c o t i l l o , Ephedra, Encelia and S a E i a . The canyons and washes have Catclaw, Mesquite, Beloperone, Fan Palms, and Desert Willow (Chilopsis) . -barrea-and-Franseri-a--are- wide-spread-in- most- a r e a r o f t h e - p a r k , as-are-the------ - - -- ----

c a c t i and t h e annuals.

In a d d i t i o n t o spr ings 8nd water holes t h a t a r e sca t t e red throughout, the re a r e rock c a v i t i e s which f i l l up wi th r a i n water and r e t a i n t h e w a t e r f o r severa l months o f . t h e year. Some of the dry lakes a l s o f i l l wi th water during pe r iods of good r a i n f a l l .

Sheep and sheep s ign have been noted throughout the park. They have been seen i n t h e mountain ranges,and canyons, i n the va l l eys , and even around the edges of the so- called badlands. The park i s divided i n t o e i g h t p a t r o l d i s t r i c t s . P a t r o l rangers a r e assigned to each d i s t r i c t and these men conduct informal game counts and help i n the park w i l d l i f e survey. We a r e thus a b l e t o ob ta in good observations on sheep s igh t ings .

During t h e summers of 1953, 1958, 1959, 1961 and 1962, the, Cal i fornia Department of F i sh and Game has conducted Bighorn.herd composition counts i n the Santa Rosa Mountains. Por t ions of these mountains l i e within the park. The 1962 count showed the sheep t o be i n good condit ion wi th the h ighes t r a t i o of lambs t o d a t e - 42 lambs per 100 ewes and 61 rams.

One of t h e most important aspects of Desert Bighorn sheep i n Anza Borrego Desert S t a t e Park i s t h e impact of these sheep on the v i s i t i n g public. O f the 700,000 p lus v i s i t o r s to t h i s Desert Park l a s t year, only a small f r a c t i o n reported see ing any sheep. However, near ly a l l the v i s i t o r s hope to see one

and ask questions about them. Public i n t e r e s t i s very high i n regard t o these animals, and i t i s amazing to no te the enthusiasm of those people who a r e lucky enough to make an observation o r obta in a photograph. Along with t h i s paper we a r e sending two copies of the Christmas ed i t i on of the l oca l newspaper which fea tures i n color a photo of a Bighorn taken i n the park. The e d i t o r i a l on the reverse s i de i l l u s t r a t e s the publ ic ' s a t t i t u d e i n the sheep. We, who work i n .the park, and the people i n the loca l community, f e e l we have a ' g r e a t a s s e t i n these sheep. The mere f a c t they a r e here arid can be seen once i n awhile, provides a tremendous public a t t rac t ion . .

-It i s hoped the sheep w i l l continue t o a t l e a s t h o l d . t h e i r .own. By preserving t h e i r na tura l h a b i t a t aqd watering areas , in the park a s undisturbed as poss ible , cons i s tan t wi th goad park use, we-'will have an a rea where sheep can survive. The dese r t i s being developed more each year, and more range and water holes a r e being l o s t t o the Bighorn. I n years to come, parks w i l l have a most v i t a l r o l e i n perserving bands of Bighorn i n t he i r na tu r a l s t a t e .

ARI ZONA PROGRESS REPORT* 1962 Desert Bighorn Sheep Hunt

R. A. Jantzen

The eleventh consecutive season on Arizona desert bighorn sheep was scheduled between the dazes of December 7-16, 1962, inclusive. Unit permits were authorized and issued by controlled a reas a s shown on the - attached map. The October Cuban cr is is caused a conflict of uses in Unit 40B during the hunt period scheduled above. The Gila Bend Aerial Gunnery Range used by USAF and USMC training missions stationed a t Luke AFB and Yuma, respectively, correspond closely to the boundaries of Unit 40B and overlaps to some extent in the western portion of 40A. In the past, hunter use of the bighorn sheep ranges within the boundaries of the gunnery range has been accomplished during the regular sheep season by close cooperation with the military users of the range, enabled by a formal cooperative agreement between the Game and Fish Department, USAF,, and USMC. The conflict of use was negligible. This year the necessary military readiness to deal with possible international situations arising from Py es ident Kennedy1 s ultimatum caused a cancellation of gunnery training for approximately one month. When the world situation eased, a res-ptioa of such training on a j a z z e d schedule resulted. Therefore, the eastern portion of Unit 40B was closed this year; and the western par t rescheduled to December 15 through the 23, on the USMC pa r t of the gunnery complex. Two of the ten permitees originally authorized fo r the unit were shifted to Unit 15. The statewide kill results by

- -hunt inga~ eaxver e-thus :--

Area - 15 16 33 39-40A 40B 41 43A 43B 44 & 45

Permits 7 5 5

15 8

15 5

20 10 - 90

Hunters 7 5

- 5 15

8 14

5 20 10 - 89

Kill - 3 3 0 4 3 4 2 3 5 -

27

O/o Success 43 60

0 27 38 28 40 15 50 '

30. 3

Hunters were required to check into and out of their assigned hunt a r ea through a permanent checking station, as in the past.

The 90 permits authorized represented a slight increase of five over the number issued for the 1961 season. The resulting state hunter success remained a t the same level as in 1961. Fo r the last four years of hunting, the hunter success has stayed between 30 and 30.9 percent.

*Presented at the 1963 Desert Bighorn Sheep Council Meeting, April 2-4, Las Vegas, Nevada.

169

Year - Permi t s Hunters Harvest 70 Success 1959 65 6 2 19 30.6

The additional five permits this year were issued in a new area, Unit 33, which previously has been closed. Field.personne1 determined during the 1961-62 field work period that a limited population of sheep existed on the western flank of the Santa Catalina Mountains north of Tucson, Arizona which would support light. hunting pressure. That sheep were in this habitat has been known for several years. It was not until recently, though, that survey effort and resulting observations justified the consideration of a smal l hunt.. No sheep were taken. Hunters were not discouraged; however, and all five, when questioned, indicated a des i re to t ry i t again.

After the 1961 season and again af ter this past season, taxidermists in the Phoenix and Tucson a reas were contacted to obtain the lower jaw of heads brought to their businesses for trophy mounting. Using the age criteri: published by Deming (1952) the following results were obtained:

1961 Season 1962 Season Sheep killed 26 27 Jaws examined 17 19

Age: - 48 mos. & over 42-46 mos. 34-36 mos. 22-24 mos.

TOTAL

*Percent of those examined.

The proportion of young sheep in the kill (subadults ? ) suggests that' the 3/4 curl cri terion for legality does not necessarily insure the harvest of old, mature rams but rather that young rams will be taken a s they occur in the population and to the hunter. That the sheep represented by the data above met the minimum 314 cur l regulation may be assumed by virtue of ha.v- ing passed the mandatory checking station before trans-shipment to the taxidermists. This is not to say, however, that all were unquestionnably 3 1 4 cur l o r over.

The slender information represented by the two years of data is not conclusive, certainly. They do show management implications which should not be ignored and i t is our intention to continue collecting age information bv this method.

The significance of this information is bn at this time. ~t is iscussed here merely to add to what little infor- we now have on desert ghorn.

t Deming, 0. V. b . 1952 too^ dSVd0y~ZneIl~ of the N h bighorn !, +- sheep. Calif. Dept. of Fish a Game,

38:523-529. F

Hall, E. Raymond ---- - -- 1-%46=Mammals-of-Nevada,- Univ--of-Ga-lif ---.-- - -- .

ornia Press, Berkeley, CalE

3N: December 7 - December 16, 1962, inclusive.

AREAS: Units 15, 16, 33, 44 & 45 combined, 39 & 40A combined, 40B, 41, 43A, 43B. (See 1962-63 hunt map for written unit descriptions. ) (See map

reverse side. )

,L ANIMAL: Ram with a t least a three-quarter curl .

LIMIT: One sheep in a lifetime.

:R TO Commission Order T-20, May 19, 1962, for status of wildlife a reas in above

;KING STATIONS will be operated a t Gila Bend, Kingman, Salome and Yuma in the Fish and Wildlife Service office a t 356 F i r s t Street. Unit 33 hunters only will check 1 out a t the Tucson Office a t Room 210, Arizona State Office Building, 415 W-. Congress, ~ n . Checking station hours will be in accordance with Commission Order P-33 and ted a s permanent checking stations EXCEPT the Yuma Station will operate during the of 6 a. m. to 10 p. m. , and the Tucson office will operate during the hours of 8 a. m.

I. m. I

I HUNTER must personally check in a t a checking station before hunting and must ~nally check out before leaving the hunt area. Successful hunters must personally : the head and carcass through a department checking station.

ORN cannot be lawfully possessed outside of the specified hunt area unless i t has the !r seal attached to the horn by the dhecking station operator. FAILURE TO CHECK

OF THIS ORDER IS A VIOLATION.

ORN SHEEP permits a r e not transferable and no refunds will be made after a permit ued.

BIGHORN HUNT AREAS a r e closed to a l l other hunting except migratory birds, smal l and predator hunters with SHOTGUN ONLY, and except that it shall be lawful for the r of a valid bighorn tag to take predatory animals. Bighorn tag is not valid for the 5 of predatory animals after a sheep has been killed. The use of dogs except for smal l hunting is prohibited. Unit 43A closed to a l l other hunting.

ERSON M A Y POSSESS, while in a hunting a rea , any tag or tags which have been issued sther and no person shall use his tag o r allow his tag to be used on a big game animal i he did not kill.

N THE METAL TAG has been mutilated or locked o r transportation permit or shipping it has been filled out, the tag is no longer valid for the hunting or taking of the species hich it was issued.

:RSON DESIRING TO TRANSPORT o r ship big game which was taken on a resident se from a point within to a point without the state must f irst obtain a special permit an authorized department employee and said permit must accompany the big game transportation o r shipment. Big game taken on a nonresident license may be trans-

!d o r shipped from a point within to a point without the state without obtaining this .a1 permit'. 173

lower jaw. I

NEW MMICO PROGRESS REPORT

by

Phi l E. Freeman

New Mexico Department of Game and Fish

DESERT BIGHOFPJ SBEEP

Desert bighorn sheep in the Hatchet Mountains are s t i l l a t a low population level . Field observations f o r the past year and a two-day a e r i a l survey made in October, 1962 produced no visual sightings of bighorn sheep. A l imited number of tracks tha t were thought t o be bighorn were observed on the southern end of- the mountain. A re l iab le report of a dead five-year old ram was received and two of our biologists found a dead three-year old ram. Cause of death was undetermined f o r the two rams. The number of bighorns in the Hatchet Mountains probably does not exceed 20 animals.

One of the two umbrella type water un i t s t h a t were ins ta l led on the southern end of Hatchet Mountah was destroyed by high winds. We plan t o replace th i s un i t sometime in the near futurz. The other uni t has functioned properly and has received use by bighorns, deer, and javelina. Other water uni ts placed on Hatchet Mountain have received . l i t t l e o r no use by bighorns.

~ a n g e conditions have improved since the drought tha t ended in 1957. Deer are now low in number and have not made a noticeable increase from a die-off in 1957. Predators are scarce, par t icu lar ly on the south end of the mountain, -~e~-thc;;~he~ep-are~.mging .--The-~t.at~u~,~-of _bighorn-shee~ on the Hatchet - -.

Mountains i s not br ight and we can only hope, tha t with improved food and water conditions, our remnant herd w i l l increase i n numbers.

BARRAEY SHEEP

During the 1962 hunting season, 46 Barbary sheep were harvested by 377 hunters in northeastern New Mexico. The low hunter success of 12.2 percent was a t t r ibuted t o snow and poor v i s i b i l i t y during the f i r s t three days of the hunt.

Prom the f i r s t hunt in 1955 and through 1960, hunts were on a limited basis . During the six-year period 223 permits were authorized and 114 sheep were harvested. These hunts were held primarily t o obtain biological data while the herd was increasing.

In 1960 the intensive three-year study conducted by Herman Ogren was completed. Reports of h is work are sumrmrized in a popular s ty le pamphlet en t i t l ed "Barbary Sheep of New Mexico" and in a technical report tha t w i l l be published e i ther by the Wildlife Society i n a monograph form or by our department.

The number of Barbary she-ep in the Canadian River Gorge i n 1960 was est imated t o be between 1,500 and 3,000 animals. At t h i s time we desired the answers t o two questions. One, "could the Barbarys be control led by hunting?" and two, "do t he sportsment of New Mexico want the animal?". With t h i s i n mind the number of permits were increased t o 322 in 1961 and 432 in 1962.

In t h e beginning, con t ro l by hunting could have been hampered by such f ac to r s as roughness of hab i t a t , wariness of sheep, and t h e i r a b i l i t y t o hide and blend in with t e r r a in , access d i f f i c u l t due t o l a rge t r a c t s of p r iva te ly .owned lands, and ge t t ing enough sportsmen t h a t a r e energet ic enough t o hunt. Over t h e years these f ac to r s have remained a s problems bu t have not been insurmountable. We can now say t h a t the Barbary sheep can be control led to a l a rge ex ten t by spec i a l hunts .and probably completely control led with general hunts.

At t h e present time t h e sportsmen of New Mexico a re not overwhelmed by the opportunity t o hunt Barbary sheep. In 1961 we received 298 appl icat ions fo r t h e 300 publ ic permits and in 1962 we received 329 appl icat ions f o r 402 public permits. With fu r the r encouragement, a l l of t h e public permits were sold . The chief l i m i t i n g f ac to r t o hunter i n t e r e s t i s , the time and expense of a.n e x t r a hunting t r i p . I n time we an t i c ipa t e t h a t the Barbary hunts w i l l become as popular as our control led antelope and e l k hunts. The main a t t r a c t i o n of Barbary sheep hunting i s t he novelty of t r y ing something new. I n t h i s case once the sportsmen have t r i e d the.Barbarys t h e i r enthusiasm wanes as t h i s hunt is no easy weekend a f f a i r . Nonresident sportsmen a r e showing considerable i n t e r e s t i n our Barbary hunts. During t he 1962 season we had hunters from 14

At t h e present time t he s t a t u s of Barbary sheep as a b i g game animal i s s t i l l i n doubt and add i t iona l information, t h a t can be gained only with time, is necessary before a d e f i n i t e decision can be made. As time has progressed opposit ion t o the Barbarys has decreased. Reports of t h e i r wide wanderings have decreased, crop depredation complaints have been n i l , a population explosion has not material ized and Barbary sheep and deer a re apparently l iv ing without competition i n t h e Canadian River Gorge. The deer herd has rapidly increased s ince introduction of the Barbarys in 1950. To date hunting opportuni t ies have been provided f o r 1,057, and 960 hunters have taken t o the f i e l d and harvested 254 sheep. Unless some d r a s t i c l imi t ing f ac to r materializes the species has found i t s place i n New Mexico.

RESULTS OF BARBARY SHEEP HUNTS -

No. N o . N o . No. Legal PuSlic Landowner Permits Barbary Percent

Date of Hunt Permits Permits Used Taken Success

1955, Dec. 3-7 14 10 24 11 46

1956, Dec. 1- 5 24 10 34 5 15

1957, N o v . 30-Dec. 8 7 0 15 85 43 51

1959, Feb. 21-Mar. 1 35 15 50 19 38

1959, Sept. 5-13 40 1 5 52 16 30

1961, Dec. 1-10 300 22 284 9 4 33

FISH & WILD L I F E SERVICE

Photo by

CHARLES G. HANSEN

DESERT BIGHORN COUNCIL Established to promote the advancement of knowledge concerning the Desert

Bighorn Sheep and the long-range welfare of these animals.

- DESERT B1GEK)RN COUNCIL Cornit tees f o r 1963

ARRANGFMENTS COMMITTEE

Honorary Chairman - D r . Enrique Beltran Aquiles Serdan 28, Mexico 1, D. F. Mexico

Chairman - Manuel Foglio Jacarandas No. 1126, Mexicali, B. Cfa. Mexico

Richard Weaver P. 0 . Box 638, NFlznd, Calif omia

Gerald Duncan Po 0. Box 1032, Yuma, Arizona

PROGRAM COMMITTEE

- Chairman-&-C lWaUde--F ---- br d -- - ----- - - --- - - - -- - - - --&= -- --

P. 0. Box 1032, Yuma, Arizona Jose Angel Davila C.

Aquiles Serdan No. 28, Mexico, D.F., Mexico William Graf

Department of Biology, San Jose S t a t e College, San Jose, Cal i fornia Newel1 B. Morgan

P. 0. Box 440, Las Vegas, Nevada Bernardo V i l l a

Department of Mammalogy, U.N.A.M., V i l l a Obregon, Mexico 20, D.F. Mexico

PUBLICITY COMMITTEE

Chairman - Jim Yoakum P. 0 . Box 1551, Reno, Nevada

Robert A. Jantzen Room 111, Capitol Annex, Phoenix, Arizona

Richard Weaver P. 0. Box 638, Niland, Cal i fornia

Tom Hailey Box 1228, Marfa, Texas

Perry A. Larsen Box 1914, University Park, New Mexico

Ramiro Garcia Perez Pla teros Sur 1999, Mexicali B. Cfa., Mexico

NOMINATING 'COMMITTEE

Chairman - Oscar V. Deming P. 0 . Box 111, Lakeview, Oregon

James A. Blaisdel l Boc 336, Grand Canyon Arizona

A 1 Jonez Box 4336, Las Vegas, Nevada

John D. Goodman Department of Biology, University of Redlands, Redlands, California

Rex W. Allen P. 0 . Box 518, University Park, New Mexico

AWARDS COMMITTEE

Chairman - John D. Goodman Department of Biology, University of Redlands, Redlands, California

Ralph E. We1 l e s Box 283, Beatty, Nevada

Frank W. Groves Box 678, Reno, Nevada

James A. Blaisdel l Box 336, Grand Canyon, Arizona

THREE QUARTER CURL COMMITTEE

Chairman - Gene H. Wilson Box 436, E. Las Vegas, Nevada

-- --=-char 1 es- G---Hans en - -- - -- - - -- - - -- =- -=-

St. R t . 1, Box 14, Las Vegas, Nevada A 1 R. Jonez

Box 4336, Las Vegas, Nevada Robert A. Jantzen

Room 111, Capitol Annex, Phoenix, Arizona William G. Bradley

Department of Biology, University of Nevada, Las Vegas, Nevada

ANNUAL MEETING MINUTES OF THE BUSINESS MEETING

Apri l 3, 1963

The business meeting of the Seventh Annual Meeting of the DESERT BIGZIORN COUNCIL was ca l l ed to order b y ' t h e Chairman, M r . A 1 R. Jonez, on April 3 , 1963, on the campus of the Universi ty of Nevada Southern Regional Division, Las Vegas, Nevada.

The minutes of the previous meeting were read by the secretary- treasurer, D r . Charles G. Hansen and were approved as read. Dr. Hansen a l so gave the t reasure r ' s repor t , s t a t i n g t h a t there w a s a . n e t balance of $1,033.72. It w a s a l so moved and seconded and the motion ca r r i ed t o accept the t reasurer ' s repor t .

M r . Parry Larsen, Chairman of the Awards Committee, reported the Committee had decided t o make an award t o M r . Oscar V . Deming. M r . Larsen made the award and M r . Deming gave a sho r t acceptance speech.

M r . Cecil Kennedy expressed t he appreciat ion of the Council to M r . George Barclay, one of the f a t h e r s of the Council, on his retirement from the government service. The Council gave a standing vo t e of thanks to M r . Barcley.

Dr . John E. Wood, Chairman of the Technical S t a f f , gave t he repor t of the s t a f f . It w a s moved by M r . Ralph E. Welles and seconded by D r . Edmund L. Fountain and unanimously voted to accept the repor t .

Dr . Wood nominated D r . Charles G . Hansen f o r the 5-year member of the - T e c h ~ i = l X t a f f~-rep~ac~h@s-e_ll_f-wh(?~e-_~_ne_ xear- te- -kd--wpaired2-_Mr.Ricbr-d -

E. G r i f f i t h moved t o c lo se the nominations. M r . Cecil Kennedy seconded and the motion carr ied.

D r . Wood repor ted t h a t the Technical S t a f f considered the one year Steer ing Committee no longer necessary and i t was not voted to continue the Committee.

D r . John Goodman w a s appointed Chairman of t he Awards Committee f o r the ensuing year.

Chairman M r . A1 R. Jonez presented a d r a f t of a l e t t e r to go to various Sport Magazines regarding the i l l e g a l hunting of deser t bighorn sheep i n Mexico. It was moved by M r . Robert Jantzeri, seconded by M r . John P. Russo and the:motion w a s ca r r ied unanimously to accept the d r a f t .

New Business:

M r . Ralph Welles asked about t h e m e of the o f f i c i a l Council le t terheads by Council members. Af te r discussion, the group was advised t ha t the various Committees would be provided with le t terheads f o r o f f i c i a l use only.

D r . Charles G. Hansen reported on transaction publication costs . It was agreed t ha t the present standard and format should be maintained. M r . Cecil Kennedy moved t ha t the Council hold the $2.00 charge per book on the Council Transactions u n t i l such time a s more money i s needed. This was seconded by

' M r . Richard Weaver and ca r r i ed unanimously. A request f o r photos fo r the 1963

[ Transaction was made by D r . Hansen.

M r . Warren Kelly proposed tha t the Council dedicate the 1963 ransa sac ti on^ to Ing. Louis Macias of Mexico, who died during the past year. The motion was seconded by M r . Ralph Velles and car r ied unanimously.

D r . William Graf presented a reso lu t ion to the Council a s follows: Be i t . ,resolved t h a t the Desert Bighorn Council go on record a s opposing the introduc- t i on and l i be ra t i on of any exot ic ungulates without a p r io r thorough biological study and hearing f o r the need and adv i sab i l i t y f o r such introductions. This was amended by M r . Richard G r i f f i t h and o thers to read as follows: "Be i t resolved t h a t the Desert Bighorn Council go on record a s opposing the introduction and l ib- e r a t i on of any exotic-ungulates without a p r i o r thorough biological study and -i'

hearing f o r t he need and adv i sab i l i t y of such introductions and t h a t the Secretarig of In t e r io r , Agriculture and Defense, and o the r land agencies and Fish and Game Departments of the various s t a t e s be informed of the resolut ion and be requested to adopt a pol icy with regard t o the int roduct ion and l ibera t ion of exot ics and t o take appropriate act ion regarding the resolution." Mr.-Cecil Kennedy moved ', and M r . Norman Bishop seconded tha t the Council adopt t h i s resolut ion. The Council voted unanimously t o accept t h i s resolut ion.

M r . Gene Wilson was asked i f he wished to bring up the subject of the 316 c u r l regulat ion and i ts appropriatness i n law enforcement. M r . Wilson s ta ted t h a t he considered the 3/4 c u r l law unworkable and a f t e r discussion M r . James D. Yoakum moved t h a t a committee be appointed to inves t iga te the matter and to report back next year f o r the Council t o take act ion. The motion was seconded and car- r i e d by unanimous vote. The committee i s to be appointeci by the new Chairman. -

'P The Mexican delegation inv i ted the Council to hold the 1964 meeting i n Mexico ;$

a t a place t o be determined. San Fe l ipe was suggested a s a possible meeting place;$ - - - - M r . -Ralph=Wel-les- moved-and-Mr . -warren-Kel-ly-s econdedthe -mo t-ion- hat-khe=Counci-I-+ - y,

accept the inv i ta t ion . The motion was ca r r i ed by unanimous vote. 8;

The t h r e a t t o the San ~ o r ~ o n i o Wild-Area i n California was presented by :

D r . John D. Goodman. After discussion, M r . Norman B i s h ~ p moved tha t the Chairman ' :. appoint a committee of two to d r a f t a reso lu t ion to give the Council's view that the area should be preserved a s a Wild Area and not taken ou t of tha t designation , f o r commercial purposes. This motion d id no t ca r ry but was amended to provide f o r the whole group from Cal i fornia to ge t together and d r a f t the resolut ion and present i t to the Council on April 4 , 1963.

. M r . Gale Monson presented a reso lu t ion through D r . Hansen, a s follows: "Etesolved, t h a t t h e Council recommend t h a t several areas of good qual i ty hab i ta t on public lands be set a s ide a s single-use bighorn habi ta t , kept f r e e a s possible from a l l forms of human disturbance, including camping, hunting, prospecting and road building." No ac t ion was taken on t h i s resolution.

D r . W i l l i a m Graf presented the Nomination Committee's suggestions fo r officers f o r the ensuing year :

Chairman - D r . Rodolfo Hernandez Corzo Vice-chairman - M r . John P. Russo Secretary-Treasurer - D r . Charles G. Hansen

E Nominations were open from the f loor . M r . Robert A. Jantzen moved that ithe nomination be closed, seconded by M r . Richard G r i f f i t h and the ba l lo t was lelected unanimously.

k The Chairman closed the o f f i c i a l business meeting.

On Apr i l 4, 1963, the Council was again ca l led to order and thexeso lu t ion on the San Gorgonio Wild Area was presented. The following resolution was voted ,on and accepted by the Council:

"Resolved : It be made known t h a t the Desert Bighorn Council, a t i ts seventh Annual

keeting, Las Vegas, Nevada, April 4, 1963, vent on record a s opposed to any future [a l terat ion of the San Gorgonio Wild Area tha t w i l l i n any way modify i t s wilder- Iness character . !

I Furthermore :

I If a hearing i s held to determine the nature of modification f o r the

I future recrea t iona l uses of the San Gorgonio Wild Area, i t i s the wish of the Council t h a t i t be no t i f i ed of such a hearing so tha t the Council may be repres- tented by an individual empowered to s e t f o r t h the views of the Council."

D r . Charles G. Hansen Secretary-Treasurer

DESERT BIGHORN COUN Established to promote the advancement of knowledge concerning +he.:


RESOLUTION ADOPTED BY THE DESERT BIGHORN,COUNCIL A3: THE ANNUAL BUSINESS MEETING, APRIL 3,1963

LAS VEGAS, NEVADA

BE I T RESOLVED, tha t the Desert Bighorn Council go on record as opposing the :

introduction and l ibera t ion of any exot ic ungulates without a pr ior thorough -- - - - - -- - - - - - -- .- . - - - - ----- - -- - - -- -- ---- - - ----a=---- -=

biological study and hearing fo r the need and adv i s ib i l i t y of such introduct-

ions and tha t the Secretar ies of In ter ior , Agriculture and Defense and other

land agencies and the Fish and Game Departments of the various s t a t e s be

informed of the resolution and be requested to adopt a policy with regard to .

the introduction and l ibera t ion of exotics and to take appropriate action

regarding the resolution.

DESERT BIGHORN COUNCIL Established to promote the advancement of knowledge concerning the Desert


. - P. 0 . Box 440 Las Vegas, Nevada April i 6 , 1963

FLELD & STREAM

OUTDOOR LIFE

SPORTS AE'IEIJ)

BOONE & CROCKETT

Gentlemen:

In recent years a r t i c l e s have appeared i n leading spor t magazines _Atel,llng-of ~hunting=the-Qesergtr_Bighom Sheep-. in-Me~ico..~LChe .members--of % the--- - -- - -__ _

Desert Bighorn' Council a r e taking t h i s opportunity to c a l l to your a t ten t ion tha t hunting Desert Bighorn Sheep i n Mexico has been prohibited by law f o r over 41 years. Enforcement of t h i s prohibit ion has been a problem. Until legal hunting of the Bighorq i s permitted i n Mexico, we urge tha t you review any fu tu re a r t i c l e s which tel l of Bighorn Sheep hunting i n Mexico.

W e hope tha t you w i l l review any a r t i c l e giving information on hunting i n Mexico to determine i f i t complies with local hunting Laws.

I f you have any questions concerning t h i s matter, please d i r ec t them t o -t h e Secretary-Treasurer of the Desert Bighorn Council, P. 0 . Box 440, Las Vegas, .Nevada, o r write d i r ec t ly to the Director .General of Hunting i n Mexico (Direccion General de Caza, Aquiles Serdan No. 28-3er. Piso, Mexico 1, D.F., Mexico.)

Sincerely yours,

DESERT BIGHaRN COUNCIL

A 1 Ray Jonez, Chairman

D r . Charles G. Hansen, Secretary-Treasurer

I NEVADA FISH & GAME

t

Photo by

JACK R. COOPER

A SUMMER W I I m O L E STUDY AT CARRIZO SPRmG WTA ROS MOUNTAINS OF SO- C A L I F O R N ~

Mark F. Knudsen Department of Bielegy, University of Redlands

During the sumer ef 1962 a t the Deep Canyon Desert Research Station, operated by the University of California a t Rimrsi.de, and lecated near Palm Desert, C a l i f o r n i a , a problem was undertaken W c h dealt with the sureraer distribution with respect to water resources utilized by Desert Bighorn Sheep in tha t anm. It was decided tha t equipment could be constructed which would give inf omation as t e the fre- qyency s f drinking, as wel l as the quantity ef water taken and the time ef day when the watarholes were most frequented.

Deep danyen was originally selected fo r several reasons; first of all, its inaccessibility, because i t s lmr end is cut eff, with a high wire fence, while its tmring, steep sides effectively reduce the chance of valuable equipment being lgolested o r stelan. A l s m , as mentioned, the Deep Canpn Desert Research Station fac i l i t i e s , in- -

cludhg a house and laboraterg, iadke it ideal f e r certain desert studies from that standpeint. Howelrsr, af ter making several preliminary - t r i p s i n the canyon, it was decided that sheep cancentratiens a t the available waterholes in Deep Canyon were too lenr t o be of value in suck a study. This was net due t o lack ef water, but in part due t o

-- - the fac t that l i t t l e rainfall .-- the ---nl=-a- preceeding , ef months - tE e-p-s had er-m-tml l e f t the canyen --- esp-p------ - - -- - S t h a ~C~fty%T-~VeiefXt=1on. were so di f f icul t t e reach that it would have been vir tually impossible t o s e t up the necessary equipment a t them e r transport it t o the site'.

The summer preved t o be very hot, averaging 1060F. during the day, and causing many ef the SQ-called permanent waterholes t o become corapletely dry. Finally, a f te r considerable. study, the upper spring a t Carrize Creek was selected as the location of the waterhole study, which proved to be ideal, beth fo r i t s location and because of the p ry heavy summer use by sheep. Also, it was adjacent to Deep Canyen, where much of the equipment was kept.

The prsject, as originally conceived, consisted of a simple f loat type masuring device which would accurately report the level of the water in ths spring, this infomation t a be recorded on a chart type recorder, with simultaneous records kept of the temperature and re la t i= humidity of the surreunding area, An added feature was a camera, remote- operated, tha t would auternatically take a picture of every animal using the waterhole. Most of these i n t m n t s proved t o be extremly expensive; as amsult , makeshift instruments were constructed w i t h the idea that they would be able t o yield all of the desirable information, which proved not always t o be the case. Also, several instruments were constructed &ich, for one reason o r another, proved inadequate f o r f i e ld use.

Providing power for the camera and other instruments was a necessary preliminary consideration. The most logical power source a t

f i r s t seened t o be from storage batteries, i f a sufficient number of them could be used a t the lecation of the instruments. It was o r i g i n - a l l y intended that the ent i re operation would run for a period of three days, a t which time the bat ter ies would be recharged and the film in the camera changed. Hewever, t h i s proved impractical and a second pos- s i b i l i t y seemed t o be t o bring a power l ine in from a nearby hcation, which was approximately one mile from the spring. This idea was abandoned as teo cost ly and di f f icul t . The t h i rd alternative, and the one f ina l ly accepted, was the use ef a small gasoline operated generater which would provide e lec t r i ca l pwer near t o the source o f the operation. A thousand watt output generater, which had a gas tank allowing it t o csperate continuously fo r 2* hours, was purchased for th i s use. In actu- a l operation a larger gasoline supply tank could be attached s o that it was able t o run a much lcnger length of time. T h i s generater worked very successfully and previded an adequate source ef power fo r a l l ef the eperation.

Next, a device was constructed which would measure the height ef the water and record tha t data on a chart type recorder. It was thsught tha t a f l e a t device connected t o a variable resister would prove t o be the simplest and nost efficient. Gxperiments were also t r i ed using a l inear variable d i f ferent ia l t r a n s f s m r . There was diff iculty encountered in previding the voltages required fo r the transformer, thus, t h i s particular device was abandened and a helipet was used instead. The cempleted device consisted of a plas t ic f l e a t connected t o a s t ee l rod, appreximately 2* fee t long, which, in turn, pivrted an the axis of the helipst. As the water level changed the f loa t would r ise and f a l l ,

-- -- and-the=ce~espond,i,ng-t~g---of--the-~s-weuld-change-the=~sistance=of-- - the helipet. These changes i n resistance were recorded an a Varian recorder &d calibrated fo r the varieus water levels. A circuit diagram is included in fi,pre 1.

Figure L.

Circuit Diagram

( A l l bat teries are mercury cel ls )

When the instal lat ion was eriginal3.y undertakes, it was found tha t the waterhole was smaller than was expected. It was so situated , under an overhanging rock, that it was d i f f i cu l t t o place a f loat in the waterhole so that it could be attached t o the helipot. A 15 gallon galvanized tub was therefore instal led a t the waterhole and was f i l l e d once o r twice a day by hand. The sheep adapted themselves t o this system quite readily and seemed t o shew no hesitancy about drinking out of the centainer. However, it preved quite a chore t o keep enough water in the container, and Table 1. shows the water which was carried in t e the container en the back ef the investigater, With the use ef the galvanized tub it was much easier to standardize the recording levels on the graph; alscb, there was ne werry of a sudden influx cbf water, which might eccnr in a natural spring. Figure 2 shows a typical drinking sequence a t this waterhela. The recorder proved t o be quite sen- s i t ive and worked very well fsr th i s particular project, but the resu l t s were senewhat disappeinting as very few sheep wenld come t o the waterhole t e drink while the recerder was in operation. This is pas- sibly related t o the fac t tha t the generater, when in operation, gave o f f a n ~ i s e , although the generater i t s e l f was lecated sewral hundred yards a*, clese t o Highway 74, where cars and trucks were continually passing by. An additional problem was that the investigater had t o arrive early in the morning and start the generater, f i l l the water in the tub, and be an hand a l l day t e fill the generater with gasel&%? t~ check the receder ,

Figure 2. Drinking Sequence

Date A w 23

A camera was designed ts be situated about 20 feet from the waterhole sa that the anhals ceuld be easi ly distinguished by sex and age with, under very favorable cenditians, pessibly additienal identi- f iable characteristics. It was f e l t that 35 wa would be the ideal s ize f e r t h i s instrument. There were several 35 IIRU cameras on the market which wuld hold an adequare ameunt ef film, a lse eperate aute- matically s o as t e advance the film and ceck the shutter after each picture was taken; bwever, these were a l l too expensive for the bud- get ef the preject. It was theught that the camera should run a t l e a s t 100 frames before needing a film change. Leica, Niken and Robot c m r a s a l l have models in production meeting the above specifications. But these are a l l very expensive. A s a result , a 16 ram movie camera was modified t e meet the specificatiens we required. The majsr preb- lera was in synchr~nizing the camera so that infra-red strobe, far night photography, c ~ u l d be used. The camera used for the project was a surplus camera o f f an a i rcraf t machine gun. It was selected f o r i t s l igh t weight, ruggedness, and because it was operated t o run en bat- ter ies . The electmnic f lash unit had a recycle t ime ef nine seconds. When the camera ran at normal speed o f 16 frames per second the strobe

187

would f lash on the f i r s t revolution of the shutter and no l igh t would be supplied u n t i l the camera ran for nine consecutive seconds, thus it uas necessary t o pulse the power of the camera in short bursts everg nine seconds, Qr longer.

It proved dif f icul t t o synchronize the shutter of t h i s p a - t i cu l a r camera because the design of the case allowed l i t t l e room fer additions t o the shutter. An additional lens was purchased and the glass elements removed, leaving only the iris diaphragm and the shuttm. T h i s was meunted in front of the lens of the camera as seen in figure 3, The shutter of the camera was removed so t h a t the exposure of the film was determined solely by the exbernal shutter. The pewer supply was then adjusted so that immediately after the shutter was released the meter would be turned en long e n ~ ~ g h fo r the film t o advance approximately the length ef ene frame.

The camera was a magazine type, which a l l~wed the film t o be changed quickly and also had the added advantage of being easily chang- able in broad daylight, The magazine held approximately 3 fee t ef infra- red film, which was adequate fo r a 24 hem period. It was necessary t o p r o m the fellawing sequence of events: 1. The presence of an aniaial a t the waterhole must be determined, 2. The shutter weuld be tripped, 3. The film weuld -!;hen be advanced and 4. There would be a pericd ef nfne secends elapse befere the sequence could start again. This was done en a pragrammer disc of the contrel unit , as shown i n figure 4. The f step ef the lens was adjusted so that the l ight source fer the subject was the atreim f o r both daytime and night-tims photographs. The whole camera assembly was meunted on a tripod that could be conceal-

- ---- -- =a 2* -f e-6 or ffrram7-he-Gte rrKO~G,wlEh th--- l-eennSFt at :* 5ro-xima-te -

inf ini ty , The whale operation was triggered by a solenoid which, when activated by a photeehctric cel l , s tar ted the pregr-r. A s infra- red radiatien cannot be measured by a l i gh t meter it was necessary t e determine the correct expesure by k i a l and error, and only a f t e r nnm- erous t r i a l s was a satisfactory exposure time discovered. Anether preblem was tha t the solenoid which tripped the shutter tended t o be noisy when activated,

The programmed sequence was started by a relay connected t e the pheteelectric ce l l which was reflected back and ferth acress the waterhole by a series of mirrors, se that when an animal appreacbd ard s tar ted t o drink sem pertien of his bedy weuld break the light path and close the relay. The programer was so adjusted that if an animal remained in the l igh t path its phstograph ~ ~ e u l d be taken evarg 12 seconds. If the animal meved out of the l igh t path, the prqgrammr would contirme i t s cycle un t i l it came to the begjnning of a sequence, a t which time it muld step and w a i t f o r another animal to break the lighQl path, Iln additional )ss_sfiility, not actually installed, w~u ld be t e have a clock in the picture, furnishing information en not enly the ani- ma Is drinking but the exact time ef day, sr night, when they visited the uaterhole .

Because of the location of the waterhole so near t o Highway 74, it was necessary t o be in the area a l l of the time the equipment was there t o prevent thef t and destruction. A metal container was originally buried in the ground, in concrete, with an aluminum covering,

as a busing, fo r most of the instrmments net r ight a t the water- hele; however, heat from the sun was so great that it was thought damage might result t o the instruments if they were l e f t i n such a closed container w h i l e operating. Thus, the instruments were l e f t situated in the open air, approximately 1,800 f ee t from the spring and about 500 feet frctm the highway. This was far enmgh from the spring it was impsssible t o hear the gasome 'motor by the Fnvesti- gaters a t tha t distance while they were at the spring; hewever, it was rmt d i f f i cu l t t o hear the metor from the hills surrcaundhg the spring. This was perhaps the reason sheep were reluctant t e use the spring once the generater was i n +ration, whereas., t h y had no di f f icul ty i n accepting tb galvanized tub s e t ever the waterhole.

In view of the above di f f icul t ies it is strongly suggested tha t recording devices be instal led which e p r a t e using a spring wound motor, with a bob-type f l s a t which Kill re~@rd directly on the drum of a recorder. Met enly weuld a much slmplif ied instru- arentatian result, but it w~uld eliminate the necessiw f e r the me- t o r t e ran the recorder, It also seems wise net te try t o build the apparatus te run f e r leng periods ef time remately. I f the in- 8estigzter reallized that b mst be at the seem ef t b i aaves t6~ - tion at leas t ence, and gessibly twice, daily, the project could be made to @perate + m h more simply, The plewer source fo r the camera remaairs a pmblera if l e f t t e aperate aortematically. A number of storage batteries might be used ts power the camra and ather electronic units, taken in and recharged evexy few days during the

- -- - operationr-3For&-day-time - ebservatibns- =re re qujred-the strobe - - --------- - - --

couldbe eliminated. la such case the camera might be hidden a t a much greater distance from the waterhale, possibu equipped with a moderately pimrful, but inexpensive, telephoto lens, or operated by remote control m a n e by an observer hidden some distance away from tb spring, thas eliminating even the necessity f a r an automatic tripping &vice fo r the shutter. The pess ibi l i t ies are, ef course, l imitless,

Table 1, sbws the amount of water carried in and consun- ed by sheep during a period ef August 10-23, while the galvanized ta was being f i l l e d daily, or oftener, by carryine water t e it by back-pack, It is net known, but is estimated that betwean 25 and 35 bighorn sheep were using this spring durhg the time of the investigation. Earl ier Fn the smmr ( June 26-28 ) 15 sheep were counted using this spring in tw consecutive days ef continuous observation, during the summer waterhole census. A t that time, l.2 sheep were c o a t - ed using the lewer spring in the sam canyen,

Fhguro 2., &ch shows a typical drinking sequance, indicates that the sheep may visit the spring and actually drink fo r about an average time of three minutes and conan average of 1.4 gallens ef water a t such a visit. T h i s compares favorably with the summer water - hole count data that an average of about eight sheep calm t o the spring per day if tha t in turn i s compared to !fable I., which shows that an average of 8.3 gallons of wate? .-re consumed daily from the spring during the peried August 10-23rd.

Thus, from data that are slowly accumulating, it appears that the sheep i n the Santa Rosa Mountains probably visit waterholes not more often than once every three dayk, remain a t the spring actually drinking, a l i t t l e less than five minutes, and in that time consume, on the average, about ene gallon of water per visit.

It is hoped and expected tha t a madification of the above described equipment can be used t o determine the extent and nature of water use by Desert Bighorn Sheep as an adjunct t o other studies 3n progress on these animals by the Department of Biology of the Univer- sity of Redlands, under the direction sf Dr. John D. Goodman, and m der whose direction the present investigation was undertaken.

Water Carried in te, Upper Car r i zo Spring

Water Taken frm Spring by Bighern Sheep

Date - Gallons - . D a t e - Gallens

A ~ m t 9 : ., 1Q.O August 10 5.5

August 10 . . - . 7.x

August 19 6 eo

A m 15 8 -3

August 16 11eO

A@ 17 7 03

A@ 18 3 e o

August 19 U.0

August 20 3 e7

A@ 21 6,0 -. > .

August 22 7 00 . -

23 5.3 Tetal m e 3

August 22 12 el

A€lgast 23 7 3 e 7

Total 99,7

Average sf 8.31 day

Figure 3. .Automatic Camera showing accessory lens attachments.

SOM3 COMMENTS ON THE DISTRIBUTION OF DESERT BIGHORN SHEEP OF THE SANW ROSA M O ~ l 3 l S OF SOUTHERN CALIFORNX

John D . Goodman and Nark F. Knudsen University of Redlands, California

The question of the present tAistribution of the Desert Bighorn Sheep i s as interesting as are its prehistoric wanderings. Do they, as has been suggested many times, make periodic journeys from one mountain range 50 another? Do they make marked vert ical journeys, from one a l t i tudinal level t o another, during certain tims of the year? If they do, and there ' i s evidence that they do, what are some of the factors that prompt these migrations? Ik it t o f ind available forage, water, t o escape enemies, t o have their lambs, o r a combination of factors? Is there a pattern that may be f a i r l y uniform and dis t inct fo r any given range of mountains or any given group of sheep, or is it a l l more or l ess hap- hazard and unpredictable?

Another aspect of the problem concerns the physiology of the sheep. Beca use the Bighorn occupies both the deserts of the Southwest and also the high meuntaims of the Rockies and farther north, one wonders if there are any physiological differences between these groups. Assuming the Desert Bighorn i s simply a

- --race-that-was-strazlded-o~the-de sert-afte~the-last-ZcecAge ,-has it developed, any distinctive physiologic& peculiarities t o accompany the morphological ones it has certainly acquired? Is there -

a significance t o the fact that the more northern sheep tend t o possess stockier bodies and smaller horns, w h i l e the southern sheep, par t icular ly the desert races, tend t o have s l ight but W g y bod- i e s and smaller horns? How much do the mil. known and o f t repeat- - eQ Bergmann and Allen R u l e s apply t o Bighorn?

Authorities in the past have usually described the Big- horn as making vert ical migrations over the year, travelling upward into rather high country during the sll_lmnr;r and descending t o the lower parts of the range, the low canyons and foothills, in the f a l l and winter. However, though this may more of less accu- . rately describe the migration pattern of the Roc@ Mountain vari- e ty of Bighorn, it was seriously questioned by Goodman (1962) as it apses at leas t t o the Bighorn of Southern California. & the Santa Rosa Mountains, the Bighorn Sheep occupy the low desert canyons during only the spring and summer; with the f i r s t touch of cooler f a l l weather, or almost simulataneously with the advent of l a te sumraer rains, the sheep vatiish practically overnight from the canyons a f te r having spent the hottest sumnrsr months a t t h i s lou altitude. It could be asked, where do they go? NOW that water is more available, in potholes and sinks, do they leave to seek water elsewhore than a t the permanent summer uaterholes? O r , is it a response t o a drop i n the temperature that e l i c i t s in them a migratory urge?

Jones, e t al. (1957) reported that ( in the Santa Rosa Mountains ) "bighorn occupy the lower country, generally below 4,000 f t . . . . Water is the primary factor determining bighorn distribution. In winter, when moisture i s widespread and the climate is cool, the range i s most extensive. In summer, the Santa Rosa sheep have not been found ranging farther than about one mile from available water." If, as marry suggest, and this is born out by our own experience, sheep are very d i f f i cu l t t o locate once they leave the proximity of the watered summer canyons, is it not just as possible t ha t once sheep leave the waterholes they t r a w l relatively great distances a s t h a t they t ravel relat ively l i t t l e ? Everyone familiar with the situation can support the fac t tha t as one leaves tb proximity of the summering canyons s b e p sign becoms pmgressively older, fainter , and less abundant. This i s true even in sunrmer. In winter it is even more evident that the bulk sf the sheep are elsewhere, Thus, although we agree Kith Jones e t al. that in the summer months s k e p are confined durFng the hottest periods of the swmaer t o certain canyons having permanent uater, o r t o the i r immediate proximitLes, it is not necessarily our opinion that with the termination of the hot, dry summer the sheep w i l l be found occupying areas closely adjacent t o t he i r summer locations,

F i r s t , one must ask, wby do sheep ever desire t o cow down t o the lower canyon bottoms, nearly t o the desert floor, in the early spring,' there t o remab during the hottest,most -pleasant five months of the mar? Bound. as they becoree, .to the few permanent -rings and t&s @these-lower &nyons, ihey become dulnsrable to

- - -

predation and t o-poache r . ~ ~ - i T i s a & 3 s t ~ b e 1 l B V a 6 1 F t E t - ihey could have s&vived in the past i f they possessed the same habits they now seem t o possess. krly hunters were surely aware of t he i r extreme vulnerability a t these waterholes, plus thei r concen- tra t ions during the hottest time of the year. They would sure- lave l a i n in wait, days if necessary, and wiped out the entire popula t ion of sheep in the Santa Rosa Mountains.It is therefore probable tha t in the past they remained much more scattered than they now are, v is i t ing the lower canyons much less frequently.

Might one suggest t h a t some at tract ion other than water brings the Bighorn down t o the lower canyons i n early spring? Possi- bly there is som primeval urge to congregate, maybe f o r the purpose of reproductiaa, not unlike the migratory swarms of insects o r the concentrations of frogs and salamanders in woodland and pasture ponds in early spiring. Deming (1963) presented t h i s as a possibi l i ty in h i s provocative paper a t the most =cent Desert Bighorn Council, It has been noted by ourselves, and others, tha t the ea r l i es t arrivals a t lawer elevations, or a t l eas t in certain canyons a t low elevations designated YLambing cany~ns~~,a re the ewes, Only l a t e r on do the old rams make t h e i r appearance Fn the lower canyons, The ewes are, for the most part, bearing lambs a t t h i s early period, although how many ewea bear lambs in soli tary isolation o r in small bands, high in the mountains, a s opposed t o those in these so-called "lambing canyonsn, a t low elevations, i s unknown t o us.

A very rea l question can be raised regarding the use of the lower canyons a t a l l . . It is true they contain in some cases a source of permanent water, but there are springs and waterholes a t much hightr elevations, more remote and thus presumably less vulner- able t o predation ( t h i s point might be disputed, of course, as predation from mountain lions and danger from aboriginal hunters may have been fu l ly as p a t , o r greater, in these locations ). It might be suggested that some use i s made of these high springs and watering places, including more streams and rivers, but most obser-

- vations are t o the contrary, a t l eas t in regard t o the springs. In the recent past these springs are used by some stock and probably have been traditionally used by deer ( there are very few burros in - the Santa Rosa Mountains, most of these confined t o the extreme southern end of the range ) . In the San Gabriel Mountains of South- ern California the sheep range higher most of the year, coming dawn mostly only in winter t o the lmr canyons.

Upon numerous hikes through the Santa Rosa Mountains it has been noted that available forage and browse might be considered fully as important factors as water in detenoining the locations of Bighorn Sheep during the various seasons of the year. Indeed, it may be the primary factor in determining sheep distribution and in particular the primary factor i n sheep use of the lower desert canyons.

Rains, particularly the l igh t summer rains, may be very loca-l--and-spottip&-charaeterY-praducg- d-iscontinuous-areas-later= - P-

of practically barren slopes and canyons adjacent t o areas much more covered with vegetation. Although the ra infa l l differential may be s l igh t i n adjacent desert areas, even a sl ight difference in amount o r in t h e of fa l l ing may manifest i t s e l f i n major proper- tions when the vegetation and topography are considered. T h i s i s no more apparent than when one travels along a stretch of desert highway for several dozen or hundred miles, passing by sections of alternately barren and luxuriantly vegetated regions, depending almost entirely upon the amount of ra in fa l l received a few weeks ear- l ier .

That forage rather than water might be determining fac- t o r s in summer sheep distributibn was amply borne out by the observations of one of us during the summer waterhole study conducted in 1962. A comparison was made of conditions t o be found a t Deep Canyon and a t C a r r i z o Creek, separated by only a mile or so of des- e r t floor and both with permanent water. Deep Canyon, f a r the largest of the two, and indeed the major canyon, excepting Paha Can- yon, in the entire northern end of the Santa Rosa Range, has numerous waterholes, many of them permanent in nature. It i s sufficiently deep and remote, as well as having i t s lower end fenced off by the Deep Canyon Desert Research Station, of the University of California, that it would be expected t o support a very sizable populat ion of sheep during the summer. Carrizo Creek, on the other hand,

i s in the center of a r e a l e s t a t e development project, has only two questionably r e l i ab le permanent waterholes, upper and lower Carrizo Springs, and i s not nearly so remote and inaccessible. I n fac t , State Highway 7k leads up through the mountains between Deep and Carrizo canyons and passes within a few hundred yards of both springs in Carriao Creek, the upper spring lending a pipe a fountain on the highway, not more than f ive hundred yards away. Yet, it i s t h i s spring t h a t i n the pas t several years has had continuously heavy summer sheep use, with concentrations of twenty- five t o fo r ty sheep being counted occupying the canyon area immediately adjacent t o the spring. During t h i s period sheep have been observed in Deep Canyon throughout the year, v i s i t i ng some of the waterholes, and indeed some intercourse between the two canyons has been observed, with sheep being seen crossing over the highway on occasion. However, in the past several years no sheep oonoentrations l i k e those found each summer i n Carrizo Creek have been observed t o occur i n Deep Canyon. One must t r y t o a n a l p e the conditions responsible f o r this, if possible.

-

The observation t h a t sheep concentration is heavy every summer i n Carrizo Creek area while it is l i g h t in adjacent Deep Canyon leads one t o speculate immediately t h a t it is surely not the relati- abundance of water. However, upon examining the topography and browse conditions in the two canyons it is soon observed t h a t the two d i f f e r markedly. Deep Canyon, a s the name

-- suggests ,=is=a=ve-rysteep-waUed-canyon,=approximate~a=half - - -- - - -- --

mile deep, with narrow, often nearly ve r t i ca l walls. The canyon bottom is a s e r i e s of s teeply precipitous waterfalls, many of them dry most of the year, and impossible t o navigate, even by sheep, f o r the most par t . There a re more than t h i r t y of these dry waterfalls in a dozen o r so miles of winding canyon bottom. The walls support l i t t l e vegetation in most places except f o r a few species of plants requiring such habitat--Hofmeisteria, - Peu- cephyllum, etc., and the canyon bottom, though well watered in places, has vegetation only in the immediate vicini ty of springs and seeps. Deep Canyon is part of the major drainage of the higher Santa Rosa Peak area, which i s well watered higher up and r i s e s t o the surface in numerous spots along the en t i re f loo r of the canyon, almost t o its lower end. It terminates in a very broad, heavily dissected fan o r bajada, occupied a t i ts extrem- i t y by the c i t y of Palm Desert.

Carrizo Creek is drained from the slope of Asbestos Peak, a lower ridge north of Santa Rosa Peak, not nearly so watered in its upper reaches. There is, however, a broad' expanse of high plateau contry immediately adjacent t o the canyon, which i s supplied with innumerable small ju t t ing outcrops, suf f ic ien t ly complex t o serve as l i t e r a l l y hundreds of escape routes across the plateau. This plateau, and the immediate area, usually receive some spring and summer r a in fa l l , so t h a t the areas immediately around Carr im Creek are much more luxuriant than the conditions

encountered in Deep Canyon. I n addition, there are escape routes back into lower Carrizo canyon from the plateau, as well as i n t o Grapevine :anyon t o the north, as well as up onto Black H i l l and onto Asbestos Peak i t s e l f t o the west. IkcidentaUy, it i s t h i s entire area tha t is a t present being developed extensively for rea l estate, as has been reported by Tevis (1959, 1961).

A careful analysis of the vegetation might present evidence t o support the theory that it is the winter and early spring rainfal l , bring;ini: out,as it does most years, a luxuriant spring carpet of wildflowers and blossoming shrubs, that is the primary factor in at tract ing the sheep t o the lower desert canyons in the early spring, The ewes are f i r s t attracted, then the rams l a t e r on, probably attracted there by the presence of the ewes. Both might, i n the absence of excessive predation, find conditions not too ihtolerable, which, coupled with the fac t of the presence of a few waterholes and numerous escape routes, cause' the entire gopa- la t ion t o spend most of the summer i n the lower canyon bottoms.

With the advance of l a t e summer, and the successive drying up of waterholes and the increased diff iculty in obtaining sufficient vegetation of suitable nature, the sheep would abandon the waterho'1,es in the lower canyons a t the f i r s t spposturaity t o do so, travelling upward a considerable distance, if necessary, t o find suitable browse.

EWure studies on Desert Bighorn Sheep distribution should be aimed a t t q i n g t o relate the type and quality of the vegetation, as well as the quantity, conparing it with closely adjacent areas. Attention should also be given t o the topography, in pa r t i cuh r as it relates t o suitable escape routes and f ac i l i t y of movement, when attempting t o adjudge suitable Bighorn habitats. It is believed that such studies are necessary as a prerequisite be- fo r a knowledge of a l l the importark factors in Bighorn Sheep distribution can be properly analyzed. It is also believed that these are basic to any thorough studies on the ecology and management of the Desert Bighorn Sheep.

Literature Cited: - hming, Oscar V, 1963. Bighorn Breeding - Facts And Fiction. Trans-

actions, Seventh Annual Bighorn Council, 1963.

Goodman, John D, 1962. Annual Pligration in Desert Bighorn. Trans- . actions, Sixth Annual Bighorn Council, 1962'.

Jones, FredL., Glenn Fl i t tner andRichard Gard. 1957. Report on ,

a Survey of Bighorn Sheep in the Santa Rosa Mountains, Riverside County. California Fish and Game 43 ( 3 ) .

Tevis, Lloyd, Jr. 1959. Man1 s ~ f f e c t on Bighorn in The San Ja- c i n t o S a n t a Rosa Mountains. Transactions of the Third Annmal Desert Bighorn Council, 1959.

Tevis, Lloyd, Jr. 1961. Bat t le t o Save The Bighorn Range i n Santa Rosa Mountains of California. Transactions of the Fifth A n n u a l Desert Bighorn Council, 1961.

A DYE SPRAYING DEVICE FOR MARKING DESERT BIGHORN SHEEP

Charles G. Hansen

Desert Game Range

Las Vegas, Nevada

A spray device which makes use of kerat in staining dyes was developed for color marking the hair and horns of desert bighorn sheep, Ovis canadensis nelsoni, a t waterholes on the Desert Game Range. The bighorn sheep on the Game Range come t o the few and scattered waterholes during the dryest parts of the pear. The water sources a re small and i n many cases the water i s piped in to troughs for storage and drinking. I n these situations i t i s necessary for the bighorn sheep to stand within a limited area while drinking. Therefore i t i s not d i f f i c u l t t o s e t up t h i s device and d i rec t the spray a t the sheep while they are drinking .pig. 1). The device i s t r ig- gered by a cord stretched between the device a t the waterhole and the observer s i t t i n g i n a blind 80 t o 150 fee t away.

The nozzle for t h i s device was designed to spray from two to four ounces of dye .a t each "shot". This amount of dye covered an area on the sheep ~~~~~~~~~~~6-by-24--inches-on--the -side- or-the--back - or-both -when-i-t--s tood-wi-th- - - -

i n three t o f ive fee t of the nozzle. The colors used were pink, green and yellow. The dyes were mixed with alcohol i n order to insure penetration of the o i l y pelage of the animals. The dye mixture dr ies quickly and does not leave a residue to plug the equipment. It i s easi ly handled and can be di luted to any percentage of alcohol depending upon the degree of pene- t r a t ion and consequently the br i l l iance and/or permanence desired. Fading may occur a f t e r several weeks under cer tain circumstances.

MA.TERIALS AND METHODS

.The following materials were used to build the device:

a. Spray tank. A 2-1/2 gallon, funnel-top, garden spray with built.- in pump was purchased for about $8.00.

b. Extension hose. if teen fee t (or more i f desired) of acid r e s i s t an t hose was purchased from a sizeable auto parts store fo r about $0.50 per foot.

c. Spray nozzle. A 1/4 TT head made by the Spraying Systems Co. - was purchased for about $1.70.

A n aluminum je t (Fig. 2) was handmade to replace the j e t that i s manu- factured fo r the nozzle. This aluminum j e t was made from sheet aluminum about 2132~inch thick. The s l o t in i t was made about 2132-inch wide and 318-inch thick. The s l o t i n i t was made about 2/32-inch wide and 3/8-inch

long on the back side of the disc.and 112 inch long on the front side. Thus. the s l o t slopes outward a t the ends. I f the s l o t i s so long on -the front s ide that the 1 i q u i d . h i t s the edge of the nosepiece, the pattern of the spray w i l l be e r r a t i c .

d. Metal bracket. This bracket was made of 3116-inch by 2-114-inch i ron s t rap about 16 inches long. Four large holes were d r i l l ed a t one end to accomodate ,the ' "U1' bolt . i n three different positions. Also, a ser ies of smaller holes were d r i l l ed i n the bracket t o accommodate wire or n a i l s for attaching i t t o a post or tree.

e. Accessories. The elbow, hose clamp, "U" bolt , tr igger extension, cord and spring shown i n Figures 3 and 4 a re a l l items that a re standard a t any hardware store.

The dyes used were Rhodamine B Extra for pink, Malachite Green Crystals for green and Picr ic Acid for Yellow. The pink and green dyes were dissolved i n alcohol. The manufacturer o f , t h e dyes recommends ethyl alcohol; however 99% isopropyl alcohol i s i'nexpensive and was suitable for t h i s purpose, Picr ic acid was dissolved i n isopropyl alcohol t o make a satura- t e d se lu t f em,

The following mixtures were used and found to be sat isfactory when one gallon of solution was made: ,

a. Pink. Dissolvc 2 grams of 3hodamine B Extra i n one-half gallon of-g-g%-~sopr~w-l- a c < h o l ~ ~ K C ~ - . & - ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ a l - * g a l l f i -5f wate=, - I-f=- - =-

desired both Rhodamine B and Malachite Green can be dissolved i n water by f i r s t mixing the dye with a -smaJJ quantity o i alcohol or ace t ic acid t o make a thin ~ a s t e 6 n add hot water of approximately 160 degrees Fahrenheit. ' It can then be diluted to any strength with cold water.

-.-

b. Green. Dissolve four grams of Malachite Green i n one-half gallon of 99% isopropyl alcohol; khen add one-half gallon of water.

c. Yellow (Picric acid i s dangerous i f improperly used, so read the label carefully). Make a saturated solution of p icr ic acid i n one-half gallon of 99% isopropyl alcohol and add one-half gallon of water. Approximately 25 grams of p icr ic acid w i l l sa turate one-half gallon of isopropyl alcohol. A brighter yellow color can be obtained by using a more concentrated solution than the suggested half and half. This solution may i r r i t a t e the sensi t ive membranes on the head of the sheep, so i t i s recommended tha t the spray be directed to the body only u n t i l further observations are made. This dye i s the most permanent of the three.

d. Violet. Mix together various amounts of the green and pink ~ 0 1 ~ - t ions i n order t o produce the desired shade of violet .

DISCUSSION

This spray device was developed for use i n marking desert bighorn sheep during 3 to 12-day waterhole counts on the Desert Game Range i n order to

eliminate duplicating the count of animals. These dyes may remain on the animal u n t i l the hair i s shed, and they may stay on the horns for .

several years. However, the method was developed for observing marked animals over short periods of time.

Tlie .nozzle i n Figure 3 was affixed over a watering source and directed toward the area where the bighorn sheep would stand when drinking. Usually i t was necessary to use brush or rocks or both t o l imit tha t area. The spray can be directed to the front, e i ther s ide or to the rear of the animal by changing the direction (Fig. 4) and location of the nozzle. On the Desert Game Range the nozzle was placed so tha t the sprayed dye traveled only th ree t o f ive f ee t from the nozzle before touching the animal.

A nylon pul l cord was used to trigger the device, but i t has been suggested tha t l i g h t surgical wire be used. I n areas where lightweight ba t t e r i e s can supply e l ec t r i c i ty a solenoid attached to the valve and wired t o a pushbutton switch could also be used t o trigger the device.

RESULTS

There have been 74 bighorn sheep marked during two seasons of use. (Fig- ures 5 & 6). Observations of marked sheep a f t e r 5 days showed that the colors were re la t ive ly unchanged.

It w a s observed tha t when a sheep was allowed t o drink for 30 to. 60 seconds before being sprayed the aniinal would soon return to drink i t s

---£=i=l-1.-Mos t=off fhe=animals-on-the- Desert -Game - Range -that -were-sprayed-------- -- - =

returned to the water within 15 minutes to f in i sh drinking. ,

The animals would jump back or t o the side when sprayed. Consequently the fur ther the spray had to t ravel the less effect ive was the angle of ' the nozzle, especially when the observer desired to spray a particular area on the animal. Also the longer the distance between the sheep and the nozzle the l e s s dye touched the animal, thus making a l igh ter color on the animal.

I n one gallon of solution there was enough dye t o spray 30 t o 50 animals. There was enough pressure i n the 2-1/2 gallon tank when pumped to capacify t o spray 15 t o 20 single animals. In many instances two or three animals were marked a t the same time.

BUILT-IN PUMP-)

POST

FIGURE I SimpliFied sketch of dye spraying device in action.

ACID-RESISTANT HOSE' I

METAL

hdes for fwustrnerl

POST I I

I FIGURE 3

Schemdic diagram erf spray nozzle mounted o v a deuert bighorn 8h.p watwhola

SCREEN

ALUMINUM JET TO REPLACE STANDARD NOZZLE EQUIPMENT ON

FIGURE 2 Exploded diagram of nozzle componemfs.

SPRAYING SYSTEMS CO. - %+ TT NOZZLE

JA~INCH 45" ELBOW f l STANDARD PIPE ?h INCH ELECTRICAL THREAD CONDUIT CUT IN HALF

FIGURE 4

desert bighorn council transactions...las vegas, nevada santa fe, new mexico plateros sur 1999...

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