Thesis for P.HD Islamic Studies

Titled

“The Relations of Muslims and Non-Muslims in Mughal

period and their social impact on society”

Session 2009-2012

Research Scholar

Mirza Asif Baig

Roll No. 13

Ph.D Scholar

Supervisor

Dr. Altaf Hussain Langrial

Director Bahawalnagar Campus

Assistant Professor

Department of Islamic Studies

The Islamia University Bahawalpur

I

II

(Al-Ahzab: 33, 21)

“VERILY, in the Apostle of God you have a good example

for everyone who looks forward [with hope and awe] to God and

the Last Day, and remembers God unceasingly”

III

Student’s DECLARATION

I Mirza Asif Baig son of Mirza Saleem BaigPh.D Scholar of Department of Islamic

Studies, the Islamia University of Bahawalpur, hereby declare that the research work

entitled “The Relations of the Muslims and the Non-Muslims in the Mughal

period and their social impact on society”is done by me. I also certify that nothing

has been incorporated in this research work without acknowledgement and that to the

best of my knowledge and belief it does not contain any material previously

published or written by any other personor any material previously submitted for a

degree in any university where due reference is not made in the text.

Mirza Asif Baig s/o

Mirza Saleem Baig

Ph. D Scholar Islamic Studies

IV

Supervisor’s Declaration

It is hereby certified that work presented by Mirza Asif Baig Roll no: 13,

Registration no: 45/IU. Ph. D/2009,in the thesis titled “The Relations of the

Muslims and the Non-Muslims in the Mughal period and their social impact on

society”is based onthe results of researchstudy conducted by candidate under my

supervision. No portion of this workhas been formerly been offered for higher degree

in this university or any other institute of learning and to best of the author’s

knowledge, no material has been used in this thesis which is not his own work,

except where due acknowledgement has been made. He has fulfilled all the

requirements and is qualified to submit this thesis in partial fulfillment for the degree

of Ph. D, in the Faculty of Islamic Learning, the Islamia University of Bahawalpur.

Dr. Altaf Hussain Langrial

Director Bahawalnagar Campus/

Assistant Professor Department of Islamic

Studies

The Islamia University of Bahawalpur, Pakistan

V

Dedication

To my mother Nusrat Jahan who is not with us. May Allah bless her with His countless

favors of heaven !Ᾱmīn

Mirza Asif Baig

VI

Acknowledgements

While completing this Doctoral thesis, I visited several institutions as well as learned men

and learned a lot about research. In spite of their much indulgence in their own business

and research they helped me with their best suggestions and bestowed many pieces of

advice. On reaching at the point of completion of this hard task I want to pay respect and

reverence to all of those personalities whose help is the principal element of all my

successes.Special acknowledgement to my supervisor Dr. Altaf Hussain Langrial who has

supported me like a father and his co-operation, kindness and generous attitude remained

with me throughout the journey of my research. I am thankful to Mr. Dr. Muzammal

Husain, the principal Government Boys College Kot Sultan whose guidance,

encouragement and company has always been a divine blessing for me. In the same way I

am thankful to Mr. Dr Anwar Nazir Alvi, Assistant Professor at Govt. Boys College

Layyah and Professor Saleem Nasir who supported me on many occasionswith

encouragements. I am grateful to my father Mr. Mirza Saleem Baig whose prayers, kind

encouragements and love remained with me as a great support not only during my

research but also in my whole life. May Allah prolong his kind shadow on me and on my

family! I am thankful to Mr. Mohammad Shafaqat Malik who always helped me in the

composing process of this thesis. I am also grateful to all of my friends like Mr.Abd-ul-

Ghaffar Khan,Mr. Abd-us-Salam, Mr. Mahbub-ur-Rehman, Mr. Asif Kaleem, Mr. Tahir

Sultan Khan, Mr. Mohammad Amjad, Mr. Shafiq Nasir, Mr. Khalid Husain, Mr. Aslam

Khan and others who not only encouraged me but also supported me with their best

pieces of advice.I am thankful to the whole staff of the Islamic Studies departmentwhoco-

operated with me from the approval of the topic to the submission of this thesis. Library

staff of different Libraries like central Library IUB Bahawalpur, Central Library

Bahawalnagar Campus, Library of Mian Fazl Faried Lalika Bahawal Nagar and other

libraries also deserve special acknowledgement. I am thankful to Mr. Mirza Ghayas Baig,

my elder brother, my two younger sisters Shazia Saleem and Saima Saleem, whose

prayers always helped me whenever I was in difficulty. The other two personalities like

Mr. Mirza Imran Baig and Mr. Mirza Javeed Baig as well as my in-laws also helped me

with their prayers. On the closing lines of this acknowledgement it would be an injustice

not to express gratitude to my wife Iffat Shaheen who is not only a caring personality but

also has sacrificed her several wishes while supporting me in the completion of this

thesis. With her help I have succeeded in completing this task. In the same way I want to

VII

gratitude to my three sons, Mirza Azeem Baig, Mirza Usman Baig and Mirza Bilal Baig

who helped me with their smiles. May the Almighty bestow countless blessings to all of

them for their generous co-operation with me! Ᾱmīn

Mirza Asif Baig

VIII

Preface

Muslims reached in India through different ways and succeeded in founding different

dynasties. While becoming neighbors to Non Muslims they established relations with

them in nearly every field of life. In the same way Mughal Empire was founded by Zahir-

ud-Din Babur in 1526 which lasted in the world map until 1857 under different political

situations. Although he was a Chagatai Turk and had no direct blood link in paternal side

with Mughals and he expressed his disgust in his memoir about Mughals but his empire

became famous as Mughal Empire. Although the Emperor Babur succeeded in founding

the empire but he could not establish it. The emperor Akbar was the real founder of

Mughal Empire whose descendents ruled with complete authority nearly two centuries

after his death. The Mughals were the foreigners in India so they developed relations with

non Muslims to prolong their rule. While adopting the policy of Sulah-ikul, Akbar gave

new shape to these relations and completely ignored Islamic law. Not only had he

developed matrimonial relations with the Raj puts while taking Hindu princesses as his

wives but also raised the Hindu Rajas to high offices. Man Singh, Birbal and Bhaghwan

Das were the pillars of his empire. He abolished jizya and pilgrimage tax while giving

equal citizen status to Hindus. Although he succeeded in getting their support but with the

passage of time this concession to non Muslims became the reason of fall of Mughal

Empire. He also gave permission to Christians to make willing conversion. His policies

were followed by Jahangir and partially by Shah Jahanbut Aurangzeb completely tried to

move the state affairs under Islamic law.While taking back all of concessions from

Hindus he re-imposed jizya and Pilgrimage tax. Although after the death of Aurangzeb

and Bahadur Shah Mughal Empire remained on the map of world but with weak political

authority.The puppet rulers had no power to move the state with independent policies and

they were just instruments in the hands of different Amirs so their reign has been partially

discussed about the Muslim and non Muslim relations. Here a list of Mughal rulers has

been shared in below with their reigning period. Babur (1493-1530), Nasir ad-din

Muhammad Humayun (1530-1540 second reign 1555-1556), Jalal al-din Muhammad

Akbar 1( 1556-1605), Nur al-din Muhammad Jahangir (1605-1627), Dawar

Bakhsh(pretender) (1627), Shab al-din Muhammad Shah Jahan 1(1628-1658),

Muhammad Murad Bakhsh (pretender) (1658), Shah Shujah pretender) (1657-1660),

Muhayyi al-din Muhammad Aurangzeb Alamgir (1658-1707), Mirza Muhammad Azam

Shah (pretender) (1707), Muhammad Kam Bakhsh (pretender) (1707-1708), Bahadur

IX

Shah / Shah Alam 1(1707-1712), Azim-ush-Shan (pretender) (1712), Mohammad

Jahandar Shah (1712), Mohammad Shah Farrkhsiyar (1713-1719), Rafi-ud-Darjat (1719),

Shah Jahan 11(Rafi-ud-Daula) (1719), Nikusiyar Mohammad (pretender) (1719),

Muhammad Ibrahim (1720), Muhammad Shah (Roshan Akhtar) (1719-1748), Ahmad

Shah Bahadur (1748-1754), Akbar 'Adil Shah (1753), Aziz al-Din Alamgir 11 (1754-

1759), Shah Jahan 111 (1759-1760), Shah Alam 11 (1759-1806), BedarBakht (1788),

Mohammad Akbar 11(1807-1837) and Siraj al-Din Mohammad Bahadur Shah 11 Zafar

(1837-1857).

All the Mughal rulers developed the relations with non Muslims in different

fields. But this discussion has been confined to just political, educational, religious and

economic relations which developed under their patronage. So for as the matter of

political relations they gave the high military and civil offices to Hindus and with their

help they ruled with complete authority. The Emperor Akbar had keen interest in

religious discussion for this purpose he built a huge building under the name of Ebadat

Khana where he started Islamic religious discussions but with the passage of time he

expended the circle of discussions while inviting Hindu priests, Jain monks, Parsi

theologians and Jesuit Fathers for religious discussions in his court which had been then

shifted to the private hall of royal palace, Through these discussion he wanted to know

the philosophy of different religions and wanted to spread an impression among non

Muslims that he had reverence to all the religions. While adopting the partial customs and

rituals of non Muslim she succeeded in concealing his true faith. Every one of these

participants had claimed in his writings that the Emperor Akbar had expressed his desire

for conversion but these claims lost their live when the Emperor Akbar recited some

verses of Holy Qur’an after a Muslim doctor while dying. After the death of Akbar his

successor Jahangir also continued debates with the doctors of non Muslim communities.

Not only Akbar but also Jahangir allowed the people of non Muslim communities to

construct the buildings of worship. Under this concession Jesuit Fathers built Churches in

the principal cities of Mughal Empire where Christian religious festivals were celebrated.

The Mughal rulers fixed allowance for Jesuit Fathers. Even the Jesuit Fathers built a

chapel in the premises of the Mughal Palace. The Fathers also established a college where

the sons of Akbar and the children of Mughal nobles used to study from Jesuit Fathers. In

the same way Hindus also participated in the debates which held in the courts of Akbar

and Jahangir. Divali, Rakhi, Dasahra and other Hindu festival were celebrated along with

the Muslim religious festivals in the Mughal court. On such occasions the Muslims and

X

Hindus exchanged gifts with each other. Jain monks and Parsi doctors also were invited

in the court for religious discussions and get concession from the court and then

constructed the worshiping places and fire temples. They were also exempted from

paying jizya and pilgrimage tax. The Mughal court also fixed allowances for them. They

also celebrated their religious festivals in the Mughal court. In the Period of Shah Jahan

the situation had been changed for Christians and he demolished some portions of

churches at Agra and Lahore and partially allowed the Hindus to celebrate their festivals

in the court and tried to stop the construction of new temples. But his son Dara Shikuh not

only allowed them to construct new temples but also provided funds for the construction

of new temples. The Prince Dara had a great affection towards Hinduism. Aurangzeb

adopted a new religious policy while confining relations with non Muslims. In the same

way the Muslims developed economic relations with non Muslims which became the

reason of progress of Mughal Empire. Muslims and non Muslims traders played an

important role in inter-regional, intra-regional, sea born trade and international trade.

Indian spices, textile productions and crafts got popularity in whole world. The prosperity

of Indian trade brought the traders of different nations to India who maintained relations

with local traders of all communities. The European traders had developed a net work of

information about the demand of the markets of different countries.For this purpose the

Muslim pilgrims played an important role in exchanging the information because the

Muslims pilgrims used to bring business commodities while going for hajj to Mecca.

When they met with the traders of Europe they sold their Indian commodities to European

and other traders while getting information about the markets of Europe. On returning to

India those information had been shared to the Portuguese and other European traders.

Hindu, Jain, Parsi, Christian and Muslim businessmen and traders established their

business empires in India under the patronage of Mughal rulers and co-operation of

common people. In the Mughal Period the educational relations also reached at its peak

among Muslims and non Muslims. Although the education system was under the control

of private enterprises but a lot of Madrasas were running under the state patronage.

Before the Akbar period the Muslim religious sciences were taught in Maktabs(schools)

and Madrasas (colleges) with mathematics while ignoring the education of non Muslims.

Akbar was the first ruler who converted his attention towards the education of non

Muslims and then secular sciences were made necessary part of Maktabs and madrasas

where Hindu and Muslim boys used to get education from Muslim and non Muslim

teachers. The Muslim religious sciences were not taught to Hindu boys and in the same

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way Hindu religious sciences were not taught to Muslim boys. Persian was used as

medium of education for the Education of Muslim students and Sanskrit was used as

medium of education for Muslim boys. The pathsalas and maktabs were running under

private enterprises and providing primary education to the children. For higher education

the students had to get admission in madrada. The Hindu boys mostly joined the

institutions of Banaras for specialization in different sciences. These Hindu educational

institutions were patron aged by the Hindu nobles. The Mughal rulers founded a lot of

Madrasa in the principal cities of their empire. Hindu also learnt Persian language from

Muslim teachers. In this period Hindu religious books were converted into Persian under

imperial decree like Mahabharata, Ramayana, Punchtuntra, Singhasan, Upanishads and

several others.These relations put a reason able impact on every field of life like

literature, arts, painting, music, architect and social and cultural life. A quality of

toleration was developed in Indian society. Under the influence of Muslim and non

Muslim relations Bhahkti and other movements were appeared. The Muslims and Hindus

paid respect to the saints of each other. The Muslim adopted the dresses of Hindus. Caste

system was adopted by Muslims while following the footsteps of Hindus. Although the

some Muslims claim that they do not believe in caste system but then preference their

own caste while fixing marriage of their sons and daughters. The Muslim adopted the

customs for marriage which had been borrowed from Hindus, like mahndi, mayun,

doudhpilai etc. In the same way the dresses also had been borrowed from Hindus like

sari, lahngha for bridles. The bridegroom also wears the dresses of Hindu fashion.These

relations also brought prosperity in Indian society. Hindu society also adopted some

rituals of Muslims. Under the influence of Muslim and non Muslim relations a lot of

movement appeared in Hindu society which put stress on the equality of human being and

opposed the worship of idols.

Mirza Asif Baig

XII

Abstract

Today our society is facing serious issues of terrorism and sectarianism. Trough this

thesis it is being proved that this attitude is not only against the Islamic law but also

against the Islamic history. To improve the religious and inter faith harmony in society

the examples from Islamic history have been shared in this thesis which tell that no

society can survive without tolerance and religious harmony. For this purpose Mughal

period has been selected. The Mughal rulers not only adopted toleration towards non

Muslim communities but also developed relations with them in every field of life.

Political, religious, economical and educational relations of Muslim and non Muslims

have been discussed which brought prosperity and solidarity in Mughal Empire in the

early two centuries of their rule. Under the influence of relations with Muslims the

Hindus also adopted toleration towards Muslims in their society. Commonly it is said that

the Emperor Akbar founded a Din under the name of Din-i-Elahi while gathering the

rituals of different religions. It is not true because in this so-called Din there was no

temple, no book and even no priest and for a Din or religion such things are very

necessary. But he tried to make a social order and in spite of his encouragement only

eighteen persons accepted it and after his death this social order lost its life. The followers

of this social order were mostly Muslims and only Birbil accepted this from the whole

Hindu community. The Jainas, Christians and Parsis showed no interest in it. Actually

Akbar was a student of comparative study of different religions for this purpose he invited

doctors of different religions and tried to understand the philosophies of different

religions while adopting partially their rituals and customs. These relations also put

impact on Indian culture and social life. The Muslims and non Muslim communities

started to adopt the customs, rituals and life style of one another while ignoring orthodox

law and religious limits. Through this thesis it is tried to tell that Islam does not like such

practices. Under the influence of these relations thousands of non Muslim converted to

Islam. But a lot of examples of apostasy had been also reported. The Muslims also

adopted the lifestyle of Hindus while wearing Hindu dresses. Through this thesis this

thought has been shared that Muslims and non Muslim relations are compulsory element

in Muslim society but the Muslim should avoid violating Islamic law.

XIII

Abstract (Urdu)

آج ہماری سوسائٹی دہشت گردی اور فرقہ واریت کا شکا ر ہے اس مقالہ کے ذریعے یہ بتایاجا رہاہے کہ یہ

رویہ نہ صرف اسلامی قانون کے خلاف ہے بلکہ اسلامی تاریخ کے بھی خلاف ہے۔ مذہبی رواداری کے فروغ

کہ رواداری کے بغیر کوئی کے لیے اسلامی تاریخ سے امثلہ اس مقالہ میں پیش کی گئی ہیں جو بتاتی ہیں

معاشرہ زندہ نہیں رہ سکتا۔ اس مقصد کے لیے دو ر مغلیہ کا انتخاب کیا گیا ہے مغلوں نے نہ صرف غیر

مسلموں سے رواداری کا مظاہرہ کیا بلکہ زندگی کے ہرشعبے میں ان سے تعلقات بھی استوار کیے اس مقالہ

، تجارتی اور علمی تعلقات کو موضو ع بحث بنایا گیا ہے میں مسلمانوں اور غیر مسلموں کےسیاسی ، مذہبی

جو کہ مغل سلطنت میں تقریبًا دو سو سال تک خوشحالی اور استحکام کا باعث بنے۔ مسلمانوں کے ساتھ ان

تعلقات کے اثرات کے تحت غیر مسلموں نے بھی مسلمانوں کے ساتھ رواداری کے طرز کو اختیار کیا۔ عام

تا ہے کہ اکبر نے مختلف مذاہب کے رسوم کو یکجا کر کے دین الہیٰ کے نام سے ایک دین کو طور پر یہ کہا جا

قائم کیا ۔یہ سچ نہیں ہے کیونکہ اس نام نہاد دین میں نہ کوئی مذہبی عبادت خانہ ، نہ کوئی کتاب اور نہ کوئی

ی ہیں۔اصل میں اس نے طریقت مذہبی لیڈر دکھائی دیتا ہےلیکن دین یا مذہب کے لیے یہ تمام چیزیں بہت ضرور

کا ایک راستہ اختیار کرنے کی کوشش کی اور اس کی حوصلہ افزائیوں کے باوجودصرف اٹھارہ اشخاص نے

اسے اختیار کیا اور اس کی موت کے ساتھ ہی طریقت کا یہ راستہ بھی اپنی موت آپ مر گیا ۔اسے قبول کرنے

ں سے صرف ایک شخص بیربل نے اسے قبول کیا جینیوں ، والے اکثر مسلمان تھے اور پوری ہندو قوم می

عیسائیوں اور پارسیوں نے اس میں کوئی دلچسپی نہ لی ۔اصل میں اکبر تقابل ادیان کے شعبہ کا ایک طالب علم

تھا اور اس مقصد کے لیے اس نے مختلف مذاہب کے ماہرین کو طلب کیا اور مختلف مذاہب کے رواجوناور

اگرچہ اس کے اس اقدام سے ۔رتے ہوئے ان کے مذہبی نظریات کو سمجھنے کی کوشش کی رسومات کو اختیارک

سیاسی طور پر مغل سلطنت کو استحکام حاصل ہوا لیکن اس مقالہ کے ذریعے یہ بتانے کی کوشش کی جارہی

ہزاروں غیر مسلم اسلام قبول ہے کہ ایسی عادات کو اسلام پسند نہیں کرتا ۔ان تعلقات کا بہت اچھا پہلو یہ ہے کہ

کرتے نظر آتے ہیں ۔لیکن اس کے ساتھ ساتھ کچھ لوگوں کی اسلام سے منحرف ہونے کی مثالیں بھی موجود ہیں

مسلمانوں نے ہندوں کے ملبوسات کو اختیار کرتے ہوئے ہندووانہ طرز زندگی کو اختیار کیا اس مقالہ کے

نوں اور غیر مسلموں کے تعلقات ایک مسلمعاشرہ کااہم جزو ہیں لیکن ذریعے یہ نظریہ بیان کیا گیا ہے کہ مسلما

ان تعلقات کے فروغ کے دوران مسلمانوں کو اسلامی قانون کی خلاف ورزی نہیں کرنی چاہیے۔

XIV

Introduction

The Muslims and non-Muslims relations are considered very important in Islamic society.

These relations are found in every period of Islamic history. The Holy Qur’an gives clear

instructions about these relations. Clear instructions and examples about these relations

can be seen in the life of Holy Prophet Hazrat Muhammad. The Holy Prophet maintained

relations with non-Muslims in different fields of life. The trade relations, political

relations, educational relations and some social relations were developed by the Holy

Prophet with non-Muslims. The Holy Prophet more than once traveled to Syria then a

Christian state with business commodities. Trade transactions also can be seen in Madina

which were done by the Holy Prophet and his followers. In the same way the Holy

Prophet maintained political relations with non-Muslims, these relations can be seen in

the examples of Sulah Hudabia and Mesaq-iMadina. When the Christian delegation

reached at Madina from Najran while wearing their religious dresses, they were stayed in

mosque of Madina. Then a peace agreement was signed between the Holy Prophet and

the delegation of Najran. Educational relations can be seen at the occasion of battle of

Badr, when the non-Muslims prisoners got freedom after teaching Muslim children.

These relations of Muslims and non-Muslims were also developed during the Caliphate

rule. These relations can be seen in Umayyad and Abbasian periods. In Hindustan these

relations reached on its high rank during the Mughal rule. These relations can be seen in

every field of life; especially the Mughal rulers developed political, educational,

economical and religious relations as well as social relations with non-Muslims. These

relations brought prosperity and solidarity in Mughal Empire. Under these relations

thousands of non-Muslims converted to Islam. In spite of these solidarity and prosperity

some reports about apostasy of Muslims also preserved by the history. Tolerance also

developed in the societies of Muslims and non-Muslims communities. In the same way

some practices also reported about matrimonial relations whom developed among some

Muslims and non-Muslim families. The Muslims and non-Muslims communities also

adopted ritual and customs of each other while violating the religious limits and orthodox

law. Purdah and seclusion also developed in Hindu societies. The Hindu religious texts

were translated from Sanskrit to Persian languages like Mahabharata, Ramayana, Paranas

and other texts under the efforts of Akbar, Dara and others nobles.

XV

Review of Literature

Several books like Ain-iAkbari by AbulFazl, translated by Hennery Blockmann, Babur

Nama by Zahir-ud-din Babur, History of Aurangzeb by Sir Jadunath Sarkar, Akbar the

Great by Vincent Arthur Smith, Tarikh-i Hindustan by Moulvi Mohammad Zaka Ullah,

Warriors of the Crescent by W. H. Davenport Adams, History of Mogul Dynasty in India

by Father Francois Catrou published in 1826, Storia Do Mogor or Mogul India by

Niccolao Manucci Venetian translated by William Irvine published in 1907, The Indian

Empire, its people, history, and products by W. W. Hunter published in 1886, Humayun

Nama by Gulbadan Bagum, Jahangir Nama by Emperor Jahangir, Ma,asar-I Alamgiriby

Mohammad SaqiMusta’id Khan translated by Moulvi Muhammad Fida Ali Talib

published by Nafees Academy, Rud-iKausar, Aab-iKausar by Sheikh Muhammad Ikram,

Mu’ashri-wa-AlmiTarikh, by Dr. Syed Mu’in-ul-Haq, Travels in the Mogul Empire by

Francois Bernier, annotated by Archibald Constable (1891), published by Humphrey

Milford, London, 1916, A Cultural History of India, edited by A. L. Basham, Oxford

University Press, 1975, and a lot of other books have reasonable material about the

relations of Muslims and non-Muslims in Mughal India but this material is found in

scattered shape. This useful material has helped in the completion of this thesis. This

research work would be a useful material for next generations and in the same way it

would be a useful research work for maintaining balanced relations among Muslims and

non-Muslims.

Main Objectives

Today our society is facing serious issues of terrorism and sectarianism. Suicide bombing,

target killing as well as killing of innocent children, women and men is very common in

our society.None of a person whether he is Muslim or non-Muslim is free from the issue

of sectarianism and terrorism. These attacks and activities are being done under the name

of Jihad while seeing the dreams of heaven and blessing of Allah, without knowing that it

is not only against the Islamic Law but also state rule. Through this research work it is

being told that these practices of terrorism and sectarianism are against the instructions of

Holy Qur’an and the Sunnah of Holy Prophet. Moreover through this work a clear guide

line is being given to those people who are involved in such practices that Islam is a

religion of peace and harmony which not only gives warm permission to non-Muslims to

flourish in Muslim society while giving them the status of Ahl-iZimmah with the

XVI

guarantee of protection of their lives, their honor, their properties as well as their religious

sentiments but also encourages the Muslims of different shades of ‘Ikhtilaf’ to live in

society with peace and harmony.

Hypothesis

While developing relations with non-Muslims the Muslim Rulers extended matrimonial

relations with Hindus which was followed by common people. In the same way the

Hindus brought the Muslim girls in their houses as their wives. This trend is still

continued. It is assumed that this trend was developed under the result of these Muslims

and non-Muslims relationswhile is the clear violation of tructions of Islamic traditions. In

the same way several customs, rituals and tradition entered into Islamic society of India,

through this way a try was made to weak the identity of Islam.

Significance of Study

The period of Mughal rule in Subcontinent is consist of more than three centuries can be

divided chiefly into two parts. The first portion of rule is very important because a rapid

progress had been reported in the field of science, technology, education, politics, and as

well as social ground.This was mostly was the result of Muslims and non-Muslims

relations. A lot of famous non-Muslims personalities were attached with the Mughal

Court, their selection was purely based on merit, religious was not entertained. The

famous Nau Rattan was attached with the court of Akbar. Although the examples about

the persecution of non-Muslims had been reported but the Mughal developed good

relations with non-Muslims. The Mughal rulers also developed the relations in the field of

education and under these relations the Mughal rulers extended secular sciences.Before

the arrival of Muslims in Hindustan, the several religions lost their identity while merging

in Hinduism. But when the Muslims reached with Islam the situation had been changed

because the Islam had come with its own identity and religious doctrine. In this situation

some reservations had appeared in the non-Muslim communities of India because the

Muslims entered in Hindustan as conquers. To remove their reservations the Muslim

rulers established relations with non-Muslims in different fields of life while following

some Islamic rules. But the Mughal rulers developed the relations with non-Muslims

while following compromising policy over religious matters of their non-Muslim

subjects. The first compromising policy was adopted by Babur when he advised his son

Humayun while dying that he should avoid from religious persecution of non-Muslims

and shouldprovide justice to his subjects without discrimination of caste, creed and

XVII

religion. In the same way he also advised to Humayun that he should entertain the

customs, rituals and religious sentiments of non-Muslims, especially he should avoid

slaughtering of the cows. He also advised that he should entertain different religions of

his subjects like the beauty of different seasons, so through this way he would be able to

save his political structure. A lot of other concessions were given to non-Muslim,

especially by Akbar, Jahangir, Dara Shikuh. Even Akbar gave permission to Hindu wives

to worship according to Hinduism in royal palace. Under the influence of such policies

the subjects also started to adopt the life style of their rulers.

Statement of Problems

What kind of relations was developed by the Mughal rulers? Which method or policy was

adopted by Mughals to maintain relations with other non-Muslim states of sub-continent?

Mughal rule was extended nearly more than three centuries, why were they compelled to

adopt a compromising policy and attitude in adopting non-Muslims culture?The practice

of embracing of Islam although was very common but in spite of the rapid conversion

why they failed to develop pure spirit of Islam in their minds? What kind of effects

developed in the social life of Muslims? All the questions which have been discussed in

above lines their answers would be find with mature struggle.

Research Methodology

This topic is related with history and social life of Mughal period, so for this purpose

libraries, like the central library of IUB, library of Bahawalnager Campus Islamia

University of Bahawalpur, Fazl Faried Lalika library of Bahawalnagar, Jhandir library,

Baghlangay Khan library Multan have been visited. In the same way the internet has been

used for research and by this way several old books have been downloaded.

Table of Contents

Contents Page

No.

Table of contents I

Student’s Declaration III

Supervisor’s Declaration IV

Dedication V

Acknowledgements VI

Preface VIII

Abstract XII

Abstract (Urdu) XIII

Chapter No. 1

Introduction of Mughals

1.1 Brief introduction of Taimur Beg 1

1.1.1 Taimur’s Earlier Descendants 2

1.1.2 Brief Introduction of Umer Sheikh Mirza 3

1.2 Zahir-ud-din Muhammad Babur and his Political Carrier 3

1.2.1 Political Situation of Samarkand 5

1.2.2 Hundred days Rule of Babur in Samarkand 6

1.2.3 Babur was Deprived from Andejan 7

1.2.4 Babur on the throne of Andejan 8

1.2.5 Babur again on the Throne of Samarkand 9

1.2.6 Babur’s Fugitive Life 10

1.2.7 Expedition to the Indus 12

1.2.8 Babur on the Throne of Delhi 15

1.2.9 Defeat of Rana Sanga 16

1.2.10 Babur’s Religious Policy 18

1.2.11 Death of Babur and his Character 18

1.3 Humayun the Successor of Babur 19

1.3.1 Rivals of Humayun 19

1.3.2 Hostilities of Mirzas 20

1.3.3 Affairs of Gujarat 21

1.3.4 Conflicts between Sheer Shah and Humayun 22

1.3.5 Humayun’s Exile 25

1.3.6 Humayun again on the Throne of Delhi 25

1.3.7 Humayun’s Religious Policy and Character 26

1.4 Akbar the Great 27

1.4.1 Close Matrimonial Relations and Political Alliance with

Rajputs

28

1.4.2 Akbar’s Religious Policy 30

1.4.3 Abolition of Jizya and Permission of Public worship 32

1.4.4 Character of Akbar 32

1.5 Brief Account about Jahangir Reign 33

1.5.1 Religious Policy of Jahangir 34

1.5.2 External Challenges 36

1.5.3 Brief Account about Sher Afghan and Nur-Jahan 36

1.5.4 Relations with Europeans 37

1.5.5 Hindus in Public Service 39

1.5.6 Deccan Expeditions 39

1.5.7 Jahangir’s Qualities 41

1.6 Shah Jahan 42

1.6.1 Children of Shah Jahan 42

1.6.2 Non-Muslims in Public Service 45

1.6.3 Religious Policy 46

1.6.4 Conflicts with Portuguese 48

1.6.5 The Battle of Brothers 48

1.6.6 Justice of Shah Jahan 50

1.7 The Reign of Aurangzeb 51

1.7.1 Non-Muslims in Public Service 52

1.7.2 Religious Policy of Aurangzeb 53

1.7.3 Rise of Sikhs and Jats 55

1.7.4 East India Company and Sea Robbers 56

1.7.5 Character of Aurangzeb 58

1.8 Bahadur Shah and his Successors 60

1.8.1 Attack of Nadir Shah 63

1.9 Splendor of Mughal Rulers 65

1.9.1 Roads and Mail Delivery System 66

1.9.2 Mughal Army 66

1.9.3 Mughal Household 67

Chapter No. 2

Muslims and Non-Muslims Religious Relations in Mughal Period

2.1 Muslims and Hindus Religious Relations 73

2.1.1 Policies towards Places of Worship 74

2.1.2 Akbar & Jahangir Policy about Temples 74

2.1.3 Shah Jahan & Dara Skikuh Policies towards Temples 75

2.1.4 Aurangzeb Policy towards Temples 76

2.1.5 Religious Discussions 78

2.1.6 Respect to Hindu Religious Sentiments and Festivals 81

2.2 Muslims and Jainas Religious Relations 83

2.2.1 Jainism in Eastern India 84

2.2.2 Jainism in Gujarat and Deccan 85

2.2.3 Jainism in Southern India 85

2.2.4 Jainism in Northern India 86

2.2.5 Jainism during Delhi Sultanate 87

2.2.6 Jain Relations with Mughal Court 89

2.2.7 Jains under Jahangir Rule 91

2.2.8 Dara Shukoh’ Relations with Jains 93

2.3 The Parsis Relations with Muslims in Mughal India 94

2.3.1 Migration of Zoroastrians towards India 95

2.3.2 Worship Places of Parsis in India 96

2.3.3 Zoroastrian Rivayats 98

2.3.4 Zoroastrians Relations with Mughals 98

2.3.5 Parsis High Status in Mughal Court 99

2.3.6 Awarding lands to non Muslim Communities 103

2.3.7 Business Establishments of Zoroastrians 103

2.3.8 Parsi Religious Disputes during Eighteenth Century 104

2.3.9 Indian Zoroastrian Panchayet 105

2.3.10 Parsi Language 106

2.3.11 Nou Ruz Celebration in Mughal Court 106

2.4 Christians and Muslim Relations in Mughal Period 106

2.4.1 The Advent of Portuguese and Christian Missionaries in India 108

2.4.2 The Arrival of First Christian Mission to Mughal Court 109

2.4.3 The Second Christian Mission in Lahore (1591-1592) 111

2.4.4 Third Jesuit Mission in Royal Court 112

2.4.5 Expansion of Christianity in India 113

2.4.6 Celebration of Religious Festivals in Capital Cities 113

2.4.7 Akbar’s Faith While Embracing Death 114

2.4.8 Christian Missionaries in the Court of Jahangir 115

2.4.9 Christian Missionaries in Shah Jahan Period 117

Chapter No. 3

Trade and Economic Relations

3.1 Indigenous Trade 132

3.1.1 Rural Markets in Mughal India 133

3.1.2 Urban Commercial Centers in Mughal India 136

3.1.3 Urban Markets in Mughal India 137

3.2 Cotton Textiles in Mughal Period 138

3.2.1 Technology in Cotton Cloth Manufacturing 140

3.3 Cultivation of Tobacco and Opium 141

3.4 Industry and Craft 142

3.4.1 The Mineral Production in India 143

3.4.2 Miscellaneous Items and their Trade 143

3.5 Bunyas as Reputed Trading Class 144

3.5.1 Jain Bunyas in Indian Trade 144

3.5.2 Khatris and Hindu Ascetic Orders as a Trading Class 145

3.5.3 Oswal a Merchant Caste 146

3.5.4 Major System of Supplying Credit 147

3.5.5 The Business Techniques of Bunyas 148

3.5.6 Transportation of Goods 150

3.6 The Indian Merchant Diasporas 151

3.6.1 Diaspora and Identity 152

3.6.2 Trading Technique and Relations with Host Societies 154

3.6.3 Shifting from Multan to Shikarpur 156

3.7 Development of Trade in Different Directions of World 157

3.7.1 Monopoly of Portuguese in Seaborne Trade 157

3.7.2 Networks of Information 159

3.8 Dutch, English and French Companies in Inter Asian Trade 161

3.8.1 European Seaborne Early Trade in India 164

3.8.2 Cotton Textiles and Other Goods in Seaborne Trade 165

3.8.3 Decline of Indian Trade 167

3.8.4 Relations of Surat Administration with Merchants 168

Chapter No. 4

Muslim and non-Muslim Educational Relations

4.1 Muslims’ interest towards Education 174

4.1.1 Education before Mughals 177

4.1.2 Aims of Education 178

4.1.3 Organization of Educational System 179

4.2 Mughal Emperors’ Efforts for the Promotion of Education 180

4.2.1 Akbar’s Interest in the Promotion of Education 180

4.2.2

The Efforts of Jahangir and Shah Jahan for the Promotion of

Education

183

4.2.3 Aurangzeb’s Educational Policy 183

4.2.4 The Management for Education Department 184

4.2.5 Mughal Syllabus and Books for Maktabs and Madrasas 185

4.2.6 Principal Education Centers in Mughal Period 186

4.2.7 Organization of Educational System 188

4.2.8 Examination System 189

4.2.9 Vocational Education 189

4.2.10 Education for Muslim and non Muslim Women 190

4.2.11 Libraries in Mughal Period 191

4.2.12 Translation of Sanskrit Books to Persian 192

4.2.13 Europeans Efforts in the Development of Indian Literature 196

4.3 The Education of Hindus in Orissa under Mughal Rule 198

4.3.1 Benares as Hindu Educational City under Mughal Empire 199

4.3.2 Organization of non Muslims Educational system 201

4.3.3 Syllabus of Hindu Education in Mughal India 201

4.3.4 The Hindus Interest in Persian Language 202

4.3.5 The Progress of Hindu Astronomy 203

4.4 Christian Efforts in Promotion of Religious Education 203

4.5 Mughal Interest in Music and Painting 204

4.5.1 Jahangir Interested in Paintings 206

4.6 Training for Different Fields 208

4.7 Education System at the Time of Arrival of British 209

4.7.1 Efforts of Christian Missionaries 210

4.7.2 Education under the East India Company 211

4.7.3 Role of Charles Grant in the Education of Mughal India 212

Chapter No. 5

The Social Impact of Muslims and non Muslims Relations on Society

5.1 Impact on the Different Fields of Society 218

5.1.1 Impact of Harem and Rajas on Akbar 219

5.2 The Impact of Bhaghti Movement and Sufism in Society 220

5.2.1 Influence of Hindu Yogis on Mughal Emperors 221

5.3 Impact of Muslim and non Muslim Festivals in Society 223

5.4 Impact of Hindus Marriage Customs 224

5.4.1 Impact of Hindu Dresses on Common Muslim Dresses 224

5.5 Mughal Interest in Social Reforms 225

5.5.1 Begging and other Social Evils 226

5.6 Development of Tolerance in Societies 226

5.6.1 Development of Tolerance in Hindu Society 227

5.7 Muslims and non Muslims Mutual Marriages 228

5.8 Purdah or Seclusion in Mughal Society 229

5.8.1 Royal Women and Seclusion 230

5.9 Conversion to Islam and Apostasy 231

5.9.1 Emperors’ Efforts in Conversion to Islam 233

5.10 Decline of the Status of Brahmans 233

5.11 Development of Cast System 234

Conclusion 238

Recommendations 241

Indexes 243

Bibliography 257

Apology 266

1

Chapter No.1

Introduction of Mughals Brief Introduction of Taimur Beg:

Amir Taimur, Tiamur Beg Gorgan (1336-1405) famous as Tamerlane, was

born in a suburb of Samarkand. He was the son of the chief of the Barlas. He conquered

vast territories of west, south and Central Asia and founded the Taimurid dynasty. In his

descendants Babur Beg was born who founded the Mughal Empire which remained on

the world map from 1526 to 1857. Although Barlas was one of the Mongol tribes but the

members of this tribe had become Turks in manners, language and life style due to long

residence in Turki territories. Some historians say that Amir Taimur was the direct

descent from Chingiz Khan and this relation can be discovered in holy Alankawa, a

common ancestor of both the warriors. Whether this claim is right or wrong but Taimur

himself claimed in his memoirs that they both were the members of the same lineage, and

even claimed hereditary Prime Minister of the dynasty. It is said that Kabul and Kajuli

were the sons of Tumana Khan, one of the ancestors of Chingiz Khan. The elder brother

one night dreamed that like a shining star he covered whole of the earth and sky with his

brightness. The younger brother Kajuli also had a dream but his star was smaller in its

brightness. The interpreters told that from the line of Kabul a powerful sovereign would

arise, who would conquer the whole earth and his descendants would rule for ages and the

younger brother and his descendants would serve them as their prime ministers. To follow

heavenly will both the brothers entered into an agreement, which was called “The

Altamgha of Tumana Khan”. According to this agreement the descendants of the elder

brother would enjoy the status of sovereignty and the younger brother and his

descendants would serve as the amirs of their rulers. Chingiz Khan was descended from

Kabul and from Kajuli came Taimur Beg. It is said that Karachar Nuian was the Atalik or

Minister of Chingiz during his childhood. While renewing the ancient agreement Chingiz

Khan made Karachar the Prime Minister to his son Chagatai Khan. Dawa Chichan and

Alengiz Nuian again revived this compact, the former was from the line of Chingiz and

the later was a grandson of Karachar. From Karachar, Taimur was born. Whether the

above mentioned claim is right or wrong but it is true that all the successes which had

been gained by the Taimur Beg were due to his own extraordinary talent, struggle and

velour. Having united his own tribe, he then got possession over the whole of

Transoxiana and other rich territories. He left at his death a great empire of the world. (1)

2

Taimur’s Earlier Descendants:

The empire of Taimur was divided among his sons. Because the history is

being told about Babur so the discussion has been confined to the history of Transoxina

and to the rulers of said country who had direct link with Babur. Shahrukh became the

sovereign of Mawerannaher and Miranshah the third son of Taimur Beg, from whom

Babur was born, took control over Azerbaijan, Syria, and Irak, as his share. But soon he

lost his life in a battle by Turcoman horde, near Tabriz. Sultan Muhammad Mirza, the

eldest son of Miranshah was in Samarkand where he was warmly treated by his uncle

Shahrukh Mirza. He was also looked after by Ulugh Beg Mirza, the son of Shahrukh

Mirza. This prince was a learned man of the age, especially in the field of astronomy.

Mirza Sultan Muhammad did not take part in politics. But on his death bed was visited by

Ulugh Beg Mirza. On this occasion the dying prince made Ulugh Beg Mirza the guardian

of his son Abu Sa’id Mirza. He fulfilled his promise and Abu Sa’id remained under his

patronage for some years, but in spite of this kindness Abu Sa’id deprived his uncle from

the throne of Samarkand. Ulugh Beg Mirza was not a good politician and most of his time

was spend in research of astronomy. According to detail his son rebelled against him. To

quell the rebellion of his son, he was force to march against him. While seeing the capital

without defense, Abu Sa’id occupied the empty throne of Samarkand. Having informed

about the treachery, Ulugh Beg Mirza marched back to quell this new revolt but was

followed by his son and was defeated and then was killed. The parricide next attacked

upon Samarkand and arrested Abu Sa’id and made the prisoner. The parricide prince was

killed on his turn. Abu Sa’id after some time succeeded in getting freedom from the

prison and then joined the camp of Abulkhair Khan in the wilds of Kipchak. Here he

encouraged him to march against Transoxiana. When the Khan’s army got some

successes near Samarkand, while secretly leaving Khan’s camp, entered into the fort of

Samarkand and the inhabitants raised him to the throne. During his reign not only he

conquered the whole of Transoxiana but also got control over Khurasan, Makran and

Indus. But soon he was perished in a battle. Abu Sa’id was the grandfather of Babur after

his death his empire was divided among his sons and strangers. Out of his nine sons, four

became independent sovereigns. The eldest son Sultan Ahmad Mirza got the throne of

Samarkand and Bokhara, Sultan Mahmud Mirza his third son became the ruler of

Badakshan, Khultan, Turmez and Hisarshadman, and his forth son Umer Sheikh Mirza

became the ruler of Ferghana. Ulugh Beg Mirza, the youngest son, became sovereign of

3

Kabul and Ghazni. Khurasan was conquered by Sultan Hussein Mirza Baikera also

descendant of Taimur and was an eminent patron of learning and learned men. (2)

Brief Introduction of Umer Sheikh Mirza and Ferghana:

Umer Sheikh Mirza, the father of Babur, was the ruler of Ferghana, a small

state of Transoxiana. Sultan Ahmad Mirza, the ruler of Samarkand and Umer Sheikh

Mirza, both were brothers as mentioned above but in spite of this relation they raised their

weapons against each other. Both the brothers were the sons in law of Yunis khan, the

Grand Khan of the Mughals. Besides Ferghana, Umer Sheikh Mirza ruled over Tashkand,

Seiram and Shahrokhia. In 1494, Sultan Ahmad Mirza the ruler of Samarkand and Sultan

Mahmud the khan of the Mughals decided to deprive Umer Sheikh Mirza from his

territories and to support this union Sultan Mahmud married the daughter of Sultan

Ahmad Mirza. It was also decided that Mirza should penetrate into Ferghana from the

south and the Khan should enter Ferghana from the north. Umer Shiekh Mirza the ruler of

Ferghana, suddenly died by an accident on June 9, 1494. He left three sons, from different

wives. Babur from kutluk–nigar Khanum, the daughter of Yunis Khan, Jahangir Mirza

by Fatima Sultan, the daughter of a chief of the Mughal Tuman and Nassir Mirza by a

concubine. He had five daughters. Here a need is being felt to give a brief introduction

about Ferghana. Fergana now has become Kokan is a beautiful and fertile country and

was famous for its rich fruit and grains. Kashghar is situated on the east, Samarkand on

the west, Badakhshan Mountains on the south, old towns like Almaligh, Almatu and

Yangi were on the north of Ferghana but there is no population at the present time. The

famous river Saihun enters into the state from the north east and after passing many

territories of the country and then enters into Turkistan. The five famous province of

Ferghana like Andejan, Aush (Ush), Marghinan, Asfara and Khujand are situated on the

south of river and Akshi and Kasan situated on the north of river. Andijan was the capital

of Ferghana. (3)

Zahir-ul-din Muhammad Babur and his Political Carrier:

Although Ferghana was a little state and a region of Central Asia but got

popularity throughout the world due to the birth place of Babur, there the prince was born

in 1483. On the birth of this fortunate prince, the name was selected by Khaja Nasir-ud-

din Obaid-ullah, a pious man of Ferghana but the Chagatais were not able to speak the

Arabic words Zahir-ud-din easily, so they started to call him Babur. Then in later periods

became famous as Zahir-ud-din Muhammad Babur. As mentioned above Umer Sheikh

4

Mirza accidently died at Akshi on June 9, 1494, whereas Babur was at Andejan. He

received the news relating the death of his father on following day, without losing any

moment he took his horse and rode to neighboring castle to secure it and then was raised

to the throne of Ferghana at the age of eleven. His father Umer Shiekh Mirza was a son of

Abu Sa’id, the great grandson of Taimur. His mother KutluK nigar Khanum was the

daughter of Yunis Khan who was the one of the descendants of Chagatai Khan, a son of

Chingiz Khan. Babur lost Fergana more than once but succeeded in recovering it. He also

became the ruler of Samarkand, which was the capital of Taimur but he had to abandon it.

The powerful us begs expelled him from Central Asia, his home land. He took refuge in

many territories but was forced to exile. Then he decided to try his luck in Afghanistan.

Having succeeded in possession of Kabul, he planned for his future victories and he

became the sovereign of India in 1526, and after his death his descendants ruled over the

said empire till 1857. Babur was a Chagatai Turk and disliked Mughals or Mongols due

to their bad habits and non serious attitude but in spite of this opinion his empire was

known as Mughal Empire. (4) On reaching at the gate of Andejan he was met by Shiran

Taghai, a noble of Ferghana, who hold bridle of the horse and took him towards the

Prayer-Ground. This was a difficult time for Babur. When the news of his arrival reached

in the citadel, then Khwaja Mulana Kazi, a religious head and other begs of Andejan sent

a message, requesting him to come inside the castle and removed all of his fears. On this

occasion a meeting was held and was decided to defense the town. Then Hassan Yakub

was made the Master of Household. On the other side to fulfill the commitment Sultan

Ahmad Mirza entered into the boundaries of Ferghana from the south and took possession

of Khojand, Marginan. Having taken the possession to the said territories, he then started

to march towards the capital of his nephew. To avoid from war Khwaja Kazi and Auzun

Hassan were sent to Sultan Ahmad Mirza by Babur with request, asking him to go back

towards his own country but they were harshly treated and Mirza continued his advance

upon Andejan. During the advance Mirza and his army had to suffer a heavy disaster

while crossing the bridge of Qaba, a dark and muddy river and this river was exist only

sixteen miles away from Andejan. This situation forced Mirza to sign a peace agreement

and then retired to his own limits. Unfortunately Mirza died in July 1494 while returning

to his country at Uratippa at the age of 44 years. To follow the agreement, Sultan Ahmad

Khan, the maternal uncle of Babur from Tashkend, marched along the north of the

kingdom and laid siege to Akhsi. Khan tried hard many times to get possession of this

town but failed because Jahangir and his Begs established news records of velour while

5

defending the town. Khan was forced to retire towards Tashkend. From the east, another

enemy of Ferghana, Ababeker crossed the mountains and enter into the territory of

Ferghana. But he was also forced to sign a peace agreement and was forced to retire. (5)

Political Situation of Samarkand:

Sultan Mahmud Mirza, the brother of Sultan Ahmad Mirza reached

Samarkand and without any difficulty was raised on throne. But Sultan Mahmud Mirza

could rule in Samarkand only some months and then died. Then Bayesanghar Mirza, a

son of late monarch, was invited by the nobles of Samarkand, from Bukhara to fill the

empty throne of Samarkand. The new ruler of state started to ignore the Terkhan begs, a

powerful tribe of Samarkand who then made the web of intrigues against him. They

secretly invited Sultan Mahmud Khan against Beyesanghar, who accordingly arrived with

a hostile army but was defeated and was forced to retire. This success did not declare him

safe, he was still in danger. Dervish Muhammad Terkhan and other nobles then invited

Sultan Ali Mirza, the younger brother of sitting ruler to deprive the sitting prince from the

throne. The rebellious party arrested Beyesanghar Mirza but the captured prince

succeeded in escaping and took shelter in the house of Khwajaki Khwaja, a respected

person of Samarkand. Having informed about their prisoner, the Terkhan begs reached at

the house of Khawaja. They tried hard to recover the sheltering prince but failed. In spite

of their political power they did not dare to raise weapon against him because the

Khawaja was famous for his spiritual power. But some days later however Beyesanghar

succeeded in getting the throne again with the help of citizens. Then he arrested Sultan

Ali Mirza and Terkhans. Derwish Muhammad was put to death and Sultan Ali Mirza was

sent to Gok-sarai, a prison but he escaped from the prison and joined Terkhans again in

Bukhara. Having informed about this development, Beyesanghar attacked upon Bukhara

but was defeated and was forced to retire to Samarkand. The bad political situation of

Samarkand encouraged the neighboring princes of different states to attack the unlucky

city. So Babur from Ferghana, Sultan Masaud Mirza, the eldest son of late king, from

Hissar and Sultan Ali Mirza from Bokhara, started to advance from different directions

towards Samarkand with their armies. These armies laid siege the city from different

sides but In spite of a long blockade none of the armies was succeeded in getting position

the city. At last all the armies were forced to retire due to the arrival of winter season. In

May 1497, Babur again marched towards Samarkand and after some victories reached

very near to the city and encamped there. On this occasion with the good dealing and

6

justice to the people of the city, he won the hearts of the people of Samarkand. According

to the detail the shop keepers of the city use to bring their goods to sell in the camp

bazaar. One day they were looted by the camp men. Having informed about this violation

of rule, Babur at once issued an order to return the goods to their masters and the order

was followed. While encamping in an open field near Samarkand, the winter season was

at hand, so he shifted into the fort of Khawaja Didar, which was situated at a distance

from the city. The city was in a state of blockade. In this situation Bayesanghar invited

Shibani Khan for his assistance. Although Shibani khan arrived from Turkistan to support

the ruling Prince of Samarkand but did not take interest in war and reached Samarkand.

Bayesanghar had a lot of expectations from Shibani Khan which were not fulfilled.

Bayesanger on his turn did not give favorable reception which he was expected. The

Uzbek returned back to Turkistan after few days. Although he failed completely in his

expedition, yet he selected Transoxina for his future expeditions. (6)

Hundred Days Rule of Babur in Samarkand:

Samarkand had now sustained a siege for seven months. Bayesanghar lost his

heart by this situation, so he secretly left the city and took his way to Kunduz. Having

informed about the flight of Bayesanghar, Babur entered into the city and was welcomed

by the nobles of the city. This time he was in his fifteenth years. Samarkand was the

richest and popular city at that time in the world. It was the capital of Taimur Beg. Babur

describes in details about the splendor of its mosques, colleges and palaces. It was also

famous for the observatory of Ulugh Beg Mirza. The astronomical tables were produced

under the patronage of this prince. Not only was this work a wonderful job of that age but

also still has much importance for the modern science. Babur entered into the city and he

stopped plundering and looting. This decree was disliked by the nobles and common

persons of his army and they started to repair to their homes. The example set by the

soldiers was soon followed even by his leaders. Sultan Ahmad Tambol, a Moghul noble

man, also deserted him and took the way to home. To stop these violations Babur sent

Khawaja Mulana kazi to Uzun Hassan, a noble of Andejan to punish such violators and

sent back them to Samarkand. But the Uzun Hassan too raised his weapons against Babur.

At Andejan Uzun Hassan and Sultan Ahmad Tambol made a confederation to support

Jahangir Mirza, the younger brother of Babur, from different mother. They demanded that

the Sultan now possessed Samarkand and Andejan and Akshi should be given to Jahangir.

7

These countries at the same time were demanded by his uncle Mughal ruler of Tashkand.

(7)

Babur was deprived from Andejan:

Sultan Ahmad Tambol and Uzun Hassan seized Andejan, using the name of

Jahangir. His close relations were still at Andejan so his mother, grandmother and

Khawaja Kazi sent messengers to Babur to Samarkand about difficult situation of

Andejan. But the young prince was not able even to move due to his serious illness. His

friends and close servants disappointed about this situation and thinking all was over

began to leave him. In this hopeless situation an envoy arrived from Uzun Hassan and

was taken to the place where the prince was lying senseless. On reaching at Andejan, the

news put the different impacts on the both camps of rivals, the defending camp lost the

heart but the attacking army got some sort of encouragement. Luckily soon after the

departure of the envoy, the health of young prince started to recover and soon he was able

to travel. Babur now decided to abandon the possession of Samarkand and repaired to

Andejan in March 1498. Samarkand was remained under his control just for 100 days.

Having reached near Khojend after a week, he was informed about the surrender of

Andejan to hostile army, just a week before on the very day he had left Samarkand. The

deprivation from the two states was a great loss and majority of his men had lost their

hopes and they left him. On this occasion he did not lose heart and decided to get help

from his maternal uncle Sultan Mahmud Khan so Kasim Beg was sent to the Khan for

this purpose. (8) On this occasion the Khan and his army agreed to support the young

prince. Accordingly the Khan marched to Akshi but the hostile leaders with their artful

tricks, succeeded in sending him back. Then the prince reached Khojend, which was still

under the control of his men where he was joined by his mother and grandmother who

had reached there with other families of from Andejan. Now Babur again tried to get help

from Mahmud Khan for conquering Samarkand, the Khan sent four or five thousand men

to assist him. Hardly had they joined the camp of Babur when they heard about the arrival

of Shibani Khan. Without delay the army of Khan took their horses and rod to their own

territories. In this situation Babur was unable to attack with his own force so he returned

to Khojand. Babur third time tried to get support from Sultan Mahmud Khan to recover

Ferghana. The Khan sent with him eight hundred men and with their help, he got

possession the fort of Nasukh, a district forty miles away from Khojend. But finding it

difficult to control it permanently abandoned it and came back to Khojend. Because

8

Khojend was a small district, it was unable to support two hundred retainers of the prince.

This situation forced to the prince to shift to another town to find the shelter as well as

food for his men. For this purpose he met Muhammad Hussein Khan Doghlat, his

maternal uncle, the ruler of Uratippa, to lend from him the village of Bishaghar, for one

winter, his request was entertained. Then the prince conquered Yarailak, a territory which

was under the control of Samarkand. Sultan Ali Mirza, the new ruler of Samarkand,

attacked on it and recovered from Babur. Instead of going to Khojand where he spent two

years, he decided to go to Ilaks, a hilly tract south of Uratippa, where, living the unsettled

life of a fugitive, he spent some perplexed and distracted with the hopeless state of mind.

(9)

Babur on the Throne of Andejan:

One day a horseman from Ali Dost, the former governor of Andejan, came

with a message, inviting him to the town of Marghinan. The young prince accepted this

offer and after the travel of three days reached at the gate of the castle where he was

welcomed and was treated as sovereign by Ali Dost. Babur had 240 followers during this

journey. Uzun Hassan and Tambol both were unpopular in whole country and people

wanted to restore to Babur. In short after a two years exile he again got his country. After

this a series of wars took place among Babur and Tambol as well as Jahangir Mirza. Then

a peace agreement was signed by both brothers. According to the agreement the northern

territories of river were given to Jahangir and southern territories of river were given to

Babur. This agreement was signed in February 1500. The young prince was then 18 Years

old. Mir Ali Dost was appointed the Master of the Households but this guy was a selfish,

narrow minded person who controlled all court affairs and dismissed the faithful

companions of Babur, like Khalifa, Ibrahim Saru and Kasim Beg and other nobles. In

March 1500, Babur married Aisha Sultan Begum, the daughter of Sultan Ahmad Mirza,

the late ruler of Samarkand. (10)

Babur Again on the Throne of Samarkand:

The state of Samarkand was too disturbed, after the departure of Babur, this

city captured by Sultan Ali Mirza but the state affairs were controlled by the Terkhan

chiefs. The prince wanted to control the state affairs in person and he silently took some

steps to deprive Terkhan nobles from their power. No sooner had Terkahans informed

about the intentions of Sultan than they left Samarkand. Then Muhammad Mazid Terkhan

invited Wais Mirza, the younger brother of Sultan Ali Mirza, to control the throne of

9

Samarkand. Accordingly he marched upon with a hostile army to Samarkand but was

defeated by Sultan Ali Mirza. Having failed in his conspiracy, the said Terkhan noble

invited Babur to invade Samarkand who gladly accepted this offer and marched to the

imperial city. Hardly had he left Ferghana when Khalil, a brother of Tambol attacked on

Ush and occupied it. On reaching near the city the prince was informed about the arrival

of Sheibani Khan, a descendant from Juji, the eldest son of Chingiz Khan. The Khan after

capturing Bokhara was on his full march towards Samarkand. Babur was joined by the

Terkhan nobles near the imperial city. The mother of the ruling Sultan was an Uzbek

lady. When she was informed about the approach of Uzbek, she secretly sent a message

to Shibani while offering him that she would help him in the possession of Samarkand if

he would take her as his wife. Shibani accepted the offer and then got the town.

Accordingly he married the women but she was mere concubine in the harem of Khan.

Then Khan killed her son Sultan Ail Mirza. (20) On the other side Babur could not face

the powerful enemy in an open field with his feeble force. After decamping from the

imperial city he reached Kesh, here he was joined by the Begs of Samarkand. Instead of

going to Andejan, which was now under the possession of his rivals, he moved towards

the eastward to the territory of Hissar, Shadman. When they reached at Cheghanian, Begs

of Samarkand separated from him and joined the service of Khosrou Shah, the powerful

ruler of Hissar and Kunduz. Although he had the few companions yet he decided to move

back to Samarkand. Instead of adopting a common way he selected a narrow and difficult

route for his travel and had to face a lot of hardships. But he was succeeded in reaching

near Samarkand and the Uzbek could not get information about his approach. On the

other side Shaibani was encamped at khawaja Didar, a town close to the city with a

powerful army and nearly five or six hundred Uzbeks were inside the city to control the

affairs of the city. On this occasion Babur showed a great courage and succeeded in

reaching inside the fort with 240 men. When the citizens were informed about the arrival

of Babur, they attacked the scattering Uzbeks with their sticks and stones and killed most

of them. Babur was then eighteen years old. No sooner had news spread about the victory

of Babur than a lot of districts were forced to come under his sovereignty. Although the

Khan had to retire to Bukhara losing several forts yet these defeats could not break his

power. After some months the Uzbek Khan again marched upon to Samarkand reducing

the forts of his way to submission and a war then happened between Shibani and Babur in

which Babur was defeated and was forced to fortify. The Uzbeks laid siege the city which

was extended to about five months. Not only did the siege create a lot of problems for

10

common persons but also nobles. Then Babur was forced to capitulation and left the city

with some royal ladies, but the eldest sister of Babur, Khanzada Bagum was fell into the

hands of Sheibani. On this occasion Babur described the matter of Khanzada Bagum in

few words and did not discuss in detail. But Haider Mirza, his cousin tells that the

marriage of Khanzada Begum to Sheibani was one of the articles of treaty and a price of

Baber escape. She married Sheibani and had a boy from Sheibani who died young. It

happened In September 1501 and Babur was then 19 years old. (11)

Babur’s Fugitive Life:

Babur reached Uratippa with a small party of adherents. This country was

under control of Muhammad Hussein Mirza Doghlat, the husband of his aunt, who

allowed Babur to stay in his territory at Dehkat, for his winter quarters. It lies on the shirts

of a high mountain. The inhabitants were mostly Tajiks and used to speak Persian. The

people of Dehkat had large flocks of sheep. Babur and his companions stayed in the

homes of peasants and shepherds. Babur was accommodated in the house of the chief of

the village who was an old man, his mother was still alive. The said lady used to tell the

stories about the expedition of Taimur Beg which he made against Hindustan. One of this

lady’s relations had accompanied the army of Taimur Beg and those stories were fresh in

her memory. Through these stories Babur got information about Hindustan. During this

stay Babur developed the habit to walk in the hills, without shoes. This habit hardened his

feet and was a training to bear hardships of future life. In the winter season several of his

begs wanted to go to Andejan so the Babur gave them permission to go. On this occasion

not only Babur sent gifts to Jahangir but also sent a large sword for Tambol. During that

winter Shibani khan crossed the Khujand River and plundered near Shahrokhia and

Beshkent. On receiving the news of this plunder without delay Babur rode off to help his

uncle but when he reached there at Beshkent, Sheibani Khan had returned to Samarkand

after destroying the territories up to the walls of Shahrokhia. Without any battle then he

returned to Dehket. In the spring season Sheibani Khan marched against Uratippa. So

Babur left Dehket and shifted to Macha or Masikha, where he spent some time and he

met Mullah Higri, a poet from Hissar and composed some poetic verses. Sheibani Khan

after plundering Uratippa retired to his country. Babur and his adherents followed him but

he had gone. In spite of Qasim Beg opposition, Babur went to visit elder khan to get

support again from him and celebrated the religious festival of Eid-ul-Azha at Shahrukhia

on June 16th 1502 with the family of his maternal uncle. (23) The younger Khan the

11

Sultan Ahmad Khan was the younger brother of Sultan Mahmud Khan who came to meet

elder Khan, Sultan Mahmud Khan at Tashkand, from his territories. Under the request of

Babur both the Khans decided to recover Ferghana from rivals but they actually wanted to

deceive Babur while depriving him from Ferghana. Accordingly they marched towards

Ferghana after crossing the mountains and reached at the north of Ferghana. Babur was

sent to south with Mughals who succeeded in recovering all the forts from rivals except

Andejan, and he also tried to get Andejan by surprise but failed. Tambol was at the north

of Ferghana and from this bad situation of defense lost all hopes and retreated to Andejan

but while seeing Babur without defending measures he attacked on the army of Babur and

then Babur was forced to escape from the battle. Meanwhile the Khans also reached Ush

while following Tambol. Babur joined their camp after two days and waited upon the

elder Khan. Here the elder Khan communicated his real intention to Babur while saying

that the territories of south of the river had been given to the younger brother Sultan

Ahmad Khan which had been conquered recently by Babur and north of the river would

also give to the younger Khan after its recovery. He also said that when the matters of

Ferghana would be settled. Then they all would march to Samarkand and after conquering

it, the city would be handed over to him. On this occasion both the maternal uncles were

deceiving him but finding no other option, he accepted it. Then Babur was sent to north of

the river to recover Akshi and other territories of kingdom. When Babur reached near

Akshi, Sheikh Bayezid the younger brother of Tambol and the governor of Akshi invited

him inside the fort while offering some terms which were then accepted by Babur. Sheikh

Bayezid and Nassir Mirza came out from the fort to receive him while paying honor. But

the situation was not safe for Babur because Tambol on this occasion invited Sheibani

Khan for his assistant and acknowledged him as his sovereign. Sheibani Khan accepted

this. Then the news arrived that Sheibani was in full march upon Ferghana. While

receiving the news about the march of Sheibani Khan the Khans started to retire towards

their own territories while vacating the possessed forts and castles. Jahangir Mirza joined

Babur camp. During this confusion Babur could not deputed his men at the bridge that

had a link to reach in the fort. The next morning Tambol with his two or three thousand

men entered into the fort without opposition. The situation was completely changed and

Babur was under danger. Babur had hundred men in this dangerous situation. Instead of

surrendering he decided to fight and attacked upon one of the existing gates and

succeeded in reaching outside of the fort with only thirty retainers. During his flight, all

the followers were perished and he was alone arrested by the men of Tambol named Baba

12

Seirami and Bendeh Ali. But he succeeded in joining the camp of Khans. Sheibani Khan

got possession over whole of Transoxiana. The powerful Uzbek chief was following the

fugitive prince and Babur had no home, no country and even had not a safe shelter. There

Babur spent some period with great misery. His mother, close family members and few

followers were along with him. Now with the consultation of his adherents, he decided to

leave his native country in October 1504 and took his way to Khorasan where Sultan

Hussein Mirza was ruling. But here the political situation was not in favor of Babur then

he decided to march to Kabul and was joined by some Mughals and some other nobles.

Kabul was ruled by his uncle Ulugh Beg Mirza as his share from Abu sa’id Mirza his

father but after the death of Ulugh Beg the Arghuns got control of this country and Babur

mounted the throne of Kabul. Having brought the provinces of Afghanistan like Kabul,

Ghazni, Badakhshan, Kunduz and Kandahar under his authority, he decided to shape his

desire to conquer Hindustan which was born at the small village of Dehkat. (12)

Expedition to the Indus:

Before the arrival of Babur in India, several Muslim dynasties emerged in the

map of Hindustan, like Ghasni, Ghuri, Khilji, Toghlaq, Syed and Lodhi and they ruled

with complete authority. These dynasties with the passage of time had lost their political

grip which encouraged the invaders to attack on its rich territories. Although he was

invited by some rivals of Ibrahim Lodhi, yet he himself wanted to become the master of

Hind. To conquer this rich country he made many attempts at last he became its ruler in

1526. According to detail in 1519, having taken the fort of Bajour, he crossed the Sind

and entered into the territories of Punjab with his light troops, with the purpose of

plundering. Punjab was then under control of Delhi which was ruled by Ibrahim Lodi,

who recently mounted the throne of Delhi. His grandfather, Sultan Behlul Lodhi was

raised to the throne by the help of seven powerful Afghan chiefs, among them was Tatar

Khan. He was given Sirhind and Punjab as the reward of his services. After the death of

this powerful chief, his offspring was deprived from there provinces by Sikandar Lodhi.

But in later period Doulat Khan, the son of late Tatar Khan, was made just governor of

Lahore but this Afghan noble gained Bhira while attacking. Babur wanted initially to

plunder the territories but instead of plundering, he collected tribute from Bhira. He also

brought the other adjoining territories under his authority. Having made needful

arrangements, he took his way back to Kabul. Hardly had he reached in Kabul, when the

captured territories of Punjab were recovered by the old masters. In the course of this

13

expedition, Babur also sent Mullah Murshid as envoy to Ibrahim Lodhi while

congratulating him for his recent accession to throne. On this occasion he also demanded

for handing over to him the countries of the Punjab which had been held by the

descendents of Taimur. But this envoy returned without any success. About the second

expedition of Babur, there are some differences among historians. Farishta says that in the

same year, he directed an expedition against the Yusefzais, having reduced them to

submission; he marched to Peshawar and then returned. The other historians say that he

marched towards Lahore, Multan, and Sirhind and reduced the Afghans towards

submission and thousands of them were made prisoners. The third expedition took place

to India in 1520. Having crossed the Indus River, he reduced to submission the territories

of Gakers and Bhira. Then marched to Jehlam, having crossed it, he brought Sialkot,

Syedpurr and other adjoining territories, under his authority and then returned to Kabul.

(13) The rivals of Sultan Ibrahim were trying to deprive him from his throne. Ala-ul-Din,

the uncle of Sultan Ibrahim and Doulat Khan, the governor of Lahore, were the main

leaders of rebels. On this occasion Sultan Ibrahim dispatched Behar Khan Lodi with a

powerful army against Doulat Khan. On receiving the information about the advance of

Behar Khan, he sought assistance from Babur while accepting him as his sovereign.

Accordingly Babur marched towards and encamped ten miles from city in 1524. On the

other side Doulat Khan took shelter in the territories of Baluch while vacating the city.

Thence having defeated Behar Khan Lodi, Babur entered into the city. He stayed there

four days and then marched towards Dibalpur and occupied it. Although Doulat Khan

wanted to become the ruler of Lahore, yet Babur gave him Jalinder and Sultanpur as his

jagir. This attitude of Babur disappointed the Afghan noble and he started to weave the

web of intrigues against Babur. On getting information about the intention of Doulat

Khan, he then arrested Doulat Khan and his son but gave them liberty. Then the noble

proceeded to the hill country of Himalaya and started to wait a favorable season to

recover his country. Dilawar Khan, a son of Doulat Khan joined the camp of Babur, was

given Sultanpurr as jagir. Babur divided the occupied country among his followers and

then proceeded to Kabul. Hardly had Babur left Punjab when Doulat Khan entered into

Punjab and he recovered Sultanpurr. He also tried to recover Sialkot but was defeated.

Sultan Ibrahim also sent an army to recover Punjab but Doulat Khan succeeded in

dispersing the said army. (14) Ala-ud-Din the brother of Sikandir Lodi and uncle of the

ruling Sultan Ibrahim Lodi, reached Kabul to get some help from Babur then he was sent

back along with the band of troops for his assistance, accordingly he attacked on the army

14

of Sultan Ibrahim near Delhi but was defeated. On the other side Babur was observing all

the situation of India, thence having made Kamran Mirza the in charge of the affairs of

Kabul and Kandahar; he marched upon to Hindustan for his fifth and last invasion to

India. Having crossed Sind on December 16, 1525 with twelve thousand men, he

recovered the territories of Punjab which had been lost by his men after his departure to

Kabul. When Babur entered into Punjab, Doulat Khan gathered a powerful army against

Babur. In spite of all the preparations of Doulat Khan, he was defeated by Babur at

Milwat, a fort where Doulat Khan fortified himself but was defeated and was arrested by

the officers of Babur. He was sent to a fort of Bhira but died in the way. Meanwhile after

subjugating Lahore and its dependent provinces, Babur now decided to use the force

against Delhi. On this occasion some of Afghan chiefs joined the camp of Babur against

Ibrahim Lodhi. On the other side Ibrahim left Delhi with a powerful army to meet Babur

in field. During this march having informed about the hostile activities of Hamid Khan,

the ally of Ibrahim Lodhi, he sent a body of experienced men under the command of

Humayun against Hamid Khan who destroyed the army of Hamid Khan and then Hissar-

Firoza was brought under the authority of Babur in February 1526. Having reached at

Panipat on April 12, 1526, he took possession of this town. Babur came to the field with

his men against a mighty force of Ibrahim Lodhi and Hindu Rajas. On April 29 1526

Ibrahim was defeated with a heavy loss and was killed in this war and his head was

presented to Babur. On the very day he sent two bands of his men towards Agra and

Delhi to secure public treasures. (15)

Babur on the Throne of Delhi:

On third day after the battle he entered into the city of Delhi, where Sheikh

Zia-ud-Din read his name in Friday Prayers, as the sovereign of country. After

completing the needful businesses of Delhi, he proceeded to Agra. The city was still

under the condition of blockade under the command of Humayun. Babur without

resistance entered into the city. A Hindu family of Raja Bikermajit was residing in the

fort of Agra and the said Raja fought from the side of Sultan Ibrahim against Babur.

Although an attempt of escaping of this family was failed by Humayun, yet said family

was well treated by the prince. The attitude of Humayun had impressed the Hindu family

and this family presented him Jewels and precious stones, among these stones there was a

precious diamond (Koh-I-Noor). On arrival of Babur, Humayun presented it to his father,

who returned it to him. Then Babur mounted on the throne. Although Babur was the

15

master of Delhi and Agra, yet he was still under danger. In spite of his success, the people

did not accept his rule. In this situation the Afghans and Hindu nobles had spread false

news about Babur and his men while saying that their honors, properties and lives were

under danger. (16) The followers of Babur were much disturbed by the heat of India and

several of his followers lost their lives due to the heat. They were also facing the shortage

of grains because the peasants and local merchants abandoned their dwellings. To control

this situation while holding a meeting with his Begs he explained the importance of the

newly conquered country. His speech changed their minds and they declared their full

support for Bubur, except Khaja Kilan. Then Babur gave him full permission to leave

while bestowing him Ghazni, Gurdis and Masaudi Afghans, as the return of his services

and then dismissed him with every mark of honor and respect. By his administrative

power and generous policy, he succeeded in bringing a positive change in state matters.

Having controlled the law and order situation, he sent expeditions towards different

directions. Then not only did he reduce the Afghans nobles of adjoining territories into

submission but also brought under his authority the towns like Sambhal, Raberi, Etava

and Dhulpur. On the other side Rana Sanga received letters from Afghan nobles

requesting help against Babur, while gathering powerful army he marched to Biana. On

this occasion Babur held a council with his Begs and discussed about current situation.

His Muslim and Hindu rivals wanted to expel him from Hindustan and they were coming

to him from every direction. From west Rana Sanga was advancing towards Babur

territories and from east an Afghan confederation that while accepting Sultan Muhammad

of Bihar as their ruler had dispatched Nassir Khan Lohani and Maaruf Farmani along with

forty thousand men. According to decision of his Begs Babur stayed at Agra and sent

Humayun with a powerful army against Afghans who succeeded in dispersing them to

different directions. Humayun took possession of Juanpur.

Defeat of Rana Sanga:

Having destroyed the power of Afghans, Babur had to face powerful rajputs.

One of them was Rana Sanga of Mewar, a powerful and brave Raja, who wanted to

restore the Hindu rule while destroying the power of Muslims. The brave Rajput Raja had

several signs of wounds on his body. He had been deprived from one eye during the

conflict with his brother and he had lost one arm while commanding an expedition against

Lodi Sultan and in the same way during a war he had lost his one leg. Moreover he had

eighty signs of wounds of sword on his body. The Rajput historians on this occasion say

16

that Rana Sanga came to the field with mighty powers. He had the eighty thousand horses

with brave men. Several reputed Rajas, chieftains came to the field under his command.

He had five hundred war elephants. Moreover several Rajas provided him financial

support like the Raja of Gualiar, Ajmir, Sikri, Raesen, Kalpec, Chanderi, Boondi,

Gagrown, Rampoora and Aboo. He was the eldest son of Ray Mul, the raja of Mewar. In

his youth he nearly remained on exile from his hereditary country while avoiding from

the opposition of his younger brother, Pirthi Raj. The following story also being shared to

point out the Rajput manners, “The three brothers, with their uncle Soorajmul, were one

day discussing these topics, when Sanga observed that, though heir to the ten thousand

towns of Mewar, he would waive his claims, and trust them, as did the Roman brother, to

the omen which should be given by the priestess of Charuni Devi at Nahra Mungro, the

‘Tiger’s Mount.” They repaired to her abode. Pirthi Raj and Jaimal entered first, and

seated themselves on a pallet; Sanga followed and took possession of the panther hide of

the prophetess, his uncle, Soorajmul, with one knee resting there on. Scarcely had Pirthi

Raj disclosed theirs errand, when the Sybil pointed to the panther hide as the decisive

omen of sovereignty to Sanga, with a portion to his uncle. They received the decree as did

the twins of Rome. Pirthi Raj drew his sword and would have falsified the omen, had not

Soorajmul stepped in and received the blow destined for Sanga, while prophetess fled

from their fury. Soorajmul and pirthi Raj were exhausted with wounds and Sanga fled

with five sword cuts and an arrow in his eye, which destroyed the sight for ever. He made

for the sanctuary of Chutturbhooja and passing Seventeen, took refuge with Beeda

(Oodawut), who was accoutered for a journey, his steed standing by him. Scarcely had he

assisted the wounded heir of Mewar to alight then Jeimal galloped up in pursuit. The

Rahtore guarded the sanctuary and gave up his life in defense of his guest, who

meanwhile escaped.”(18) A series of wars took place due to above mentioned reason

between Jaimal and Soorajmul. Rana Sanga did not take part in these battles and due to

these wars his uncle was force to left Mewar forever. In 1509 Rana Sanga mounted the

throne after the death of his brothers. Having ascended to the throne, he started to extend

his territories by successful expeditions. Not only had he gotten victories against Lodi

Sultans of Delhi but also against the rulers of Malwa. As he gained many victories in

short period, he became a powerful ruler of Rajasthan. After the arrival of Babur the

situation had been changed. Not only had the Afghans chiefs but also Rana Sanga wanted

to get rid from Babur. The Rana Sanga was supported by several Afghan chiefs like

Hassan Khan of Mewat and other Afghans. Although Rana Sanga wanted to restore the

17

Hindu rule in India, yet he acknowledged Sultan Mahmud Lodhi, the son of Sultan

Sekander Lodhi as the legal successor of Sultan Ibrahim. Having gathered a mighty army,

comprising nearly all powerful Rajas of Hindustan, he marched towards Biana. When

Babur was informed about the march of Sanga, he marched out from Agra and on 11

February, 1527 encamped at Sikri. Soon Rana Sanga also reached with his army to meet

Babur. On 17 March 1527 a terrible war took place among the rivals, near the village of

Khanwa, about 60 km west of Agra. It was the second major battle fought by Babur after

the Battle of Panipat and the battle was lasted more than ten hours. Babur got victory over

his powerful rivals who flew from the battle field and Afghan chiefs were ruined and he

became a powerful sovereign of India. (19)

Babur’s Religious Policy:

Babur could not introduce the new religious policy but followed the old policy

which was introduced by Lodhis. The old officers of Lodi Empire who joined the service

of Babur still remember the fanaticism of Sikander Lodhi. Because he was the Sunni

Muslim, he wanted to rule according to orthodox fashion. He imposed stamp duties on

Hindus and exempted Muslims and tried to increase the financial burden on Hindus by

this way. Conversion of Hindu temples into mosques was also reported. Hindu Beg, a

Mughal officer who converted a temple into a mosque at Sambhal. Many other temples

were also demolished at Chandari by Shaikh Zain. Mir Baqi destroyed the temple at

Ayudhya which was also the birth place of Rama and constructed a mosque in its place

under the order of Babur. The emperor Babur also destroyed Jain idols at Urva near

Gwaliar. Recently a document has been brought to the notice of scholars by the

Government of Bhopal. In this document Babur advised to his son to adopt a tolerated

policy to non-Muslims. A lot of scholars had raised questions about reality of this will.

(20)

Death of Babur and his Character:

Hardly had Humayun called back to India when he fell seriously ill and all

hopes were failed to recover him. Baber was said to sacrifice some precious thing to

recover the suffering prince as was used to do in olden days. On this accession Babur

decided to sacrifice his life for his son. Khwaja Kalifa and other nobles tried to divert his

intentions but failed. He then went to the private portion of palace and spent some time in

praying. He then came to the bed of dying prince and walked thrice around the bed of

prince while praying to Allah Almighty for the transferring of disease from prince to his

18

own body. Whether this story is true or not but after this the health of Humayun was

started to recover and soon he gone to his jagir. On the other side the health of Babur

started to decline. In short Babur died on 26th December 1530 under the serious disease.

Babur had a lot of qualities. He was not only a brave man but also a literary person and

had a generous spirit. He could speak Chagatai, Turkic, Arabic and Persian languages

easily. He was not a good poet but also a good historian and wrote Babur Nama while

describing detail information about his life. He used to study history and literature books.

He had a beautiful collection of books which he gifted to Humayun. He had a bad habit of

gambling and drinking wine but he left these bad habits right before the battle with Rana

Sanga. He made freely gossips with his friends. He never lost hopes in bad situations and

used to smile even in high dangers. (21) In short Babur was a good man by nature.

Humayun the Successor of Babur:

On December 29, 1530, Humayun was raised to the throne after the death of

his father. This prince was born in Kabul on March 6, 1508 by Mahan Begam, the

favorite wife of Babur. Babur had four sons, Humayun Mirza, Kamran Mirza, Hindal

Mirza and Askari Mirza. Babur’s loved for Humayun was well known among historians

and he wanted to see him on the royal throne but Khawja Khalifa, the Prime Minister and

other nobles had desired to see Mehdi Khawaja, the son in law of Babur, on the throne

but this intrigue was failed. Mehdi Khawaja was received orders from court, forbidding

him to appear before the court. Then Humayun ascended the throne in Delhi without any

opposition, while ascending the throne, he was just 22 years old. His reign can be divided

into two portions, before the exile, his rule was extended to ten years, from 1530 to 1540

and after his return to India, he could rule hardly some months. During his exile, Sher

Shah and his descendants, ruled in India with absolute authority. He then recovered his

hereditary country from Afghans. (22)

Rivals of Humayun:

After becoming the emperor, Humayun divided his empire among his three

brothers, Kamran Mirza was given the control of Kabul and Kandahar, the said prince

was controling these territories from the lifetime of Babur, the control of Sambhal was

given to Askari. In the same way, Hindal was made the viceroy of Mewat. In spite of this

generous distribution, the brothers created problems for Humayun and weaved intrigues

against him. Kamran Mirza was the main author of these intrigues. On receiving news of

his father’s death, he started to march to India. He spread the news that he had an

19

intention to support the Emperor. But he wanted to get possession to the important

territories of Punjab. Having reached at Lahore, he succeeded in getting the possession of

the city under a treacherous act. Then Kamran sent envoys to the court while requesting

that he was still loyal to the imperial court. On this occasion he also requested to the

Emperor that he had a desire to serve the city of Lahore as a viceroy which was

entertained. Thus Kamran became master of Kabul, Qandahar and Punjab. In spite of this

violation the Emperor adopted a generous attitude towards his brother while forgiving

him. Then the emperor converted his attention towards the affairs of state which were

going to disorder. The emperor not only had to face the bad situation of country resources

but also was suffered by the hostilities of Muslim and Hindu chieftains. The Afghans

were the authors of this opposition because they had been deprived from their rule by

Mughals and they wanted to restore their rule. Although Babur destroyed the power of

Afghans, yet he could not establish his empire on concrete grounds. Hardly had the

Emperor adjusted the matter with Kamran Mirza when the Afghans challenged his

authority. Mahmud Lodi, the brother of Ibrahim Lodi, was acknowledged the successor of

Ibrahim Lodhi by Afghan nobles. In 1531 Humayun received the information about the

hostile activities of Mahmud Lodhi. Not only had Mahmud Lodhi marched to Jaunpur but

also occupied it. Moreover he had to face hardships from different personalities. During

his reign Sher Shah Suri, Ala-ud-din Lodhi, Mahdi Khwaja, Muhammad Zaman Mirza,

Kamran Mirza, Hindal Mirza Askari and other nobles were the chief authors of rebellious

activities against Humayun. Sher Shah entered into the service of Mughals but secretly

was involved in weaving intrigues. Soon after the death of Babur he succeeded in

depriving Humayun from the throne of Delhi. In the same way Ala-ud-din Lodhi invited

Babur to attack on Punjab but soon differences were appeared and he was sent to prison.

But he succeeded in escaping from the prison of Khurasnan and then joined the camp of

Bahadur Shah, the ruler of Gujarat. In later period he prepared an army by the help of

Bahadur Shah and marched to Agra. But was defeated near Agra and his son Tatar Khan

was also killed. Mahmud Lodi was defeated in the battle of Junpurr. (23)

Hostilities of Mirzas:

Mehdi Kawaja, the husband of Khanzada Begum, the paternal aunt of

Humayun, Muhammad Zaman Mira, the husband of Masuma Begum, the step sister of

Humayun and his own brothers involved in rebellious activities against him during his

whole reign. Having received the information of the rebellious activities of Muhammad

20

Zaman Mirza, the emperor separated him from the viceroyalty of Behar in 1533 and sent

him to prison of Biana. But he succeeded in escaping from the prison and joined the camp

of Bahadur Shah, the ruler of Gugarat. Humayun dispatched letters to Bahadur Shah and

demanded him to return the fugitives but this demand was not entertained. Ultimately the

relations of two states were turned to hostility. When Humayun was busy in conquering

of Gujarat, Muhammad sultan Mirza, another close relation of Humayun who was also

sent to prison due to his rebellious activities, escaped from prison and succeeded in

occupying Bilgram a town near Kanuj and other territories. Having received news about

the rebellious activities he dispatched Hindal Mirza against him who recovered Kanuj and

defeated Sultan Mirza and his sons. Then Hindal came back to Agra but Muhammad

Sultan Mirza again escaped with his sons to Bengal from the prison. When Humayun was

busy against the Afghan chief Sher Shah in Chunar and other territories (the detail

discussion would be made in the following pages), In the absence of Humayun from

capital, Hindal Mirza while murdering Sheirkh Bahlol, a courtier of Humayun, mounted

the throne of Agra and started to march towards Delhi. This news disturbed Humayun

very much and he decided to retire to his capital, in the way back Muhammad Zaman

Mirza came in the camp of Humayun and was pardoned. The great problems were created

by Sher Shah and the major portion of his army was perished by the attacks of Afghans.

On the other side Karman Mirza came from Kabul and instead of providing help to the

Emperor tried to occupy the city of Delhi with the help of Hindal Mirza but failed. Then

he proceeded to Agra and while announcing his independence mounted the throne. On

this occasion Humayun wrote a lot of letters while advising him that instead of creating

problems for each other mutual unity should be created. (24)

Affairs of Gujarat:

Gujarat and Malwa were the two Muslims states which were situated to the

South of Rajputana. Bahadur Shah was the ruler of Gujarat and Malwa. Muhammad

Zaman Mirza took refuge at the court of the ruler of Gujarat and this favor became the

reason of war between Bahadur Shah and Humayun. This was the start of Humayun

invasion to Malwa. Bahadur Shah tried to destabilize the emperor by weaving intrigues

against the Mughal throne. For this purpose he used Mirzas, Ala-ud-din Lodhi and other

Afghan nobles as instruments against Humayun while sending his army in different

directions under the said war lords. But these efforts were brushed away by Humayun and

he took field against Bahadur Shah at a very early stage of the campaign. According to

21

detail Sultan Bahadur entered into Rajputana and laid siege the fort of Chator and the fort

fell in March 1535. On this occasion the Rajputs while killing their female family

members entered into the battle with the determination of do or die. Rani Karnavati of

this state sent a bracelet to Humayun before entering into the fire of pyre. While giving

the title of brother to him she requested him to save her country but he was busy in

conquering the North West of Bengal. Accordingly he reached for the help of Chator and

succeeded in expelling from the state. Then the two armies encamped at Mandsur while

taking the position against each other. On this occasion instead of countering in an open

field Humayun bought the loyalty of Rumi Khan, the chief artillery commander, who

played an important role in the defeat of Sultan Bahadur. Sultan Bahadur was forced to

take refuge in Mandu. But the imperial followed him and laid siege the fort; meanwhile

he succeeded in escaping the citadel and then proceeded to his capital Ahmad Abad. But

Humayun occupied Ahmad Abad and other territories which were previously under the

control of Bahadur shah. Humayun followed him to the last limits of Gujarat. Then

Humayun dedided to return to his capital through Mandu while appointing Askari there.

In the absence of Humayun, Bahadur Shah with the help of Portuguese and African slaves

again gathered his men and started to recover his territories from Mughals. Askari Mirza,

who was the governor of Ahmad Abad, showed his weakness and instead of defending

the country he started to retreat towards Champanir where the royal treasure was

preserved but he failed to get its possession. During this situation Humayun found

difficult to maintain his rule in new country so he decided to abandon it and then from

Mandu proceeded to Agra. While passing through the territories of Chitor he met Askari

Mirza. He again forgave him while remembering the will of his father. (25)

Conflicts between Sher Shah and Humayun:

In 1531 Sher Shah became the sovereign of Behar and Chunar. The following

territory came under his possession after marrying Lad Malika. She was the concubine of

Taj Khan. This was very important fort from ancient times. Humayun marched towards

Chunar and laid siege the fort. During this siege the information received about the

hostilities of Bahadur Shah. He at once abandoned the blockade of Chunar and proceeded

towards Chitor. Then Sher Shah after the departure of Humayun developed his power in

southern Bihar. In 1537 Humayun decided to eradicate the power of Sher Khan and also

seized the fort of Chunar and got possession after a long siege. (26) On this occasion

Pringle says, “While Humayun was spending his time thus besieging Chunar, Sher Shah

22

had been conquering Bengal. The Muhammedan kingdom which bore this name had as its

natural boundary the hills which, from Raj Mahal running Westwards, are, the Eastern

extremity of the range stretching across Central India, commonly known as the Vindhyas.

The only practicable road for an army of invaders to penetrate into this country, provided

it does not come by river, is by the narrow pass between Raj Mahal and the Ganges. This

pass is easily defended being narrow and steep. ……This Sher Shah full well knew and

so invading Bengal, he fortified the pass, so that the Moghuls might not follow him. Sher

Shah did not actually command the invading army. This he left to an officer of his,

Khawas Khan, who was afterwards joined by Jalal Khan, one of his sons…..Down by the

side of the river the Moghul troops came. Sher Shah had by this time his treasure in

Rohtas, he himself with a body of light troops was in the hilly country between that fort

and the Ganges where it enters Bengal, and Jalal Khan, who had with him a part of the

troops that had conquered Gour, was at the Taj Mahal or Garhi pass which he had

fortified. No serious opposition was made to the invading host which swept through the

Behar plain. Its first check was at Raj Mahal. There Jalal Khan kept it at bay, as long as

he safely could, without exposing the troops with him to capture or slaughter; and then in

through the pass flowed the invaders into Bengal. Gour already taken by the Afghans was

now occupied by the Moghuls. This was in the height of the rains. A part of the Imperial

army returned to Agra, the rest remained in Gour for three months. With this stay the

Emperor. During these months, decisive of his future, no one was allowed an audience

with him. Why, we are not told; probably opium, his harem and the indolence which so

often seized an Oriental (or for that matter an Occidental too), in a country “where is

always seemed afternoon” such as Bengal is in the rains, were the causes….Accordingly

the state of the army at Gour soon became serious. Supplies became scanty; disease set in;

news from the Upper Country did not come, all messages being cut off through the

vigilance of Sher Shah’s men, and when it did come it was of the most unpleasant nature.

The Emperor’s brother Mirza Hindal whom he had left behind had rebelled and declared

himself Emperor at Agra, Sher Shah had besieged and taken Benares, was blockading

Chunar and had threatened Jaunpur. In this advance on Jaunpur Sher Shah won his first

victory in fair fight again the Moghuls, a force of who were met by a force of Afghans,

superior in number and routed. “A cock once well beaten, said Sher Shah, does not again

scratch” easily come to the scratch, At last Humayun determined to return. Leaving Gour

in charge a Moghul chief with a small body of troops, he made his way with much

difficulty to a point opposite Monghyr, having had to cross various rivers on his way.

23

These he passed over exposing himself thereby being constantly worried by Sher Shah’s

men, who appeared in force nowhere, but ever hung on his retreat. By continuing his

course on the North and Eastern side he would have saved himself from this, for Sher

Shah‘s men did not even then venture to advance far from the hills. Thus matters

progressed, until Humayun halted on the bank of Karunnassa River near the village of

Chausa”. (27) A peace agreement was signed by both the rivals. Accordingly the Afghan

chief promised to give safe passage to Humayun but not followed his promise, and then

Humayun interred into the Ganges and was followed by Afghans. In this ambush eight

thousand Mughals were killed, Humayun was reached on the other bank of the river, with

his broken troops. Thus Humayun was defeated by Sher Shah in June 1539 at Chusa. In

spite of this disaster, he defeated Kamran Mirza in Agra, who was forced to escape

towards Alor where Hindal was too trying to gain some territory but failed and they again

came to apology on their previous mistakes. (28) Having reached in Agra the emperor

held useless meetings with his Begs and spent six months in these discussions. On this

occasion Kamran Mirza adopted a non serious attitude and proceeded to Lahore with his

army and Begs. (29) After the war of Chusa, Sher Shah improved his strength in Bengal

and then he dispatched his son Qutb Khan against Yadgar Mirza into Kulpi but was

defeated by the Mughal. Qutb Khan lost his life in this war. This success encouraged

Humayun to recover his territories from Sher Shah. While crossing the river of Gangs

with his forty thousand men he attacked on the army of Sher Khan but was defeated on 17

May 1540. This defeat deprived him from the throne. (30) Not only Sher Shah was a

brave and good politician but also a good administrator. Although his life allowed him to

rule just five years, from 1540 to 1545, yet he introduced many amendments in state

administrative system. Having subjugated the states like Punjab, Malwa, Marwar, Mewar

and other states, he introduced a healthy revenue system which became the main

instrument of the prosperity of country. The road system which he introduced in his short

period cannot be ignored. He built a grand road from Peshawar to Bengal. While taking

steps in maintaining peace in cities and towns he made village headmen responsible to

control robbery and other crimes. His son Islam shah (1545-52), after the death of Sher

Shah, started to rule while following the steps of his late father but the conflicts of

Afghan rival chiefs succeeded in destabilizing the Afghan rule in India. He tried hard to

unite them. After his death none of the descendants of Sher Shah had courage to control

the state affairs. The political power of Sur Sultan was in the hands of Hemu, who was

not a Rajput but peddler by profession. (31)

24

Humayun’s Exile:

These defeats of Chusa and Bilgram deprived him from Delhi and Agra. He

wanted to go to Kabul. Having confirmed about the hostile intentions of Kamaran, he

struggled hard to achieve any ground but completely failed. So he took his way towards

Iran, with a band of the few close adherents, Bahram Khan was one of them. During this

bad situation he married Hamida Bano Bagum, the daughter of Sheikh Ali Akbar Jami on

21 August 1541. From her Akbar was born on 15th October 1542 at Amer Cot. Then

Humayun entered into the territory of Iran. (32) According to Manuchi, “After arrival in

Persia, the first meeting with the king took place in a garden. There the Persian king

received him being seated on a stool of single size where on two persons could not take

their place. One of the followers of Humayun saw at once that the object of the king of

the Persia was to behold a king of Hindustan either standing of fool in his presence or

seated on the bare ground. Forth with the man cut upon the covering of his quiver and

spread it out in front of the royal seat. On this cloth Humayun at once sat down. The king

of Persia was lost in admiration at the readiness with which his official a companion of

Humayun’s misfortune, extricated his master from the embarrassment in which he found

himself being obliged, although the King of Hindustan, either to sit down on the ground

or to remain standing in the presence of another king. The Persian King asked King

Humayun how he could lose his kingdom when he had such attentive and well affected

servants. Humayun answered that he lost his kingdom because he rose to greatness men

who were ungrateful. After a little talk the sixth successor of the famous Taimur-i-lang

took his leave and went to a palace, where the King of Persia sent the necessary supplies

until the opportunity arose of aiding him to recover his kingdom.” (33)

Humayun Again on the Throne of Delhi:

Then the ruler of Iran gave thirty thousand men under his command. He then

recovered Kandahar and Kabul. Askari Mirza rebelled against Humayun but arrested and

sent to Mecca where he was died in 1558. Hindal also lost his life in an ambush with

Afghans. Kamran Mirza also arrested and was deprived from eyes and sent to Mecca

where he soon died in 1557. Humayun then decided to recover Hindustan. While leaving

Muhammad Hakeem Mirza on the throne of Kabul he marched to Delhi with 15 thousand

men. On 24th February 1555, he got the possession of Lahore without any opposition.

Then he recovered Dipalpur, Punjab, Sirhind and Hissar Firoze by Afghans. In July 1555,

he entered into Delhi as the sovereign and his name was again read in Friday Prayers as

25

the ruler of the country. On 22 January he met as usual with people after Friday Prayers.

Then he went to his private library to spend some time. On this day while descending

from the stairs of the building of the library he slipped and was seriously injured. Two

days later he died on 24th January 1556 and buried near Delhi. (34)

Humayun’s Religious Policy and Character:

Humayun could not develop any new religious policy because he had to

counter the rivals of his throne and he followed the path of his father. There is no

information whether he imposed the stamp duty on Muslims which had been abolished by

his father. Probably he did. His religious policy can be observed in the expedition against

Bahadur Shah, the sovereign of Gujarat. He defeated Bahadur Shah while expelling him

from the fort of Chitor for his Rajput allies. The emperor introduced a modified religious

policy. (35) Humayun was a true Sunni Muslim and had a soft heart. He never hurt

anyone for religious purposes. Religious debates were held in his court and he listened

with politeness. He appointed several Hindus in his court. Instead of joining the service of

Hindu Rajas the Hindu nobles preferred to serve in the court of Humayun because he

adopted toleration towards non Muslims. In spite of the hostilities of his brother he

always forgave them while remembering the will of his father. While entering in new

territories as victor, he used to adopt a good attitude and this was followed by his officers.

Humayun was more brave than clever. Most of his difficulties and sufferings were due to

the intrigues and hostilities of his brothers. He was quite young when he took part in

battles with his father and proved that not only he was a brave man but also an

experienced soldier. He used to adopt non serious attitude towards serious matters and did

not show interest in collecting the correct information about the weather and geographical

situation of the countries where he had to march. Although he was deprived from his

country by Sher Shah yet he succeeded in getting it back from Afghans. In his early age

he developed a bad habit of using opium but after becoming the emperor he left this bad

habit. He spent most of his time in his library which was given him by his father. The

political relations between Humayun and Shah Iran opened new channels for the

promotion of literature, education and technical skills. From Khaja Kalan and Sheikh Zia-

ud-din he taught formulas of mathematics. Humayun was also a poet. Although Gulbadan

Bagam was his step sister and real sister of Hindal Mirza, yet he always adopted generous

attitude towards her. In spite of her Hindal Mirza’s violations, he trusted and honored her.

Under the request of Akbar Gulbadan Begam wrote Humayunnama! In 1575 after

26

performing hajj she reached Fate purr Sikri and died in 1603 Akbar attended her funerals

ceremonies. (36)

Akbar the Great:

Akbar received the news of death of his father at Kalanur while he was busy

along with Bairam Khan against the rebellion of Sikandar Shah. Without losing any

moment, he was raised to the throne by Bairam Khan and other nobles on February 14,

1556. A lot of rivals appeared after the death of his father who wanted to deprive him

from his hereditary throne. Abu-al-Muaali was one of them who refused to acknowledge

the rule of Akbar. He was arrested and then was sent to prison. The nobles from Sur tribe

were still trying to get the throne. One of them was Muhammad Adil Shah who had ruled

nearly one year in Delhi, Humayun defeated Adil Shah in 1555 and he was forced to

escape. Adil Shah established his rule in Chuanar but two years later defeated by Bahadur

Shah the ruler of Bungal and was killed. The most powerful rival was Sikandar Shah who

made Punjab as his centre of hostilities. Bairam Khan was still at Kalanur to quit the

rebellion of Sikandar Shah. Another powerful rival of Mughal throne was Hemu Baqal.

While serving at the high military and civil offices of Sur court he got a powerful position

in the army and was seeing the dream of restoration of Hindu rule in India. On receiving

the news of Humayun’s death, he started to march from Gwalior with a powerful army to

Agra and then occupied it. He also got possession of Delhi. While assuming the title of

Vikramaditya he mounted the throne of Delhi on 7 October 1556. In this way Hemu

succeeded in re-establishing the Hindu rule in North India after over 350 years. Some

historians say that he adopted the style of the rulers of Vijaynagar Empire and who were

ruling in the south India from three centuries. Coins were made with the name of Hemu.

The continuous success of Hemu created a state of fear among Mughal nobles and army

men. But Bahram Khan one of faithful servants of Humayun who decided to fight with

the Hindu power and at last Hemu was defeated in the second battle of Panipat on 5th

November 1556 and arrested and was killed by Bahram Khan. This way the dream of

restoration opf Hindu Empire was lost its life. Sikandar Sur took refuge in the fort of

Mankot but in May 1557 he was forced to submission and was treated well. Gwalior and

Junpur also were occupied. Bahram Khan married with Salima Begum the niece of

Humayun. In these expeditions Bairam Khan played an important role to overcome these

rebellions. Bahram Khan was the native of Badakshan and was the faithful companion of

Humayun. The concrete foundation of Mughal Empire was laid in the second battle of

27

Panipat and this battle was fought under the command of Bairam Khan. The progress of

Bairam Khan was not bear by his opponents who started to make intrigues against him,

some ladies of harem ware also involved in these intrigues. Maham Aangah was the chief

of intriguers who planted the seeds of enmity in the heard of Akbar against Bairam.

Bahram Khan lost all his hopes and the said noble raised weapon against Akbar but was

defeated and was presented to court. No sooner had he reached at the court than started to

weep bitterly. On this occasion he was treated well and was allowed to sit on his old seat,

specified for Prime Minister. Then emperor gave him permission to go to Mecca. While

proceeding to Mecca he was killed by an Afghan. The only surviving son of Bairam

Khan, Abd-ul-Rahim was grown in the palace of Akbar. Although the emperor had

started to manage the affairs of state in person, after the decline of Bairam Khan’s

political carrier, yet he was still under influence of Mahum Anagah, the foster mother of

Akbar and some other ladies of harem. Adham Khan, the son of Mahum Anagah and Pir

Muhammad Sherwani and other relations of said lady were admitted to high posts. When

Adham Khan and Pir Muhammad were sent to Malwa, the former as governor and later to

assist him, both the guys made new records of oppression and tyranny in Malwa but were

pardoned by the interference of Mahum Anagah. Even they were restored temporarily to

previous responsibilities. But his end was near, on 16th May 1562, he entered into the

imperial palace at Agra and killed Shamsuddin, the husband of Akbar’s second foster

mother. He also tried to enter into the room of emperor but was noticed and on his turn

put to death. By this way he got rid from the influence of Mahum Anagah and her close

relations. (37)

Close Matrimonial Relations and Political Alliance with Rajputs:

Although the Mughals got the throne of Delhi with the power of their sword

and had a great administrative power, yet they were still away from political stability

because they were strangers in India and had to face the opposition from the Afghans

rulers. They deprived the Afghans from the throne so the Afghans wanted to deprive them

from the throne. Akbar was the first Mughal ruler who decided to find the permanent

solution of this issue while developing matrimonial and political relations with Rajputs.

These brave Rajputs not only were the perfect match of Afghans but also they had great

political power in the northern India. Through the relations with the Rajputs they could

extend their rule in India. While extending his policy during his visit to the shrine of

Khawaja Muin-ud-din-Chishti on 14th January, 1562 on the way at the Sanbher the

28

Emperor married the daughter of Raja Bihari Mal. This was the first Rajput family with

whom he developed matrimonial relation. Then the male members of this Hindu family

were raised to the high military and civil offices of Mughal Empire. This Hindu Princess

became the mother of Jahangir who became the successor of Akbar. These relations also

developed by the descendants of Akbar. It is said that the Emperor Humayun had friendly

relations with the Raja Bihari Mal and he was also invited to court after the battle of

Panipat by Bairam Khan. While staying at Sanbher Akbar dispatched an expedition under

the command of Mirza Shirf-ud-din against the fort of Marta, which was under the rule of

Raja Uday Singh and Raja Jai Mal. The said fort was brought under the authority of

Akbar. On 13th February 1562, Akbar returned to Agra from Sanbhar. (38) The Rajputs of

Chator were powerful in whole Rajasthan. Although they were deprived from their forts,

yet the Rajputs of Chator never acknowledged the rule of Mughals and did not develop

the matrimonial relations with Mughals. They dispersed in mountains and deserts of

Indus but they succeeded in recovering their territories. Akbar also conquered the Rajput

state of Jodhpur and cemented his conquest by marrying his successor Jahangir to the

granddaughter of that Raja. (39) Father Francois Catron discusses the Akbar policy in

these words: “A policy which he employed to fix the Indians in his interests was, to

receive into the number of his wives their daughter, and to contract in marriage with the

Rajas princesses of the Mogul blood. By means of these Mahometan women, he

embroiled the Rajas in perpetual jars among one another. They had been taught in the

harem, in which they were educated, to divert the hostile designs of their future spouses

from the Mogul, and direct them towards the Rajas their neighbors. “Your laws,” they

said to their husbands, “allow you to make war only with the Rajepoots, a people to

whose cast you owe your origin; to them only the spirit of rivalry should be confined.”

(40) The emperor cemented these relations by appointing Hindu Rajas as military

commanders in his army and appointed them governors and ministers in different

provinces. The responsibility of Punjab was handed over to his Hindu brother-in-law, the

son of the Raja Jaipur. Man Singh was also a Hindu relation of Akbar, severed as army

general from Kabul to Orissa. Man Singh also appointed governor of Bengal from 1589

to 1604, during Akbar reign and he was also appointed the governor of the same

providence in Jahangir reign from 1605 to 1606. (41) Sharma describes the favoring

policy of Akbar towards Hindus in these words: “Todar Mall became Akbar’s finance

minister and for some times his Prime Minister as well. Man Singh, Bahgwan Das, Rai

Singh and Todar Mall served at various times as governors of provinces. Out of 137

29

mansabdars of 1,000 and above mentioned in the Ain, 14 were Hindus. Out of 415

mansabdars of 200 or above, 51 were Hindus...Of the twelve provincial finance ministers

appointed in 1594-5 eight were Hindus. Further Akbar devised another channel for the

utilization of the administrative talents of the Hindus. Cases between Hindus had hitherto

been decided by the Muslim jurists when they happened to be brought to the royal courts.

Akbar set up new courts with Brahman judges to decide such cases. For the success of the

royal policy, Todar Mall as finance minister issued orders for the use of Persian as the

uniform language of record throughout the empire. The Hindus, who ran the lower

sections of the accounts and the revenue departments of the empire, were thus compelled

to learn the language.” (42) Todar Mall succeeded in surveying the land of India and

brought a revolution in revenue system in Mughal Empire. He introduced new currency

system. The revenue system of Todar Mall is called dustur-ul-amal of Todar Mall. He

also introduce “Taqavi” (advances given to farmers to purchase the implements or

digging well of at the time of sowing). Birbal was also a Hindu courtier of Akbar and was

also a good poet; he was perished in an expedition against Afghans. (43)

Akbar’s Religious Policy:

In the early period of his rule he followed the old religious policy and earned

the title of ghazi after killing Hemu. On this occasion Abul Fazl describes that he refused

to kill a defenseless enemy. In the early period of his rule, Mubarak, Mir Habshi, Khizar

Khan, Mirza Muqim and Mir Yaqub were punished due to the violation of Islamic Law.

A Mughal officer Abdul Naabi executed a Brahman after receiving a complaint of

blasphemy. Hassan khan (1576) the governor of Lahore got popularity after ordering that

the Hindus should wear different dresses from Muslims. (44) The Emperor Akbar had an

amount of imagination and initiative power. Not only he had a different religious nature

to understand the philosophies of different religions but also had a sharp inquisitive

nature. His marriages with Hindu Princesses also became a reason to develop a liberal

religious policy. Although such marriages also had been reported before the rule of Akbar

but he allowed his Hindu wives to follow their own faith. He adopted this policy while

allowing the non Muslims to worship according to their own faith freely. His inquisitive

mind also wanted to understand the philosophies of different religions. Thence he

established a House of Worship where not only he had invited the Muslim theologians but

also he welcomed the philosophers of different religions. The religious ferment of India

also put an impact on the religious policy of Akbar. Bhakti movement was expending

30

towards all the directions. While announcing the message of universal brotherhood and

equality the Bhakti leaders were giving equal status to the weavers, butchers, cultivators

and shopkeepers. Under the influence of these new thoughts in Hinduism the Brahmans

and pundits also took steps to convert the attention of the Emperor towards the mysteries

of Hindu religion. Expending relations with Hindus in the shape of matrimonial and

political relations also brought the Hindu doctors of all shades of opinions in the court.

Karam Chand was a Jain who came from the state of Bikaner and under his invitation the

famous Jain scholars like Man Singh and Jai Chand Suri reached in the court. The

Portuguese had arrived in India before the rule of Mughals in India along the southern

coasts of India. On the Emperor request, Portuguese authorities then sent three

representative of their religion to the Mughal court. Parsis also invited to the court for

religious discussion. All these factors became the reason of shaping Akbar’s religious

policy and he introduced a tolerance policy to the several religious in his kingdom. He

translated the Hindu books into Persian. Atharva Veda, the Mahabharata, the Harivamsa,

and the Ramayana and other religious books were converted into Persian. While getting

permission from Akbar In 1603 the Christians started to convert the people towards their

faith. He also banned to force conversion to Islam. In spite of this concession to the

Hindus, the incidents had been reported in which the Hindus killed good Muslims in the

revenge of slaughtering cows. The emperor never interferes in Muslim rites. He banned

the slaughtering of animal on certain days in 1583. According to Badayuni, 1590-1 Akbar

imposed ban on eating of the flesh of different while pleasing the Hindus. But Abul Fazl

says that flesh of different animals was used in the royal kitchen and he even has

mentioned the rates of flesh of different animals in Ain-i-Akbari. On this evidence it is

easy to assume that Emperor Akbar did not put any restriction on the people about eating

flesh. He also participated in some of Hindu festivals like Rakhi, Dipavali, Shivaratri and

other festivals. Some inhuman rites were opposed by Akbar, like Sati and discouraged

child marriage and took steps against all social evils. (45)

Abolition of Jizya and Permission of Public Worship:

Akbar gave the non Muslims equal status in Muslim society while abolishing

Jizya or pilgrimage tax from them. In spite of paying respect to the non Muslim laws, he

took steps against their inhuman rites and customs. He issued orders against ordeal trials

and sacrifices of the animals and child marriage. He wanted to please the Hindus while

banning the child marriage because the child marriage was common in Muslim society.

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Hindu widows were allowed to remarry. In spite of taking steps against widow burning

on the husband’s pyre, he could not stop it completely. There was no ban on willing

widows who wanted to burn themselves with their dead husbands. Non-Muslims

communities were allowed to celebrate their religious festivals. Christians, Hindus, Janis,

Zoroastrians and other non-Muslim communities constructed a lot of worship buildings

without hindrance. Non Muslims were welcomed at his court and allowed to serve the

state to the best of their abilities. He introduced many Hindu and Persian customs in

court. While pleasing the non Muslim communities the emperor gave up many Muslims

rites. (46) The emperor removed the ban from the construction of religious worship

building. This permission gave a chance to the Rajas to construct the temples for their

favorite gods. Man Singh constructed two temples one in Brindaban and other in Benares.

Churches were built at Agra, Lahore and other places. Janis also built their temples at

Satrunjaya and Ujjain. Still there is a golden umbrella in the shrine of the fire goddess of

Jwala Mukhi in Kangra which was given by Akbar. (47)

Character of Akbar:

According to the warriors of the Crescent “The man who formed this fine

ideal of empire was well fitted by nature to accomplish its realization. His physical

advantages were considerable. He was tall of stature with a regal presence; of a strongly

knit frame, capable of enduring the extremes of hardship and fatigue’ with a handsome

and open countenance, such as men love to look upon in their rulers. His son Selim

describes him as of a ruddy nut-brown complexion. Some Portuguese Jesuits, who visited

his court when he was about fifty, say he was “white like a European,” with dark eyes and

eyebrows, the latter running into each other. He had “the strength of a lion” which was

apparent in the extraordinary breadth of his chest and length of his arms. On the whole,

say these foreigners, his appearance was impressive and dignified. A black mole on his

nose was declared “by those skilled in the science of physiognomy to prognosticate an

extraordinary career of good fortune; and, indeed, he could not be regarded as other than

fortunate who sounded the great drum of sovereign power for a period of fifty years over

the whole of Hindustan, and that without a rival and an opponent.”(48) Akbar was a

brave, wise and the righteous king. On many occasions he attacked with hand full men on

powerful army and got victories. It was his wise act that he forced to Prince Saleem for

submission without fighting. He was tender hearted person. In spite of repeated violations

of his cousins, he pardoned them. Akbar relations with Hindus and his affection with their

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literature, created many Muslim rivals. He had a high affection with his Hindu wives. He

ordered Murad, his son, to take lesson from Christian teachers. He like to listen

arguments of Brahmans pundits, Jain monks, Christian scholars and Zoroastrian priests.

(49) Akber died on October 2, 1605.

Brief Account about Jahangir Reign:

On October 3, 1605 the Prince Salem ascended the throne in Agra at the age of

36 while assuming the title of Nor-ud-din Muhammad Jahangir. Akbar had two other

sons, Denial and Murad but they were died at their young age. Salim was born by Judah

Bai a daughter of the Raja of Jaipur. He got education from the famous doctors of the age.

Man Bai the daughter of Raja Bhagwandas the ruler of Amber became his first wife when

he was just 15 years old. Prince Khusru, the son of Jahangir was born from the said

Princess on 6th August 1578. It is said that out of 15 or 18 wives of Jahangir, 7 were

Hindus. During the life time of Akbar, Abul-Fazal and other nobles tried to make Prince

Khusru the successor of Akbar while ignoring Jahangir. But when the news was reached

to Jahangir about this conspiracy, he dispatched Raja Nir Singh Dev and Abul-Fazal was

killed under the decree of the Prince. Raja Man Sing and Aziz Koka were also the

supporters of khusru because the former was the maternal uncle of young Prince and the

later was the father-in-law, even Akbar himself was in favor of Khusru. This situation

disturbed Jahangir who raised the weapons against his father. Instead of dispatching any

expedition against Jahangir, Akbar sent Saleema Begum, his wife to Jahangir to

Allahabad who succeeded in removing the hostile intention of Jahangir. Accordingly

Jahangir arrived in Agra with the said lady, and produced precious gifts to Emperor. The

old bitter nesses were removed and Akbar nominated Jahangir his successor. On the other

side, Khusru was not happy with this nomination, so he raised weapons against his father

but was defeated and was deprived from his eye sight. On removing the resentment of

emperor an Iranian doctor was appointed for the treatment of young Prince, soon the

Prince recovered and able to see. (50)

Religious Policy of Jahangir:

The Muslim theologians were lost their influence in the period of Akbar, so

they tried to restore their influence right after the accession of Jahangir. For this purpose

Mullah Shah Ahmad, a reputed scholar of that age wrote many letters to the nobles of the

court to convert their attention towards the restoration of orthodox Muslim Law. Jahangir

on this occasion appointed Shaikh Farid while saying that four scholars should be

33

appointed to see the differences between the orthodox Islamic law and existing state rules.

This job never be completed and no recommendation could be made to solve the issue.

However the Muslim scholars tried to stop the Hindu ceremonies in the court, they got

partially success. Jahangir took great interest in conversion towards Islam. The newly

becoming Muslims were not only appreciated by the court but also received allowance

from treasure. While developing this policy Jahangir converted many people towards

Islam. It is said that during in 1605 he tried to convert Zulqarneyn, an Armenian Christian

towards Islam but failed. He allowed to Non-Muslims to construct their temples and

churches. His friend Bir Singh Bundela constructed a temple in Muthra. More than

seventy temples were made during his reign in Benares alone. Jesuit Fathers also made

signified churches in Ahmadabad, Hoogly, Lahore, Agra and Delhi. But sometimes he

adopted a different attitude towards the religious places of non Muslims. While

commanding the expeditions towards Mewar and Kangra he not only had destroyed the

temples of these state but also desecrated the Hindu idols. During the war with

Portuguese he not only closed the Agra church but also other churches which existing in

principal cities of India. The temple destruction could be seen in Ajmer when he visited

that place. The Muslim also impressed by the splendor of Hindu worshiping places. So a

lot of Hindu shrines at Kangra and Muttra were visited by Muslim also. Jahangir also

took interest in religious discussion with scholars of different communities. He held

meetings with Jadurup the leader of the Vaishnavas at Ujjain and at Muttra. He concluded

that there was no difference in Vedantism of the Hindus and Sufism. He visited the

Gorakhtiri in order to gain some knowledge from the yogis. But he found none of the

yogis there. Mulla Ahmad Sirhindi says that during the month of Ramazan a religious

discussion was held about some religious matters of Islam and Hinduism. During his

reign a lot of people were converted to Christianity by Jesuit Fathers. Because the Fathers

gave them regular financial support but they abandoned the new faith when this support

was ceased. A list of converted people has been provided by Grerreiro. The Emperor

encouraged the two sons of Danyal and one of his own grandsons for the conversion to

Christianity While depriving them from their right of accession in 1610. Jahangir did this

to get political advantage but in 1611 they abandoned the new faith. The Jesuit also

claimed about the conversion of Muqarrib Khan, a governor of Surat but it was not true.

The Jesuit also claimed about the conversion of Jahangir in 1627 but their claim can be

reject easily because at the time of his death he had a number of wives. Jahangir fixed

allowance for Jesuit Fathers as their religious services. (51) Guru Arjun was a religious

34

head in the reign of Jahangir. The Guru displeased the emperor by his proselytizing

activities. Some Muslims entered into Sikhism under the influence of Guru. During the

rebellious activities of Prince Khusru against Jahangir, the said Guru supported the Prince

Khusru. When Jahangir overcame in the battle against Khusru, he arrested the Guru and

awarded him capital punishment. Some influential Hindus like Diwan Chandu Lal

requested the Emperor for some concession to Guru but failed. Guru Hargovind the son

of Guru Arjun was also arrested by Jahangir but this was not done to satisfy the religious

sentiments as the some historian claim. The said Guru was arrested under some political

differences. Dabistan tells that he was arrested due to non-payment of the fine which was

imposed on his father. Man Singh and BAL Chandra was Janis but had enjoyed high

status in Akbar reign. Man Singh supported the Prince Khusru while ignoring the right of

Jahangir but in spite of his rebellious activities he was pardoned and was restored to his

former position. During the twelfth year of his reign he visited Gujarat and found that not

only Jain community was involved in rebellious activities but also their religious leaders

were accused of immoral practices. Jahangir issued orders against them while saying to

abandon the limits of Mughal Empire. But these orders could not completely implement

because the Jain took shelter in the states of Hindu Rajas. Man Singh was summoned to

court but he died on the way to the court while drinking poison. (52)

External Challenges:

Although Akbar established the empire on concrete grounds, yet there were

several rivals of the Mughal Empire. One of them was the king of Iran, Kandahar became

the bone of contention between two empires and in 1622 Iranian forces laid siege the

province. The bad news reached to Jahangir when he was residing in Kashmir. Jahangir

had desire to send Shah Jahan against them but he refused because a lot of differences and

reservations had been appeared between the emperor and Prince Khuram about the

nomination of the successor of throne. The indigenous conflicts of India had provided a

chance to the Persian ruler to occupy that province. The state of Bengal was annexed to

Mughal Empire in 1575 by Akbar, after defeating Daud Khan, the ruler of that state. In

spite of this success, the local chieftains were always creating problems for Mughal

Empire, under Usman Khan, the rebellious war lord. Jahangir dispatched an expedition

against Usman Khan which defeated Usman Khan and killed in 1612 and this way all of

the rebellious activities of Bengal came to an end. In the same way the state of Mewar,

was a powerful state in whole Rajasthan. They were defeated several times by Mughal

35

army but in spite of these defeats, they never accepted the authority of Mughal Empire

and always used to raise weapons against the Mughal Sovereignty. To counter them,

Jahangir dispatched Pervaiz Mirza, his son against Rajputs with a powerful army, who

fought them with bravery but could not destroy their power. Mahabat Khan and Prince

Khuram were sent against Rajputs, who defeated the Rajput troops and forced them to

subdue. Kangrah was a very important fortress, according to political point of view so this

town was annexed to the Mughal Empire in 1621, under the command of Prince Khuram.

Deccan states were under the Muslim rulers, who were mostly voluptuous nature and

controlled by able ministers and generals, Malik Amber was one of such ministers, an

African person who raised Murtaza Shah to the throne Malik Amber of Ahmad Nagar and

started guerilla wars against Mughal Empire. Jahangir dispatched several expeditions

against Deccan. (53)

Brief Account about Sher Afghan and Nur-Jahan:

Ali Quli Khan was an Iranian person who got the title of Sher Afghan from the

court of Jahangir after serving Mughal ruler. Although he joined the camp of Jahangir

during the rebellious activities of the prince, yet he was also loyal to Akbar. In spite of

this disloyalty, Jahangir pardoned him and sent as a high officer in Bengal. But he was

then murdered in Bengal. The historians had different opinions about this murder. Some

say that Jahangir was involved in this because he wanted to marry his wife and other say

that Qutb-ul-din, the governor of Bengal killed him, under some conspiracy. Nor Jahan,

the widow of Ali Quli Khan, then was accommodated in imperial palace and some

months later she was taken into marriage by Jahangir. At the time of marriage she was

thirty five years old but in spite of this age she looked a young girl. Not only was she a

good Politician but also had a literary taste. She introduced new fashions in jewelry and

dresses which are still popular in India. She often went with Jahangir on hunting of wild

animals and was a good general. She was so generous and had supported a lot of girls in

their marriages. The close relations of Nur Jahan were raised to high posts. Even Asif

Khan, the brother of Nur Jahan was appointed the Prime Minister of Mughal Empire. To

develop mutual relation with Iranian family, Jahangir joined his son khuram in marriage

with Arjamand Banu, the daughter of Asif khan. With the passage of time Nor Jahan

became political authority in the Mughal Empire. The result of this affiliation with Iranian

family increased a number of Jahangir’s rivals. This behavior forced Mahabat khan and

Khuram towards rebellion. Nur jahan wanted to see prince Shaharyar on throne. (54)

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Relations with Europeans:

In his reign the relations with Europeans were also developed. Pringle says,

“No account of Jahangir’s reign would be complete without mention of the European

settlements on the coast of Peninsular India and of Sir Thomas Roe’s embassy to the

Imperial Court….The Portuguese found their way round the Cape while Baber, still a

very young man, was fighting with destiny in Trasoxiana. From being merely traders they

became a political power under the great Viceroy Albuquerque, who acquired the island

of Goa at time when the Bahmani dynasty only existed as a name and the Adilshahis of

Bijapur, within whose territory Goa was, had not yet reached the power to which they

afterwards attained. Consequently Goa proved an easy conquest. From this centre the

Portuguese stretched their power far and wide over the Indian Ocean….. Ships in the

Arabian Sea only sailed by their leave, their pretensions and acts of violence on the sea

incensed not only Akbar but other Muhammedan rulers on the East against them,

particularly as many from the various countries adjoining the Arabian Sea went by sea

rather than by land when on pilgrimage to Mecca. St Francis Xavier, one of the founders

on the Jesuits, came to India, so too did the Spanish Inquisition…….. More than a

hundred years after the Portuguese and some years after the Dutch came the English. The

port where they first began to trade was Surat in Gujrat belonging to the Delhi Empire.

The Portuguese had got ports higher up at Daman and Diu, but neither of these were of

much importance, whereas Surat had for many years been the chief port in the Upper part

of the Western Coast of India. Besides the perils of the sea, two great difficulties stood in

the way of English trade, the determination of the Portuguese to keep out the other

European nations and the exactions of local official. As regards the latter they had

recourse to Jahangir himself. First Captain Hawkins, a commander of one of the East

India Company’s ships, and then afterwards Sir Thomas Roe as ambassador from James I

visited the Imperial Court. It is worthy of notice that even by their time, there were quite a

number of Europeans to be found in land………Both Captain Hawkins and Sir Thomas

Roe had to complain of the procrastination, of the vacillation, of what Dickens calls the

way not to do it, of Eastern Courts. Sir Thomas Roe has special complains against Prince

Kharram, the future Shah Jahan, on account of his pride and his dislike of Christians, and

there in no doubt that he had reason, for with Shah Jahan begins a very different regime

as far as toleration was concerned. Both this Capt. Hawkins and Sir Thomas Roe

described partly with wonder, and partly with the contempt, that unfamiliarity often

37

generates, the doings at the Imperial Court, the daily appearances of Jahangir at the

Jharokha, the animal fights in his presence, the executions, the private levees at night in

the Ghusal Khana and the discussion of state matters therein. Sir Thomas Roe in addition

tells what hardships he underwent when Jahangir went into camp journeying from Agra

to Mandu, how often he found the greatest difficulty in obtaining decent accommodation

or even drinking water…..Sir Thomas Roe finally obtained permission for English

merchants to trade, paying 3.5 percent as customs duties. Such a rate compared favorably

with most custom rates at the present day, even with the present Indian Government’s 5

per cent. Doubtless the Customers, as Sir Thomas Roe calls the Custom Officers, got also

their own share, but still trading was and continued to be throughout the country an

exceedingly profitable pursuit to the English engaged in it.”(55) William Hawkins came

to Jahangir court in 1608, as ambassador. Jahangir granted him some trade concessions,

in spite of opposition of Portuguese. Hawkins was appointed the commander of three

thousand horses. In 1615 Thomas Roe arrived in the Mughal court as ambassador. In

early meetings Jahangir refused to give any concession but in later periods he gave some

trade conceptions to British traders. But Thomas Roe succeeded in achieving the support

from Asif khan, then Prime Minister of Mughal Empire and Nur-Jahan by giving them a

lot of precious gifts. By the channel of Asif Khan, he developed relations with Prince

Khuram, who promised to give some trade concession to British traders. Thomas Roe

spent three years in Jahangir court. Although Jahangir was not wanted to sign trade

contract but Asif khan and prince Khuram gave him several favors. (56)

Hindus in Public Service:

The non Muslims were raised to high military and civil offices while

following the policy of his father. Sharma says that the non Muslims served as high

officers in Mughal Empire. It is said that in his reign the six Hindus were the commanders

of 3,000 horses or above as also has been mentioned by Hawkins. The situation was

changed during the rebellious act ivies of Prince Khusru because Man Singh and other

high officers supported to the Prince. In the same way Raja Rai Singh of Bikaner also

rebelled against the Emperor but soon the differences were removed and they were

restored to their previous responsibilities. But in the rule of Jahangir it is reported about

the three Hindu governors of provinces who served only for short periods. Man Singh

was appointed the governor of Bengal not only in Akbar reign but also in the reign of

Jahangir. Raja Kalyan the son of Raja Todar Mall was made the governor of Orissa. In

38

the same way Raja Vikramjit served as the governor of Gujarat for a short time. A lot of

diwans were also appointed in the reign of Jahangir in different provinces but the details

of these appointments are not available. But Hawkins says that Jahangir usually preferred

to appoint Muslims in his court. According to him Mohan Das a Hindu diwan served in

provincial government during the third year of Jahangir reign. (57)

Deccan Expeditions:

Although he sent a lot of expeditions to Deccan yet he could annexed some

territories into Mughal Empire. Malik Ambar the minister of Ahamadnagar succeeded in

maintaining the independence of that kingdom. In the last portion of Jahangir rule Shah

Jahan took refuge in Deccan while making Malik Amber supporter against his father.

Every Mughal Emperor had a desire to conquer the territories of Deccan, so Jahangir

followed this policy and In 1616 Jahangir sent Khuram as commander of an expedition

towards Deccan. In 1620 he also conquered Kangrah. In this expedition Prince Khuram

got several successes. On these victories while arranging a grand party Jahangir awarded

the title of Shah Jahan to Prince Khuram and bestowed a seat in the imperial court, beside

the royal throne. Through this way not only Jahangir introduced a new example in the

House of Timor while allowing to put a chair near the throne but also allowed Prince to

sit even in royal presence. During the stay at Deccan the weather of Ahmadabad put a bad

effect on the emperor’s health; he then decided to retire to Agra and maintained the

affairs of the capital. Some days later he left for Kashmir to restore his health. The

situation of Deccan again disturbed during in the absence of Jahangir. The emperor then

again dispatched Shah Jahan against the rivals of Deccan who succeeded in recovering

the territories from Malik Amber. The emperor was very happy while getting information

about new victories in Deccan but over drinking had disturbed the health of emperor. The

emperor’s declining health was a serious issue for Nor Jahan and on the other hand the

growing power of Shah Jahan was a serious threat for the empress. To deprive Shah Jahan

from throne she weaved the web of intrigues against him. While making strong her

political situation she tried to join Khusru in marriage with Ladli Bagim, her daughter by

Sheer Afghan but was rejected by Prince Khusru. Then she succeeded in making son in

law to Prince Shaheryar the youngest son of Jahangir from a concubine. Accordingly she

tried for the nomination of Prince Shaheryar as successor of Jahangir. In January 1622,

Prince Khusru died and the sudden death of Prince put a bad affect on the health of

Jahangir. Some historians are in opinion that Shah Johan was involved in the murder of

39

Khusru. Whether this claim in right or wrong but it is true that Prince Khusru was very

popular in masses and in Mughal haram. (58) On the issue of the succession, the gap of

differences between Prince Khuram and the emperor was expended. Jahangir handed over

the jagir of Punjab to Shahiryar which was hitherto under the control of Shah Johan. The

Prince Khuram raised the weapons against his father, but lost the battle many times. At

last Shah Jahan was forced to apology to his father. In March 1626 the pardon was

granted to Shah Jahan under some conditions and was appointed the governor of Bala

Ghat. His health was declining and even he was not able to work. So he stopped to write

memoir. In this period Mahabat khan rebelled and he arrested Jahangir but soon the

matters were settled down among the rivals. Then Nur-Jahan dispatched Mahabat Khan

against Shah Jahan. By this way not only she wanted to get rid from Mahabat Khan but

also wanted to destroy power of Shah Jahan. Instead of attacking army of Shah Jahan

Mahabat Khan joined the camp of Prince. In November 1927 Jahangir died while coming

back from Kashmir and he was buried in Lahore. (59)

Jahangir’s Qualities:

Jahangir wrote the events of his early reign of 17 years with his own hands

and but when his health was broken, this work had been done by others. “While he

forbade the use of wine to his subjects, he spent his own nights in drunken revelry. He

talked religion over his cups until he reached a certain stage of intoxication, when he ‘fell

to weeping, and to various passions, which kept them to midnight.’ In public he

maintained strict appearance of virtue, and never allowed any person whose breath

smelled of wine to enter his presence. ‘A courtier who had shared his midnight revels,

and indiscreetly referred to them next morning, was gravely examined as to who were the

companions of his debauch, and one of them was bastinadoed so that he died. During the

day time, when sober, Jahangir tried to work wisely for his Empire. A chain hung down

from the citadel to the ground, and communicated with a cluster of golden bells in his

own chamber, so that every suitor might apprise the Emperor of his demand for justice

without the intervention of the courtiers. Many European adventurers repaired to his

court, and Jahangir patronized alike their arts and their religion, in his earlier years he had

accepted the eclectic faith of his father. It is said that on his accession he had even

permitted the divine honors paid to Akbar to be continued to him. His first wife was a

Hindu price; figures of Christ and the Virgin Mary adorned his rosary; and two of his

nephews embraced Christianity with his full approval.”(60) He loved natural beauty and

40

made many experiments to understand the characteristics of different animals. Once while

an experiment he found that a lion’s gall bladder covered with longue, accordingly he

declared that this was the cause of his bravery. He also said that the sweetness of milk of

camel was due to his food. He also describes a lot of experiments in his memoir about

animals. He also loved the pictures. When Thomas Roe presented a picture which he had

brought from Europe, seeing this picture Jahangir claimed that one of his courtiers could

make the copy of this picture. On many occasions a lot of pictures were prepared by the

decree of Jahangir. Once he saw a painting made by Kamal-ud-din Bahraz, the emperor

appreciated it very much and a copy of this panting was made by a Hindu painter, named

Nahina, on completion of this the emperor signed at the bottom of this picture. Khan

Alam and Bashan Das were sent to Persia, making the images of Shah Abbes and his

court. The detail information about his interest for painting would be shared in its relevant

portion. Jahangir wrote Jahangir Name and ordered to prepare several copies. One of

them was given to Shah Jahan the second was bestowed to Amad-ud-mulk and one was

given to his son Asif and the froth copy of Jahangir Nama was bestowed to his son

Pervez. He also took interest in construction of buildings. He also made many types of

coins. (61)

Shah Jahan:

Shah Jahan was the third son of Jahangir who was then residing in Deccan,

where he received the news of his father’s death. Without losing any moment, he marched

to Agra while announcing his independence in January 1628. On the other side Nor Jahan

planned to mount Shahiryar on the throne. During this situation, Asif Khan with the

consultation of other nobles raised Bulaqi, the son of the Prince Khusru to the throne. But

Asif Khan was also secretly favoring to Prince Khuram his son in law and he dispatched

an express to inform him about the situation. At last Shah Jahan was raised to the throne

after killing a lot of princes and their supporters who could create problems for him in

future. On 6th February 1628 he mounted the throne while assuming the title of Shah

Jahan. In spite of the previous hostilities of Nur Jahan, she was pardoned and was treated

well by Shah Jahan. Shah Jahan allotted a jagir to her for her needs. She died in 1646 and

she was buried at Lahore near the tomb of her husband. (62) Not only Shah Jahan was an

experienced soldier but also a good administrator. Although the Mughal Empire lost

Kandahar in Shah Jahan period, yet he extended its territories in Deccan. He constructed a

lot of grand and splendid building in Northern India like Taj Mahal and other buildings

41

which are famous all over world due to their wonderful style. On other hand, in the

Deccan the kingdom of Ahmadnagar was at last annexed to Mughal Empire in 1636.

Bijapur and Golconda were forced to pay tribute. Marathas appeared in the land of

Deccan as a Hindu power. Their struggle was continued till next century which became

reason of the destruction of Empire. (63)

Children of Shah Jahan:

Shah Jahan had only seven children by different wives. Begum-Saeb was the

eldest among all his children. The prince Dara was the eldest son of Shah Jahan. The

Emperor had great love for him. Prince Sujah was third among his children and

Aurangzeb was the fourth in number. The Princess Roshanara Begum was fifth among his

children but was second daughter of Emperor. Prince Moradbax was the sixth in number

and the Princess Mehrun-Nisa Begum was the youngest among the children of Shah

Jahan. Begum Saeb was so beautiful and loved much with his father. The European

writers tried to give a bad color to this relation and also tried to scandalize their mutual

love. To prove their claim they had provided some baseless rumors. She supported always

to Dara in all his political intentions because he had promised that after becoming

emperor her marriage would be fixed. Dara was second among the children of Shah

Jahan. He was a learned man of his age. He acquired knowledge of all the European

sciences and languages. He translated a lot of Hindu religious books into Persian

language. According to him there is no difference between Vedanta thoughts and Islamic

mysticism. To prove this he quoted some verses from the Holy Quran. Not only he was

fond of European religious philosophies but also had great affections towards Christians.

The Jesuit Fathers were his close friends. In spite of these qualities he was so haughty. No

one had dear to advice him or even speak before him. He had created a lot of rivals in the

court due to his rude behavior. This prince had two sons, one of them was Sultan Soliman

Shikuh and the second was Sultan Super Shikuh. (64) “Dara was an open handed, high

spirited prince, contemptuous of advice and destitute of self control. He had a noble and

dignified bearing, except when he lost his temper. At such moments he would burst out

into a tornado of abuse, insulting and menacing the greatest generals and officers of state.

The rigid observance of Islam, with its perpetual round of prayers and its long fasts were

distasteful to his nature. And he had all the rival religions, Christian, Muhammadan and

Hindu to choose from in the court and the seraglio. Dara learned towards Christianity and

Hinduism. While contemptuously continuing in externals a Muhammadans, he concocted

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for himself an easy and elegant faith from the alternate teaching of a Brahman

philosophers and a French Jesuit. He shocked good Musulmans by keeping an

establishment of learned Hindus to translate their infidel scriptures into Persian. He even

wrote a book himself to reconcile the conflicting creeds.” (65) The third child of Shah

Jahan was Prince Shujah. He was more clever than brave. He was so cunning person and

he had spread a net work of spices in Agra to get information about the activities of Shah

Jahan and Dara Shikuh his elder brother. Prince Sujah also developed secret relations

with Rajpoot nobles. Aurangzeb was forth among Shah Jahan Children. He had reason

able body strength. Most of his time was spent in reciting the Holy Quran. His prayer

were frequent and in public. He adopted a simple life style and never appeared in public

meetings wearing precious stones and silk dress like other princes of that age. He used to

wear white dress and ate simple food. (66) Niccolao Manucci says in his book “Storia Do

Mogor” or Mughal India: “Still, although this prince (Aurangzeb) was held to be bold and

valiant, he was capable of great dissimulation and hypocrisy; pretending to be an ascetic,

he slept while in the field on a mat of straw that he had himself woven. He stitched caps

with his own hands and sent them out for sale, saying that he lived upon what he made by

them. He ate food that cost little, such as radishes, lentils, barley, and such like vegetables

and cereals; he gave alms publicly, and also let it be known that he underwent severe

penances and fasting; he allowed himself to be found in prayer or reading the Quran;

went out frequently within his chaplet in his hand and on all occasions called on the name

of God as if he made no accounts of the things of this world. All the same under cover of

these pretences, he led in secret a jolly life of it, and his intercourse was with certain holy

men addicted to sorcery, who instructed him how to dissimulate and to bring over to his

side as many friends as he could with witchcraft and soft speeches” (67) Roxanara Begum

the fifth of children of Shah Jahan. She was inferior in beauty to her elder sister but she

was a clever princess. She joined the party of Aurangzeb while serving him as a spy in

harem. The sixth of the children of Shah Jahan was Mured Bux. He was braver than a

good politician. Hunting wild animals like lion and others was his favorite activity.

Instead of negotiating to solve problems he always tried to use his strength and power.

However he was a true Muslim and had a generous nature to help the needy. Mehrunnisa

Begum was the youngest daughter of Shah Jahan. Neither was she beautiful nor was she

intelligent. She liked ornaments and dresses. She never took interest in political activities

and she remained neutral in the harem intrigues. (68) Shah Jahan divided his state among

his four sons in his life time. Sultan Shuja was sent to Bengal as the viceroy of that

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province. Aurangzeb was sent to Deccan while making him the governor of that region.

In the same way Murad Bux was sent to Gujarat as governor to that province. Only Dara

was allowed to stay near the emperor. When he controlled the affairs of state his behavior

was changed completely. In this situation some Europeans were very close to him like

Father Stanislaus Malpicer a Neapolitan, Pedro Juzarte, a Portuguese and Henry Busee a

Fleming. This last had much influence over the mind of this prince. The influence of Dara

suddenly increased and he started to rule with absolute authority and shah Jahan was just

the king of his treasures. A sopha was put near the throne for Dara while following the

footsteps of Jahangir. Instead of developing relations with his courtiers he started to

dishonor the nobles of his court which became the reason of his political decline in later

periods. He also insulted Raja Jai Sing by saying him a musician. On other side his

brothers were improving their powers. (69)

Non-Muslims in Public Service:

Several Hindus were admitted to high offices of military and civil service.

Sharma says on this occasion that during his reign there were 241 civil and military

officers and among them and among them 52 were Hindus who were serving as

commanders over 1,000 to 7,000. There were 189 commanders of 1,000 and above at the

end of 10th year of his rule but among them 35 were Hindus. Two years later there were

231 commanders of 1,000 and above and among them 51 were Hindus. The strength of

these Hindu mansabdars was very small. While seeing the number of the commanders of

500 and above, the condition of the number of Hindu mansabdars did not change. In the

same way in the last portion of twentieth year of his rule there were 453 military and civil

officers and among them 97 were Hindus. Raja Jaswant Singh of Jodhpur, Raja Jagat

Singh of Udaipur, Raja Jai Singh of Jaipur and Raja Bithal Das Gaur were serving as

military officers of 5000 soldiers. Raja Rai Singh the son of the Maharaja Bhim Singh

was the commander of 4000. In the same way Raja Pahar Singh Bundela of Urehha, Rao

Satarsal Hada of Bundi, Mandho Sihgh Hada, Udaji Ram, Parsoji Bhonsla, Jadu Rai,

Mankoji Nimbalkar, Rawat Rai and Dattarji were the officers of 3000. Raja Devi Singh

Bundela was commander of 2500. Raja Rajrup of Nurpur, Rao Karn Bhurtya of Bikaner,

Raja Jairamdas Bargojar, Prithvi Raj Rathorl, Ram Singh Rathor, Rup Singh Rathor,

Patoji, Arirai and Babaji were serving as officers of 2000. Rawal Punja of Dongarpur,

Ratan Rathor, Rao Rup Singh Chandrawat, Chand Ratan Bundela, Sujan Singh Sissodia,

Rai Todar Mall, Anarodh, Shivram and Raiba Dakhanni were the officers of 1500. Rawal

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Samarsi of Banswara, Raja Gursen of Kishtwar Kashmir, Raja Prithi Chand of Chamba,

Raja Badan Singh Bhadorya, Kanwar Ram Singh, Gopal Singh Kachhwaha, Pratap,

Girdhar Das Gaur, Rai Singh cousin of Jaswant Singh of Jodhpur, Arjun son of Bithal

Das, Rai Singh Jhala, Raja Amar Singh, Bhojraj Dakhani, Rai Kashi Das, Rai Dayanat

Rai, Rai Bhar Mal, Mahesh Das Rathor and Raja Trilok Chand Kachhwaha were the

officers of 1000 horse men. Moreover In the revenue department the dewan were also

commanders of 1000 or more. Rai Sobhah Chand was the diwan of Lahore in the twelfth

year. In the same way Rai Mukand Das was a Diwan-i-Tan and Diwani-i-Bayutat and

was serving revenue minister in the 12th year of Shah Jahan reign. Rai Dayanat Rai was a

military officer of 1000 and was also serving as diwan of all Deccan in Shah Jahan rule.

Beni Dass served as the Mughal revenue minister in Bihar. Rai Raghu Nath was

appointed the revenue for some time in the Mughal court. Moreover Rai Chandar Bhan

was appointed as the head of Dar-ul-Insha. It is interested to share that in the reign of

Shah Jahan the Maratha noble was appointed the commander of 6000 and this was the

very important responsibility in defense office. (70)

Religious Policy:

Although Shah Jahan did not impose jizya, yet he revived pilgrimage tax. This

was not only a heavy financial burden over non-Muslims but also through this way a

restriction was imposed to stop the religious worships. On this occasion a Hindu pundit

Kavindaracarya came to the court of emperor and succeeded in getting some concession

from emperor. The emperor then abolished it while permitting to non Muslim to perform

religious customs. Not only had the emperor imposed ban on the construction of new

temples but also issued order to destroy to newly constructed temples. Several temples

were demolished under this order. Only in Benares 72 temples were destroyed. Hundred

of temples were destroyed in Gujarat, Ahmad Abad and Kashmir. Sometimes the material

of temples was used in the construction of mosques. A lot of temples were also destroyed

during military campaigns. Bir Singh Bundela’s temple at Urchha was destroyed in an

expedition against Jujuhar Singh Bundela. In the same way while conquering the fort of

Khate Kheri in 1632, the Muslim rites were performed in the temple of that fort. In spite

of this fury in his early period of reign, he had changed his attitude towards non-Muslim

in his later period. Dara presented a stone railing to the temple of Kesho Rai at Muttra. Jai

Singh was granted the authority to appoint the chief priest at the temple of Bindraban by a

letter issued in 1643-4. The emperor granted two hundred bighas of land to the

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mausoleum of the mother of Man Singh by an order issued in 1639. The restoration of the

temples of Gujarat took place after 1647. Jesuit Fathers were invited to Mughal Court by

Akbar from Goa; they were still residing in principal cities of Mughal Empire and had a

reason able influence in the court. While destroying the Portuguese town Hugli the

Mughal army returned with Christian prisoners. Although the Jesuit Fathers were residing

in Agra, Delhi and Lahore and had a support from Mughal officers but they could not

save themselves and the Hugli prisoners from the wrath of emperor. On this occasion

Shah Jahan ordered to destroy some portion of Agra while destroying the holy religious

images. But he allowed them to perform their religious rites and customs in their houses.

Shah Jahan ordered to the Jesuit Fathers while stopping them from the conversion of

Muslims towards Christianity. (71) In early period of his rule he established a department

for making converts towards Islam and tried to attract the non-Muslim by giving several

awards. He granted pardon to all types of non-Muslim criminals who accepted Islam.

Such Muslims were used to get daily allowance from the court. During Shah Jahan reign

apostasy from Islam was a capital crime. In his period force conversions were also

reported during war days. Sujah succeeded in converting a lot of non-Muslims towards

Islam during his viceroyalty of Kabul. Under the efforts of this Prince several Hindu

nobles were converted to Islam. The emperor also tried to convert non-Muslims towards

Islam during in 1645-46 when the Punjab was suffered from famine. Marriages with

Hindu princesses were also a way to conversion. Although Akbar and Jahangir adopted

their Hindu spouses without converting them to Islam but Shah Jahan married Hindu

princess after converting them to Islam. Shah Jahan himself used to teach them the

Islamic Laws. Blasphemy was once again made a criminal offence. Brahman was put to

death under the complaint of blasphemy. In the same way provincial qanungo of Behar

was deprived from his head when he used disrespectful language towards the Prophet.

Some Muslims also punished due to their disrespect behavior towards Prophet. Sunder

Das and Chintamani were two great Hindi poets of the court of Shah Jahan. Shah Jahan

reign produced a lot of Sanskrit writings. Kamalakar Bhatta, the writer of Nirayasindhu

and Kavindaracarya the writer of commentary on the Rigveda were supported by Shah

Jahan. Jagannath was a court poet who not only sung a lot of poems while praising Dara

and Asif Khan but also wrote religious poems while praising the Ganges, the Yamuna and

the Sun. Nityananda succeeded in producing two works on Hindu astronomy and

supported by Asif Khan. Vedangaraja was another famous writer of Shah Jahan court

who produced Sanskrit vocabulary while collecting Persian and Arabic terms which were

46

used in Indian astronomy and astrology. Mitramisra was the famous jurist of Mughal

court who interpreted about a lot of Hindu laws which are still valuable in the Courts of

Calcutta and Bombay. (72) Chander Bhan was the famous poet of Shah Jahan (73)

Conflicts with Portuguese:

The European nations like Portuguese, English, Dutch and other nations not

only had increased their political and military powers in Mughal India but also they had

developed their trade and commerce in the southern India. The rapid progress in trade

consequently made them the master of rich coasts of southern India. Although their

mutual conflicts were declining their power yet Christianity was being introduced by

Jesuit Fathers and other missionaries in these territories. The war with the Portuguese was

the first enterprise of new Emperor. There are many stories behind the war with

Portuguese. It is said that during rebellious activities of Shah Jahan against his father, he

tried to get some help from Michel Rodriguez, a Portuguese commander but was refused.

Portuguese then joined the camp of Perviz and gained many victories under the command

of that prince. During these wars the two slave girls of Mumtaz, the wife of Prince

Khuram were captured by Portuguese. Father Francois Catrow says that the Portuguese

had just given asylum to two of her girls converted to Christianity by the missionaries.

Shah Jahan dispatched Qasim Khan against Hugli who got victory over there and sent

five or six hundred Portuguese to Agra as prisoners and amongst them, there were several

Jesuits Fathers. In order to save their families, several of them converted to Islam. Several

were put to death after torturing. The courtiers tried to convert the Jesuit Fathers to Islam

but all the attempts were proved fruitless. With the interference of Armenian and

Venetian persons who possessed some credit at court, they were set a liberty. (74)

The Battle of the Brothers:

Dara was the eldest son of Shah Jahan and was superior in the eyes of his

father. Although Shah Jahan sent his sons in different provinces as mentioned above but

the emperor had excessive love with Dara so he did not allow him to go anywhere. (75)

Unfortunately Shah Jahan fell seriously ill and could not able to run the state affairs in

1657. In the absence of Shah Jahan from the court, the Prince Dara was handling the

affairs of state. When the sons of Shah Jahan got news about the bad health of his father,

they started to proceed to the capital. On this occasion the Prince Dara, tried enough to

seize the news but could not succeed in stopping it. Prince Shujah had a net work of spies

who informed him about this. (76) Everyone wanted to become the emperor. On

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receiving the news of the advance of his brothers upon the capital, Dara prepared mighty

armies to defense the throne. (77) After adopting imperial titles, every prince started to

march upon capital with his army. Prince Shujah and Prince Murad were advancing upon

the capital from different directions. Aurangzeb was a good politician and a clever person

so instead of assuming any imperial title; he gave a chance to Shujah and Dara to destroy

each other. Then he made a plan to use his younger brother Prince Murad as his

instrument to get the throne. Murad was braver than a good politician. To achieve this

goal Aurangzeb wrote several emotional letters to Murad while assuring him that he

would loyal and sincere to him and also assured him that he had no interest in this

materialistic world. He also wrote to Murad that he just wanted to save the empire from

Dara, who was more theistic than a Muslim. Not only had Aurangzeb acknowledged

Murad as his sovereign but also said that after raising him to the throne, he would repair

to Mecca where he would spend rest of his life for eternal happiness. On this occasion

Murad could not understand the trick and secret intention of his elder brother and allowed

Aurangzeb to join him. This was a political mistake which in future, not only had

deprived him from the throne but also from his life. On the other side the Prince Dara

who had then the master of the throne, was well informed about the advance of his

brothers. Accordingly he dispatched an army under the command of his son Suleiman

Shukoh to face Prince Shujah. During this situation the emperor health had been restored

enough that he was able to manage the state affairs. He tried hard to stop his son Prince

Shujah from advancing towards the capital while writing him a lot of letters but these

letters could not stop his advancing. Instead of retiring to his territories he continued

marched upon the capital. At last both the armies fought near Banaras and Shujah fought

bravely but was defeated and was forced to retire towards Bengal. To counter the united

armies of both the brothers, Dara dispatched a powerful army under Rana Jeswant Sing

but In spite of this powerful army, the Raja Jaswant Singh was defeated. There are many

reasons behind of this defeat. On this occasion Aurangzeb played an important role to get

the field. But in spite of this contribution, he announced that all the successes had been

achieved by the bold steps of Murad. On this occasion the old emperor tried to stop these

fight but completely failed in his intention. When the news of defeat of Jeswant Singh

reached to Dara, he in person decided to defense the throne. (78) On 14th May, 1656, Dara

marched with powerful army against his rivals but defeated and took flight. On 8th June,

1656 a few days after the war the two brothers encamped two miles away from the capital

and managed the affairs of the city. Then the armies of two brothers started to follow

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Dara. During this chastise, Murad Bux was arrested and after some days he was put to

death. On the other side Dara wanted to go to Persia but the governors of Multan and

Kabul were already became the part of camp of Aurangzeb. He took refuge in different

territories but was arrested and was sent to Delhi as captive while mounting on an

elephant. On this occasion his feet and arms were tied with chains and were forced to sit

on an open seat of elephant. The youngest of his children was also with him as prisoner

and then were sent to prison. He was put to death on October 22, 1657. Aurangzeb sent

his head in a box to his father. Shah Sujah also died with his family on 7th February, 1658,

after this Murad Bux was put to death. (79)

Justice of Shah Jahan:

Shah Jahan liked to Justice. During his reign a Muslim soldier stole away the

slave girl of a Hindu writer. The matter was brought to the court. The slave girl was tired

of her first master and wanted to go with the soldier while saying that the said soldier was

the master of her. On the other side while producing clear evidences the writer claimed

that the girl was his property. The emperor then for a while converted his attended to

other complaints and spent some time. Suddenly the emperor asked for ink while giving

his pen to slave girl who did it with a wonderful way. Seeing this emperor declared that

the slave girl was belonged to the writer and then the soldier was punished. The members

of the whole court were surprised while seeing the sharp justice of Emperor. A civil

officer of Delhi accepted bribe while giving favors to accused. The matter was brought to

the court and the officer could not prove his innocence. Then he was put to death under

imperial order. While controlling on the crimes he gave the responsibility to his

mansabdars about controlling the robberies. In the case of robbery the mansabdar of the

town was considered responsible. A Dutch factory was looted in Surat and the matter was

reached to the court. Shah Jahan compelled the governor to pay the loss as penalty. While

violating the custom of court one of his Amirs sat in the presence of Emperor. Shah

Jahan deprived him from his office and pension. This said man next day again came to

the court and again sat in the court in the presence of Emperor while saying that he was

not in the service of Emperor. Emperor impressed by his courage and restored him in his

office. (80)

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The Reign of Aurangzeb:

Aurangzeb became emperor of Hindustan in 1658 after killing his brothers and

assumed the title of Alamgir. Although his rule was extended to 49 years and he

succeeded in ruling on the whole of Hindustan including Deccan but it was also a start of

rapid decline of a mighty empire. (81) After ascending the throne the emperor started to

dispatch expeditions towards different directions to expend his empire. Not only had he

dispatched the armies against the non Muslims states but also against Muslim states of

Deccan. There were five independent Muslim states in Deccan. Three of them had

already been occupied by Mughals before his rule. But Bijapur and Golconda were still

independent. Aurangzeb wanted to complete this victory so from 1658 to 1683 his armies

struggle hard to conquer these two states but failed completely. Marathas became another

power of Deccan under the leadership of Shivaji. Not only had they started plundering the

Deccan territories but also entered into Mughal provinces. The Mughal army failed to

block his way. From 1670 to 1674 Shivaji started to get tribute under the name of Chouth

(one fourth of the revenues) from Mughal Provinces. He also assumed the title of Raja

and after a remarkable carrier he died in 1680 and then in 1680 Sambhaji became the

successor of Shivaji. This situation forced to Aurangzeb to take the field in person in

1683. Not only had the emperor took steps against Maratha power but also against the

Muslim states of Deccan. At last in 1688 he succeeded in annexing Bijapur and Golconda

into Mughal Empire after a long struggle of 24 years. From 1688 to 1707 he spent a major

part of his life against Marathas. The Mughal Troops got successes in these wars and the

emperor captured Sambhaji in 1689 and put him to death and seized his capital. In 1701

the emperor crushed the power of Maratas and recovered all his forts and territories. In

spite of this hopeless situation, the Marathas did not lose their hearts. Then they started

guerrilla warfare against the Mughal power and till the end of 1705 they recovered all

their forts and territories. Not only had emperor lost treasures but also lost his health. In

this difficult situation emperor was died in February in 1707 while leaving a war of

succession among his weak successors. (82) He also adopted bad attitude towards Hindus.

Edward S. Holden, L L.D. says, “While Aurangzeb dealt thus hardly with the Hindu

population, his hand fell heavily on the Hindu princes. He vindictively remembered that

the Hindu Rajputs had nearly won the throne for his eldest brother, and that their most

distinguished chief had dared to remonstrate with himself. ‘If your Majesty’ wrote the

brave Hindu Raja of Jodhpur, ‘places any faith in books by distinction called divine, you

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will there be instructed that God is the God of all mankind, not the God of Muscleman’s

alone. In your temples to ‘’His name, the voice of prayer is raised; in a house of images,

where a bell is shaken, He is still the object of worship.” Instead of raising war against

this Hindu prince, he developed friendly relation and appointed him in responsible posts.

But after his death Aurangzeb tried to deprive the son and widow from their territories.

This started a war between Mughal Empire and Rajputs. And one of his sons fought from

the side of Rajputs while announcing his independence declaring his independence. He

led a powerful army against his father but was defeated. Aurangzeb burnt their houses,

destroyed their crops and destroyed their temples and carried gods of these temples to

capital and dishonored the images. The Raj puts on their side, destroyed mosques, burnt

the Holy Quran and dishonored Muslim prayers. Rajputs were forced to submission.

Instead of supporting to Mughal Empire, they became its destroyer. (83)

Non Mulaims in Public Service:

Sharma produced a list of mansabdars above the rank of Yak Hazari (one

thousand) while studding the different sources like Jaipur Records, Alamgir Nama,

Maasar-i-Alamgiri and the Muntakhib-ul-bab. He succeeded in producing a long list of

148 Hindu mansabars who served the empire in the whole reign of Aurangzeb. It is not

the credit of liberal policy of Aurangzeb. The credit of this large list goes to his long rule.

There were four Rajas of Jaipur like Jai Singh 1, Ram Singh, Bishan Singh and Jai Singh

11 who served as the commanders of 1000 and became successors of one another in the

whole reign of the emperor. In the same way three Rajas from Udaipur like Raj Singh, Jai

Singh and Amar Singh served after each other to the Empire under the rank of Yak

Hazari. From Bikaner Rao Karn, Raja Anup Singh, Surap Singh, Anurodh Singh and

Budh Singh served as the commanders of 1000 in different periods. In the same way from

Kota the Raja Jagat Singh, Kishan Singh and Ram Singh served the empire after one

another during the fifty years of the Aurangzeb. In the last portion of the reign of

Aurangzeb there was a short list of Hindu commanders of 1,000 and above but in the

reign of Shah Jahan the list of Yak hazari Hindu mansabdars was very long. Although the

list of Hindu mansabdars reduced in this period but the strength of total commanders was

increased. According to detail there were 8,000 commanders in the reign of Shah Jahan in

1657 but this list was extended to 14,556 in 1690. In the last portion of his reign the list of

mansabdars was extended under the expending territories of Mughal Empire. While

seeing the small number of Hindu mansabdars it is easy to assume that in his period the

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Hindus were continuously deprived from high offices. This list can be evaluated in

another way as well. In the early portion of his reign there were two Hindu mansabdars

who were enjoying high status in the court. Maharaja Jaswant Singh not only served as

governor of Gujarat but also was sent as the general of Mughal expedition against the

Marthas in Deccan. The said Hindu noble was also made an assistant of the Prince during

his viceroyalty of Kabul. He was deputed wherever hard work was expected. In the same

way Raja Jai Singh was sent against Shivaji to the Deccan who not only controlled the

civil and military affairs but also became the highest ruling authority. He them became

very important in the eyes of the Emperor. While paying tribute to the Hindu Raja the

Emperor fixed Rs 25,000 as yearly allowance. But in the closing period of Aurangzeb it is

impossible to find the single Hindu as the provincial governor. In fact no Hindu was

appointed a provincial governor after the death of these two Rajput commanders. In the

same way no Hindu could get the office of Raja Raghu Nath after his death as the finance

minister. Ahkam-i-Alamgiri says that the Emperor issued an order while stopping the

employment of Rajputs as mansabdars or provincial governors. It is easy to believe that

when Prince Commander during an expedition decided to increase status of Indar Singh

and Bahadrur Singh but Aurangzeb rejected this recommendation. (84) The lower Hindu

mansabdars also had to face same attitude by the Mughal Emperor. While stopping the

employment of Hindus the Emperor issued several orders to break the monopoly of the

Hindus in the revenue department and in the clerical establishment. While issuing a

general order in the Kalimat-i-Tayyibat stopped the recruitment of the Hindus. Maasir-i-

Alamgiri and Muntakhib-ul-Lubab contain several orders of the Emperor in which the

employment of the Hindus in the revenue department were discouraged. The

employments as personal assistants to Muslim nobles also disliked. (85)

Religious Policy of Aurangzeb:

Although On 28 February 1659 an order was issued from Aurangzeb’s court

forbidding the destruction of old temples yet a ban was laid down to construct new

temples. He also issued orders while forbidding disturbing the Brahmans and other

Hindus who were residing in temples. But during military expeditions there are a lot of

examples of temples destruction. In 1661 an expedition was dispatched against Palamau

under the command of Daud Khan the viceroy of Bihar who not only destroyed many

temples there but also converted in mosques. The same practice also repeated by Mir

Jumla during an expedition against the Raja of Kush Bihar. An order was issued on 20th

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November 1665 while ordering to destroy those temples of Gujarat which had been

already destroyed under his orders during his viceroyalty. But the Hindus rebuilt those

temples again. It is impossible to understand why the emperor issued the order of the

destruction of temples of Gujarat. In the same way an order was issued in 1669 to the

viceroy to Orissa while ordering to destruct those temples which had been constructed

during the last ten or twelve years. Keshav Rai temple of Muttra was famous for its

beauty and splendor. The old wood railing of this temple was removed by Prince Dara

while constructing a stone railing. On 14th October 1666 this railing was destroyed under

the order of emperor. Lalta temple near Delhi also destroyed by the order of Aurangzeb.

(86) In April 1669 a general order was issued to the destruction of the temples of Multan,

Benares and Sind where Brahmans were found delivering the religious instructions to the

Muslim and Hindu students. Jahangir did not allow to Muslims to get religious

instructions from Hindu Yogis. The idols from some temples were brought to Agra and

then buried under the steps of Jahanara’s mosque. While proceeding to Ajmer for Deccan,

the Emperor issued an order on 21th May 1681 to destroy the temples which might come

in the way. There are several other examples of the destruction of the temples in the

different provinces of the Mughal Empire. In spite of these destructions some Hindu

temples were also built in the reign of Aurgzeb at Bishalpur (in Bengal). Two were built

in 1681 and one was built in 1690. Aurangzeb allowed the Sahasraing tank in Gujarat to

be kept filled with water at the expense of the state. (87) The pilgrimage tax was revived.

Some religious festivals were also stopped to celebrate under the order issued on 20th

November 1665. In spite of this order Raja Bhim and Kishen Singh celebrated a festival

of Holi in South India in 1692. On this occasion the emperor tried to stop the celebration

but failed completely. Dipavali also prohibited in 1665. In 1703 the Hindus of Ahmad

Abad were stopped to burn their dead bodies on the banks of the river of Sabarmati. In

1696 the Hindus of Delhi were tried to stop burning their dead bodies on the banks of

Jamuna. The fire work had been stopped. The Hindus were said not to copy the lifestyle

of Muslims. In 1694 a general order was issued forbidding the Hindus to use neither

Arabian or Turanian horse or an elephant nor a palanquin except Rafputs and Marathas.

In 1694 a Hindu of Multan tried to violate this rule was deprived from his horse and

saddle. The Muslim engravers were stopped to engrave the names of Hindu gods and

goddesses on the seals of Hindus rings. In 1693-1694 the Hindus were stopped to carry

the weapons in public. On 10th April 1665 the custom duty was started to charge 2.5 per

cent from Muslim merchants and 5 per cent from non-Muslim merchants. On 9th May

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1667 the Muslims were completely exempted from custom duty but revived on 5th March

1682 at the rate of 2.5 per cent. The Muslim was paid 16.6 as garden production tax and

the Hindus had to pay 20 per cent. He re-imposed the jizya on non-Muslims of the state.

Aurangzeb took interest in person to convert Hindus towards Islam. The pundits of

Benares was renewed for their sanctity, had been enjoyed financial support by Emperors

but Aurangzeb stopped their allowance. The Islamic Calendar was revived in his reign.

When his courtiers resisted against pilgrim-tax, he suggested imposing a general tax. (88)

Rise of Sikhs and Jats:

Guru Nanak laid down the foundation of Sikhism in the first quarter of

sixteenth century. Sikhs became a powerful nation until 17th century. Then the Sikhism

was flourished by ten Gurus after the death of Guru Nanak and in the line of the Gurus

the last was Guru Go bind. The religious struggle was then developed into military

activities. During the battle of succession Guru Har Rai was the leader of the Sikhs. Dara

after the defeat left for Punjab and was met by the guru who promised him for military

support. But in later he deserted the Prince Dara like other allies. After becoming the

emperor the explanation was demanded by the imperial court. Instead of waiting upon in

person the guru sent his non with two Sikhs to the imperial court. Har Rai died in 1661

and his minor son Har Kishan became his successor. Ram Rai filed a case against this

succession in the royal court while claiming that it was his right to be a guru. Then the

guru was summoned to the court. But he died on 9th April 1665. Aurangzeb meanwhile

gave jagir at Dehra Dun to Ram Rai where he after constructing a temple, became the

leader of a group of Sikhs. On the other side the Sikhs accepted Tegh Bahadur a younger

son of Guru Hargovind as their leader. This new Guru rebelled against Aurangzeb but

arrested and was killed in 1675 under imperial order. Then the emperor converted his

attention to the southern states of India in 1680 ignoring the rebellious activities of Shiks.

Meanwhile the Shiks had gotten a chance to promote their power. His successor was

Guru Goband Singh who became the danger for Mughal Empire and this Guru made a

strong army under the name of Khalisa. After organizing his army, Guru Goband Singh

started a series of war against Mughals and selected northern Punjab for his activities.

The imperial troops then activated against Guru Gobind Singh and he was forced to take

flight and during in these skirmishes, the two sons of guru were buried alive in a wall of

Sir Hind in 1705. The Guru Gobind Singh escaped to Deccan. After the death of

Aurangzeb, a war took place among his sons for succession, the guru joined Bahadur

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Shah Camp and Guru died in 1707. But In later periods they continued guerilla wars

against Mughal Empire. (89) Jat tribes also became a danger for empire. They lived

barbarous life and they started plundering and became a problem for Empire under Raja

Ram and Ram Char. They destroyed a lot of towns and villages. Caravan routes were not

safe from their activities. Even they destroyed tomb of Akbar in Sikandra and looted it.

After digging the grave of the Emperor Akbar they searched the bones of Akbar and then

burnt them. In short the last period of Aurangzeb was in state of instability of empire

where different groups and nations and communities were involved in looting and

plundering. (90)

East India Company and Sea Robbers:

In 1612 East India Company started their trade in Surat and other parts of

southern India. Sir Thomas Roe came to the court of Jahangir as the envoy of Britian in

1616 and stayed until 1618 and succeeded in getting trade permission from the Mughal

Court. With the passage of time their trade was extended. So in 1633 they established two

factories in Balasur and Haripur and built St. Jorge Fort in Madras. In 1651 the English

Company opened their first trading office in Hugli (Bengal). The English used to export

silk, sugar and other things from these territories. In 1652 Sultan Sujah, then governor of

Bengal allowed them to trade after getting three thousand rupees as annual tax. In 1661

the English traders reorganized their trading offices in different territories while starting

to work like independent authorities. Madras was then became their head office. In

Bengal English Company started to earn heavy profits. Not only had the profits from

these regions become the reason of their political power but also gave a chance to them to

progress their military power. In 1668 the Company started shipping from Hugli to the

sea. The differences were arisen between the government and English Company over the

rate of custom duty. The government wanted to get the custom duty according to new

rates of custom duty but the British Company was refusing to pay the new taxes. In May

1687 Shaista Khan, the governor of Benagl sent an army against the Company. On

approaching the Mughal Army the English Company was forced to sign a peace

argument. In August 1687, English company was granted permission by Shaista Khan to

trade in Hugli under new trade agreement. The next year company sent Hath, as their

representative who shifted their trade from Hugli to Chittagong and started to maintain an

authority in these territories. When the emperor was informed about this violation, he

banned on their trading activities throughout the empire. But the emperor was forced to

55

make a peace talk with company because they blockaded the route to Mecca for

pilgrimage. On 3 September 1690, Ibrahim Khan, the new governor of Bengal gave

permission to Job Cher Nuke for trade from Madras to Calcutta. This was the first day

when the foundation of British rule was laid in India. Then the company shifted its

business from Seurat to Bombay. By this policy not only had the Company established its

business at a great distance from Mughal approach but also maintained a watching system

on the movement of Mughal fleets. Then many conflicts occurred between Mughal Army

and Company Troops, in which the Mughal army got successes. In this situation Sir John

Child, the director of the Company, was forced to apologies and pay one lakh and fifty

thousand rupees as penalty to Aurangzeb and the emperor gave permission to return them

to their territories on January 4, 1690. (91) The European sea robbers were also became a

danger for Mughal Empire; one of them was Robert who in the period of three years had

destroyed four hundred trading ships in the sea. Not only had the robbers destroyed

Moghat trading ships but also looted even a ship traveling with Pilgrims to Mecca. Some

nobles of Syed families were also travelling in this ship. The ladies of the Syed families

were also dishonored. Some of them had succeeded in saving their honor by throwing

themselves into the sea. Then Aurangzeb arrested chief officers of Company who after

giving assurance about the security of pilgrims, got pardon on July 7, 1696. But in spite

of this assurance, the robbery could not be stopped. Sir Jadunath Sarkar says that at last

the English French and Dutch were forced to pay ransom of all the losses and promised to

suppress piracy. The situation was changed soon and on 8th April 1699 new English

Company was established at Surat and Sir Nicholas Waite became its President. The old

Company had been lost its prestige by the intrigues of the agents of its rival. The new

chairman stopped to every kind of meanness and dishonesty. Sir William Norris was sent

from England as ambassador to the Mughal court to get favor for new company. Norris

visited Aurangzeb in April 1701; there was an exchange of presents between two

Governments. But he could not succeed to gain some concession from the court. In spite

of staying sixteen months in the court he returned without gaining anything. On this

occasion Aurangzeb demanded that the English should give an undertaking to clear the

pirates from the seas but this was impossible for Norris. On 28th August 1703 two ships of

Surat one belonging Abdul Ghafur and another to Qasim bhai were looted by pirates.

When the news reached Surat ltibar khan, the governor of said city seized all the brokers

of the European companies and blockaded their factories by cutting their food supply and

every kind of communication from outside. The brokers of the French and of the new

56

English Company were released but the employees of old English Company were

tortured. Then the governor got three lakhs rupees from the said captured men and three

lakhs from the brokers of the Dutch as ransom. The Duch captured Indian ships which

were bringing Indian pilgrims back from Mecca. Among them was Nur-ul-Haq a son of

the late chief Qazi Abdul Wahab, and Fakhr-ul-Islam his nephew. The said religious

scholars had a great influence in the court of Aurangzeb. Then the Dutch recovered their

money and restored the ships. Then the Emperor knew that without the help of Europeans

it was impossible for his Muslim subjects to go to Mecca for hajj. (92)

Character of Aurangzeb:

Although his close relations could not save themselves from his cruelty, yet he

ruled with justice and equality. He was a pious man and led a very simple life. He had a

lot of qualities which gave him a respectable status among the other kings of the world.

Not only had he took interest in Arabic and Persian literature but also had a great interest

in Islamic Law. This interest can be seen in Fatawa Alamgiri, which was prepared under

his patronage. He used to write all the Farmans and decrees with his own hand. He looked

young even at the age of ninety but he lost partially his power of hearing. He had a

remarkable memory. He did not use even a single rupee for his personal needs from royal

treasure. He said his prayers regularly and having recited the Holy Quran after morning

prayers, he used to write Quran and prepared several copies of Holy Book in person. He

earned his livelihood by making and then selling caps. Out of 24 hours, he used to take

rest only three hours. Aurangzeb reorganized the provincial administer system and

divided them into 21 provinces in his period. Commonly it is said that Aurangzeb adopted

the policy of religious persecution against Hindus. But it is not true; he never adopted bad

behavior towards Hindus. Their judicial disputes were decided according to their personal

law by Hindu judges. For this purpose Hindu judges were appointed. The Hindus also

appointed at high offices and they had done grand works for Mughal Empire, even the

close relations of Shivaji, like Uchlagi son in law of Shivaji, Baddai, the cousin of Shivaji

and Raja Chahu the grandson of Shivaji were appointed as military commanders in

Mughal Army. (93) Non-Islamic activities were banned in his court. In the eleventh year

of his reign, not only had he dismissed the musicians from his court but also he banned

the musical ceremonies in his court. He dismissed astronomers from his court and banned

the use of precious vessels as well as precious cloths. To stop prostitution the emperor

ordered to the women to this profession to leave this profession by marrying. Use of

57

narcotics was tried to stop. As the Sati was a barbarous custom of Hinduism, the emperor

used force to stop it. In spite of his order some cases of Sati were reported in some remote

villages. Although the emperor encouraged the use of Islamic colander yet he also gave

the permission to non-Muslims to use their own calendars. He took steps for the security

of old temples. He imposed 75 different taxes on Muslims and Hindus had to pay only

Jizya. Children, women, elderly persons and patients were exempted from paying jizya.

The historians estimated that the Muslims had to pay a heavy amount in the shape of

different taxes which had been increased five times than jizya. He allowed the Hindus to

celebrate their religious festivals but he banned the people of Gujarat from open

celebration of festivals because during their celebration they violated the rule in 1665. He

also used to give gifts and rewards to Hindu nobles on the occasions of non-Muslims

religious festivals. On the other side Hindu nobles also presented gifts to emperor. By

issuing an order he stopped the collection of taxes from old temples and fixed

scholarships for Hindus priests. He also developed secret network of spies in his empire

to control the state affairs. For the improvement of trade and commerce, he developed a

matured network of roads and established thousands of factories for the production of

different items in different provinces. To improve education he fixed scholarships for

teachers and students. He maintained three grades for education. The students of different

department used to receive different scholarships. The scholarships were awarded to

students after the recommendation of teachers and provincial heads. In the early period of

his reign the degrees were issued by the court but the emperor in later period relaxed in

this by shifting these powers to the provinces. The buildings of education were mostly

attached with mosques. (94) After the death of Aurangzeb a battle was fought among his

sons for the succession. This war won by Bahadur Shah.

Bahadur Shah and his Successors:

Aurangzeb left three sons. The eldest son of Aurangzeb was Shah Alam who

became emperor under the title of Bahadur Shah. The second was Azam Shah and the

youngest was Kaum Buksh. Shah Alam was sent to prison twenty years earlier due to his

rebellious activities and remained under captivity for several years. Then the emperor sent

him to Kabul as viceroy. When he received the news of his father’s death, he started to

march towards the capital. His one son was the governor of Multan and other was

residing as viceroy of Bengal. Shah Alam was joined by his one son near Multan and

other started forced march to join his father from Bengal. Azam Shah was the second son

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of Aurangzeb who was residing in the capital but was sent to Malwa as governor some

days earlier from emperor’s death to avoid any rebellious activity. Having received the

news of emperor’s death, he hastily reached at Ahmad Nagar where Aurangzeb had died

and announced his sovereignty. The third son Kaum Buksh in the same way was sent to

Bijapur as governor. To avoid from civil war the emperor wanted to divide the empire

among his sons but every one of them wanted to become emperor while ignoring his

father’s will. Shah Alam was ready to divide empire but other two brothers rejected it.

(95) The governor of Lahore Munim Khan joined the camp of Bahadur Shah and gave

him forty lakh rupees as war expenses. Shah Alam announced his sovereignty in Lahore.

Bahadur shah was then 68 years old. He dispatched his son, the governor of Bengal to

capture Agra. When Bahadur shah reached near Delhi, he got news about the success of

Muhammad Azam. (96) On the other side Azam Shah had a chance to occupy the capital

before reaching Muhammad Azam because he was very near to the capital. Bidar Bakth

was one of the sons of Azam Shah who wanted to march towards Agra but under some

suspicion he was not allowed. This way Azam Shah lost a chance to capture the capital.

On the other side Shah Alam and his son Aziem-ul-Shan easily got possession of Delhi

and Agra. At last the army of Bidar Bukth and Shah Alam fought. Badar Bukht was killed

in this war and his army dispersed in different directions. Ten thousand men were killed

from both sides. In April 1708, Shah Alam had to march towards Deccan where his

brother Kaum Buksh raised his arms against the emperor at Bijapur. Accordingly on 13

January 1709, a war was happened between the two brothers and in this war Kaum Buksh

was badly injured and then died. On the other side Rajput Rajas also announced their

rebellion. Shah Alam marched against them and forced them to make peace agreement in

May 1710. In Punjab Sikhs appeared as a power, the tenth Guro of Gobind Sing died in

November 1708. Guru Gobind had no child. So after his death the Sikhs had gathered

around a person who had some resemblance to Guru Gobind. This new guru adopted the

title of Chachcha Bad Shah and got popularity under the name of Sham guru. He gathered

around him forty thousand men. He got Son purr, Sadhura and Sir Hind. In May 1710

while occupying Sir Hind the Sikhs destroyed a lot of mosques and killed thousands of

Muslims and dishonored the Muslim women. The Sham Guru developed some groups of

Sikhs and they looted several towns and cities even they tried to destroy Lahore but they

could not successful in the expedition. In 1710 Bahadur Shah marched in person against

Sikhs and forced them to disperse. In spite of these defeats the Sikhs did not leave the

field. Not only had they continued their activities against Mughal Empire in the life time

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of Bahadur Shah but also in later periods. On 27 February 1713 Bahadur Shah died and

during the conflicts among princes for throne, Sham Guro again recovered Sadhura and

started marched towards the different towns. Bahadur Shah could not rule with absolute

authority because he had to face a high resistance from Sunni Muslims who did not him

because he was a Shia Muslim. (97) Bahadur Shah had four sons. Jahandar Shah was the

eldest son of Bahadur Shah. The second was Aziem-ul-Shan; this prince was an able

general and good politician. The third was Rafi-ul-shan this prince had feelings of

jealousy to his elder brother Aziem-ul-shan. Jahan Shah was the youngest son of Bahadur

Shah and he was a weak person and was not able to rule. Zulfiqar Khan was a Mughal

general, who succeeded in uniting the three princes against Aziem-ul-shan. The united

forces of three brothers defeated Azeem-ul-shan on 17th March 1712. After defeating and

killing his elder brother Jahandar Shah became the emperor. He was a weak person. He

was ruled through his wazir, Zulfikar khan. On 26th March 1712 a battle was again took

place among the brothers. His two brothers lost their lives in these conflicts. In June 1712

Jahandar Shah reached Lahore from Delhi where he received news about the rebellion of

Farokh Siar, his nephew and the son of Azeim-ul-shan. On 10th January 1713 a battle was

fought in the suburb of Agra in which Jahanda Shah was defeated and was forced to

escape but was arrested and killed on 11th February 1713. Then Farokh Siar became the

Emperor. Farokh Siar was supported by two Syed Brothers, Syed Hussain Ali Khan and

Syed Abdullah Khan, the first was governor of Bihar and other was governor of Allah

Abad. On ascending the throne the new ruler bestowed high offices to both the brothers.

Soon differences aroused among emperor and Syed Brothers. There were many reasons.

They were syed of Barha and old inhabitants of India, due to this they tried to oblige

natives instead of supporting foreigners. The other reason was that the Mughals were

mostly Sunni and the syed brothers were shias. Farokh Siar was an inexperienced ruler

and was not able to manage the affairs of state independently and always used to depend

on the opinions of others. Because the Syed brother were holding high offices this created

dissatisfaction among other leading Moghals. (98) The syed brothers stopped attending

the court. Then the emperor restored good relations with syed brothers. The Rajputs

rebellious activities were still continued, and then the emperor dispatched many

expeditions against them. At last in 1719 Farokh Siar was killed by the Syed brothers and

then Hussain Ali entered into the fort and the reign of Farokh Siar was over. Confusion

was spread in the city and Rafi-ud-darjat, a son of Rafi-ud-shan was raised to the throne.

The new prince was a wise man and twenty years old. But syed brothers did not allow

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him to interfere in state affairs. The new emperor died after 6 months. Then on 4th June

1719 another puppet, Rafi-ud-doulah, the elder brother of Rafu-ul-darjat was raised to the

throne but he died on 17th September in 1719. Another youthful puppet followed, also

descendent from Aurangzeb, named Muhammad Shah. His reign unlike others, were

prolonged 29 years. Muhammad shah was grandson of Bahadur Shah. When he mounted

on the throne, he was just 15 years old. Although he became the emperor but the real

power was in the hands of Syed brothers. Nizam-ul-mulk Fatah jang (Qaliej Khan) was

the son of Faruz jang, the famous general of Aurangzeb. This general got victories against

Marthas during his viceroyalty in Deccan in the rule of Forikh Siar. Syed brothers could

not bear the respect of Nizam-ul-mulk so the Syed brothers wanted to destroy the power

of this noble. On the other side Nizam-ul-mulk was aware all activities of Syed brothers.

To get rid from him the Syed brothers sent him as governor to Malwah. When the Nizam-

ul-mulk left for Malwah the Syed Brothers on the other side planned to crush him. Not

only had they encouraged Alam Ali, the vice governor of Deccan to attack the army of

Nizam-ul-mulk but also sent a message to Dilawar Khan to attack the said army from

Rajputana. Nizam-ul-mulk then destroyed the armies of both generals and succeeded in

occupying a vast portion of Deccan. Syed brothers received the news of defeat at Agra.

On this occasion they said to the Emperor that an expedition should be sent against

Nizam-ul-mulk. Accordingly they planed that on brother should stay in capital and other

should go to Deccan along with emperor against Nizam-ul-malk. So Syed Abdullah left

for Delhi and Syed Hussain Ali started to preparations against Nizam-ul-mulk. During

these developments Syed Hussain Ali was killed by Haider Mirza. Not only the Emperor

but also the Mughal nobles wanted to get rid from the Syed brothers. While seeing the

week political position of Syed brothers the nobles of Syed army started to join emperor

camp. Rattan Chand the dewan of Syed brother on his tern was torturing and was looted

and then was arrested by Aitmad-ul-daula. Then a battle was fought between the emperor

and Syed Abdullah, in which the Syed was defeated and was arrested. After the war the

Nizam-ul-mulk arrived at the court of Delhi where he was received with great honor. He

was bestowed the title of Asif Jah and the responsibility of Prime Minister in 1722. In this

situation a hope was appeared about the revival of Mughal power. Instead of taking

interest in state matters the emperor indulged his attentions towards music parties, and

started excessive use of wine. The Deccan was under the situation of disorder, while

Nizam-ul-mulk was sent there as viceroy who succeeded in destroying the rebellious

sections and announced his independence. (99) Nizam-ul-mulk Asif jah with complete

61

authority started to rule in Deccan. To save his state he then started to maintain friendly

relations with Maharath. Then a peace agreement was signed between Nizam-ul-mulk and

Marathas because Marathas wanted to get Gujarat, Malwa and Northern India and they

wanted to save themselves from Nizam-ul-mulk attacks. Then Marathas occupied Gujarat

and Malwa. These fresh victories encouraged Marathas to get control over all Hindustan.

On the other side the imperial army had lost its discipline. In 1736 Marathas looted the

adjoining areas of Delhi and returned back to Malwa. And then Marathas succeeded in

getting confirmation of their rule of Gujarat and Malwa by emperor. No doubt Marathas

became the big power of Hindustan. In their success Nizam-ul-mulk, Syed brothers and

emperor’s pleasure loving habits played an important role. (100)

Attack of Nadir Shah:

Nadir shah was the ruler of Persia. He wrote many letters to Muhammad Shah

to expel the Afghans from Kabul, but he gave a deaf ear on these letters. Then Nadir Shah

occupied Kabul and dispatched his envoys to Delhi but they were killed on the way. This

assassination became the reason of Nadir Shah’s attack on India. He started to march

against Hindustan and destroyed Jalalabad in 1739, destroyed Peshawar and then

occupied Lahore. Then emperor dispatched Amir-ul-Umara and Burhan-ul-Mulk Saadat

Khan against Nadir Shah, who defeated easily the imperial army and Amir-ul-Umera, was

died in this war. But Nadir Shah forgave Burhan-ul-Mulk and they took meal at the same

table. On this occasion, Nadir shah ready to conciliate on the tribute of 2 Koror rupees.

But the enmity of Nizam-ul-mulk and Burhan-ul-Mulk, did not allow it to fulfill. Then the

invader summoned the emperor in his camp and then looted all of the treasures and other

value able things like peacock throne. Although Nadir Shah did not allow his army to

massacre yet the people of Delhi threw the stones while he was visiting the city. Then he

issued orders for massacre and killed one lakh and fifty thousand people from morning to

evening. On emperor’s request, he stops this killing. When the peace was restored

Muhammad shah gave his daughter in marriage to Nasrullah Mirza, the son of Nadir

Shah. The invader stayed in Delhi for 58 days. (101) After the departure of Nadir Shah

the political power was shattered and the governors of different provinces announced

their independence. Ali Wardi khan became sovereign in Bungal, Bihar and Orrisa.

Ruhilas also became a danger in this period. Ali Muhammad khan Ruhila occupied many

territories of Mughal state. Malwa and Gujarat were already under the possession of

Marathas. British was also becoming a power in the coastal arias. In spite of the

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rebellious activities of Ali Muhammad Khan Ruhila he was pardoned by Muhammad

Shah and made viceroy of Sirhind but terminated in the attack of Ahmad Shah Abdali.

When Nadir Shah returned to Persia he was killed and then Ahmad Shah Abdali, a

general of Nadir Shah developed his power and occupied Ghazni, Kandahar and Kabul.

By following the steps of Nsdir Shah he interred into the territories of India in 1744. Not

only had he got possession of Peshawar but also occupied Lahore and Sir Hind. When the

emperor was informed about the march of Ahmad Shah Abdali he dispatched Ahmad, the

crown prince of state who defeated the army of Ahmad Shah Abdali in 1748. Hardly had

he gotten success against the enemy then he received the news of death of Muhammad

Shah. Ahmad Shah mounted on the throne in 1748. Like his father he after handing over

the affairs in the hands of his amirs he indulged his attention towards dance parties and

other bad habits. The amirs of state were busy in conflicting one another and had no

interest in public prosperity. When Ahmad Shah Abdali received the news of the death of

Muhammad Shah, he again started to march towards Hindustan. On this occasion the

governor of Punjab, Muin-ud-din surrendered to Abdali. The king asked to Safdar Jang

the viceroy of Udth for help, who reached near Delhi with his Marathas friends. But the

king settles down the matters with Ahmad shah Abdali by giving Multan and Lahore.

Then the king gave the Shafdar jang’s Marathas friend some provinces of Deccan. This

weak king was deprived from throne in 1754. He could rule 6 years and 10 Months. He

was actually the ruler of Delhi and its joining areas. In 1751 English general Robert Kalau

conquered Karnatak and with this victory they started to spread their political power in all

the directions of Hindustan. On this occasion Mughals had no power to stop the advance

of British’s. Alamgir Sani was raised to the throne of Delhi by Ghazi-ud-din the son of

Nizam-ul-mulk in 1754. Ghazi-ud-din khan marched with puppet king towards Punjab

and recovered it from the governor of Ahmad Shah Abdali. When Ahmad Shah Abdali

got news about the lost of Punjab, he stated to march towards Lahore. Then not only had

he recovered Punjab but also got other territories. Then Ahmad Shah Abdali again

attacked and looted Delhi. Ahmad shah Abadali married with the daughter of Muhammad

Shah and the niece of king was given in marriage to his son. After the return of Ahmad

Shah Abdali, Gazi-ud-din again got the control of Delhi and under the patronage of Gazi-

ud-din Mahrattas looted Punjab and same done by Sikhs. Then Ahmad Shah Abdali again

came to India and defeated Mahrattas while broking their power. After the death of the

emperor Alamgir Sani his son Ali Gohar was made emperor by Ahmad Shah Abdali

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under title of Shah Alam Sani. But after this decline of Empire started rapidly and at last

British became its rulers. (102)

Splendor of Mughal Rulers:

Mughal rulers mostly liked public life. They liked to arrange religious festivals

in their courts. Early in the morning they appeared in the palace and then the public

enjoyed sight of their rulers. During illness they could not appear in the palace. At noon

the Mughal emperors again appeared and enjoyed elephant fighting or enjoyed military

exercises. In the evening the Mughal rulers came in their courts and remained busy in the

affairs of state. But in the case of any injustice it was impossible for a common person to

reach near the emperor because he was covered with the crowd of nobles and officers. In

the Mughal reign the capital was the centre of all powers. (103)

Roads and Mail Delivery System:

The Mughal rulers developed the roads and mail delivery system to get

awareness about the provinces, letters and information delivery was very swift in the both

sides. They appointed officers at short distances and white stone were erected along the

roadsides to indicate the way. A French traveler says that these roads were better than in

France and Italy, who travelled during 16th century. For the travelers protection guards

were appointed on the roads and were responsible for their safety and their luggage. The

total land was considered the property of the emperor was usually divided into two parts.

The land was divided in two major parts, one part was given to Amirs and generals as

jagirs to pay salaries of army and other part was given to contractors on fixed tribute.

They actually ruled on the cultivators and got heavy tributes and taxes. The nobles and

amirs always adopted cruel towards the subjects. But the Mughal rulers maintained

justice in their empire. Jahangir fixed a big bell near the court and the oppressed could

ring the bell, then emperor directly deal the matter. (104)

Mughal Army:

The army maintaining system was very poor. Although Akbar introduced

salary system for his army but he gave jagirs to his Amirs and Rajas while making them

the responsible for the payment of salaries to the army. Some violations also reported in

this system. The little amirs some time used to sell the horses of the soldiers and provided

rented horses on the time of inspection. The emperors were aware about this fault so they

used to change the Amirs and officers. In spite of this indiscipline, the Muslim troops

mostly defeated Hindu troops. Once the raja of Bajanager held a conference and invited

64

Barahmans and other rajas and raised a question while saying why Hindu troops were

used to defeat by Muslim troops in spite of heavy resources. Barahamans replied that it

was the will of god (Baghwan). But the generals of troops acknowledge that the Muslim

troops had better horses and soldiers. To develop their troops they appointed Muslim

soldiers in their army and won many battles against the Muslim rulers of Deccan. But

whenever they united Hindus then were defeated. During the period of decline of Mughal

ruler, the Mughal troops grew weaker and weaker. (105)

Mughal Household:

The Mughal women had great influences in the courts. These rulers not only

married with Hindu princes but also encouraged their court nobles. There were two

thousands women in the palace of Shah Jahan but in spite of this high number they

always found of the beautiful wives of their Amirs. The Amirs always had a desire to

send his daughter to emperor palace. If she succeeded in reaching to the bed of the

emperor then she became the informer and if these girls interred in the places as wives

then state resources mostly came under their control. The Mughal old woman, who

looked after the imperial ladies, was usually very powerful. The Amirs and rulers of other

countries often gain advantages from them, after paying high money. A lot of money was

spent for the daily expenditures of royal ladies. These ladies have several slave women

and singers. These ladies changed every day new dress and jewelry. These ladies got fix

pension from royal treasury. (106)

References:-

1. Kennedy, Pringle, History of the great Munhall, A mol publication PVT LTD Delhi,

1987 P: 121. S.M. Ikram, a History of Muslim Civilization in India and Pakistan,

Institute of Islamic Culture, Lahore, 2000, P: 279,280. Erskine, William, A History of

India Under Babur, Oxford University Press, London, New York, Delhi, 1974, P:

72,73.

2. Abu-l-Fazl, The Akbar Nama, translated by H. Beveridge, Sang-E-Meel Publications,

Lahore, 2005, 191. Erskine, William, A History of India Under Babur, P: 75. Babur,

Zahir-ud- Din Muhammad, Babur Nama, translated by Annettes Beveridge, Sang-e-

Meel Publications, Lahore 2002, P: 1,10.

3. Bernier, Francois Travels In The Mogul Empire, translated by Archibald Constable

(1891), revised by Vincent A. Smith, Humphrey Milford, 1916, P: 109. Erskine,

William, A History of India Under Babur, P: 75.

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4. Babur, Zahir-ud-Din Muhammad, Babur Nama, P: 15. W.H Davenport Adams,

Wariors of the Crescent, Hutchinson & Co, London, 1893, P: 139,140.

5. Erskine, William, A History of India Under Babur, P: 75.

6. Babur, Zahir-ud- Din Muhammad, Babur Nama, P: 112.

7. Erskine, William, A History of India Under Babur, P: 75.

8. Erskine, William, A History of India Under Babur, P: 106, 107.

9. Erskine, William, A History of India Under Babur, P: 11

10. Erskine, William, A History of India Under Babur, P: 75.

11. Babur, Zahir-ud- Din Muhammad, Babur Nama, P: 114.

12. Erskine, William, A History of India Under Babur, P: 75.

13. Kennedy, Pringle, History of the great Mughals, P: 150.

14. Kennedy, Pringle, History of the great Mughals, P: 151.

15. Kennedy, Pringle, History of the great Mughals, P: 153.

16. Kennedy, Pringle, History of the great Mughals, P: 154.

17. Kennedy, Pringle, History of the great Mughals, P: 158.

18. Kennedy, Pringle, History of the great Mughals, P: 161,162.

19. Kennedy, Pringle, History of the great Mughals, P: 161,162.

20. Sharma, Sri Ram, The Religious Policy Of The Mughal Emperors, Reprinted by

Sheikh Mubarak Ali, Oriental Publications & Booksellers Inside Lohari Gate, Lahore

Pakistan, 1975, P: 9.

21. Erskine, William, A History Of India Under Babur, P: 208.

22. Kennedy, Pringle, History of the Great Mughals, P: 174,175.

23. Nasik, Salah-ud-din, Dor-i- Mughalia, Aziz Publishers Urdu Bazar Labore, P: 46, 47.

24. Nasik, Salah-ud-din, Dor-i- Mughalia, P: 48. Khan, Hashim Ali (Khani Khan Nizam-

ul-Mulk), Muntakhib-ul-bab, translated by Mahmud Ahmad Faruqi, Nafees Academy,

Karachi, 1963, Part Frist/104.

25. Kennedy, Pringle, History of the Great Mughals, P: 178. Nasik, Salah-ud-din, Dor-i-

Mughalia, P: 48, 49.

26. Nasik, Salah-ud-din, Dor-i- Mughalia, P: 5o, 51. Kennedy, Pringle, History of the

Great Mughals, P: 190.

27. Kennedy, Pringle, History of the Great Mughals, P: 195.

28. Kennedy, Pringle, History of the Great Mughals, P: 194,196.

29. W.W. Hunter, The Indian Empire: Its People, History And Products, Trubner & CO,

Ludgate Hill, 1886, P: 291.

66

30. Khan, Hashim Ali (Khani Khan Nizam-ul-Mulk), Muntakhib-ul-bab, Part Frist/108.

31. W.W. Hunter, The Indian Empire, P: 291.

32. W.W. Hunter, The Indian Empire, P: 311.

33. Manuchi, Niccolao Venetian, Storia Do Mogor OR Modul India, translated by

William Irvine, John Murray, Albemarle Street, London, 1907, 1/115.

34. Nasik, Salah-ud-din, Dor-i- Mughalia, P: 67, 68.

35. A. L. Basham, A Cultural History of India, Oxferd University Press, New York, 1975,

P: 45. Sharma, Sri Ram, The Religious Policy Of The Mughal Emperors, P: 10.

36. Sharma, Sri Ram, The Religious Policy Of The Mughal Emperors, P: 10.

37. Nasik, Salah-ud-din, Dor-i- Mughalia, P: 76. Kennedy, Pringle, History of the Great

Mughals, P: 293.

38. Zaka Ullah Maulvi Mohammad, Tareekh-e-Hindustan Sultanat-e-Islamia Ka biyan,

Sang-e-Meel Publications, 1998, P: 153. KennedKy, Pringle, History of the Great

Mughals, P: 250, 253.

39. W.W. Hunter, The Indian Empire, P: 292. Nasik, Salah-ud-din, Dor-i- Mughalia, P:

167.

40. Francois Catrou, Father, History of the Mughal Dynasty in India, P: 202.

41. W.W. Hunter, The Indian Empire, P: 293.

42. Sharma, Sri Ram, The Religious Policy Of The Mughal Emperors, P: 26, 27.

43. Khan, Hashim Ali (Khani Khan Nizam-ul-Mulk), Muntakhib-ul-bab, Part Frist/215.

44. Sharma, Sri Ram, The Religious Policy Of The Mughal Emperors, P: 26, 27.

45. Sharma, Sri Ram, The Religious Policy Of The Mughal Emperors, P: 16.

46. Sharma, Sri Ram, The Religious Policy Of The Mughal Emperors, P: 70.

47. Vincent Arthur Smith, Akbar The Great Mogul 1542-1605, Oxford University Press,

Humphrey Milford, London, 1917, P: 233. Sharma, Sri Ram, The Religious Policy Of

The Mughal Emperors, P: 25.

48. W.H Davenport Adams, Warriors of the Crescent, Hutchinson & Co, London, 1893,

P: 191,192.

49. Jahangir, Nor-ud-din Muhammad Jahangir, Tuzik-E-Jahangiri, translated by Ejaz-ul-

Haq Qadusi, Majlis-E-Taraqqi-E-Adab, Lahore, 1970, 2/26. KennedKy, Pringle,

History of the Great Mughals, P: 241.

50. Khan, Hashim Ali (Khani Khan Nizam-ul-Mulk), Muntakhib-ul-bab, Part Frist/248.

51. Sharma, Sri Ram, The Religious Policy Of The Mughal Emperors, P: 76.

52. Sharm a, Sri Ram, The Religious Policy Of The Mughal Emperors, P: 78.

67

53. Nasik, Salah-ud-din, Dor-i- Mughalia, P: 276.

54. Nasik, Salah-ud-din, Dor-i- Mughalia, P: 284.

55. Kennedy, Pringle, History Of the Great Mughals, P: 347, 348.

56. Nasik, Salah-ud-din, Dor-i- Mughalia, P: 284.

57. Sharma, Sri Ram, The Religious Policy Of The Mughal Emperors, P: 83, 84.

58. Nasik, Salah-ud-din, Dor-i- Mughalia, P: 293.

59. Nasik, Salah-ud-din, Dor-i- Mughalia, P: 294.

60. W.W. Hunter, The Indian Empire, P: 293.

61. Sharma, Sri Ram, The Religious Policy Of The Mughal Emperors, P: 90.

62. W.H Davenport Adams, Warriors of the Crescent, P: 251.

63. W.W. Hunter, The Indian Empire, P: 304.

64. Francois Catrou, Father, History of The Mughal Dynasty In India, P: 200.

65. Edward S. Holden, LL. D, Mogul Emperors Of Hindustan, Charles Scribner’s Sons,

New York, 1895, P: 315.

66. Francois Catrou, Father, History of The Mughal Dynasty In India, Published by J. M.

Richardon, London, 1826, P: 201.

67. Manuchi, Niccolao Venetian, Storia Do Mogor OR Mogul India, 1/185, 186.

68. Francois Catrou, Father, History of the Mughal Dynasty in India, P: 202.

69. Francois Catrou, Father, History of The Mughal Dynasty In India, P: 197.

70. Sharma, Sri Ram, The Religious Policy Of The Mughal Emperors, P: 98.

71. Sharma, Sri Ram, The Religious Policy Of The Mughal Emperors, P: 105,106.

72. Sharma, Sri Ram, The Religious Policy Of The Mughal Emperors, P: 112,113.

73. Mohammad Salah Kumbuh, Shah Jahan Nama, translated by Dr. Nazir Hassan Zaddi,

Markazi Urdu Bazar Lahore, P: 864.

74. Francois Catrou, Father, History of the Mughal Dynasty in India, P: 187.

75. H M Elliot, The History of India, as told by its own Historians, The Muhammadans

Period, edited by John Dowson, Trubner Company, London. 1867-1877, 7/210.

76. W.H Davenport Adams, Warriors of the Crescent, P: 266.

77. Edward S. Holden, LL. D, Mogul Emperors of Hindustan, P: 258, 270.

78. W.H Davenport Adams, Warriors of the Crescent, P: 27.

79. Francois Catrou, Father, History of the Mughal Dynasty in India, P: 277.

80. Francois Catrou, Father, History of the Mughal Dynasty in India, P: 278.

81. W.H Davenport Adams, Warriors of the Crescent, P: 284.

82. W.W. Hunter, The Indian Empire, P: 309.

68

83. Bernier, Francois Travels In The Mogul Empire, P: 337, 338. Edward S. Holden, LL.

D, Mogul Emperors of Hindustan, P: 336, 337.

84. Sharma, Sri Ram, The Religious Policy Of The Mughal Emperors, P: 133, 134.

85. Sharma, Sri Ram, The Religious Policy Of The Mughal Emperors, P: 136.

86. Sharma, Sri Ram, The Religious Policy Of The Mughal Emperors, P: 105,106.

87. Sharma, Sri Ram, The Religious Policy Of The Mughal Emperors, P: 105,106.

88. Sharma, Sri Ram, The Religious Policy Of The Mughal Emperors, P: 105,106.

89. Nasik, Salah-ud-din, Dor-i- Mughalia, P: 468. Sharma, Sri Ram, The Religious

Policy Of The Mughal Emperors, P: 167.

90. Nasik, Salah-ud-din, Dor-i- Mughalia, P: 294.

91. Sir, Jadunath Sarkar, History of Aurangzeb, South Asian Publishers, Karachi, 1981,

5/67.

92. Jadunath, Sarkar, Sir, History of Aurangzeb, South Asian Publishers, Karachi, 1981,

P: 269, 272.

93. Nasik, Salah-ud-din, Dor-i- Mughalia, P: 490.

94. Nasik, Salah-ud-din, Dor-i- Mughalia, P: 500.

95. Kennedy, Pringle, History of the great Mughals, P: 475.

96. Shokat Ali Fahmi, Mufti, Hindustan per Mughal Hakumat, City Book Point, Karachi,

P: 228.

97. Nasik, Salah-ud-din, Dor-i- Mughalia, P: 507.

98. Sidney J. Owen, The Fall Of Mogul Empire, John Murray, Albemarle Street, W,

London, 1912, P: 137, 138.

99. Shokat Ali Fahmi, Mufti, Hindustan per Mughal Hakumat, P: 250.

100. Shokat Ali Fahmi, Mufti, Hindustan per Mughal Hakumat, P: 258, 259.

101. Shokat Ali Fahmi, Mufti, Hindustan per Mughal Hakumat, P: 262.

102. Shokat Ali Fahmi, Mufti, Hindustan per Mughal Hakumat, P: 260.

103. Nasik, Salah-ud-din, Dor-E-Mughalia, P: 460.

104. T. W. Arnold, The Preaching Of Islam, SH, Muhammad Ashraf, Lahore, 1975.

P: 261, 262.

105. Colonal G. B. Malleson, Akbar and the Rise of Mughal Empire, Oxford

Carendon Press, 1896, A/7.

106. Gustauli Ban, Dr, Tamaddun-E-Hind translated byn Syed Ali Bilgrami, Maqbul

Academy, Lahore, 1962, P: 217. Khawaja Nizam-ud-din Ahmad, Tabqat Akbar,

translated by Mohammad Ayub Qadri, Urdu Science Board, Lahore, 1990, 1/395.

69

Chapter No. 2

Muslim and non Muslims Religious Relations in Mughal

Period

Muslims and Hindus Religious Relations:

The Muslims entered in Hindustan from different ways and routes. They

reached in northern India through Sind in 712 under the command of Mohammad b.

Qasim and on the other hand Muslims entered in India while adopting the routes of

northern territories under the command of Mahmud Ghaznavi (1001) and Muhammad

Ghori. In later period other Muslim tribes like Turks, Afghans, and Mughals reached in

the fertile lands of Hindustan and succeeded in establishing the Muslim dynasties in

Hindustan. In western and southern India the Muslims also reached as traders’ centuries

before Mahmud Gaznavi and made their colonies in those regions of India. While

declaring the local idol worshiping communities as similar to ‘Ahlay Kitab’ (believers of

some heavenly book), Mohammad B. Qasim imposed jizya on non-Muslims and divided

them in three categories. The Hindu priests were exempted from jizya paying and were

also appointed as tax collectors of Indian Islamic state. (1) According to Baladhuri

Mohammad b. Qasim imposed ‘Khiraj’ and did not impose jizya but in later period under

the caliphate of Al-Matasim (833-42), a Muslim governor received jizya from non-

Muslims of Sind. Chah Nama (1216-17) reports that Mohammad b. Qasim got jizya from

early days of his reign. (2) However the Muslims rulers of India imposed jizya on their

non Muslims subjects while following the Sunnah of Holy Prophet. Holy Prophet

imposed jizya on non-Muslims while giving security of their lives, property and honor

and as well as provided all fundamental social rights. The non-Muslims were exempted

from war services and were used to enjoy their routine and social life in war days. The

Khiraj was first time imposed by the second Caliph Hazrat Umer on the lands of non

Muslims. (3) Tax collecting method had been changed with the change of new sultan. Not

only had Ala-ud-din Khiliji imposed kharaj and jizya but also imposed tax on animals

because he wanted to control the prosperity of Hindus and wanted to secure himself from

any chance of rebellious activity. Ghayas-ud-din Tughlaq introduced a balanced tax

system. Firoz Shah Tughlaq (1351-88) imposed jizya on non Muslim communities but he

did not exempt Brahmans from paying Jizya. According to him they were the masters of

temples and their adjoining lands. Akbar abolished jizya completely while saying that non

Muslims now providing their services as soldiers for the defense of state along with

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Muslims. When Aurangzeb during his period tried to impose jizya, an extreme opposition

was raised from non Muslim communists and the Hindus were the main author of this

opposition. Moreover the educated class from Hindu community was well informed about

the philosophy and conditions of jizya. They also knew that according to Muslim faith the

Muslim rulers after imposing jizya were bound to give complete security of lives,

properties and honor to their non Muslim subjects. But in these days the situation of rule

of law was very poor. It is an interesting to share that some Hindu rulers imposed

‘Trashka Dund’ a tax, on their Muslim subjects, which was revenge of jizya. (4) In

Aurangzeb period the wealthy merchants had to pay thirteen rupees and a half as jizya

and the middle class was usually paid six rupees and a quarter as jizya. In the same way

the poor were used to pay only three rupees and a half in a year. (5) No detail information

about the policy of Mughal rulers towards the worship places of Hindus is being shared in

following lines. Already a brief account about this policy has been shared in above lines.

Policies towards Places of Worship:

Although Babur was a Sunni Muslim but he adopted sh’ite rites because he

had political alliance with Safavid rulers of Iran. He fought with Sikandar Lodi and Rana

Sanga while giving it the name of jihad. After getting victory over his Hindu and Muslims

opponents he became ghazi (slayer of infidels) and killed thousands of Hindus. Mir Baqa

destroyed Ram temple under the order of Babur and built a mosque on its place in 1528-

29. Babur’s will which has been recently discovered, in which he addressed his son

Humayun while advising that he should adopt tolerant attitude towards all communities.

This document still exists in the library of Bhopal (6) But Jagadish Narayan Sarkar and

other historians have raised questions of its validity. Humayun did not develop any new

religious policy because his could rule for a short period. Anyhow he adopted a tolerant

policy towards all communities. He granted three hundred acres of land in Mirza Pur

(U.P) for Janganbasi math in Banaras. Sher Shah also got jizya from non Muslim

communities. Brahmajit Gaur, a Hindu was appointed as army general by him. He

attacked on Maldeu of Jodh Pur to convert temples into mosques. His successor Islam

shah also adopted this policy. (7)

Akbar & Jahangir Policy about Temples:

Akbar not only paid respect to all religious doctrines but also gave permission

to them to construct temples and gave financial support in the repair of old temples. A

small temple was constructed in the premises of the Fateh Pur Sikri Fort. His Prime

71

Minister Abul-Fazl had also affection towards Hinduism. Akbar provided a golden

umbrella to fire goddess shrine of jwala mukhi at Kangra in Punjab. Abul-fazl reports that

court scholars read epics of different faiths over to the king. It was the result of his favors

to Hinduism that the Brahmans started to say that the emperor was the carnation of Ram-

Krishna. No one could dare to interfere in the religious beliefs of others in his reign.

Todarmal, a high Hindu officer in the court of Akbar, punished a Muslim officer who

converted a Hindu temple into mosque and school as well. Rajput chief Bhaghwan Das

built a mosque in Lahore and his son Man Singh also had affection towards Muslims. Not

only had he allowed non Muslims to worship publicly but also bestowed permission the

Hindus to construct new temples. The predecessors of Akbar were used to collect

pilgrimage tax from Hindu worship places. He got information about the tax in 1563

while participating in a Hindu festival in Mathra. Right after he issued an order

mentioning to stop this tax. The rajas built temples for their favorite gods. Man Singh

constructed two temples one at Brindaban and second at Benares. A Muslim traveler

described in his diary which was written in early period of Jahangir. The said traveler was

much impressed with the beauty of these temples. (8) Jahangir followed the footsteps of

his father and allowed Hindus to visit their temples while abolishing pilgrimage tax. Bir

Single Bundela, a close friend of emperor constructed a temple in Mathra and the said

Raja constructed another temple in his state. During his reign seventy temples were

constructed only in Benares, but they were not completed during his life time. Situation

used to change during war. He destroyed many temples in Mewar during war. He also

destroyed a lot of temples under his fury. In the 8th year of his reign while visiting to

Ajmir he destroys a temple. Because one of the poets of his court said to him that he was

one of great emperors who converted temples into mosques. It is interesting to share that

not only had Kangra and Muthra Hindu shrines attracted Hindus but also a lot of Muslims

used to arrive there. The emperor visited Durga temple in Kangra and issued an order to

add the adjoining building into temple while visiting Jawalamukhi temple. He visited a lot

of other Hindu sacred places. He granted a piece of land in Mauza Pushkar to a pundit.

(9)

Shah Jahan & Dara Skikuh Policies towards Temples:

Shah Jahan revised the Islamic law and did not give permission to repair the

old temples. He also stopped the completion of those temples which were started to build

in the reign of Jahangir. He did not allowed construction of new temples. When the

72

Hindus violated this official ban then temple destruction was happened. Seventy temples

in Punjab, three in Gujarat, seventy two in Benares four in Ahmadabad and few temples

in Kashmir were destroyed under imperial orders and some mosques were constructed

with the material of some temples. During military campaigns several temples were

destroyed. A lot of temples were destroyed in Gujarat during 1645-47 under Aurangzeb’s

viceroyalty. On other hand a lot of examples can be provided which show the good and

friendly attitude towards Hindus. He granted funds to Vaishnava temples at Vrindavan.

He also allowed to Hindus to worship according to their own faith. Dara developed good

relationship with Hindus from his youth, this respect force Shah Jahan to change his

policy. Dara sent a stone railing to Keshav Rai temple at Muthra. Jai Singh was granted

permission to appoint head priest at the temple of Bindraban from imperial court. This

temple was constructed by Man Singh. (10)

Aurangzeb Policy towards Temples:

Aurangzeb not only destroyed a lot of temples during war but also put to the

ground several temples in peace times. In 1661, Daud khan, the governor of Bengal,

destroyed several temples in Palamau in 1661 while attacking the said town. In the same

year Mir Jumla attacked the territory of Raja of Kuch Bihar and destroyed several temples

in this invasion. On November, 1665 Somnath temple was destroyed under Aurangzeb

order. In 1669, a Farman was issued to destroy those temples of Gujarat which had been

constructed during the last ten or twelve years without any permission and said that the

report of destruction must be sent back along with the attestation of the Qazi and Shaiks

of the relevant towns. The wooden railing of keshev Rai temple in Mathura was grew old

as mentioned above lines was replaced by Dara Shikuh with stone railing but this railing

was destroyed in 1666. After the death of Jai Singh, a powerful Hindu raja, Aurangzeb

destroyed Lalta temple in Delhi. In April 1689 reports were received that in Sind, Muthra

and Benares some temples were being used for the purpose of religious schools. Not only

had these schools attracted Hindus but also invited Muslim students to study in these

schools. Then general imperial order of the destruction of all temples in these cities was

reported. A royal officer was sent to destroy Malirana temple in May 1669 and then

Visvanath temple at Benares was destroyed in August 1669 and Gopi Nath temple at

Benares was demolished as well. The keshav Rai temple was built at Muttra by Rao Bir

Singh Bundela during Jahangir reign. After destruction the temple the idols were brought

to Agra and then buried under the steps of Jahanara mosque. (11) When the Mughal army

73

planned to destroyed Govadhan temple, the priests of this temple succeeded in escaping

with deities before attack and tried to take refuge in Jodhpur but Maharaja Jaswant Sing

way busy in a military complain. In this situation Damodar Lal the head priest requested

to Maharana Ray Singh for help which was entertained. Then the priests left Champasani

in December 1671 and warmly received by Maharaja Ray Singh. On March 10, 1672 the

god was housed in Sihar with reverence. In this way Mewar became the centre of

Vaisnavism in India and became an important town and then got popularity as

Nathadwara. In Surat the priests saved their temples after paying heavy payments to

Aurangzeb. (12) Not only had Aurangzeb extended his temple destruction policy within

the state but also towards friendly states like Jaipur. Abu Turab, a Mughal officer was

sent to Jaipur for this purpose. On the other hand the Hindus took possession of a mosque

and tried to stop the Muslims from saying Friday prayer there. In 1672 the Mughal officer

reached in Bengal for the destruction of temples. Maharaja Jawant Singh died on

December 1, 1678 and them on March 9, 1679 a Farman was issued while ordering to

take the possession of the state of the said raja. During this time under the imperial order,

Dorab Khan destroyed many temples on March 8, 1679. Khan-i-Jahan destroyed many

temples in Jodhpur in the same year and brought cart load of idols to Delhi. There was no

war with Jodhpur at that time. Daring emperor’s visit to Udai Sagar in 1680, there an

order was issued to destroy three temples which were situated near the bank of lake. A

report was received in January 29, 1680 about destruction of 172 temples in Udai pur and

its adjoining areas. The visit of emperor to Chitor on February 22, 1680 became cause of

destruction of 63 temples. Udaipur was in the state of war during that period. In response

of temple destruction, Bhim the younger son of rana, attacked Ahmednagr and destroyed

mosques there. (13)Historians say that Aurangzeb never issued general order of

destruction of temples but complete official history of Aurangzeb based on state papers

which describe that Aurangzeb himself gave the permission of temples construction.

Gopinath temple at Gopamav, a place between Lucknow and Bareilly was constructed in

1699. In Bengal some temples also built in 1681-1690. Not only had Aurangzeb gave

lands to Hindu monks but also gave funds for the construction of Jain temple and for the

believers of other faiths in different places like Benares, Ujjain, Gauhati, Shatrunjaya,

Khandesh and Multan. Jana Chandra, B. N. Goswamy and J. Grewal discovered some

documents which showed Aurangzeb a different personality altogether. (14) On the other

side whenever Hindus got power under rebellious activities or by founding some Hindu

state, they desecrated the mosques and then destroyed them. It is said that Rana Khamba

74

was also involved in arresting of a Muslim women and destruction of a mosque. Babur

saw several mosques in Chandiri, Saring pur and Ranthambur which were converted into

stables, and cow-dunk was plastered on these mosques by Rai Seen, this was the

supporter of Rana Sanga. Sheikh Ahmad Sir Hindi also had complained about the mosque

destruction in early seventeenth century. In 18th century Sikhs and jats destroyed a lot of

mosques in Punjab and other areas. Several writers complained about the destruction of

temples but among them Rajindar Parshad provided a long list in which he discussed in

detail about such grants that were given to Hindu priests and for their temples by Muslim

rulers. (15) Some other examples also being shared about the destruction of temples.

Hyderabad temples were destroyed in 1687. The destruction order of Rasulpur temples

were issued in 1692. In 1693, the Haitheswar temple at Barv Nagar in Gujarat was

demolished. Several other temples were also destroyed in Aurangzeb period. (16)

Although the name of Aurangzeb was involved in temple destruction yet a long list also

has been provided by Jagadish Narayan Sarkar in which he discussed about the financial

support towards temples and priests from Aurangzeb.

Religious Discussions:

Having invited the philosophers of different faiths for religious discussion, he

also invited several Hindu pundits and jogis for religious discussion to his court. He gave

a high status to Hindu saints and priests. The text of Vedas was read over to emperor by

pundits. Dadu a famous Hindu saint arrived at court in 1586 and Akbar got information

about Hindu faith by the discussion of 40 days. Akbar was much impressed by his

devotion and conversation. On this occasion the Emperor arranged a meeting of royal

ladies and Dadu for saint’s blessings. Mirabai was visited by Tansen and Akbar. Mirabai

was a great poet and was respected by the Emperor. The Emperor presented her a

necklace as an offering to be made at the lotus feet of her lord Kirishna. The Emperor also

went to see Saint Surdas along with Tansen. Akbar impressed by another Hindu saint

named Jadrup and Akbar expressed his reverence towards Vaisnavism. Akbar affection

towards this saint can be seen in his visits which he made to his cave whenever he passed

through Ujjain. While questioning with the saint on religious matters the emperor

satisfied his spiritual quest. (17) Akbar met Ganga Rashi while staying in Kashmir. Akbar

used to say that the wisdom of Vedanta is the wisdom of Sufism. (18) Akbar usually

invited the jogis for meeting once in a year which was called Sivrat and all the principal

jogis enjoyed a dinner with the emperor. The jogis made prophecy that the king would

75

live three or four times as long as ordinary man. Brahmans told the king that he was the

Avatar (incarnation) like Ram, Krishn and other infidel kings. To prove this they brought

the old text in Sankrit language, mentioning that in India a king would rule who would

respect cows and Brahmans. While looking the old paper the king believed every word of

it. He usually said that the discussions had much attraction for him which disconnected

him from everything and as well as also forced to neglect duties of hour. (19) Abul-Fazl

says: “For sometime his majesty called a Brahmin whose name was Purukhotam author

of a commentary on the text has a few unintelligible works, whom he asked to invent

particular Sans out names for all things in existence. At other times a Brahmin of the

name of Debi was pulled up the wall of the castle (perhaps in order not to get polluted or

because the balcony belonged to the Haram) sitting on a charpi, till he arrived near the

balcony where the emperor used to sleep. Whilst thus suspended, he instructed His

majesty in the secrets and legends of Hinduism… The doctrine of transmigration of souls

especially took a deep root in his heart and he approved of the saying. “There is no

religion in which the doctrine of the transmigration has not taken firm route. (20) In the

same way: “Birbar also impressed upon the emperor that Sun was a primary thing of

everything. The ripening of the grains on the fields, of fruits and vegetables, the

illumination of the universe and the lives of men based on the Sun. Hence it was put

proper should face towards the place where he rises instead of turning to the quarter

where he sets. For similar reasons said Birbar should men pay regard to fire, water,

stones, trees and other form of existence even to cows and their dung………(21) Then

Akbar decided to give equal status to all priests of different communities while fixing the

financial support to Hindu, Jain and Parsi scholars and there institutions besides the

Muslims. (22) Jahangir also liked to hold discussion with pundits. He conducted several

discussions with Gosain Jadrup. Jahangir told that he was a learned person and was expert

in vedant. His conversation impressed deeply the heart of emperor. (23) Yoga Vasishta

was translated in the reign of Jahangir but he was sometimes repelled by their practices.

Jahangir visited Durga temple in kangra. Here he got information about Hindu religious

philosophy, ideals and their four stages of life. He visited yogis in Peshawar and found

that they had no religious knowledge. He also broke stone image of Vishnu’s incarnation

as Eber. (24) Court nobles also follow the footsteps of their rulers. Many nobles went to

see Jadrup and sought his blessings. Abud-ur-Rahman khan-i-khana not only offered a

sijda to Jadrup but also visited Saint Surdas and Swami Tulsidas to seek their blessings.

During his reign saint Surdas and Tulsidas wrote their immoral work. (25) Shah Jahan

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and his son prince Dara Shikuh adopted a liberal religious policy. Shah Jahan gave Pundit

Jagannath the title of Panditraja. Shah Jahan and other Mughal rulers had the final

decision power to settle the disputes of all communities. Pundit Jagannath usually

addressed to Shah Jahan in these worlds ‘Dillishwara-ba jagdishwara’ (the lord of Delhi

is the lord of Universe). Orissa was a sacred place for Hindus, so the killings of the

peacocks were banded in that region by shah Jahan. Baba Lal, Goswami Narshimha

Saraswati and Pundit Jagannath provided guidance to Dara about the religious doctrine of

Hinduism. He wanted to maintain of religious brotherhood and unity of mankind but his

death did not allow him to do so. Dara and his sister Jahanara spent a long time in

learning of Sanskrit and both the brother and sister used to enjoy while reading Hindu

epics and Vedas. While studding Hindu philosophy and Muslim doctrine, he reached at a

conclusion that there is no difference in both the religions. Dara translated Yoga Vishshta,

Ramayana under the subject the ‘tarjuma Joga Vashista’ in 1656. Like Akbar Dara also

liked to understand the truth of different religions. “In this quest for unity of God he came

to know that Monotheists had given a clear exposition of the same.” Dara wrote Risala-i-

Haqnama in which he discussed that ‘bazer-i-but imanist Pinhan’, faith lies hidden the

idol. He entertained Upanishads as Divine secrets and translated them. Majma-ul-Baharin

(meeting of the two oceans) is a comparative study of Islam and Hindu faith. Dara and his

wife every morning expressed their obeisance to sun and in the evening they repeated the

practice for lamps, every person of his family rose up in obeisance to Goddess of fire.

Aurangzeb also paid respects to Hindu saints and granted Jagirs for the worshiping places

and pundits, maths and yogis, when he stayed at Mandsaur. He granted jagirs to pundits

of Someshwarnath of Allahabad and the priests of Jangamwari temple of Banaras. He

bestowed land to Hindu temples at Mehiswar Nath, Banaras, Mahshpur, Multan and

Marwar. Besides this he also banned to cow slaughter throughout his empire. (26)

Respect to Hindu Religious Sentiments and Festivals:

Not only Muslim rulers paid respect to non Muslim religious festivals but also

entertained Hindu sentiments about cow. According to Badauni whenever the Muslims

tried to slaughter cow openly, then hundreds of Muslims were put to death. In 1583 the

emperor put a complete ban on killing of animals in certain days and king himself

followed this rule. In 1590-91 it is said that Akbar used to avoid eating of flesh of oxen,

buffaloes, goats or sheep, horses and camels. He also put ban on fishing while visiting to

Kashmir in 1592. It is not clear whether it was his personal opinion in this concern or

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general order for Muslim subjects. But during the time of completion of Ain i Akbari,

sheep and goats flesh was used in royal kitchen. Depending upon the information of Abul

Fazl it can be said that these instructions were not for subjects. Akbar also avoided from

eating of garlic, onion and some other things which were not liked by his Hindu wives.

Muslim and Hindu festivals were celebrated with full zeal in court, like Rakhi, Dipawali

and shivaratri in court. On the occasion of Rakhi festival Brahmans came to court to offer

strings of threads to the emperor wrists. Dipawali is also an important Hindu festival;

emperor also took part in this festival which is also called festival of lamps. He did not

participate in goddess worship while celebrating this festival with Hindus. (27) On the

occasion of Shivarati, he invited yogis at night to listen the details of their beliefs and

practices. Muslim festivals like Eid, Shab-i-barat and Bara-wafat also celebrated in royal

places. Hindu nobles of the court also participated in Muslim festivals. A Hindu custom

tuladan was introduced in court by Akbar. (28) It was the ancient custom of Hindu rulers

which was adopted by Mughal rulers. The members of royal family used to weigh against

seven kinds of metals, seven kind of cloth and seven kind of grain. By this way they knew

the yearly difference of weight of the bodies and the goods were distributed among poor.

The weight was written in a book as memory of the occasion. (29) Jahangir not only

celebrated Muslim festivals but also used to celebrate Hindu festivals. On the occasion of

Muharram in the thirteenth year of his rule, he kept the fast and while breaking the fast

Muslim theologians were also invited and in the same year he celebrated Shab-i-Barat

with religious zeal. During the 7th year of his rule Hindus priests came to tie the threads

on his wrist on the occasion of the festival of Rakhi. On the occasion of Shivaratri, he met

the yogis while staying at Sangor. Jahangir also participated in Dasehra and Dipavali with

full interest. Not only the royal family members used to enjoy these festivals but also

Muslim men, women and children joined the festivals with rejoicing. (30) Both the Akbar

and Jahangir used to made ‘tika’ on the foreheads of the Hindu rajas on occasion of their

accession, it continued even in the reign of Shah Jahan but he handed over the

responsibility to his wazir. Shah Jahan celebrated all Muslims festivals like Muharram,

Rajab, Shaban, Rabi-ul-awwal, Eid and Shab-i-Barat. These festivals attended by

Muslims and Hindus. The Hindu nobles on this occasion gave presents to the emperor

who in his turn gave gifts to them. There was great rejoining on Eid and Shab-i-Barat

days. On such occasions, Raja Jaswant Singh and Raja Jai Singh gave elephant to Shah

Jahan as present. The custom of Tulahdan was also adopted by the emperor. Emperor

Aurangzeb also participated in Hindu festivals like Dashara as long as Maharaja Jaswant

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singh and raja Jai Singh alive. On the occasion of Hindu festivals king gave gifts to Hindu

rajas like Raja Jai Singh, Kanwar Ram Singh, Maharaja Jaswant Singh, and Kunwar

Prithvi Singh. Dewali and Holi were banned publically in Gujarat on November 20, 1665.

Although it was the violation of religious toleration but was given the name of police

regulation to stop conflicts. While giving the examples of stopping of these festivals Sri

Ram Sharma says that it was not a merely police order but was a religious discrimination.

In 1692 the Holi celebration was tried to stop when Raja Bhim Singh tried to celebrate it

at Benares and in the same way Hoti was stopped with the help of 200 soldiers in 1704 in

the same region. Although emperor tried to stop these festivals but he could not stop these

festivals completely. Common Muslims also tried to interrupt the Hindu festivals; a riot

was happened in 1693 in Agra during celebration of Holi. Hindu fairs were banned in

1668 in whole kingdom. Celebration of festivals close to worshiping and sacred places on

selected days not only had provided chances to develop cultural contacts among different

communities and also became the source of revenue collection. Aurangzeb actually was

following the religious policy of Firuz Tughlaq. In his reign Hindus were tried to

discourage to burn their dead bodies near Jamuna bank in Delhi in 1696 and Sabarmati in

Ahmadabad as well. It is said that Aurangzeb also issued orders towards non Muslims to

wear specific dresses which could help identifying them and they were also said to ride

animals without saddle. An order was also issued forbidding them to display their

weapons publicly in 1694. Rajput and Marthas and other Hindu officers were exempted

from these instructions. A Hindu was punished in 1696 when he violated this rule.

Martha’s officer was punished in 1703 when he used palanquin. Muslims engravers were

not allowed to arrange names of Hindu gods and goddesses on rings of Hindus. (31) In

spite of their bigotry policies there are many examples in which the Mughal rulers not

only provided funds for festival celebrations to all communities but also announced

holidays on such occasions. To provide security to Muslim and Hindu festivals, army

personals used to move after Maharram demonstrations and the demonstrations of Hindu

idols as well. On the occasion of Dassehra festival royal animals like horses and elephants

were arranged in a decorated canopy and paraded for inspection. Jahangir distributed

alms to poor people on the occasion of Sankrati festival of Hindus. On the occasion of

diwali puja two decorated cows were brought in the royal garden by the Brahmans. The

Mughal emperors including Aurangzeb used to arrange banquet on Dussehra and robed of

honor were distributed among Hindu rajas. On the occasion of Diwali, the royal palaces

were also decorated with lighted lamps and the female royal family members wear special

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dressess for this festival. In the same way Holi was also celebrated with rejoicing. The

people of different communities also participated in Holi along with Hindus. In declining

period of Empire several nawabs of Bengal like Murshid Quli Khan Alivardi, Siraj-ud-

daula and Mir Jafar celebrated Hindu festivals especially with rejoicing. Southern Indian

Muslims state also celebrated Dussehra. Rulers of Mysore Sultan Haider Ali and Sultan

Tipu attended this ceremony and blessed their subjects. Tipu participated in Chariot

Festival of certain Hindu gods at Kanchi. (32)

Muslims and Jainas Religious Relations:

Religious relations also developed between Janis and Mughal rulers. Jainism

is an ancient religious doctrine and philosophy based on non-violence. The word Jainism

has been taken from Sanskrit word Jina which means victor or conqueror. The Jainas are

the victors of themselves who succeeded in achieving not only freedom from the karmic

limits but also achieved infinite faith, infinite knowledge, infinite happiness and perfect

conduct under their own efforts. These victors are also known as tirthankras, the holy

persons who showed the way of eternal life of perfection. The doctrine and philosophy

which preached by these tirthankras is called Jainism and the followers of this religion are

called Jainas or Jains. Each Thirthankara divides the society into four groups consisting of

monks, nuns, laymen and laywomen. It is said that there were twenty four tirthankras.

The first thirthankara was Risabhdeva and the twenty fourth (last) was Vardhamana

Mahavira, who lived in Northern India during 599 to 527 BC. (33) Although Jainism

appeared in Northern India long before Gautama Buddha (480 B.C) but remained limited

in numbers as compared to Buddhism. The Budhism not only got popularity in India but

also extended to Koria, Japan, China and other countries. In spite of its popularity the

Buddhism vanished from India during Medieval period. The Jainism spread in slow

motion toward the all directions of sub-continent and succeeded in establishing its durable

impression over the vast regions of India. But in later period Jainism could not firmly

maintain its cultural and religious impacts when the Jain doctrine had to conflict with

mature concepts of Islamic culture and Hindu furious mind as well. In spite of these

hardships and persecutions, it is still a living religion with its own philosophy, doctrine

and culture. (34) Here a need is being felt to give a short out line about the Jain

movements towards all direction of Hindustan and as well as their religious influence

upon these areas.

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Jainism in Eastern India:

Mahavira was born in the province of Bihar among a noble family; this

background gave him very favorable atmosphere for preaching. According to a historian

his father was a powerful king but some other historians say that Siddhartha his father

was just a big landlord who assumed the title of Raja. Mahavira married Trisala, a sister

of Cetaka who was the ruler of Vaisala. By this way relations were established with a

royal family. Moreover his relations were extended with another powerful royal family

when the daughter of king Cetaka married Bimbisara, the ruler of Magadha. Then he

became a jina, conqueror of the world under his own struggles. Then he decided to revive

the preaching of Palsva. For this purpose he traveled the whole region of his homeland

Bihar and made many followers. Mahavira died in the region of king Hastipala of

Pavapuri and attained salvation. Under the royal patronage, he succeeded in converting a

majority of people of his homeland towards Jainism. According to Jain literature,

Mahavira made 14000 monks, 36,000 nuns, 1, 59,000 laymen and 3, 18,000 laywomen in

his life time. Jainism not only supported by the Kingdom of his homeland but also after

his death the Jainism patronized by the ruler of Maghada and then his son and grandson

were the great supporters of Jainas. The later dynasties which were established in

Magadha like Nandas dynasty, Maurya dynasty and other dynasties were also the

supporters of Jainas. Some political and economic problems forced them to shift from

Bihar to the provinces of south and west. In this migration they established their colonies

in different regions like Orissa, Ayodhya, Mathura, Ujjain and Gujarat. After the

migration Jainas established their influence while involving in different business trade

and professions and in the same way they established a strong religious culture. (35)

Jainism in Gujarat and Deccan:

Gujarat was a great Jain centre from ancient times. Jain text tells that 22nd

thirthankara, Aristanemi got popularity in this city and also obtained Nirvana here.

Moreover a lot of pious persons obtained their salvation on Girnar and Satrunjaya, the

famous mountains of Gujarat. In later period the great ascetics of Digambara and

Svetambara sects of Jainism, played an important role in the promotion of Jainism. It is

said that king Vanaraja (720-780), a prince of Cavada Empire had got education by

Silaguna Suri a Jain monk. Then this king becomes the follower of thirthankaras and a

good Jain. When this king founded the city of Anahilvada Pattana, he decorated it with a

beautiful Jain temple. Almost all the kings of the Hindustan supported to Jainism but the

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rulers of Gujarat done a remarkable work for them. The rulers of Gujarat constructed

several temples and worshiping places for Jainas. Girnar and Satrunjaya were important

religious centers in Gujarat where two Jain councils were held. Muslim rulers also

exercised the tolerant attitude towards Jain. (36) In the same way the Jainas maintained

their cultural and religious impact in Deccan. Maharashtra also an important territory of

western India and Jain monks used Maharashtra language for literary purposes. Although

Maharashtra Jain community could not achieve royal patronage but all the rulers allowed

them to flourish in Maharastra region. Rulers of Ganges and Rastrakutas dynasties gave

permission to live according to the doctrine of their religion. According to the census of

1981, there is flourishing thirty percent Jainas in Maharahtra out of their total population

of India. The ruins of several temples of Jainism in Bombay, Madras, Hyderabad and

Mysore gave us information about old Jain communities which were flourishing under the

rulers who were themselves Jains or they were great supporters of Jainism. (37)

Jainism in Southern India:

The southern regions of Subcontinent became supportive areas for Jainism.

The historians claim that these were Jain temples and Jain community in Sri Lanka at

Anuradhapura the capital of King Pandukabhaya (around 437 B.C) then it can be say that

Jainism was flourishing in Sri Landka at the early stages of its birth. But it is said that

Jainism extended towards south from Mysore in Bhadrabahu rule. The Brahmi inscription

had been discovered in Madurai and Ramrad districts, relating to the early portion of

second century B.C. The researchers had assumed that these writings had a link with

Jainism. Because the discovering documents had been found close to ruins of Jain

temples where some statues of thirthankaras also discovered. This evidence shows that

Jainism was flourishing in south India from ancient times. There is meager information

about the Jain community in Tamil Nadu. But in spite of this weak information it is true

that Jainism was also dwelled with cultural influence in Tamil Nadu from early period.

According to Sir Walter Elliot, ‘craftsman’s trade, handicraft and industry of the south

got a profound encouragement on account of Jainas’. Jainism put an important influence

on Tamil literature. It is said that Tamil literature got its shape in Madurai Academy, a

school where mostly Jainas poets were appointed. Madurai became a Jain cultural centre

under the support of Pandya dynasty. Few of them were the followers of that faith. The

Pallavas rulers also were the supports of Jainism, who ruled during forth century to tenth

century A.D. (38)

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Jainism in Northern India:

Several Thirthankaras born in Northern India and they succeeded in promoting

Jainism and as well as also maintained Jain culture in the regions of Punjab, Delhi,

Rajasthan, Kashmir, Uttar Pardesh, Haryana, Madhya Pradesh and Himachol Pradesh

from the early days. The first Tirthankara was born in Ayodhya where he devoted himself

in the preaching of Jainism. According to the Jain text that Mathura was an important city

of Jainism, from the very early history of Jain-faith. The Jain inscriptions told that the

Jain community was already divided into Svetambaras and Diagambras schools during

first and second century of Christian era. Ujjain was also the centre of Jainism in Malwa.

King Samprati, the ruler of Malwa was a great supporter of Jainism. In the same way

Kanoj was also a cultural centre of Jainism. (39) In short: “The imposing temple layouts

are the testimony to the power and glory which Jainism enjoyed in the past. They could

be constructed, thanks to the generosity of pious laymen, at different places like Kampil,

Kosam, Latitpur (11th century) in the United Provinces, in Gohna and Katas in the Punjab,

near Virava in Sindh, in Ahar, Jaisalmer Kalinjara Reni and particularly on Mount Abu in

Rajputana in Ajaigarh (12th-14th century), Baro , Bhojpur (12th -13th century) Kundalpur,

Khandva, Osia (783), UN in Central India the holy places of Khajuraho (10th -11th

centuy)) and Gwalior in this region are also particularly a significant symbol of riches and

the understanding of art of their creators.” (40)

Jainism during Delhi Sultanate:

As mentioned above that Mohammad b. Qasim established the Islamic state in

712 in Sind and in later periods Mahmud Ghaznavi (1001) and Muhammad Ghori (1175)

entered into the fertile territories of India while destroying the local Hindu dynasties. In

these invasions they also destroyed hundreds of temples and made slave the local non

Muslim communities. Thousands of Hindus and Jainas were perished in these attacks.

This whole sale destruction and persecution consequently provided a chance to other

foreigners to established themselves in India, so several Muslim dynasties were emerged

in the map of Hindustan like, Khilijis, Tughlaqs, Sayyids, Lodis, Mughals and Suris

dynasties. Some Muslim rulers made new records of cruelty and tyranny while attacking

the non Muslim states and communities. Alu-ud-din Muhammad shah Khilji marched

towards Gujarat in 1297 and destroyed several Jain temples and killed thousands of

Jainas. He not only dishonored the holy statues but constructed mosques with temple

materials. Holy Jain text and books were burnt, treasures were looted. Same destruction

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also reported in Deccan and Dravidian state. In spite of these persecutions and killing and

dishonoring of holy places, Muslims and jains developed good relations with each other

during peace days. The Muslim saints converted a large community of jinas towards

Islam. (41) The destruction of sacred places of Girnar and Satrunjaya in 1313 and then

restoration of these temples was important event in the history of Jainas. Alp khan the

governor of Gujarat provided financial support for the restoration of these Jain temples.

There are attested documents which describe that Jains monks were also exempted from

paying jizya like religious leaders of other non Muslim communities in the period of

Delhi Sultanate. Kakka Suri a Jain monk shares the information of destruction and

restoration of holy Jain temples of Gujarat in his writing which completed in 1336. He did

not mention of the causes of temples destruction. But he describes the details of

restoration by a Muslim noble with rejoicing because the Satrunjaya temple was the sign

of prosperity of Jain community and their cultural heritage. (42) Under Muslim rule the

Jainas scholars also took interest in the promotion of literature, Jain theologians like

Hemcandra (1089-1172), Jinadatta Suri (1075-1154)), Bhiksu (1726-1803), Amulakh

Rushi (1877-1936) and Villabb Vijay (1870-1954) and others done a lot of work for the

promotion of literature. The Muslim rulers of Sind granted land for the use of Jain monks

and Jain community. (43) In the states of Rajputs they had high status. “Ranas of Mevar

gave them their patronage and granted them many privileges. Jainas on other part showed

that they were always the true servants of their masters. When Pratap Singh (1572-1597)

was defeated by Emperor Akbar’s army and dissolved his fleeing army, a Jaina offered

his riches to him to enable him to form a new army. He thus enabled the Rana to continue

his march and get final victory. The princes expressed their gratitude by giving Jainas all

sorts of freedom. Thus Maharan Raj Singh issued an edict in 1693 by which he forbade

killing of animals on the pieces of land belonging to Jainas and ordered that every living

being entering the district of their holy places be protected, and besides, not only the

animals which were taken to slaughter-houses, but also the criminals who had escaped

from the arms of the law. Maharana Jay Singh gave orders in an inscription engraved on

one of the pillars in Bakrole that no one should dry out the sea-water in the four months

of the rainy season, from the 11th of the month of Asadha (June) to the full moon of

Asvina (September), run an oil mill, produce pots, that no one should harm a living being

during this season in which life sprouts everywhere.” (44) When the Muslim succeeded in

establishing their political authority in India, then several preachers of Islam reached in

Hindustan and converted thousands of Jainas to Islam. In the same way Arabian

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missionary Pir Mahabir Khamdayat reached in Subcontinent in 1304 and converted many

Jainas of the Deccan towards Islam. Sultan Ala-ud-din was famous in destroying temples

and killing Jainas but in peace days he bestowed to a Jaina poet Ramacandra Suri severial

precious gifts. The Sultan Firoq Shah Tughlaq also gave gifts to Ratnasekhara, the writer

of Sripalacarita. Mughal rulers also gave honor to Jaina teachers. Emperor Akbar was so

much impressed by the teachings of Jainism and there was even a rumor that he had

secretly embraced Jaina faith. On the request of Hiravijaya the emperor declared sacred to

the Jain religious places like the five hills of Rajgir, Parasnath in Bihar and other

worshiping places of Jainism. Akbar also put a complete ban over killing of animals in

the adjoining areas of Jainas sacred places. Akbar not only had in contacts with

Hiravijaya but he also developed relations with his successor Vijayasena and with

Jinacandra and the later was the leader of Kharatara sect. Emperor Jahangir was also

impressed by Jinacandra and his successor Jinasimha he bestowed the title of

Yugapradhana to Jinasimha. He also issued an order to the protection of Satrunjaya. Shah

Jahan, Murad Baksh and Aurangzeb bestowed Satrunjaya with its high yearly income to

the court jeweler Satidas a Jaina. Ahmad Shah (1748-1754) also took steps for the

protection of mountain Parasnath and gave it to Mahtab Rai a Jain Jagat seith. (45)

Guayas-ud-din Tuglaq appointed two Jains in his court and his son Mohammad Tughlaq

was so tolerant towards all non Muslim communities. This Sultan supported a lot of the

Jain teachers. Sultan Bahlol Lodhi offered an office in his court to Gada Vas Jain. Sultan

Ala-ud-din Khalji also appointed Thakhar Phero Jain as the court treasure. Firuz Shah

Tughlaq appointed Mahandra Suri as chief astronomer of his court. (46)

Jain Relations with Mughal Court:

Although Babur founded Mughal Dynasty in India but its real foundation was

put by Akbar. The Emperor was a student of comparative religious study, so he invited

the doctors of different faiths and religions including Jainism. (47) As mentioned in above

lines that the Jains lived in Gujarat and Rajasthan and had huge business empires. In

Rajasthan they also were raised to important posts by Rajput rajas. Jainas were appointed

as chief accountants in the courts of Rana Sanga, Rana khet Singh, Rana Kumbha, Rana

Uda and Raimal. In the reign of Akbar a good relationship was developed between Ranas

and Akbar which provided a chance to Jain community to reach in Mughal court. (48) As

the relations had been developed with Bikanir state, it provided a chance to Akbar to

invite Karm Chand Jain from Bikanir who was already serving in that state as finance

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minister and with the help of this noble personality other Jainas like Man Singh and Jai

Chand attached with Akbar court. (49) Akbar gave precious gifts to Jain teachers who had

some literary work in Sanskrit, moreover a Jain poet wrote 128 Sanskrit Verses in praise

of Akbar (50) When Man Singh appointed governor of Bengal, he was served by a

reputed Jain personality Mahamatya Nanu Godha. The said personality built eight Jain

temples in Bengal. It is said that he possessed seventy two elephants and the master of

unlimited resources. The Jain traders also supply food items to Mughal armies. They

installed temporary shops in army camps which moved under the commands of Raj put

generals. (51) Akbar had developed relations with Jain priests and he had a library of Jain

manuscripts which were provided by Jain monk Padmasundara. The famous Jain teacher

who reached in the court with his companions was Hiravijaya Suri (1527-96) who not

only succeeded in putting a durable impact on the religious thinking of the Emperor

Akbar but also got favors from the court of Jahangir. Abul-Fazl provides a list of 140

learned personalities of his age and he placed the 21 personalities in first class. It is

surprising that among these 21 persons nine were non-Muslims. These were Madho

Sarsuti, Madusudan, Narayan Asram, Hira Vijaya Suri, Damudar Bhat, Ramtirth, Narsing

Permidar and Adit. It is also said that local Jainas of Fatah Pur Sikri told the Emperor

about this learned man. This information developed a desire in the heart of Emperor to

meet him. So in 1582 on returning from Kabul, he sent Farman to Sihabuddin Ahmad

khan the governor of Gujarat to send Hiravijaya Suri to the court. In this Farman (order)

he ordered to the governor to provide every type of facility. (52) No sooner had the

embassy reached in Ahmadabad than a wave of happiness spread in Jain colony and the

holy man without any hesitation accepted royal invitation. On this occasion some royal

gifts also were presented but he refused to accept them. Some other priest also proceeded

to the court. On this occasion nearly sixty-seven Jain laymen also were moving with Jain

sadus to provide food and other need able things to monks. The laymen prepared food at

the road sides and used to wait for their arrival and after distributing the prepared food,

they proceeded to next stop for making food. Although the governor offered an elephant

for travel but monk preferred to move on foot towards Fatah Pur Sikri (53) The Jain

religious literature describes that Kham Chand played an important role in introducing

Jainas in court of Akbar. (54) Hiravajaya Suri was warmly welcomed in the capital city

by the nobles of the court. While declaring him imperial guest, the accommodation was

provided with Abul-Fazl. The monk delivered a lot of lectures about the religious

philosophy and doctrine of Jainism and impressed both the Emperor and Abul Fazl. He

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also visited the city of Agra. Teachings of non violence impressed Akbar religious policy

and he not only released cage birds and prisoners but also banned killing of animals on

certain days in 1583 while issuing an order. Akbar himself not only avoided from hunting

but also stop the practice of fishing. The king awarded him the title of Jagget Guru or

world teacher. He returned in 1584 to Gujarat. The Jainas also exempted from paying of

jizya and pilgrimage tax. The head monk returned to Gujarat but his close companion

Bhanuchandra still in the court for religious guide. In 1593 Siddi Chandara Jain reached

in the court of Lahore and not only received a high title from the court but also was made

the head of Jain worshiping places. Writing still exists on the walls of the temple of

Satrunjaya in which tribute had been dedicated to the Emperor and Hiravijayasuri in

Sanskrit as the great patrons of Jainism. In 1592 Hiravijaya Suri starved himself to death

according to Jain tradition. (55) Information also has been shared in Ain-i-Akbari about

different schools of thought of Jainism and their branches which he received from Bhanu

Chandara. (56) Father Monserrate information had shared about Jain teachers who

reached in different times in the court. Hiravijaya Suri, Santi Chandra, Vijayasena Suri,

Bhanu Chandra Upadh-yaya, Siddhi Chandra and Jin Chandra reached in the Akbar court.

It is said that Jain monks permanently stayed in the court from 1578 to the end of Akbar

rule. Santi Chandra stayed till 1587 and wrote a poem in the praise of Emperor. Bhanu

Chandra stayed in court till 1605. There is meager information about Jin Chandra. (57)

During Akbar reign several Jain temples constructed at Satrunjaya and Ujjain. Akbar

issued a Farman ordering to free the cage birds and banning of slaughtering of animals on

the Sevetambra festival of Paryusan. However the Svetambaras also had enemies at court.

Vijayasena Suri defended the charges which made by some opponents of Jainism in 1592.

Jahangir appointed a Jain monk to teach his son and in 1616 while issuing a Farman gave

complete religious freedom to them. But once he ordered all the Jain sadus to go out from

the limits of his empire. (58) Although the Emperor Akbar took a keen interest in the

doctrine of Jainism and he never converted to it as the Jain sources claim. The teaching of

Jainism just put an impact on his life style. He always gave an expression to the doctors

of each faith that he had interest in their faith but at the end all were disappointed. Now

question arises here why did he deceive them? On this occasion Abul-Fazl says that it

was the habit of emperor not to reveal his true thoughts to anyone. (59)

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Jains under Jahangir Rule:

Man Singh and Bal Chandra were Jainas who were raised to high posts by

Akbar in the court. During the rebellious activities of prince Khusru Man Singh supported

the young prince while ignoring the will of Akbar in the favor of Jahangir. Some

historians say that Man Singh was Rajput. In this bad political situation Man Singh told to

Rai Singh that Jahangir rule would not extend beyond two years. Without losing any

moment Roi Singh announced his rebellious activities and proceeded to Bikanir under the

influence of the prophecy of a Jain leader, but was defeated and in later period he was

taken again in imperial service. In spite of getting information about the prophecy of Man

Singh, the emperor also forgave him and was taken in royal service again. During his visit

to Gujarat he found that the Jain temples were becoming the main centers of trouble. Jain

monks were involved in some immoral practices. On this occasion Jahangir summoned

Man Sing to his court to control them but he was forced to drink poison to save him from

imperial wrath. Then Jahangir ordered to Jain monks to leave the limits of his imperial

territories. The orders were not completely applied became the Jain monk took refuge in

the territories of Raj put rajas. Sri Ram Sharma describes this event in these words:

“Jahangir here seems to have been prompted by religious rather than political motives

unlike Guru Arjun, Man Singh had been left alone for several years after his alleged act

of treason, and All Jains were punished irrespective of their political proclivities. Still

further there was a section of the Jains who did not even acknowledge Man Singh as their

leader. They were also included in the order of expulsion. Dr Beni Prasad is wrong in

stating that the order was confined to one sect alone. His version of this event is vitiated

by the fact that he was neglected to take notice of the time when the order of expulsion

was issued. His statement that the order was withdrawn sometime after its promulgation

is not supported by any authorities though he says that Jain works of the period are clear

on the point. He has named no works nor quoted from them. In the absence of such

authorities it is not possible to believe that Jahangir withdrew the order. But even if any

Jain authority mention in the withdrawal of such an order it is necessary to know the

exact date. Dr Beni Parasad statement leads one to believe that it was withdrawn

sometime after Khusru’s rebellion. In that case the Jain testimony becomes valueless as

Jahangir is referring to an order issued in the twelfth year of his religious persecution.

Jahangir himself is far from asserting that he issued the order on political grounds. We

have to remember that Shah Jahan was the governor of Gujarat at this time. His

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orthodoxy may have had something to do with the issue of the order.” (60) Emperor

Jahangir (1605-1627) also impressed by Jain teachers like Jina Chandra and then his

successor Jina Simha. Jahangir gave the little of Yugapradhana to Jina Chandra. (61) In

1617 Jahangir issued a Farman in Gujarat that all Jain temples must be closed because the

female family members of devotees visited to the Jain sadhus in the temples where they

live. But the order did not implement because Jain textual material claim that after the

Farman Jahangir provided patronage to Jain ascetics and provided funds for the

construction of new Jain temples. (62) Emperor Jahangir had several Jain ascetics in his

court. Siddhi Chandra received the little of Nadir-i-Seamen and khushfahm. In this period

the king name was engraved on Jain images. In 1618 he took a vow not to injure any

living creature. According to Jain writings Shah Jahan and Dara Shikoh were the

supporters of Jainism. (63) Aurangzeb also favored to Jain and Hindu temples as this

writing: “From 1659 to 1685 he issued Farman in the favor of Jangum Badali Shiva

temple and the great temples of Mahakateshwara Ujjain, Balaji temple of Chitrakut,

Umanand temple Gauhati and the Jain temple of Shtrunjal and Abu.” (64) It is said that

Savji Kahanji Parekh was a Jain merchant who constructed a temple in 1636 where in the

temple writing still exists that Savji was a leading Parikhya of Shrimali caste but in later

period of his life he converted to pushti marg while leaving Jain faith and then he made a

Krishna temple in Porbander. Savji went to Delhi and got an order on March 21, 1652

from shah jahan in which the reduction on custom was mentioned on Porbandar port from

6 to 3 percent. (65) While traveling through western India Mandelslo reached village of

Sojitra so late at night where he saw that Jain shop keepers did not burn lamps under fear

of destroying of insects. (66) When Shantidas jeweler built a Jain temple near

Ahmadabad, the objection was not reported by imperial court. Aurangzeb during his

viceroyalty in Gujarat converted it into mosque by making a mahrab. As the complaint of

Shantidas reached in the court a Farman was issued by Shad Jahan while ordering to

remove the mahrab and temple was handed over to Shantidas. In this Farman Shah Jahan

wrote that any material which taken from the temple should be restored and compensation

paid from the royal treasury. (67) Jains were businessmen or traders from their early

history, the religious non-violence made impossible for them to adopt any other

profession. During the war of succession a Jain business man gave to Aurangzeb 550,000

Rupees in 1658. (68)

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Dara Shukoh’ Relations with Jains:

Dara Shukoh had good relation with the Jain merchants. He had friendly

relations with Shantidas, who succeeded in getting permission from Shah Jahan in 1642

to move his property freely across the whole kingdom. Shantidas was a power full

merchant who imported Jewels to India and several of them were presented Shah Jahan as

gift. Although Shanti Das provided financial support to Murad Buksh during the

succession war in 1657 but he was also loyal to Dara Shikuh. When the prince arrived in

Gujarat in 1659, Shanti Das provided financial support to recruit a fresh army. He also

gave information about Aurangzeb problems in eastern India. Dara developed the

relations with Jain community like the relations of Hindus. For example in 1643 a royal

Farman was issued for grant in ‘Gokul and Gopal Pur to Goswami Vithal Ra’I. (69)

The Parsis Relations with Muslims in Mughal India:

The philosophy and doctrine of this faith developed nearly thirty two centuries

before under the guidance and leadership of Zarathustra or Zoroaster, the name which

was given to him by Greek writers. He converted the attention of the people to worship

the God Ahura Mazda (Wise Lord) while rejecting other religious faiths, exiting in Iran in

those days. The old Iranians did not aware about the true faith and they were just

following customs and rituals to satisfy angry deities. He told them that Ahura Mazda just

like good deeds and did not entertain the useless and valueless customs and sacrifices.

The religious doctrine and philosophy of Zoroaster had been preserved in Avesta. The

followers of Zoroaster have believed that this is a heavenly book. (70) The Indians

followers of Zoroaster as they claim are called Parsis who are the off shoots of Iranian

Zoroastrians. The origin of old Iranians can be traced in Aryan migratory tribes who left

the steppes of Asia in 15th century B.C. and permanently settled in Middle East, Iran and

India. When Zoroaster started to spread his message the newly settled people embraced it

and not only it became the religion of common people of Iran but also it succeeded in

getting the status of state religion under the Sassanid Dynasty. Moreover the Sassanid

rulers adopted its religious guidance to move state affairs and promoted the customs of

Zoroastrianism. With the passage of time these rituals and customs were became the part

of the lives of Zoroastrians who while migrating to India brought them to their new home

as part of their religious heritage. In India they became famous as Parsis or Persians, the

name which was given to them by the Indians. The Indian Zoroastrians also assumed

different identities like Zarathustra’s, Zarthosti, and Mazdayasnans. Through these names

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they want to prove that they are still the followers of Zarathustra and devotees of Ahura

Mazda. Here in India they converted their interest in trade and business and soon became

a rich and powerful community. (71) Although its origin can be traced in ancient history

yet its followers are very few in the world. The population of this community is about

200,000 in the world. Although they have very short man power but they are making a

regular struggle to maintain their religious identity. In the modern age the Zarathushtis

have settled in different countries of world. About 30, 000 Zoroastrians have made Iran as

their homeland and 70, 000 Parsis have settled in India and 5, 000 Parsis are living in

Pakistan. The rest part of their population is living in different European countries. The

defeat of Sassanid Emperor deprived them from the political patronage and they dispersed

in desert to save their lives and faith. While leaving their original homeland a small group

of Parsis had shifted from Iran to India in 10th century. (72)

Migration of Zoroastrians towards India:

The detail of migration of Zoroastrians has been mentioned in two stories

named Qisseh-I Sanjan or story of Sanjan and Qisseh-I Zartustian-i Hindustan which was

written by two Zoroastrians monks. Qisseh-I Sanjan was written by Behman Kaikobad

Sanjana Parsi in 1599 and Qisseh-I Zartustian-i Hindustan was written by Shapurji

Maneckji Sanjana in Navsari between 1765 and 1805. These writings not only have

mentioned about the defeat of Yazdagird 111 in war of Nihavand in 642 but also have

discussed their early Diasporas after the defeat by the Arab Muslims. Then Khurasan

became their first staying place for 100 years and after spending this period they migrated

to the island of Hormuz in the Persian Gulf. At this place they spent 15 years and while

moving future towards Southern India, Diu became their next home for next nineteen

years. Next they moved to India and selected Sanjan, a small town in Gujarat, as their

new homeland. (73) Gujarat was then under the authority of Jadi Rana, although he

allowed the Parsis to stay in his state but under some terms and conditions. They were

instructed to adopt local customs and life style. Moreover they were instructed to live a

peaceful life and were forbid to raise their weapons on any situation. They were allowed

to celebrate their religious festivals and rituals but were forced to celebrate them after the

sunset. While talking with the Raja in his court, the principal Parsis had availed a chance

to tell the Raja and other Hindu nobles of his court about religious philosophy of Parsism.

Some years later the Raja and his courtiers were forced to relax terms while seeing good

attitude of Parsi community. While converting their attention towards business and trade,

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they developed relations with local people. They also wanted to maintain their religious

identity in India. (74) The Parsis of Variav became so powerful in eleventh century even

they rejected the authority of ruling raja while refusing to pay the tribute. Although the

ruling raja dispatched a light force to force them for paying tribute but this force was

defeated by the Parsis. Then the raja sent a heavy force which succeeded in dispersing the

Parsi army, Parsi ladies had also took part in this war. (75) While taking part in Indian

politics, the Zoroastrians always supported to local rulers and dynasties. During Delhi

Sultanate in 1297, the Zoroastrians of Cambay bearded several losses when an army was

dispatched from Delhi towards Gujarat. Mughal officers also created problems while

interfering in their business matters. Under fake allegations, a businessman Vamaji

Homaji Parsi was slaughtered by Ahmad Beg a Mughal officer of Broach in 17th century.

In spite of these persecutions, the Indian Zoroastrians succeeded to achieve honorable

position in Mughal India when a Zoroastrian monk Dastur Meherji Rana (1510-91) of

Navsari was raised to high office by the ruling Emperor. Jahangir during his reign gave a

high status to Dordi Parsi family. In foreign trade the Parsis played an important role

along with Europeans. (76) The Europeans traders and travelers also discussed about

Parsis of India in their writings. The French Father Jordanus was the first European who

described about an Indian community of fire worshippers while travelling through Broach

in 1322. In the same way another Italian Christian Priest Odoric visited the Zoroastrians

of Thana in 1323 and gave same information as has been given by Jordanus. With the

arrival of Portuguese the European gathers more and more information about Parsis. In

the early portion of seventeenth century Edward Terry an English writer shared

information about Parsis, he was also chaplain to Sir Thomas Roe, the ambassador to the

Mughal Emperor Jahangir. Terry told that a heathen community which was famous as

Zoroastrians and shared information about their religious beliefs and rituals and he was

the first European who directly developed relations with Parsis. (77)

Worship Places of Parsis in India:

The Parsis have divided the fire into three categories like Atash Bahram,

Atash Adaran and Atash Dadgah. They gave highest respect to the Atash Bahram while

saying that this fire had been taken from sixteen types of fire. High priests usually

maintained it. They usually give second status to Atash Adaran which had been collected

and consecrated from four types of fire and maintained by the monks of lesser grades.

They do not give any high status to Atash Dadgah because this fire is used in houses and

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worshiped by house holders. Although the Parsis have been living in dominant Hindu

culture but they did not allow the rituals of other communities to mix in their customs.

They built fire temples and dakhmas in the major cities of western India and other

territories. (78) While following Iranian way of worshiping of fire the Parsis of India had

started feeding to the fire which is famous as ‘Bui ritual’, attached with Atash Niyayesh

or ‘prayer to fire’ performed five times a day. Sandalwood and other fragrant goods are

consumed to feed the fire. The Parsis usually like to celebrate marriages and other

religious rituals outside the fire temples. Although the Parsis selected Sanjan as their

home but in later period they traveled to Gujarat and other territories of western India. In

12th century the Zoroastrians made their residences in Vandanir in Kathiawar, Broach,

Variav, Anklesvar, Cambay and Navsari. They constructed the first dakhma or Tower of

Silence in Broach and some year later two brick towers were constructed in the same

town. (79) As the Parsi population extended in different towns and cities so they then

divided their residential settlements into five religious administrative centers like Sanjan,

Navsari, Anklesvar, Broach and Combay. These settlements were declared as chief towns

of Zoroastrism under the names of Bhagaria (Navsari), Bharucha, Godavra (Surat),

Khambatta and Sanjanas. (80) Several principal monks migrated from Sanjan to Navsari.

Kamdin Parsi was the first monk who migrated from Sanjan to Navsari in 1142 to give

guidance to Parsis. About the shifting of monks a story also had been shared in the Parsi

writings that Changa Asa (1450 to 1512) of Navsari was a noble personality and was

awarded the high litle of dahyuvad, or lord of the land. While travelling towards Bansda,

he had to face many problems and hardships. On this occasion he and gave Sudra or kusti

to poor Zoroastrians. On returning from pilgrimage he conducted the meeting of the

nobles of Navsari and gave suggestion if they would invite the monks of Sanjan with the

sacred fire to Navsari, by this way they could save the pilgrimages from bearing the

hardships and difficulties. While accepting this offer the Sanjanas shifted to Navsari and

the priest of both towns constructed a fire-temple in Navsari. (81) Then Navsari became

the principal centre of Zoroastrians. The religious matters were handled by principal

monks of two great panths and political matters were looked after by Changa Asa. In the

same time Changa Asa constructed a stone dakhma in Sanjana. In sixteen century Surat

was became an important trading centre, the Parsi businessmen shifted in Surat to

promote their business. Then dakmas were built in Surat. The first dakhma was built in

1600 and other dakhma was made in 1647. Parsi historians also had shared the other story

of shifting Iran shah fire from Sanjan to Bansda. While attacking on Gujarat in 1400, the

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Muslims destroyed not only the whole Gujarat but also destroyed the Parsi residential

settlements of Sanjan. Although the Parsis could not save their town but they shifted the

Iran shah fire the nearby mountain forest called Bahrot. The Fire was fixed there for next

twelve years and for next fourteen years it was fixed at Banda. On the invitation of

Changa Asa the Iran shah fire was shifted to Navsari as mentioned in above lines. Sanjana

priests started to look after the fire and Navsari monks continue to maintain the religious

affairs of the Parsis of the town. For next 320 years Iran shah fire remained in Navsari but

during 1733 to 1736 it had to shift to Surat because in these years the political situation in

Navsari was not in favor of Parsi faith. Then it had to shift Bulsar and in 1742 it was

taken to Udvada to give it to Sanjana monks and still exists there. (82) The Navsari

monks maintained their own Atash Bahram in 1765. After this a group of the Bhagarias

separated from the main school and founded a new sect called the Minochheher Homji or

the Kakalia sect. Then a series of wars fought between two sects of Navsari under

religious matters but in 1790 a peace was made while giving the duties of living to

Bhagarias and the Kakalias had to perform duties of dead. In later priors again differences

were arisen between two schools. In 1972 Indian Zoroastrians celebrated 1251st

anniversary of Atash Bakram in India. (83)

Zoroastrian Rivayats:

In 15th century when the Indian Zoroastrians felt that they had lost original

philosophy of Zoroastrian and then they sent some representatives to Iran to get original

information about the faith. Nearly 26 Parsi priests went to Iran during 1478 to 1773 and

after spending some period in Iran and returned with detail of some inquiries. The

exchanges of information are called Rivayats. While retiring from Iran the priests brought

manuscripts of Avesta and Pahelvi texts. In these correspondences Navsari monks from

India and from Iran the priests of Kerman, Isfahan, Sharafabad, Turkabak, and Yazd took

part in sharing of information. Nariman Hoshang was the first monk who brought the first

Rivayat from Iran. All of the expenses were beared by Changa Asa in this conversation.

(84) Nariman Hoshang was dispatched as representative to Iran who started his travel

from Broach and after entering in Iran he was welcomed at Yazd and he spends some

days there. Next he moved towards Turkabad to see Dasturan dastur. After reaching there

he met the high priest and spend one year there and understand true doctrine. In 1478 he

brought two copies of Pazand manuscripts from Iran and some instructions which were

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given in a detailed letter for Parsis of India. The letter of instructions and original texts of

sacred books provide an original way to Indian fire worshipers. (85)

Zoroastrians Relations with Mughals:

On arriving the western coasts the Portuguese not only creating problems for

local political authorities and trading communities as well but also extending their trading

networks towards different directions of western Indian. Mohammad Begada the ruler of

Gujarat was an experience monarch who was succeeded in stopping the growing power of

Portuguese. In 1511 he died and after his death his successors had no courage to stop the

Portuguese. In 1526 succeeded in founding Mughal Empire in northern India and after his

death his son Humayun became the ruler of northern India. While extending the territories

he marched and attacked Gujarat in 1534. The Sultan of Gujarat was a week ruler so he

requests the Portuguese viceroy for help which was agreed but under some terms. Under

the terms of support the Sultan handed over the port of Bassein and its islands to

Portuguese. The Sultan also agreed that all the ships of Gujarat would pay taxes to

Portuguese while moving through the sea which was under the control of Portuguese. But

the Portuguese did not give military support as was promised to the Sultan. While

attacking on Broach and Surat the Mughal Emperor also disturbed the Parsi community

of those towns. In this war the Sultan had lost his power and there was no any other state

in western India to stop the military and political extension of Portuguese. In 1547 the

Portuguese marched towards Broach and not only destroyed it resources but also perished

the people of this towns. Moreover the Portuguese got permission from the Sultan to

bring the town of Sanjan under their control and on this occasion the Christians

missionaries tried to convert the Parsis towards true faith. After becoming the Emperor

Akbar successfully dispatched expeditions towards all direction and in 1572 the Emperor

marched towards Gujarat and succeeded in capturing it within a year. Some Principal

Parsis also met him when he encamped near Surat. This meeting became the reason of

their rise in Mughal India. (86) The Zoroastrians of western India playing an important

role in agriculture, cotton textile production and business and running shipbuilders

companies. Bombay developed as their important trading centre for Zoroastrians in 19th

century. (87)

Parsis High Status in Mughal Court:

Akbar had great interest to know the real teachings of different faith. He used

to conduct religious debates in his court. A huge building under the name of ‘Ebadat

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Khana’ was constructed where doctors of different faiths were invited like Jain priests,

Parsi monks, Christian doctors, Hindu priests and Muslim scholars and theologians for

religious debates. Akbar succeeded in understanding the philosophies of different faiths.

The scholars of each faith received high respect in his court and under the impact of these

debates he just change his life style and never accepted any other religion except Islam

and died as a Muslim. Not only had the Emperor achieved political advantages through

these greetings but also developed a religious harmony and tolerance. Under the impact of

his own researching nature, he got information about different communities of India

including this tiny community and then invited its doctors. He had good political relations

with Iran and it can be assumed that these relations also became the second source of

awareness about the Parsis of India. Iranian influence can be seen in different

departments where the Iranians were raised to high offices. As mentioned in above lines

that about Parsis Akbar got Information during military campaign against Gujarat. It is

said that he also founded “Din-I Elahi” while gathering religious beliefs of Islam,

Hinduism and Zoroastrianism as some Muslim and European writers have claimed. It is

not good to give it the name of a religion. The followers of a Din usually demand a priest,

temple and a book. Akbar never constructed a worshiping building, never behaved as

priest and he never wrote a book for his Din as the writers said. This confusion had been

created by Henry Blockmann who translated Ain-i-Akbari. Its official name was Tauhid-

i-Ilahi, divine monotheism. Actually it was a social order and social customs and

ceremonies were introduced in this order while greeting each other. Only eighteen

persons entered in this social order. The Parsis, Hindus, Christians, Jainas had no interest

in it, so they rejected it. Birbal was only Hindu who entered in this social order because

he was a close friend of Akbar, the rest of the members were Muslims. Although Akbar

introduce some rules of life for these members in his social order but seeing these rules it

is not right to give it the name of Din. Hindu nobles rejected this while saying that if the

means of this order to give the lives for empire so they have already doing this. (88)

Akbar showed a great interest in Parsi faith which can be traced in the introduction of

Persian calendar named Tarikh-I Ilahi. To complete this calendar the names of months

and days have been selected from Parsi faith and after passing 12 years then a new cycle

started under the name of the first month. Akbar also impressed by the apocalyptic

thoughts of Parsis. Islam, Hinduism and Zoroastrianism had their own apocalyptic beliefs

which were important issues of discussion in his reign. Every religion claimed that this

world would be soon closed and then new world would be started. Shi’te apocalyptic

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beliefs were very popular in Indian Muslims. Shi’as believed that a twelfth Imam would

soon come and after demolishing bad practices of people, he would show them the way of

Allah. When the task of last Imam would be completed then this world would be

destroyed. In the same way the Hindus believed that exiting world would soon remove

and it would provided a way to new age for creation. The idea of Zoroastrians has been

discussed in these words by Sven S. Hartman, the writer of Zoroastrian: “And we posses

New Persian versions of apocalyptic Pahlavi writings found in the rivayat texts which

circulated in India in the time of Akbar. In these one reckons with millennia and the last

millennium is characterized by the Arab supremacy. After this the Saosvant the

eschatological savior was to come. Akbar must thus have changed time computation after

having considered the old period as ended. The circumstance that he in this connection

resumed the Zoroastrian names for months and days shows that he believed in the

assertions of the Zoroastrian apocalypse about the Arab supremacy during the last

millennium but no longer. Then the Arab supremacy, as well as Islam, would come to an

end and a new religion would arise, and this new religion had its own time computation

just like the other religions (Christianity, Hinduism, Islam and Judaism)”. (89) Most

famous historians like Vincent Smith and others say that the Emperor not only summoned

to fire-worshippers but also sun-worshippers to his capital. So under the invitation of the

court the Zoroastrian monk Dastur Maherji Rana reached at his capital with some other

Parsis. Under the influence of the said priest, Akbar changed his life style while wearing

Parsi Kusti and the sacred cord around his waist. While wearing this cord a Parsi must

have tied and untied several times in a day and should always recite some specific prayers

and turn towards the sun if visible or else towards a fire. (90) According to Blockmann,

the translator of Ain-i Akbari: “They called the fire worship ‘the great worship’ and

impressed the emperor so favorably that he learned from them the religious terms and

rites of the old Parsis and to make arrangements that sacred fire should be kept burning at

court by day and by night, according to the customs of the ancient Persian kings, in whom

fire temples it had been continuously burning, for fire was one of the manifestation of

God and a ray of his rays. His majesty from his youth had been accustomed to celebrate

the Hom (a kind of fire worship) from the affection towards the Hindu princess of the

Harem.” (91) The Emperor not only abolished the jizya and pilgrimage tax from Indian

Zoroastrians but also gave same rights to them as the other communities were enjoying in

Mughal rule. (92) There were rumors that he had became Parsi but it is not true. (93)

Akbar paid respect to the sun. Vincent Arthur says: “The Parsis propaganda was

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supported by the zeal of the Hindu Raja Birbal, an ardent sun worshiper from another

point of view, and it also filled in well in the practices by the Hindu ladies in the zanana

who had their burnt offering (hom), after the Brahmanical fashion. A few years later

(1589) Akbar carried further his compliance with Parsis ritual by adopting the Persian

names for the months and days, and celebrating the fourteen Persian festivals. But he

stopped without ever reaching the point of definitely becoming a Zoroastrian. He acted in

the same way with regard to Hinduism, Jainism, and Christianity. He went so far in

relation to each religion that different people had reasonable ground for affirming him to

be Zoroastrian, a Hindu, a Jain, or a Christian.” (94) While staying near Surat he got

information about the holy Parsi in 1573, there is confusion, whether he reached to the

court on retiring of said army or he reached in later period. There is no doubt that the said

monk participated in religious debates which held in 1578 and he retired to Navsari in

1579. The Parsis gave him a high status in their writings and always remember as a great

friend of Parsis. Akbar allotted a piece of land to the Parsi learned man. In 1591 the Parsi

died and then the piece of land was given to his son who came to the imperial court. (95)

In 1580 the Emperor paid respect to sun and fire. Every evening all of the courtiers had to

stand for paying reverence to lighted lamps and candles. (96) Ardshir was also summoned

to Lahore from Iran to complete the Persian dictionary and in the reign of Jahangir this

book got popularity under the title of Farhang-I Jahangiri. (97) It is said that two other

Zoroastrians Meherji Vacha and Mehervaid also arrived in the court and delivered

lectures on Parsi faith. (98) To maintain the lamp light Abul Fazl assigned this duty of to

a person. One day the Emperor saw that the lamp lighter was sleeping and lamp was not

working. Under this negligence the lamp lighter was thrown from the top of the palace.

(99) The mysticism of Parsis also developed in Akbar period. Sven S. Hartman says about

the mysticism of Parsis: “This tolerance of faith finds many different kinds of expression.

One example of this is the well-known and highly esteemed Dastur Khurshed S. Dadu of

Bombay. In his creed one can detect influences from many different quarters, perhaps

especially from theosophy. He believes in metempsychosis and in the idea that several

Zoroaster have existed through the ages. He also has points in common with Sufism and

with Indian asceticism. As a matter of fact, he represents a continuation of a kind of Parsi

mysticism that began during the times of Emperor Akbar with Dastur Azar Kaiwan

(1533-1618) as a leader of a sect that called itself Yazdaniyan, the adherents of Yazdan

(God). They possessed their own writings like the Dabistan-i-Mazahib.” (100) Under

Jahangir rule the Indian Zoroastrians succeeded to maintain their impacts in the royal

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court. Under this impact Jahangir selected Iranian names for his sons like Khusrau,

Khurram, Jahandar, Shahrayar and Hoshang. In the rule of Jahangir not only this

community maintained their business empires but also took part in agriculture and other

professions. He also gave lands to the Zoroastrians monks named Meherji Kamdina and

Hoshang Ranji. Dabistan-I Mazahid was the famous book in the reign of Aurungzeb was

the writing of a Zoroastrian author named Muhsin Fani. This was considered the

encyclopedia of religions bearing the detail information about the religions of India. (101)

Awarding lands to non Muslim Communities:

Akbar discovered that the tax-exempted lands of state were distributed while

violating the state rule. Most of such lands were given to Muslim theologians of Punjab

and after the death of original beneficiary; lands were used to transfer illegally to the

heirs. Afghans were the main authors of this violation who were enjoying this illegal

facility from Ludi and Sur reigns. Then the Emperor took steps to stop this violations,

such lands were checked and then took under state control. Then after preparing the lists

of Muslim and non Muslims scholars then the tax-exempted lands were allotted to the

religious elders of different faiths. These lands were distributed among Hindu Yogis,

Parsi priests, Jain monks and Muslim theologians. From this generosity Brahmin pundit

also received lands. (102)

Business Establishments of Zoroastrians:

Imperial patronage provided a way to the Zoroastrians to establish their

business Empires as well as they succeeded in achieving several advantages under

Mughal polite rule. Consequently several influential Parsis businessmen not only took

part in the state prosperity but also played an active role in politics. Portuguese writers

had shared information about the existence of this community in their writings during

Humayun reign, among them there was a Portuguese physician Garcia da Orta when he

visited to Bombay. Rustam Manak (1635-1721) was a famous trader in western India who

played an important role in the conflicts of Mughals and Marahatas in the last quarter of

17th century. Rustam Manak tried to facilitate the people of his community while taking

part in social work. The Qissa-i Manek describes that not only he constructed a lot of

roads, bridges and public wells as well as caravanserais but also helped the needy Parsis.

Rustam Manak also reached in the court of Aurangzeb. (103) Kharshedji Pocaji was

another famous Zoroastrians who in 1664 constructed a lot of forts in Bombay for English

company. It is said that these were Parsis who played an important role as supporters of

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English traders and in later period under English traders Bombay became an important

trade centre where Parsis also were dwelling. (104) The Hindus and Jains accountants

were taken in service to manage the accounts. As the Mary Boyce says, “The growing

prosperity of such prominent Parsi meant that they mingled more with people of other

communities and employed more Hindu servants. Their houses were thus less secure

strongholds of Zoroastrian purity; and perhaps because of this, perhaps also because of

the urgings of their co-religionists in Iran, they began to found lesser sacred fires locally.

The first of these was probably established in Surat, but (because Surat was so often

destroyed by fire and flood) the fullest records come from what was to be the rival port of

Bombay. This had become a British possession in 1661 and was entrusted to the East

India Company to administer from Surat. The Company set out to make it the flourish

ingests port in India, and as one means of achieving this proclaimed complete religious

freedom there. This brought a steady flow to the island of Hindu and Parsi settlers, eager

to escape harassment by Mughal and Portuguese. In 1671 Hirji Vaccha built a Dar-I MIhr

there, and soon afterwards a dakhma; and in 1709 and Atash-I Adaran was consecrated.

From this time on, records usually distinguish between three types of Parsi sacred

foundations: the Dar-I MIhr without an ever burning fire (into which fire was brought,

usually from a priest’s house, for rituals); the Dar-I Mihr with a Dadgah fire; and the Dar-

I Mihr with an Adaran, In common parlance, however, all three might be referred to by

the Gujarati term ‘agiary’ or place of fire……but that in 1672, the tumultuous rabble of

the zealot Moors destroyed and took it from them.” (105)

Parsi Religious Disputes during Eighteenth Century:

A lot of disputes were reported among different sects of Parsis during Mughal

period. The Parsis reached India while bringing only one Atash Bahram which was first

housed at Sanjan and then in Navsari. Although the monks of two panthaks maintained

peace for many centuries but after the expansion of population the situation had been

changed and then every sect started to claim his superiority. In seventeenth century the

violation reached at its peak then the matter was handed over to the court. The Hindu

court said that the Sanjanas would feed the fire and Bhagarias would look after the social

matters. In 1741 the Sanjanas migrated with sacred fire to Udvada near Sanjan and fixed

the fire there, there still it exist. After departuring the Atash Bahram from the town the

Bhagarias were in hopeless condition. In this condition they converted their attention

towards the religious texts and in 1765 the new sacred fire was fixed. (106) The Pasis had

divided the religious elders into three grades which are famous as Dastur, the mobad, and

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the herbad or erva. These monks usually provided religious guidance and also provided

help in maintaining religious festivals. The five religious towns were not only the

religious centers but also they were trade and business empires of Parsis. The sources of

income of these panthaks were based on the collections of fees from lower districts. The

other sources of income were those gifts and money which were accepted on religious

festivals and ceremonies. The anjumans of monks handled the issues of other priests and

when they could not solve the matter then it was taken to the non Parsi court. (107)

Indian Zoroastrian Panchayet:

While developing Punchayet system the Parsis of western India decided to

establish the social department within their own community and environment. The

Zoroastrians then founded Zoroastrian Panchyet or council of seniors. Although this

Panchayat organization was very useful in expressing unity and solidarity but first time

introduced in India by Parsis and this type of organizations were not introduced in Iran.

The puncheyet not only look after the requirements of the community but it is also useful

to settle the conflicts and matters of the Parsis. The elders of panchayat were selected

after seeing the character, experience and services for Parsis. Criminal cases within the

community, civil matters and issues were dealt by the Panchayet. Discussions on different

issues and problems also conducted under the supervision of Panchayet and the seniors of

panchayet usually settled the disputes according to Parsi religious rules. The panchayats

were established in different towns and cities. In 1642 the Parsis of Navsari founded the

Panchayet and then these types of organizations were founded in different towns where

this community was dwelling. With the passage of time a new and influence class was

appeared known as shetias. This new group of Parsis not only looked after religious

matters but also performs the services as the leaders of the Parsis. This group succeeded

in getting more and more power. This class of Parsis got the high position in Bombay and

with the association of English traders they succeeded in founding punchayet and got

superiority over the Parsi community. In 1787 the punchayet was recognized as political

authority in Bombay. With the passage of time the shetias succeeded in establishing their

influence over whole of the Parsi community. (108)

Parsi Language:

In India they stayed in Gujarat where they adopted Gujarati language and

lifestyle but they used pure Persian language in their writings. The Zoroastrians converted

several Iranian Rivayats into Gujarati language. In 19th they translated Avesta text which

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was existed in three languages like Pahlavi, Sanskrit and Persian Gujarati language. Many

Parsi books were also converted into Gujarati like Zartust-namah, Jamaspi-namah, and

Arda Viraf-namah. With passage of time several texts were published in Gujarati like

liturgical instructions, prayer books, edifying literature, etc. Zoroastrians of Bombay

started their first newspaper under name of Samachar in 1822. Parsis wrote their literature

in English. (109)

Nou Ruz Celebration in Mughal Court:

Nou Rue was held on March 20 or 21 long before by Old Iranian rulers. It is

said that it also associated with religious philosophy of Zoroastrian. This festival

celebrated on the arrival of New Year which not only brings the memories of good past

but also share the information of good days. Babur refused to celebrate it while saying

that it is against the Islamic law. Although the emperor Humayun celebrated this festival

in 1544 during his exile but he did not allow celebrating when he returned as emperor of

India. ‘This festival of 1546 coincided with the circumcision ceremony of the child

Akbar’. Akbar started to celebrate this festival in his court and after his death his

successors followed it. The famous historian Abdul-Qadir Badauni shared that the

emperor Akbar celebrated it in Ajmer on March 21, 1574 and its enjoyments were lasted

for 6 day. This festival also celebrated in Fatehpur Sikri when the Parsi scholars were in

the court in 1578. These scholars also participated in this festival. This year not only the

Emperor paid reverence to sun but also paid respect to fire. (110)

Christians and Muslim Relations in Mughal Period:

Christians succeeded in reaching in India in the first century of its history and

not only took part in Indian politics but also developed religious relations with other

communities. They also reached in the court of Mughal emperors and under the Mughal

patronage they started to dwell in capital cities of Mughal India. Several Christians had

claimed that St. Thomas not only involved in missionary activities in Asia, China and

other eastern states but also reached in southern India for preaching. He succeeded in

converting several local peoples to Christianity and built some churches. Unfortunately he

was killed in 68 A.D by some Hindus. The Christian sources also claimed that in later

centuries two other pious personalities with the same name also arrived in southern India

for preaching activities. Christian writers say that second pious person Thomas (277 A.D)

the Manichean reached in the southern India and served the true faith. In the same way

third pious personality Thomas (780 A.D) an Armenian merchant reached India while

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travelling through sea trade routes. Here he became the bishop of Indian Christians. (111)

Edward Gibbon says that the Christian writers confused while sharing information of

preaching activities. Moreover he says that only St. Thomas apostle reached in India in

that period and the historians gave him three identities while saying him an apostle, a

Manichean or an Armenian merchant. (112) But Jesuit Father Monesserrate has claimed

about the preaching activities in northern India, “St Bartholomew preached the Gospel in

these regions which were reckoned by the ancients to belong to India, as also were Aria,

Aracosia and Gedrosia, these provinces made up indeed what was then called Hither

India. We read in the ecclesiastical histories that St. Bartholomew travelled to Hither

India which had been allotted to him in the distribution of the world (into areas of

evangelization). It is generally agreed that Christians once inhabited this region. The

ancient Fathers were also greatly devoted to this sort of asceticism, and preferred to live

near streams and rivers. When the Christians were driven out, the cells, which are

excavated in the flinty rock and seem exceedingly well fitted to a lisle of piety, were

deserted by the hermits who had inhabited them, and thus became material for the tales

and speculations of travelers” (113) Although the Christian writers had given arguments

about the presence of Christians in northern and southern India in early Christian

centuries but they could not provide authentic evidences. The Christian writers also claim

that Syrian Christians settled in Malabar, Coromandal and Kerala who reached there for

preaching activities. There was correspondence between Patriarch of Babylon and Rome.

Through this correspondence information was shared about the vacate position of Indian

church, then the former church while taking step dispatched some Nestorian missionaries

to India for the promotion of Church. (114) Historians also had assumed that Christian

community extended by the efforts of Christian traders and by the expansion of local

converts. (115) The Syrian missionaries did not take part in proselytizing activities and

remained in the boundaries of Kerala. The remarkable progressed of Christianity of India

was reported after the arrival of Jesuit Fathers who not only maintained the religious

relations with southern Indian communities but also with the people of northern India.

(116)

The Advent of Portuguese and Christian Missionaries in India:

Vasco de-Gama (1460-1524) succeeded in discovering new direct trade sea

route from Europe to India and reached with his three ships at Calicut one of the coasts of

India on May 20, 1498. Although the purpose of arrival of Portuguese was the expansion

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of spice trade but this trade link between Europe and India also became the source of

development religious relations with Indian communities including Muslims. As the

Portuguese succeeded in maintaining their political authority in Goa then the Christian

missionaries arrived in India and they found a favorable atmosphere for their preaching

activities because a Christian community also already dwelling on the coasts of western

and southern India. (117) Luckily the Portuguese Christians reached in a region where a

Christian community already dwelling under bishops, archdeacons and priests. (118)

With the Portuguese the members of Society of Jesus reached in Goa who got popularity

under the name of Jesuits. This Christian society was founded by St Ignatius, Francisco

Xavier, Diego Lainez, Alfonso Salmero, Nicolas Bobadilla, Peter Faber and Simao

Rodrigues in Paris in 1534. This organized society is known in history as Society of

Jesus. The purpose of this society was to promote the doctrine of Christianity and moral

values of Jesus. This society was recognized by Pope III (1534-1549) in 1540. When a

devotee of Jesus frequently called his Lord Jesus then he became Jesuit. (119) Francisco

Xavier was the first Jesuit father who arrived in India for the purpose of expansion of

Christianity in May 1542 and he selected Goa as the centre of his activities. A wave of

happiness spread in the colonies of Goa because with the arrival of Jesuit father, the

preaching activities were started with a new zeal. With the passage of time the church of

Goa became the most important centre of Christianity and progressed to Archbishopric in

1577. (120) Akbar held religious debates in his court and invited Jesuit fathers to take part

in religious debates. By this way the Christianity reached first time to northern India in

the reign of Akbar and succeeded in establishing relations with his successors. Although

the Babur founded Mughal Empire but his life did not give him a chance for the

expansion of his empire and he fought a series of war after getting the throne of Delhi

against his Muslim and Hindu rivals. (121) Humayun became the emperor of India after

the death of his father. He got some information about the Portuguese while attacking in

the territories of Gujarat and Bengal. (122) Akbar became the emperor of India after the

death of Humayun. He succeeded in developing relations with non Muslim communities

including Christians. He invited them for religious discussions. These discussions were

conducted in Ebadat Khana but when the number of participants was extended, these

discussions were shifted into a private hall that was existed in the boundaries of imperial

fort. (123) In the reign of Akbar Gujarat and Bengal were taken into Mughal Empire and

then political relations were developed with Portuguese. The two Christian missionaries

Antonio Vas and Pedro Dias reached in Bengal in 1576 for trade and missionary

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activities. At the coast some officers demanded some bribe from the said missionaries

while promising to give them some concession in taxes but the missionaries refused to

accept this offer and paid full dues. When Akbar was informed about the purity of faith of

these missionaries it impressed the mind of Akbar a lot. (124) Pietro Tavares was a

Portuguese officer who was taken in imperial service in 1577, Akbar asked him some

questions about Christianity but he had little information about the Christian doctrine. In

this meeting Tavares told him that Francis Julian Pereira (Vicar-General stationed at

Stagaon in Bengal territory) could give the complete information about the true faith.

Pereira was also unable to satisfy the emperor but he gives information about the learned

Jesuit fathers of Goa. It is said that a Portuguese general Antonio Cabral also arrived in

Fatah Pur Sikri in 1578 for peace dialogue. While discussing on political issues the

Emperor was informed about the holy missionaries of Goa from the said general. (125)

The writer of the book “Akbar and Jesuits” says that the Portuguese officer was Pierre

Taueroand. But he acknowledged that he could not trace out the name of priest who

reached in March 1578 to imperial court. (126) Some other sources like father Antonio

Monserrate and Vincent A. Smith explained that Portuguese officer was Pietro Tavares

and the priest was Francis Julian Pereira. (127)

The Arrival of First Christian Mission to Mughal Court:

Akbar wanted to see Christian fathers so in 1579 the Emperor sent Abdullah

Khan (died in 1589) and Dominic Peres, an Armenian Christian to Goa to invite the

Christian missionaries to his court. This embassy reached to the viceroy of Goa Luis de

Athaida bearing a letter for the elders of Church. When the Christians of Goa heard about

the embassy and invitation for fathers from the Mughal Emperor, feelings of happiness

could be seen everywhere of Goa because this invitation for fathers bearing the hope of

conversion of a powerful monarch which would be ultimately the reason of conversion of

subjects. Then under the direction of the Archbishop of Goa, a mission was prepared.

There were three members of this mission of Jesuit fathers named Ridolfo Aquaviva,

Antonio de Monserrate and Father Enrichez (or Henriquez). It is said that the third father

secretly returned to Goa in 1581. Father Aquaviiva also came back to Goa in 1583. The

Father Antonio Monserrate retired to Goa in 1582. (128) The Jesuit fathers left Goa on

November 17, 1579 and warmly welcomed in the capital on February 28, 1580. Then a

meeting was arranged between the Jesuit fathers and the Emperor. The members of the

mission presented the emperor an Atlas that was sent from the Arch Bishop of Goa. On

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this occasion the Emperor gave them eight hundred pieces of Gold but missionaries did

not accept them. The missionaries gave the Emperor the seven volumes of Holy Bible

which was compiled in 4 languages and was written in 1567-72 for the ruler of Spain

Philip II. On this occasion the Emperor not only put each volume on his head but also

kissed them. Fathers also showed the Emperor a Latin translated Quran. The emperor and

the courtiers were very impressed while seeing it. The missionaries also presented the

pictures of Jesus and Mary virgin. A meeting was arranged between Jesuit fathers and

father F. J Pereira, who was still in the capital. On the request of fathers then a small

church was built in the premises of palace. Father Monserrate was appointed as a tutor of

prince Murad who taught the prince the Portuguese language and Christian values, the

prince was then ten years old. The prince not only paid reverence to Jesus and Mary but

also made the Cross on his forehead, face and breast while starting a new lesson. The

prince and the children of the courtiers also paid reverence to Jesus picture. On the death

of any Portuguese in the capital city, the funeral of the deceased was leaded by the

Christian missionaries. (129) Then several debate sessions were held in the royal court

under the patronage of Akbar in which the Jesuit missionaries tried to explain the

philosophy of Christianity with complete freedom. These missionaries also discussed

about the Islam with Muslim scholars. While debating on different topics the Christian

missionaries and Muslim theologians lost their patience and the former group demanded

to the king to prepare a fire ordeal to see the truth of the two faiths. It was suggested that

the Muslim should enter into the fire while holding their religious book and the Christians

should enter while holding their book. The book that would come out from the fire

without any harm would be declared the true but the missionaries did not accept it while

saying that instead of entering into fire they would prove their doctrine with their strong

arguments. (130) The religious ceremonies also celebrated under the royal patronage.

Some Portuguese congratulated the Emperor on the occasion of Easter Saturday while

adopting the Christian custom of congratulating. These Portuguese still under the royal

service that came with Tavares and the emperor provided residential facilities inside the

royal palace. The king invited them for dinner next day. The Emperor visited the small

church which was existed inside the palace and stayed there for a while. The next week

the Emperor reached to see the church with his courtiers and entered into the building

while removing the shoes. The Emperor gave the permission to the Christians to build

their Churches. Father Monserrate said that on the occasion of Easter festival Akbar

privately said that he would convert to Christianity at Goa while traveling to Makkah

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under pretence of pilgrimage. (131) But this claim was rejected by Sri Ram Sharma in his

book ‘Religious Policy of Mughal Emperors’. (132) All the claims were rejected by

mostly historians. He never converted to Christianity and remained loyal to Islam. During

the debates he supported the Muslim doctors whenever they unable to defend Islamic

Faith in the presence of Jesuit fathers. These types of debates were stopped in 1582 and

then missionaries decided to return. (133)

The Second Christian Mission in Lahore (1591-1592):

The first Jesuit mission was returned to Goa without any success in spring

1583 and then there was no contact between the Christians of Goa and the Mughal

Emperor. This contact was revived in 1590 when a Greek Christian Leo Grimon arrived

in royal court and put an impact on the court by his strong arguments over Christianity.

This Christian noble also became a bridge between Goa and Lahore and encouraged the

Emperor to revive the religious relations with Christians. Then second time the emperor

dispatched Leon Grimon ambassador to Goa to invite again the Jesuit missionaries to his

court. (134) On this occasion a letter was sent to the viceroy of Goa along with some gifts

for the Christian community of Goa. While entertaining this invitation two Jesuit fathers

Edward Leioton (Leitanus) and Christopher de Vega were sent to the royal court along

with an assistant. This second mission was reached in the royal court of Lahore in May

1591 and received with warm feelings. The members were accommodated in the royal

palace. This time a missionary school was established under the patronage of the Emperor

and the Emperor sent his grandson and the children of courtiers for Portuguese language.

(135) But hardly Father began their work, then political difficulties aroused in Mughal

Kingdom. Although the members of Jesuit mission tried to convert the attention of the

Emperor towards discussion but the bad political situation did not allow the Emperor to

hold debates. During this stay there was no chance of conversion of the Emperor. So the

Jesuit fathers returned to Goa in 1592, this sudden return of mission disappointed the

Catholic Church. The Jesuit fathers had claimed about the conversion of emperor but it is

not true and a tried was made to create confusion about his faith. No doubt the Akbar took

interest in religious debates but just for knowledge. His life style was impressed by these

debates. The Emperor not only showed a keen interest in Christian doctrine but also

requested the fathers to transfer the foreign languages to his children. (136)

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Third Jesuit Mission in Royal Court:

The third and last Jesuit mission who was consisting of three members reached

in the court of Lahore in 1595 under the invitation of the Emperor. This mission

succeeded in establishing durable religious relations with Mughal court and these

relations can be seen during the reigns of Akbar successors. Jerome Xavier was the in

charge of this third mission who remained for next twenty three years in the court. He

succeeded in developing relations also with Jahangir. Xavier was the Spanish Christian

who born in 1549 and his complete name was Jeronimo de Ezpeletay Goni (1549-1617).

He was the great nephew of Francisco Xavier reached in Subcontinent in 1581. He

became the member of Society on May 7, 1568 and was selected the religious head of

Cochin and then reached at Goa in 1592 and the elders of Goa appointed him the in

charge of third Jesuit mission. He was then 40 years old. Emmanuel Pinheiro was the

second member of the mission who born in 1556. This member was respected in the court

by Akbar. Brother Benedict de Goes was the third member of this mission born in 1562

and died in 1607. (137) Father Pinhiero was succeeded in converting a lot of people to

true faith in Lahore. Benedict de Goes served the Christianity for eight years in Mughal

court then he went Tibet under the command of his elders in January 1603. The Christian

missionaries started to move from Goa on December 3, 1594 and arrived in the capital

city on May 1, 1595. On reaching capital city they were warmly welcomed by the

Emperor. On this occasion the missionaries presented the images of Lord and Maryam.

The images were very heavy but the Emperor kept them in his hands for a while. On the

occasion of the Assumption Virgin festival which was celebrated on August 15 the

Emperor sent some material for the decoration of chapel. (138) Missionaries founded a

school where not only three sons of Emperor were used to study but also the kids of

nobles were study from the missionaries. This Jesuit mission succeeded in converting

Christian literature into Persian language and started to celebrate the religious ceremonies

to convert the attention of the people towards Christianity. Xavier wrote under the name

of “Mirror of Holiness” or the life of Massiah in Portuguese language. This work was

converted to Persian language by Xavier and a Muslim scholar. This writing was

presented to the Emperor in 1602. Aziz koka read it over to the Emperor. (139)

Expansion of Christianity in India:

In 1597 the Christian missionaries succeeded in converting several local

persons to Christianity in Lahore when the northern India was hit by a great famine and

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Jesuit Fatherto baptized several children whose parents left them in streets to die.

Kashmir was also hit by famine and the missionaries converted several infants to

Christianity. Xavier and Benedict were both along with the Emperor in Kashmir. The

Emperor went to Kashmir in November 1597 and stayed 6 months there. In 1599 thirty

eight men converted to Christianity in Lahore and in 1600 nearly 114 persons were

converted to Christianity. But in 1604 no conversion was reported. These converted

persons were belonged to poor class. This information was shared by the Italian traveler

Gian Bettist who visited the city of Agra in 1604. (140) The information of conversion

had been shared in the letters written by Christian missionaries from the capital cities of

Mughal Empire to the church of Goa and it can be assumed that a lot of conversions

could not be mentioned. These hidden converters can be seen in the efforts of converted

people who usually tried to encourage their close relations ftowards Christianity.

Celebration of Religious Festivals in Capital Cities:

Pinhiero remained in Lahore after the departure of Akbar for Kashmir and

served the faith in the city while constructing a church. In December 1597 the

missionaries celebrated Christmas with rejoicing which became the reason to attract the

thousands of the people of Lahore including Muslims. In 1598 Christian Crib was

displayed at Lahore for twenty days. This display also attracted thousands of people who

came to visit it. The missionaries marched through the streets of Lahore with the local

newly converted people on Easter morning while beating drums and singing religious

songs with load voices. On this occasion the missionaries were wearing their surplices.

Then after making the round of the city the missionaries retuned to church with their

followers. (141) Father Corsi arrived in the capital in January 1601 from Goa and a

picture of Mary was presented to the Emperor who accepted with great reverence. The

Emperor also raised many questions about the religious authority of pope and expressed

his interest about the ceremony of kissing the foot of His Holiness. The father Corsi gave

him information about this in detail. In April 1601 Xavier and Pinheiro reached to Agra

along with the emperor. (142) It can be said that the father Corsi brought two pictures of

Mary one was given to the Emperor as mentioned above lines and second picture was

given to the Jesuit fathers. To see this beautiful portrait several Hindu and Muslim

persons of Lahore came to the church. The historian estimated that thousands of the

people came to see this picture in different days. (143) Khaja Sultan Hamid and Benedict

were sent as ambassadors to Goa in the same year. While staying for a short time they

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returned with father Machado to Agra who took the place of Goes in May 1601 and the

father Goes went to Tibet. Pinheiro succeeded in getting permission to convert the willing

persons to Christianity. Jahangir also paid reverence to Christianity and the image of

Virgin Mary in 1602 and he gave to Xavier an auspicious dress. Jahangir also sent a

beautiful portrait of Jesus to the Church while showing his interest towards Christianity.

The prince had a locket round his neck bearing pictures of Jesus and Mary. He gave funds

to the missionaries for the construction of a church in Agra. (144)

Akbar’s Faith While Embracing Death:

The Emperor was fell ill in September 1605 and next month on 25 or 26

October he lost his life. During this situation the Jesuit fathers tried to meet the king but

were not allowed to meet him. None of the courtiers informed the Emperor about the

desire of Jesuit fathers. Historians tried to prove that Akbar was a Christian while

embracing the death but they are unable to provide any evidence. Some historians say that

he was a gentile. Du Jerric says that he died as he lived and did not reveal about his faith

while embracing death. Several historians say that Akbar repeated Muslim Confession of

faith in a load and clear voice after a Muslim doctor. Jesuit Xavier stayed a long time in

the court and he had better chance to understand the personality of Emperor. Xavier says

that Akbar converted to Hinduism while embracing death and he was neither a Christian

nor a Muslim. (145) He developed relations with different communities but he never

converted to them and died as a Muslim.

Christian Missionaries in the Court of Jahangir:

Jerome Xavier spent a long time in the Mughal court and wrote several letters

to the church of Goa. The historians preserved 24 such letters in which eleven were

written from Lahore and others were written from Agra. Twenty two letters were written

from September 1608 to September 1611 but two letters were written in later years. These

letters are the principal source of information about the political situation and the

development of Christianity in Mughal Empire. Father Pinheiro and Francis Corsi were

residing at Lahore when the Emperor embraced the death and other two missionaries

Xavier and Anthony Machado were serving the Christianity at Agra. After the death of

Akbar his son Jahangir became his successor and was raised to the throne on the eighth

day of his father’s death. The new Emperor had good relations with Christian

missionaries during the life time of his father and the prince gave them a lot of support.

On the ground of these relations the Christian missionaries assumed that the king would

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convert to Christianity while becoming the Emperor. But the new Emperor determined to

revive Islamic law and adopted name of Nooruddin Muhammad Jahangir. (146) During

the stay at Mughal Court the Father Xavier converted several books of Christian faith into

Persian language. In 1607 the Christian missionaries presented two copies of translated

Gospel to the Emperor, one copy was in Arabic and other was in Persian language. The

Emperor showed great reverence while accepting these copies. One of Jahangir courtiers

Abdus Sattar Ibn-Qasim Lahori helped the father Xavier While converting these Gospils

into Arabic and Persian. The emperor Jahangir had mentioned twice about Abdus Sattar

in his writings. The Emperor Jahangir described about this Muslim scholar in August

1617 and then some lines were written by Jahangir about him in March 1619. Abdus

Sattar supported to Xavier while translating Bible and stories of saints into Persian

language. The outstanding work of Sattar is considered Majalis-i-Jahangir which was

completed under the patronage of Jahangir. This work describes the detail of discussions

which were held in the court of Jahangir between Muslim theologians and Jesuit fathers.

This work also mentions about the work of Mutribi Samarqandi which also has shared

information about the religious discussion in Mughal court in 1620. (147) The Father

Xavier had shared information in his letter which was written in September 1608 while

describing that the Emperor had a huge library which was mostly consist of Christian

books in European, Persian and Arabic languages. Like his father Jahangir invited the

theologians of different faith In Agra where religious discussions were held in the private

Majalis of Jahangir and the emperor expressed always a good attitude while participating

in these debates. (148) The Christian sources had claimed about the complete victory over

the Muslim theologians but Abdus Sattar rejected this claim while saying that these

debates reached at its end with the Jesuit full retreat. One day Xavier was summoned to

the court In April 1611 and while giving wax candle with his own hand for church the

Emperor told the Xavier that he had a dream in which he saw three persons and everyone

was holding a candle in his hand. The father told the Emperor while interpreting the

dream that three candles in the hands of three persons show three concepts of God and he

shared the detail information about Trinity. Then a debate was held over this topic. (149)

The Emperor Jahangir not only gave full freedom the Christian missionaries but also gave

full patronage to Christian community which was dwelling in Lahore and Agra. He gave

reasonable pension to Jesuit father and provided funds for church needs. In his reign the

Jesuit father freely celebrated Easter, Christmas, Cross procession and other ceremonies.

They celebrated these festivals with religious zeal while moving through the streets. On

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such occasions the missionaries usually wear surplices dresses whilst the local converters

wore festal dresses. While moving through the streets the participants used to hold

candles in their hands and used to sing load voices and after making a circuit of the city

and then return to church. On the occasion of Christmas of 1607 the padris adorned the

church with colorful lights. Although the Emperor did not go to the church but sent wax

candles for the church. (150) It is said that under the decree of Jahangir in 1610 three of

his nephews were baptized but in 1613 they again converted to Islam. (151) Actually the

Emperor wanted to deprive them from their political claim and being Christians they

would not able to claim for throne. The fathers often used to go to mosques on Friday and

where they held debates with Muslim doctors on the teaching and life of Christ. In the

early potion of discussion the Muslim doctors listen patiently the message of Jesuit

Fathers but situation had been changed when the Fathers began to use cheep words for

Islam. Sometimes the Muslim theologian lost their all patience while refusing even to

listen. (152) The Christian missionaries were living in the Mughal Empire with all sort of

respect. Whenever they moved in public places they were respected there. Not only the

nobles respected them but also respected by the children. Whenever Xavier went to

bazaar on his way the little children used to say ‘padriji Salam’. (153) William Hawkins

also tells that there was a great influence of Jesuit fathers on the emperor. Under this

influence Portuguese had claimed that the emperor would not take any step against the

Portuguese. The Emperor forced to change his policy in 1614 when he received the

reports of the destruction of a Muslim ship by the Portuguese captain Luis Brito De Melo

which was coming from Red Sea. While closing the churches of Lahore and Agra he also

stopped the financial support to them. This situation disheartens Jerome Xavier and he

retired to Goa in 1614. Xavier was then raised to the rank of Archbishop of Granganor

where he died in 1617. (154) It is reported that in later years of Jahangir reign the Jesuit

fathers also dwelling in Mughal Empire. It is said that Father Antony de Andrade traveled

to Tibet in 1624 through Badrinath and reached in Tsaparang which was situated in the

upper Sutluj valley and succeeded in converting a Hindu raja family to true faith. Seeing

this success a second mission was also sent there which stayed there for some years and

not only built a church but also succeeded in making a little Christian community there.

(155) It is right to say that the Jesuit fathers were deprived from the royal patronage but

they remained in Mughal Empire in the later decades after the death of Jahangir. In the

later periods they were not allowed to construct new churches in Mughal Empire. They

were stopped to convert the people to Christianity and also issued a decree while stopping

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them to celebrate of church festivals. They were said to celebrate the religious festivals in

church premises or in their own residential settlements. It is also reported that in later

periods they were allowed to built small churches but without bell towers after getting

permission from Mughal court.

Christian Missionaries in Shah Jahan Period:

Shah Jahan (1627-1681) ignored the way of his predecessors while adopting a

rigid religious policy. Not only were the Jesuit fathers deprived from the royal patronage

but also deprived the Christian community from the basic rights. There is some confusion

why Shah Jahan was forced to adopt a rigid attitude in the case of Christianity. In spite of

this non-tolerant policy to Christians the Hindus were enjoying the fruits of tolerance and

patronage from Shah Jahan court. The historians have claimed that the attack on Hugli

was made under the rigid policy. But it is also said that behind the attack on Hugli some

political differences were working. The detail information has been shared in the famous

book of Niccolao Manucci which was written under the title of STORIA DO MOGOR (or

Mughal India) during seventeenth century in Italian language and this book was later

converted into English language by William Irvine. The author of this book describes the

religious policy of Shah Jahan in these words: “During the rebellion of prince Khurram

against his father, he passed near to Hugli, in the territory of Bengal, a village that king

Jahangir had given to the Portuguese in order that they might frequent the said port. Some

Portuguese sailed forth and seized two beloved slave girls of the princess Taj Mahal. This

lady sent word to them that it would be better for them to help a prince while seeking a

refuge in flight than to attempt to rob him. Therefore she urgently prayed to send her the

two slave girls. But the Portuguese paid no heed to her request”. (156) Under such reason

the emperor dispatched an army against the Portuguese of Hugli in September 1632 and

the Mughal army not only destroyed Hugli but also killed thousands of Christians and

arrested the rest of inhabitants including Jesuit fathers. Then the arrested persons were

brought to Agra where they were tortured and were forced to convert to Islam but the

Jesuit fathers firmly stood on their faith. With the interference of court they got their

freedom after paying ransom. After getting freedom they started to live in Agra where

Manucci met some of their offshoots. (157) Francois Bernier says that Shah Jahan

stopped their pension and demolished the church of Lahore while destroying the bell

tower of the church which bearing a clock whose voice could be heard in every part of

city. (158) He allowed construction of churches in last portion of his reign but without

113

bell tower. (159) It is said that Shah Jahan also showed some interest in religious

discussion. Manucci says that Christian theologian Dom Mathews arrived from Goa in

the court of Shah Jahan. The Christian learned man asked a question in the presence of

Emperor that a person visited the two persons in the outside of his country one of them

was sleeping and other was awaking. From whom would he ask the way? Through this

question he wanted to prove the superiority of Jesus while saying that Jesus is awaking

and Muhammad is sleeping. Abdullah khan replied that necessity of wait can be seen in

this point that the personality who is awaking also waiting for the awake of sleeping

personality to ask the way. The argument of Abdullah Khan forced the Christian religious

person to retire from the court. (160) Dara Shikuh also developed religious relations with

the Christian missionaries and hold several discussion sessions on religious topics. The

Christian missionaries were enjoying high status in the court of Dara. The history

preserved three names of them. They were Pedro Juzarti, Estanilas Malpica and

Henriques Buzeo. The first was a Portuguese, the second was a Nepolian and the last was

a Flamaned. Dara had great affiliation with Buzeo and gave him a lot of gifts and money

whenever the padri reached in the court of Dara. The prince Dara also invited him in his

private meetings and enjoyed the drink even in the presence of this father. It is said that

he always wanted to talk with religious persons. He was informed at Tattah about a

Flemish priest Frei Petro de Santa Terza (Teresa) then Dara summoned the monk in his

camp. This priest could converse in Arabic, Persian and Indian languages. Dara asked

about the doctrine of Christian faith and said that after getting the throne he would not

only allowed the construction of churches in his empire but also would give the

permission to the Christian monks to preach the philosophy of Gospel with all permission

from Mughal Empire. (161)

Christian Missionaries in the Reign of Aurangzeb:

Aurangzeb adopted a harsh religious policy while following the footsteps of

his father. It is said that the Jesuit fathers were dwelling in his empire and he never tried

to convert any Christian towards Islam. He gave permission to worship according to their

faith and never tried to disturbed them for this purpose. He banned the Christian

missionaries to convert the Muslims towards Christianity. In spite of these clear

instructions the Missionaries continued the conversion of the locals towards Christianity.

In the opinion of Aurangzeb the Christian religious images and pictures of Jesus, Virgin

Mary and other Christian saints were came under the category of idols and he banned the

114

Christians to keep them in their houses and churches. They were allowed to display of

Cross in their worship buildings. Manucci says that there were several Jesuit fathers who

were flourishing in the capital cities of Mughal Empire in the reign of Aurangzeb like

Henriques Roth and others. Father Nenriques had friendly relations with Manucci who

was in Agra and was running a mission college in the city. He said to stay permanently in

Agra to Manucci in 1667 and there was no need to go to other city. Mannuci remained in

Mughal Empire nearly fifty years. Mannuci travelled mostly from north to west of India

and joined the services of Aurangzeb, Dara Sikuh, Shah Alam and some court nobles.

Shah Alam had great affection for Manucci. He started his carrier as a captain of artillery

but in later period while changing his profession he became a physician and then

succeeded in reaching in the court of Shah Alam court. Mannuchi also travelled to Hugli

where he developed relations with Jesuit fathers and met a Jesuit Father Frey Irao

Bautista. Jesuit fathers came to meet Manucci while telling their problems that they had a

tiny church made by straws. They told that there was a need of a stone church but the

governor was not giving the permission for construction. They told the Mannuci that also

tried to present a handsome amount but the governor did not accept this amount. The

governor was Mirza Gul who attached with the court of Shah Shuja. This noble took part

in Khajwah war against Aurangzeb. He came and attached with Aurangzeb service. A

Mughal noble Mir Jumla appointed him Hugli governor. While banning on the

construction of the church he stop the laborers to work in such an edifice. In the case of

violation the violator had to bear the loss of a hand. Mannuci requested the governor for

the construction of stone church which was entertained. (162) Jafar khan was a Mughal

noble who was the well wisher of Christians. He provided help on many occasion in the

court not only in official maters but also in private matters. On the death of Father Buzeo

which was happened on June 20, 1668 the said noble supported the Christians in his

funeral ceremony. The said father was a learned man of the age and his death was a great

loss for the Christian community of Agra. Aurangzeb also impressed by this personality

and wanted to see him while going to Kashmir, his death was a great loss for Christian

community of Agra. Jafar khan was very disturbed due to the sudden death of the said

priest who was also his close friend. (163) Manucci says that the Christians lost their

influence due to the death of Buseo. Some padris were deported from the kingdom. The

Mughal administration said that these padris had idols in their houses and churches and

this way violating the imperial orders. This violation could not bear by the Muslim rulers

and then an investigation team entered in the buildings of Christians but the fathers were

115

already informed. The imperial officers could not find anything. (164) One of the qazis of

court said that the only purpose of staying the Christians in India buying the Quran and

then transmitting them to Europe. There was no purpose of their staying in India. He said

that the Christians celebrated a festival in which the Christians burnt Muhammad images

(NaozuBillah). It is necessary to burn fathers alive in the revenge. (165) There were

several differences among Muslims and Christians in their religious beliefs. Thanjar was

a principal centre of Christianity in Southern India where a Hindu ruler had maintained

his authority. In those days Thanjar was a tributary state under Aurangzeb reign. The

Hindu ruler attacked on the colonies of Christians and arrested a lot of Christians

including Jesuit Fathers like Joseph Carvalho and father Bertholdi and Jean Venant

Bouchet. This was against Mughal religious policy so the Mughal general Da’ud Khan

was forced to take action for this persecution. He not only rehabilitated the Christian

community but also succeeded in recovering of the two priests. (166) The Jesuit fathers

were living in the Mughal during 18th century but they lost their influence. Moreover the

decline of Portuguese power also became the cause of Jesuit retreat. (167) In the year of

1759 the differences had been appeared between Portuguese and Society of Jesus. Then

the Portuguese not only collapsed the Society but also forced them to disperse in different

directions. In France the Society also had to face the same attitude in 1764 and this way

Indian Jesuits were deprived from monks and state patronage. In 1784 Sultan Tipu forced

the 30,000 Christians of Karana to go towards above Ghats. Gregory XVI successfully

revived the Society in 1814 and dispatched their missions in different directions of world.

In spite of hampering in Europe the Portuguese demanded to revive Arch bishop of Goa

and then they tried to revive other religious grades. Some opposition also reported from

side of pop. (168) As Portuguese were stopped to continue the preaching activities in

1759 in their old preaching centers then they started intrusting to Carmelites of Bombay

and to Capuchin who revived them in Patna and provided support to the church of Agra.

It is said that during 18th century several Christians were dwelling in different provinces

of India. (169)

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Chapter No.3

Trade and Economic Relations

Indigenous Trade:

Not only had the Muslims developed religious relations with non Muslim

communities in India during Mughal period but also developed good relationship in the

field of commerce and trade. The history tells that the people of Arabia and Hindustan

had trade relations from ancient times and these relations continued after the advent of

Islam. Today a big portion of world population lives in India. In the same way as the

historians told that India was the fertile and populated country in Mughal period. It is said

that in sixteenth century the population of India was reached from 125 to 150 million and

then in seventeen century the population was extended to 180 million. To fulfill the

different types of needs to this huge population, it was necessary to develop trade

relations among different communities to develop prosperity of common people and state

revenue as well. Thanks to Mughal rulers who not only took personal interest in the

progress of local trade but also invited different nations to come to India for trade. It was

the result of their generous policies that Muslim and non Muslim communities in India

had enjoyed a prosperous life during their rising period. To understand trade and

commerce relations among Muslim and non-Muslim communities in the Mughal period

one should keep in mind that India was a prosperous state in Mughal period where

different communities were dwelling like Hindus, Jainas, Christians, Muslims and

Zoroastrians as major components of society. The Mughal rulers developed relations in

different fields with non Muslim communities. Consequently trade relations also

developed among Muslim and non Muslim communities. (1) Now the attention is being

converted to the point, what was the system of trade and commerce in India? Irfan Habib

says, “The land tax announced for the larger portion of the surplus in India, and in most

areas taxes were collected in money. This alone generated extensive trade in agricultural

produce. The ruling classes were largely town-based, and an urban economy flourished,

with craft production for both local and distant markets. India was undoubtedly the

greatest cotton-textile producer of the world, and the finer qualities of cotton cloth

sustained brisk long-distance commerce. The country exported calicoes, indigo, pepper,

silk, and numerous other commodities over sea and over land, in return for which it

absorbed large quantities of silver. The coinage of the Mughal Empire, issued from

numerous mints all over India, was of wonderful fineness and uniformity. These facts

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should be sufficient to persuade us of the importance of studying how commerce in India

was conducted just at the time that the merchant empires of Western Europe had begun

their progress toward a worldwide hegemony. The present effort focuses on the

merchants and selects two major mercantile communities, the Banjaras (long-distance

transporters) and Bunyas (village and town merchants), for description………We may

assume as a universal fact that as an agrarian society develops, interregional exchanges in

certain agricultural products begin, and on this basis and, still more, on the basis of

extraction of surplus from the countryside, an urban economy at last emerges. Commerce

then assumes a number of varied forms depending upon the mature and scale of the

exchanges between various communities and regions. Corresponding to such varied

forms, there can be levels of organization, and so a hierarchy of mercantile communities,

from the seemingly barbarous or nomadic to the patrician or aristocratic. At the lowest

levels we come across communities that one would have readily assigned to a very

primitive social stage until one realizes that the functions they performed could only have

come about when social development had left prehistoric condition far behind.” (2)

Rural Markets in Mughal India:

The major portion of population of India in Mughal period lived in villages

and rural areas. The rural population involved in the activities of production to fulfill their

needs or they got their necessities through reciprocal way which considered a small

proportion of economic activity. But this network of exchanging goods was found

everywhere in rural life. A village market was the good example for intra-local trade in

which food items like rice, flour, butter, oil, milk, vegetables, sugar and sweetmeats were

easily available. Cows and sheep were brought to sale in those villages where Muslim

officers were appointed. But the meat was not available in those villages which were

under the control of non Muslim officers. The Indians did not take interest in prior

arrangements for food supply while travelling in the country from one corner to another.

They could purchase their necessary food items from village markets which were existed

everywhere. Tavernier describes that he saw 4000 pilgrimages who were travelling

without advance arrangement of food because food items easily available everywhere. (3)

As the Mughal rulers established their authority in different territories and maintained the

administration system, consequently the revenue demand was extended to maintain the

state affairs, which became the reason of circulation of money and goods. Monetization

promotes the growth of market and direct producers and merchants played an important

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role in the whole system. The day to day needs and pressure of revenue payment to

Mughal rulers forced the direct producers to sell their surplus, the real surplus brought by

merchants and taken to towns. The rural markets importance cannot be ignored. (4)

Grover has described about the rural trading networks of northern India during

seventeenth and eighteenth centuries. He describes about weekly local village markets,

fortnight markets and religious markets where people of different towns gathered to sell

or barter their productions. Sudipa Sen says that in northern India and in Bengal Muslim

and non Muslim jagirdars also used to establish markets and bazaars while arranging fairs

in their controlling jagirs to maintain their authority and enhancement of trade. Tapan

Raychaudhuri says that during Mughal period in Bengal jagirdars established haats

(market) for periodic exchanges. These markets were opened once or twice in a week.

Although these arguments are very strong but could not focus the importance of local

village markets which were opened for the purpose of revenue collection. But in Bengal

and other places the situation was different where the Hindu and Muslim zamindars

enjoyed a status of autonomy in village affairs. It is very doubtful to say that the

zimindars at other places were solely working as collectors of revenue and had no other

purpose of establishing the markets. It can be assumed that in these markets, Muslims and

non Muslims were used to gather without discrimination of religion as sellers and buyers

to satisfy their needs. Raychaudhuri gives a new shape to all discussion while saying that

everyone whether Muslim and non Muslim involved in exchange as producer or

consumer. Through these exchanges revenue demand from Mughal officials could be

easily fulfilled. The production of cash crops supported this idea. Cash crops like cotton

and indigo were special productions of Mughal India which cultivated at one place of the

country, succeeded in reaching to all directions of the country through the channels of

horizontal and vertical exchanges and in these exchanging system artisans of different

regions played an important role. The ‘zebt’ system became the reason of enhancement of

cash crop productions. In the process of cultivation of cash crop and its excess to mandi

or market, everywhere money was used by all of Muslim and non Muslim persons to pay

revenue to state. In Mughal period the selling process of food items beyond the village

was increased not only to get money for the payment of revenue to the state but also the

cultivators involved themselves in selling and buying process to get their other needs as

well as profits. As the professionalization progressed in countryside areas in the result of

internal and external demands for rural productions, the importance of the rural areas

appeared and then intermediate economics succeeded in shaping monetized exchanges. It

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has been assumed that during Mughal period village markets appeared as the integral part

of rural society. Not only had these markets developed as mediated transactions among

villages and towns but also at the inter village level. There is no authentic statistic figure

to tell the number of such markets in Mughal India. However a rough estimate has been

made by Stephen Blake to count the number of such markets in northern India while

collecting names of villages and towns which were existed in three provinces Agra, Delhi

and Lahore during 1600 century. There were 1502 standard and 834 intermediate

marketing centers in the three providences. The former were considered periodically held

centers (haths) lying at the bottom of the marketing hierarchy and later were regular

markets serving as wider hinterland. Another historian named Irfan Habib also tried to

estimate the villages markets after selecting the period of 1700 century and then the

number of these centers were extended to 2865 and 854. Such markets needless to

mention were spread all over Mughal India. (5) The goods which were brought in urban

markets were not locally produced but mostly the products were brought from other

places for sale. The movement of goods from rural areas towards towns expressed self

sufficiency. But self sufficiency was not found everywhere. A village could not produce

everything for its consumption and so there was a limited movement of exchange in a

village. The necessary items were brought from other villages, in this distribution the

peddlers, the hats and the mandis played an important role. For example salt, spices and

metal ware available everywhere in village markets which were not produced locally but

brought from for off areas. (6) Periodic ‘haats’ were established by rajas and zimindars in

Bengal. There were selected days for opening these markets in a week. Rates of things

and the quality were different in these markets and mandis. According to Banarsidas that

each of Jaunpur’s fifty-two parganas had a bazaar and a mandi. Epigraphic evidence from

southern India shows the wide range of commodities like food grains, vegetables, fruit,

butter, salt, pepper, cotton, thread, fabrics and other items were brought for sale in such

bazaars. A long list of different items has been provided in the literature of Bengal about

the verities of fish, meat and dairy products, live animals, spices, oil, ghi, camphor, conch

shell and lime. Sometimes peasants also acted as merchant. In the Rajput principalities,

Marwari and Guajarati officers gathered revenue in kind and after selling it got cash. (7)

Urban Commercial Centers in Mughal India:

To understand this point there is a need to understand the system of

urbanization and manufacturing circuits. As the urbanization developed during Mughal

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period, the use of money was expended. The sudden development in the use of money

was the result of rapid flow of production from rural areas to urban areas. In this flow the

mediations of Muslim and non Muslim merchants and customers were also increased.

The urbanization in Mughal India was divided into four units, like administrative system,

commercial and manufacturing structure, pilgrimage centers and competition in different

manufacturing techniques. In Mughal period there were few manufacturing towns and

cities like Fatehpur Sikri, Gwalior, Lucknow, Alwar, Panipat, Lahore, Surat, Ahmadabad,

Delhi and Agra where according to Mannuchi and Bernier were settled prosperous

communities like Christians, Janis, Muslims, Hindus and Zoroastrians. It can be assumed

that they fulfilled their needs through commercial activities. Raychaudhuri and Irfan

Habid have provided an account of establishment of karkhanas and patronization of art by

Mughal nobles. It can be assumed that production and manufactories of urban workers

were consumed by urban consumers. So it is easy to say that urbanization was divided

into two categories, commerce and manufacturing. A centre of commerce may not

necessarily be a centre of manufacturing. Stewart Gorden describes that Burahanpur was

an administrative and military centre, this city was also a commercial center but it was not

a manufacturing centre. The name of Bengal can be given, in this province Asian and

European merchant gathered for purchasing cloth to export, this purchase mostly

completed from urban markets and mandis. For this purpose the foreigners used agents or

intermediates that went from weaver to weaver and from haat to haat in the rural areas to

fulfill the demand. Dacca, Molda, Hughli, Radhanagar, Santipur and Judia were chiefly

commercial centers rather than manufacturing centers. It can be said that before the start

of English trade the villages system of Bengal textile production was mature but the

English company just promoted urbanization or specialization. Sugar was also the major

item of Bengal but was the production of rural areas. Allahabad produced cotton cloth for

Agra, Delhi and other places. It can be said that not only rural areas used to supply cereals

and pulses and raw cotton but also supplied manufacturing items to urban areas. (8)

Urban Markets in Mughal India

The local trading system of towns and cities was more complex and varied

than that of countryside. Tavernier said that the people of India constructed huge mandis

and bazaars while constructing a public edifice. This practice had provided several

bazaars and mandis in towns and cities. For example at Surat there was a market between

the custom house and the mint, where Muslims and non Muslims came to sell and

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purchase cloth and other things. Moreover there were specious streets along with the

shops and bazaars on each side. Outside the gates of Surat there was a big market where

horses and cattle were brought for sale. In the bazaars of Surat it was difficult to pass

through the bazaars because Bunyas and other merchants used to invite the passing by

persons while holding silk and Stuffs in their hands or placing on heads. In those days a

slave market also existed in Surat. Goa was also a famous city where everything was

available not only for daily needs but also luxurious goods. The foreign visitors also had

mentioned about the verity of imported and exported goods. The European writers also

appreciated about the shops and markets of Surat. (9) There were powerful and wealthy

merchants in Surat. Virji Vora was very rich merchant of Mughal period. Abdul-Ghafar

and Ahmad Chellaby of Surat, Mir Jumla of the Golconda kingdom, Malay Chetti, Kasi

Viranna and Sunca Rama Chetti of southern Caromandel were masterss of huge business

empires. They maintained monopoly over commodities and established several

commercial posts for inter regional trade. Some merchants had huge fleets of ships. (10)

In urban areas there was a sort of competition among artisans and manufacturers which

increased the quality in things. The weavers of Banaras usually sold their own products

which were famous in its design and quality. The Surat was an important city where the

people of all around the world came for business and trade. So from the surrounding

villages and rural areas productions were brought there by Muslim and non Muslim

weavers and cultivators to Surat. In urban markets not only a wide variety of foodstuff

was available easily but also other daily use necessities were available. (11) The modern

historians had divided the markets into four categories. The book ‘The Cambridge

Economies History of India’ describes following types of markets in these words: “(1)

The emporia for long-distance trade, inland over land or oversees; (2) small-scale bazaars

where goods were gathered from places within a short radius primarily for purposes of

local consumption and mandis or wholesale markets; (3) periodic fairs where specialized

traders met together to sell and replenish their stocks but consumers were not excluded;

(4) the truly isolated rural markets where the local surplus produce was exchanged among

the producers-cum-consumers. There are plentiful references in our sources to close and

continuous links between the first three types. The existence of the fourth type is hinted at

in contemporary literature, though there is some doubt if it was really distinguishable

from the periodic hat. The first category had several sub-types: the port towns geared

mainly to international trade, the great inland emporia, more sensitive to economic

watersheds and catchment areas and the smaller urban centers which collected goods

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from a specially limited hinterland to be redistributed through neighboring as well as

distant markets. The difference between the three sub-types was of scale rather than

economic function. The concept of ‘primary nodal markers’ has been applied to the major

commercial emporia which acted as ‘intermediates between producing commercial

emporia which acted as intermediaries between producing and consuming markets widely

scattered in space’ and their multilateral trade explained as ‘a secondary development of

their purely bilateral trade’. Perhaps the multilateral trade of India’s commercial emporia

is better explained with reference to geographical and political factors. Inland emporia

like Agra, Lahore or Burhanpur developed as such because they were at the cross-roads

of inter-regional trade or, as centers of administration, provided vast markets which

naturally attracted traders from different quarters. The ports towns developed similar

functions as entry points for the imported and coastal trade goods, and exit points for the

produce of inland territories. Every such emporium ‘included three types of market; a

purely local market serving the needs of the resident population, a wholesale spot market

which supplied both the retail trade, the bazaar, and inter-regional commerce, and finally,

the latter’s offshoot, a wholesale forward marker.” (12) Now a try is being made to draw

a sketch about cotton production and cotton textiles regions in Mughal India and their

indigenous and foreign trade.

Cotton Textiles in Mughal Period and its Selling in Different Countries:

Not only had the Muslim and non Muslim weavers and textile workers

succeeded in supplying the garments to the people of daily use but also for cloth which

was used sometimes in religious places and in religious festivals. Silk was considered

auspicious item used by only wealthy persons. As the competition developed in different

manufactures of different regions and communities, the cotton goods production

succeeded in fulfilling the country demand and after 1500 century the cotton

manufacturing was used to supply to the every direction of the world. The historical

evidences describe that cotton goods of Gujarat and Sind were consumed in Egypt, Iran,

West Asia, South East Asia, East Africa, China, Japan, Russia and Southern Europe from

eleventh century. In sixteenth and seventeenth centuries the Indian textiles reached at its

peak and West Africa, America and the European countries became fertile markets for

Indian cotton manufacturing. (13) Multan, Dinya pur, Malda, Murshidabad, Birbhum,

Dhaka, Gujarat and Deccan plateau became famous for cotton cultivation. The

manufacturing process like converting cotton into cloth, bleaching, dying, packing and

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printing the fabrics got economic importance in several regions. Gujarat, Coromandel and

Bengal become famous in cloth manufacturing; these regions had long coastal lines and

commercial ports which supported the traders of India and other countries in sending

cloths to huge markets through vast commercial routes of Indian Ocean. In sixteenth

century the cotton of Gujarat was sent to Europe through the Cape of Good Hope which

was very popular in the trading world of Atlantic Ocean. In the sixteenth and seventeenth

centuries the people of different nations like English, Dutch, Portuguese and other

Europeans mostly purchase cotton textiles from Gujarat or its adjoining regions. Gujarati

embowered textiles and Gujarati printed cloths got popularity throughout the world.

Coromandel was also famous for its painted cloths, which were prepared in adjoining

areas of Masulipatam and Pulicat. The people of Mughal India liked them much. Not only

had the Muslins of this coast used in India but also sent to the Persian Gulf and then

Europe. During the 18th century the blue cloths became famous in this region which were

dyed with indigo and had high demand in western Africa. Bengal was also important

centre for cloth printing and painting. Muslins and other cloths of Bengal also famous all

around the world and that was exported to China. Bengal and Bihar cloth was liked by

Mughal rulers. The embroidered cloths were so famous and important part of trade in

seventeenth century. The fine cloths of the region were elaborately furnished in a number

of ways. With the passage of time Surat became a central post for cloth import. During

the declining period of Mughal Empire the trade of Surat also disturbed. The trade of

Gujarat also suffered by this disability and then this trade divided into small centers. In

the same way Bengal and Coromandel ports also lost their trading importance. Bangalore

and Laudepettah were famous points for cotton textiles and cotton markets. Cotton and

yarn collected from long distances and then brought to these territories and they sold to

local manufacturers. Punjab also was a major cotton production centre in northern India;

its textile production was reached to the Indian Ocean through Sind and by Indus River.

Punjab had huge markets because it was located along caravan trade route, through this

route Punjab trade got access to Iran and Central Asia. During Sultanate and Mughal

period Delhi also got popularity in cotton production and consumption of cotton goods.

Hamida Naqvi had tried to assume that about thirty five different varieties of cotton cloth

that not only produced but also consumed in the reign between 1206 and 1555. In the

Mughal period the cotton production was developed to high scale and consumption was

also extended. Delhi continued to be a major centre for chintz manufacture. The painted

cloth of Delhi got popularity but inferior to the cloth of Masulipatam in the Coromandel

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Coast. Under Mughal rule Agra also had been included in list of major manufacturing

towns. Numerous other centers like Barilly, Farrukabad, Lucknow and Patna also

appeared as major manufacturing centers. According to Naqvi cotton manufacturing in

this region was growing steadily during the region of Akbar but its real boom began with

the turn of the 17th century. In Mughal period the people of different nations like Persians,

Armenians, Spanish, Portuguese, English and Dutch usually brought cloth form Agra and

through Surat dispersed it in different European countries. During eighteenth century a

big portion of the traders from Asia and Europe purchased cotton goods from Awadh and

exported them to Iran, Europe and south East Asia via Calcutta. But with the passage of

time some of manufactured cloth of northern India shifted into the hands of foreigners. In

the next century English and Dutch purchased substantial quantities of cloth from Agra

and its adjoining areas and exported them to Europe via Surat. The Asian traders and

Europeans also purchased cotton goods from Awadhi and exported them to Iran, Europe,

and South East Asia via Calcutta. Some of these goods may have made their way to Iran

via overland routes as well. (14) India was also producer of luxurious goods: “Prominent

in the luxury trade of the period were the products of Kashmir-her prodigious quantity of

shawls which gave occupation even to little children and served all the Indians the

celebrated crafts- palanquins, bedstead, trunks boxes etc, in use in every part of the Indies

and saffron exported to Agra and other ports.” (15)

Technology in Cotton Cloth Manufacturing:

The high experience and interest in manufacturing the cotton cloths had

converted the attention of the Muslim and non Muslim weavers of India to use developing

tools and better techniques in preparing of raw cotton and cotton cloths. In the early

portion of nineteenth century, the English traders tried to introduce American cotton gin

in the southern territories of India saying that the American machine was better from the

local machines for separating the seed from the cotton wool but the American gin was

inappropriate for the short-stapled Indian cotton verities. During the Mughal period a

reasonable improvement in the process of textile manufacturing was observed. The cotton

bowl was started to use in India during Sultanate and Mughal periods to clean raw cotton.

Irfan Habib says that this device was brought from west Asia by Muslims during eleventh

and twelfth centuries. Rapid changes were seen in cotton textiles after the arrival of

spinning weal in cotton industry and according to Irfan Habib the spinning wheel was

brought to India from Iran during thirteenth and fourteenth centuries. A lot of changes

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were made to develop spinning wheel by Muslim and non Muslim weavers in seventeenth

century. Several types of looms were developed in Mughal period. The final process in

the manufacture of cloth was finishing. The Indian weavers were expert in dying, printing

and painting the cotton cloths and they had a lot of knowledge and techniques for the

purpose. The technologies of spinning and weaving in the Indian subcontinent and

Europe were largely similar between the thirteenth and late eighteenth centuries. (16)

Several important manufacturing centers were very close from the cotton growing lands.

Moreover the traders performed a major role in connecting the cotton and yarn with

weavers. The traders had established a network for this purpose; they used to purchase the

raw cotton from the Muslim and non Muslim peasants and transported the purchased

cotton to the important and big cotton markets throughout the subcontinent. Moreover the

merchants also loaned to the Muslim and non Muslim peasants for growing of cotton.

(17) Weavers and cloth makers developed a strong community system in southern India.

The weavers of the same cast living major towns and cities of the south. They usually

liked to dwell in the particular colonies and settlements. A caste based community built

temples for their worship and even like to work collectively in particular places. As the

cotton textile demand extended in the eighteenth century, it gave high standard of living

to them. (18)

Cultivation of Tobacco and Opium:

The cultivation of tobacco started after the death of Akbar, the technique was

introduced by Portuguese in Mughal India. Tobacco first time was cultivated in Gujarat in

1613. Although an order was issued to stop the production and use of tobacco in 1617 by

Jahangir but in spite of this order the tobacco production and use could not stop. Mannuci

says that during the period of Aurangzeb by the tobacco cultivation some revenue was

reached to Delhi treasure. The increasing figure of revenue from this head, expressed that

the habit of tobacco smoking was increased. Opium was cultivated in Malawa and Bihar.

Liquor was mainly manufactured by Christians was banned for open sale by Akbar.

Jahangir used liquor but he issued an order to stop its manufacturing but failed to effect.

(19)

Industry and Craft:

Hindu and Muslim weavers, carpenters and artisans succeeded in making a

large quantity of commodities but to continue the process of production they had to get

loans from the Hindu middlemen who earned a lot of profit through this trade. Mughal

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noble mostly purchase these goods but through the middlemen and sometimes these

nobles preferred to purchase costly foreign commodities like novelties from foreign

traders. The government imposed heavy taxes over weavers and the workers of all

communities which deprived them from their capital. Akbar had tried to improve the

condition of Muslim and non Muslim workers by abolishing many taxes but the local

officers continued collecting such taxes under the cover of Emperor Orders. Under such

situation the workers of all communities forced to migrate from rural to urban areas. The

important crafts of Mughal period were woolen bed sheets, chests, stools, boxes, paper,

pottery, and bricks. In the same way curious boxes, trunks, pen-cases, carpets and other

manufactures were also procurable in Mughal dominions. Under the patronage of Akbar

silk textiles developed. Not only the increase of its demand happened but also its weaving

centers established in Lahore, Agra, Fatahpursikri and Gujarat. Shawl and carpet weaving

also developed under his patronage. Abul Fazl mentions about the experts in weaving

who settled in India to teach the people about new ways of carpet weaving. Akbar also

acquired knowledge of hole weaving trade from the people of different communities.

Under his orders the nobles started to wear locally woven covering which developed

shawl weaving in Lahore. To develop carpet industry the foreign experts were appointed

in carpet factories in Agra and soon local carpet industry succeeded in establishing. “One

of the most famous carpets woven in the imperial factory at Lahore was that presented to

the Girdlers’ company of London by their master, R. Bell’. Woolen goods woven in

Indian looms consisted chiefly of coarse blankets, which were all that general mass of

population could afford to purchase.” (20)

The Mineral Production in India:

There is no direct evidence but it has been assumed that in Mughal India few

minerals were locally produced and then distributed to other parts of country. Gwalior

had a self sufficient iron mine. After getting iron from these mines with the help of Hindu

workers weapons and other things were prepared in the royal factories and then

distributed to the principal cities of Mughal India. From Masulipatam to Bengal iron was

brought for making of weapons and other items, for the same purpose Malabar also

imported iron from Bhatkul. At Agra and Patna saltpeter was produced and then sent to

Bengal which was the principal emporium for its export trade. Golconda was famous for

its diamond mines. Hindus were mostly control the trade of diamond, the Muslim used to

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purchase the jewelry from these Hindu traders. The imported bullion was got from Surat,

Masulipatam and Bengal and then distributed to the other cities of Mughal India. (21)

Miscellaneous Items and Their Trade:

Pepper, ginger, cardamom and wild cinnamon became important trade items at

Malabar Coast. Bijapur and Carnayatid merchants got pepper at Cochin and Cananor.

Areca-nuts, cocoanuts and palm candy were carried by Chetti merchants from Malabar to

Coromandel. With the passage of time Portuguese traders got monopoly on the pepper

and opium trade, the influence of Portuguese was declined when Dutch established

monopoly over pepper and opium trade. Opium reached Bengal from Bihar and tobacco

from Masulipatam. This list of miscellaneous items of trade could be extended.

Rhinoceros horn of Ayodhya, Jasmine oil of Gwaliar and the perfumed pottery of Bihar

were very popular. Gang’s water also brought for the nobles of the court. In the same way

paper of Shahzad pur was also used in the court. Pink marble of Rajasthan was very

popular in whole Hindustan and often used in the royal buildings. (22) Now the

discussion is being made toward the trading communities of Mughal India who played an

important role in developing trade relations among Muslims and non Muslims. Bunya

was reputed among these castes. Mughal rulers had good relations with trading castes and

some princes had friendly relations with Bunyas.

Bunyas as Reputed Trading Class:

Although the Mughal India was an agricultural empire but its merchants

played an important role in inland trade, maritime trade and foreign trade. Irfan Habib

says that the imperial officers usually collected revenue in cash from the Muslim and non

Muslim agriculture producers and artisans. This demand created a pressure in production

areas and ultimately the producers were forced to sell their surplus in hats, mandis or

markets which were controlled by Jain and Hindu merchants, who were called Bunyas by

caste. Not only had these Bunyas played an important role in village and town trade but

also in coastal trade. Bunyas were divided into many sub-castes, developed under the

name of places, villages and settlements. A sense of solidarity was found in Bunyas who

always ready to help to the member of their own caste. They did not like to develop

business relations with other sub-castes or the people of other faith. Bunya before the

arrival of English company was a large mercantile class. Even Kabir (1500) addressed

Bunyas in these worlds: “My lord is a Bunya, He conducts, His commerce righteously,

without scales and balances. He weights the entire universe”. Abul fazal also mentioned

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this caste in such worlds. “One cast of the Bais (Vaishyas) which is designated Banik, is

called bunya in ordinary usages and Baqqal in Arabic. It is divided into 84 sub casts.”

(23) Bunya has been derived from Sanskrit word banik or vanik which means

merchant. Baqqal is an Arabic word which is a synonym of Bunya and usually was used

for grain merchant in India and in Iran was used for greengrocer. It is reality that Bunyas

was succeeded in controlling every kind of business than any other community. The

Hindu Bunyas were spread over most of northern India and a large part of the Deccan,

where they have dominated in the commercial world. Another Bunya sub-caste, were

Khatris who maintained a monopoly in the trade of Punjab. Some historian says that in

the Golconda kingdom another sub-caste dwelled but by another name. The word Bunya

used for individuals or group of individuals whose commercial involvement fixed in

trade. The major business empires established by Bunyas in Gujarat, Sind, Punjab,

Rajasthan, Indus Basin and Multan. (24)

Jain Bunyas in Indian Trade:

Not only had the Jain Bunyas maintained monopoly in the business of Gujarat,

Rajasthan, Multan, Shikar pur and Deccan but also in different regions in Mughal India.

Dabastan-i-Mazahib also confirms that the big portion of Bunyas was affiliated with

Jainism. Although the Jain Bunyas were attached with the business of grains yet they

were also raised to high offices. The Jain Bunyas were famous as Saravages and the

Hindu Bunyas were recognized as Maishris. Mirat i Ahmadi provided a list of 84 sub

castes of Jain Bunyas and then 84 sub-casts of Hindu Bunyas. This shows that Hindu and

Jain had common Banya sub-casts. Some historians had estimated that Jain merchants

controlled half of the total trade wealth which circulated between Rajasthan and the Bay

of Bengal. Some historians say that the expenditure of Jain merchant families on temples

bazaars and dwelling houses made an important share to depressed urban economics. Jain

laymen spent our 25 lakhs of rupees on worship building and public facilities in Delhi

alone between 1790 and 1820 this provide a way of earning to masons and day laborers

who were suffered from the decline of Mughal building in the capital. In Rajasthan, the

commercial prosperity became the reason of good relation with Hindus kings. But

generally it was the tycoon business community such as the jagat seiths which fulfilled

the role of royal patrons at their sacred palaces. There were sixteen of these sacred places

for the Digambara Janis and each was associated with the seat of one of their high priests.

Delhi, Sonepat, Ajmir, Jaipur and Gujarat were commercial towns and bazaars. (25)

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Khatris and Hindu Ascetic Orders as a Trading Class:

The Khatris were settled in Punjab and famous as Bunyas and they did not

enter in southern India. This was the most famous Hindu merchant community in early

modern India who played an important role in Indian trade under the patronage of Mughal

rulers. (26) Historians say that Aroras was a sub-caste of Khatris who not only controlled

over the indigenous trade of India but also their trading caravans moved to Central Asia,

Afghanistan and Tibet. During Muslim rule In Punjab they were raised to the posts of

civil administration and mostly state accounts were under their hands. They had a great

skill in controlling village accounts, banking business and other commerce activities. No

village could be existed without their financial support. Khatris considered a reputed class

in Indian society, below only the Brahmans. During fifteenth and seventeenth centuries

the Khatri merchants were dwelling in Murshidabad, Calcutta and in the Ganges valley.

This community also played an important role in the trade of Punjab because Sikh rulers

gave favor to them as compare to other Hindu or Muslim trading groups in declining

period of Mughal Empire. Nirmali Fakhirs (called Akhara) who were dwelling in

northern India used to get huge amounts from khatris who established their trade in

Hyderabad. This far-fuling Diasporas had appeared when Asif Jah and other Mughal

nobles had decided to leave Delhi and settle in southern India. Chandu Lal Khatri was the

chief finance officer in Hyderabad, gave a huge sum to Nirmali Fakhirs of North India

who established major pilgrimage centers in northern India. Shaivite and Vaistnavite were

Hindu ascetic orders, usually called Gosains, Bairagis or simply Sannyasis. They also

succeeded in maintaining trading networks between the important trade cities with their

own security measures. They were able to trade in such areas where members of the

professional merchant castes were unable to go. The ascetic orders had been developed in

the Mughal period. Their armed pilgrimage cycle from the Hardwar to Bengal and

Jagganth puri provide a sophisticated commercial network. They could use their capital

with great efficiency. During 1780 the religious orders succeeded in controlling the trade

of money lending and used to give credit to Muslim weavers. They had huge properties in

Allahabad, Banaras and Mirzapur. Their trading networks also developed to Nagpur,

Ujjain and Poona where they built houses. They developed trading links between Bengal

and Maharashtra. (27)

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Oswal a Merchant Caste:

Oswal considered the sub-caste of Bunyas, a trading community who was

basically settled in Marwar in Rajasthan. Tod says that banking and business of Mughal

period mostly was under the control of Maroodes (Marwar). The major portion of this

caste left Rajasthan more than two hundred years earlier. They were not only settled in

Agra and Fatehpur Sikri but also in the west of Allahabad. Shantidas Sahu was a

businessman of Ahmadabad and jeweler of Shah Jahan was an Oswal. Marwaris were the

followers of Jainism. Marwaris played an important role in trade in Mughal period.

Marwari agents took active part in Diaspora trade from the last portion of 1700 and in the

whole 1800 century in Central Asia and other Diasporas when they face restrictions for

their trade in local markets. It is interesting that the classic paradigm of Indian family

firms, the jagatseth (world Banker house), originated in Marwar and operated under the

direction of the acknowledged leader of the Jain Oswal caste. This firm established in

1700 and succeeded in getting high position in the start of 1800 and established their

trading networks in Murshadabad, Bengal and Dhaka and at the same time they got

popularity as Marwari Baraev (Great Marwari). (28) Agarwal also belonged to Bunya

sub-caste who involved in economic activity. This community settled in the cities of

Mughal India. In this community has a strong sense of solidarity. If someone fails in his

business the every other member comes with a brick and with five rupees for re-

establishment. (29) Bhatia was also an important Bunya caste.

Major System of Supplying Credit:

Jagat seiths and sarafs also played an important role in the promotion of trade

in Mughal period. Jagat seiths institution was popular house of the Mughal period. Not

only Jagat seiths promoted commercial activates but also providing financial support to

small traders and merchants. During 17th and 18th centuries wealthy merchants like Virji

Vora became the major suppliers of commercial credit. In Mughal period the major

system of credit was ‘hundi’ or bill of exchange bearing promise of payment after sixty

days or less at a particular place and allowing a deduction which included interest,

insurance charges and cast of transmission of money. In this period hundi became popular

shape of payment in huge economic transactions. Not only this style of payment was

useful in long distance trading networks as well as extending needs of credit but also

source of reduction of risk concerned in the transmission of cash to distance places.

During the 17th century the revenue from Bengal to Agra usually reached in a caravan of

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bullock carts, but jagat seith transmitted it to Delhi as a hundi. Hundis also developed as

the facility of investment. This commercial activity was mostly controlled by money

changers, who were called sarafs or shroffs. A conflict was reported in Surat in 1650

between English traders and sarafs over the payment of interest. The governor tried to

settle down the matter while selecting of four Bunyas for mediation. Same type of

conflict was arisen in Ahmadabad between sarafs and merchants in 1715. The Muslim

merchants were used to get credits from sarafs. (30) The sarafs mostly affiliated with

Hinduism. Irfan Habib says that a Muslim saraf also found in Mughal period who gave

credits not only to Muslim merchants but also to Hindu merchants. The whole banking of

villages was controlled by these sarafs; no village could be survived without their

financing. The sarafs were considered powerful as compare to Bunya merchants. (31)

Merchant bankers from Bunya caste also provided capital to Muslim and non Muslim

traders for Asian long distance trade. The peasants also got credit to pay high taxes and

revenues to state. They also got loans for special occasion like marriages, funerals rituals

and other rituals or cultivation of any crop. (32) This institution also encouraged Muslim

and non Muslim communities to use their savings in commercial investments. The sarafs

accepted deposits (amanats) which were paid able on demand. The interest rate in Agra in

1645 for such deposit banking was 5/8 percent per month or 7.5 percent per annum. The

same interest rate for deposits was obtained in Surat in the 1630. The Mughal nobles also

invest funds with the sarafs while using resources of treasury in unlawful way and

received interest. (33) The royal treasury and courtiers were major source of credit.

During Shah Jahan period credit was granted to Hindu or Jain merchants from royal

treasury and they had to accept royal monopoly in indigo trade. Jagat seiths’ were the

major creditors, was partly due to the access they had to the treasury of Bengal as a

source of credit. Shaista khan the governor of Bengal, appointed by Aurangzeb who

encouraged the Hindu and Jain traders and businessmen to got loans from the royal

treasury. Although money lending and usury were against the Islamic law but even in the

reign of Aurangzeb it was freely taken by secular officers. The reason is that Mughal

Empire was working under secular officers. (34)

The Business Techniques of Bunyas:

The Hindu merchants usually tried to transfer the business techniques and

experiences to their male lineage and promotion of values. The boys of Hindu merchants

got the knowledge and skills to run a business at their childhood which helped them to

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promote the business in future. They had to focus on thrift and religious spirit. Hindu

business community avoided from display of wealth and did not involved lavish

expenditures. They like to save money while making jewelry for their women. They abide

by their religious rules and took prescribed diet. Bunyas had a control in business in

Mughal period but it is not clear whether they had legal rights or not. The Bunya liked to

run business as individual merchant but there had joint family firms, partnership firms

which were only in the organized form. (35) Not only had the Bunya brokers managed

family matters but also they controlled joint family firms, joint properties and join

commercial interests. The experienced and skilled senior male family members were

selected business heads and they were able to serve the interests of their family members.

Every evening when head of family returned from business, all the family members

gathered at the house of broker who shared to them the business detail about the whole

day. The members of the family gave suggestions for future. John Malcolm tells about an

individual firm of insurers at Indore, working before the arrival of English traders

succeeded in maintaining monopoly in the region, was famous as Poornassa Maun Singh

firm, after the death of father then his eldest son named Kewaljee was succeeded in

developing the trade by his sharp skills. The second shape of organization was purely

partnership based firm. In this shape of commercial organization, all family members

were not active. Kharagsen and his son Banarsidas started a partnership based business

with the other man of sub-caste of Banya. This type of business was shaped in 1611

during Jahangir reign. Dharmadas was an Oswal young guy who started partnership with

Banarsidas. To promote this business the capital of Rs. 500, was gotten from

Dharmadas’s uncle and father who were wealthy merchants. Both the partners went to

Agra and started the business, after two years Banrasidas wished to close the partnership

while selling assets and returning Rs. 500 to the father of Dhamadas. In the same way

when he terminated business with Narottamdas at Jaunpur all the capital was equally

divided between two partners. Tapan Raychaudhuri had shared the information about the

four joint companies which were running their business successfully under the patronage

of Dutch company during 1560 to 1660 at Coromandel Coast. In Madras there were

several joint companies which were successfully fulfilling the demand of English

company. (36) The Bunyas individual family or partnership based firms continued their

successfully in spite of the existence of joint stock companies. Irfan Habib says: “A

variant of Moreland’s theory has now been offered by K.N Chaudhuri who sees a

constant threat to mercantile prosperity (Hindu) from religious persecution (Muslims). I

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have already had occasion to comment on his statement about it being unusually for

Hindus to conduct business with Muslims. As a matter of fact, the brokers of Muslims

merchants in variable Hindus. Chaudhuri adds that the Surat disturbance of 1669 was far

from being an isolated incident when the entire history (relatively well illuminated) of

Surat tells us that in its religious genesis the disturbance was unusual. It is also surely

noteworthy that the sympathies of the local Mughal officials during the incidence were

clearly with the Bunyas and not with the gazi. The only important act of discrimination in

the commercial sphere was when Aurungzeb (1659-170) increased duties on goods of non

Muslims merchants to 5 percent while keeping them at 2.5 percent for Muslims. But even

here the higher rate was often avoided by the Hindu merchants by passing off their goods

as those of Muslims. All this cannot to any great Islamic pressure.” (37) The important

components were Muslim and non Muslim transporters who used their animals for this

purpose and through these transporters the bulk of goods reached from for off areas to big

mandis or markets.

Transportation of Goods:

In Mughal India Nahmardis and Bhotiyas and other Muslim and non Muslim

tribes of hill or plane were collectively known as Banjaras, who were famous as

transporters. For this purpose they used camels and bullocks. Banjaras transported the

goods in slow motion but at low rate. Nahmardis lived in hill areas and did not take

interest in agriculture. They kept camels, horses, sheep and oxen and they fulfill their

needs after selling their animals in the markets of Sehwan and Chakarhala. At this

occasion they also brought carpets and other hill products and then bought weapons,

grains and cloth. In this way they became the source of supplying cattle to the cultivators

and distributed need able items to hills. The people of Nahmardis did not follow the rules

of state and created troubles for the citizens, due to this reason the governor of Sind

decided to stop their trade activities. Bhotias also lived in the centre of Himalayas, who

also played an active part in trade. This is possible only in an advanced agricultural

society where Nahmardis could act as carriers. Bhatiyas and Nahmardis involved in land

transporter and the carrying trade. Goods were moved from one place to one another on

boats, carts, camels, and bullocks. They moved slowly and traveled with their herds over

long distances. They moved in large group for safety. (38) Scholars say: “The

organization of land transport, largely controlled by the Banjaras, was by no means

trouble-free. The carters, wrote Mundy, ‘doe and demand what they list, goe, come, set

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out an Remaine when and where they please, for they were not under any overall

command, though the camellers had their chief (muqaddam) and each Banjara camp

(tanda) its king, bedecked with a pearl necklace. As the qafilas included heterogeneous

elements, e.g. camellers, carters, Baluchis and Jats, they would often fight among

themselves ‘to mortal wounds, pillaging one another like deadly enemies. The carters at

times struck work or simply bolted if they considered the loads too heavy. When Banjara

qafilas met on the narrow roads, fierce fighting over the rite of passage was a possibility.

On the road through Rajasthan, the carts could be badly damaged by sand and the journey

delayed by necessary repairs. Mortality among draught-animals on the Agra-Surat road

appears to have been high and at least part of the loss was borne by the traders who hired

the animals. During wars and famines, there were also shortages of draught animals. At

time the cargo was so badly damaged on the journey that a large proportion to be written

off.” (39) Banjaray traveled with their women and children, a Tanda was formed under

many families. There life is nothing than continually moving from one place to another.

The Tanda consists of six or seven hundred persons. Their men were very brave and

women were hard working. During in danger their women fought like men. They never

dwell in houses. Some of them posses 100 oxen and other have more or less. Sometimes

Banjaras hired oxen from merchants. They could travel 6 or 7 miles in a day. They also

played an important role in trade of grains, salt, sugar and butter while travelling to long

distances. It is seems that the Banjaras often depended on credits. Thomas Roe (1615)

described that he saw 10,000 bullocks in one troupe laden with corn while he was

traveling from Surat into Khandesh. Mundy (August 1632) on one occasion saw a tanda

of 14,000 in numbers, layden with grains as wheat. Tavernier astonished while seeing

10,000 or 12,000 oxen together, transporting rice, corn, and salt. A Banjara headman

while complaining the authorities (in 1661) of Aurangabad, reported that he had gone to

Burhanpur with his 1000 bullocks to sell millet and was returning from their with his

animals, unladen to Jalna. Tavernir describes that there were four tribes of Banjaras; each

tribe had a hundred thousand souls. By this way the population was extended to 400,000

and each family had 100 oxen to load, in the same way the ox population was about 9

million. (40) Although inland trading relations had been developed among India, Iran,

Central Asia, Afghanistan and even Russia in ancient times but these relations reached at

its peak during Mughal period. In this trade Multani and Sikarpuri played an important

role and Diaspora developed in these countries.

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The Indian Merchant Diasporas:

During sixteenth century to nineteenth century, the trade relations had been

developed among many neighboring countries situated at the north and west of India. In

this trade thousands of Indian Muslims and non Muslims Diaspora merchants played an

important role. These merchants were the representatives or agents of caste based family

firms who had been deputed to promote trade in the distant markets of Afghanistan,

Turan and Iran by the directors of trading firms. These merchants or directors had

maintained their trading centers in Multan or Shikarpur and controlled the activities of

Diaspora agents by a network of information. Some merchants or agents were sent with

canvases to Russia where for over two centuries they established a Diaspora community

at Astrakhan. These merchants spent several years away from their own countries for

maintaining trade activities in different countries for a given time. Here it can be assumed

that private and individual merchants also played active part in this caravan trade. In

Diaspora they were known as Multani or Shikarpuri. (41) Babur was the first emperor of

India who describes in his writing that ten to twenty thousand Indian merchants annually

travelled in caravans to Kabul where they met with other caravans coming from

Kashghar, Ferghana, Turkistan, Samarqand, Hisar, Balkh and Badakhshan. In 1584 Hafiz

Amish, a historian also describes the movements of several caravans in Peshawar which

came from Deccan, Gujarat, Multan and other areas of India and had desire to move

towards Khurasan, Mawra-un-Nahr and Turkistan. Sometimes these merchants travelled

to Turan or they exchanged their commodities in the markets of Afghanistan and returned

to India. During 16th century Hindu Diaspora Community of traders settled in Bukhara.

The rulers of Bukhara did a lot of efforts to attract Indian merchants and money lenders to

settle in his territories because there were money changing bazaars in Bukhara and

Samarqand. To improve state income the emperor Akbar and Abdullah Khan both

developed trade routes which linked India, Afghanistan, Turan, Turkistan and

Transoxiana. When European traders increased their influence in maritime trade it also

encouraged the local traders to improve trade through caravan routes. (42)

Diaspora and Identity:

The Indian merchants while staying for the purpose of trade in Russia and Iran

and Turan and other regions during the period of 1600 to 1750 established their trading

colonies in those countries and gained a dominated position in commerce and trade where

they were famous as Multanis. The term Multanis reflects their connection to Multan, a

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flourishing providence situated between Punjab and Sind. Prior the arrival of Muhammad

B. Qasim Multan was known as Mulastana or Mulastanpora. Muhammad B. Qasim gave

him the name of Multan. According to Irfan Habib the term Multani was used as the

general name for a Hindu or Muslim in Central Asia and Persia and Afghanistan because

the Indians who lived in these regions mostly originated in Multan. No doubt there were

trade relations among Multan and Central Asia long before the Mughal rule but the

Multanis settled in Central Asia in Mughal rule. During 1589-90 several Multani were

mentioned in the record of a Qazi (Islamic Judge) of Samarkand in reference to their

commercial activities in that city. In 1623 a Russian businessman named F.A Kotov

mentioned to all the Indian merchants as Multanis who were permanently settled in Iran.

Englebert Kaempfer estimated that during 1684-85 the population of Multanis in Isfahan

was about 10,000. Mazaffar Alam says that in early period of Diaspora at Turan, the

Hindu merchants had to convert to Islam and had to settle there while marrying a local

lady. Two names of Muslim Multani merchants received from the record who ware

settled in Bukhara named Moulana Umer Multani b. Maulana Abad-ul-Wahab Multani

and Baba Multani b. Ali. In the same way Muslim Multani merchants engaged in the

textile industry in Samarkand. The leader of this organization was an individual identified

as Darya Khan Multani bin Sheikh Sa’adi Multani. There are other several Muslim

merchants who were playing an important role in caravan trade along with Hindu

merchants. In 1617 Petro Della Valle observed that a portion of Multani population of

Isfahan was Muslim, the same observations repeated by the Russian merchant named

Fedot Kota in 1623 and Adam Olearius in 1637. Muslim Multani Lohani tribe played an

important role in Diaspora trade. Alexander Burnes says that the Lohani Powindas (a term

referring to Afghan nomadic communities involved in mediatory commerce) tribesmen

had a key role in goods transportation. From Afghanistan they brought trading items to

India which were then sent to Europe. This brave and pastoral race had their own carriers

and used to reach to Calcutta and Bombay. In 1751 a Tatar from Astrakhan visited Khiva,

Bukhara and Balkh and saw that the Afghan Powindas were playing an active role in

transportation of bulk goods from these areas to Calcatta and other Indian regions. The

major community of Hindus merchants and had many sub-castes and collectively known

as Bunyas. In 19th century the word Bunya was started to use for caste but in earlier

period it was used for an individual or group of individuals who were taking part in

economic activities. The Bunya communities controlled the network of trade from

Gujarat, Sind, Punjab, Rajasthan and the Indus Basin and Multan. In 1660 a French

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traveler, Jean de Thevenot said that the Muslims were in majority in Multan and also a

house of powerful. Bunyas also developed their trading networks into Persia where they

did what the Jews did in other places, but they were more cunning and nothing could

escape from their eyes. In 1676 Tavernier also discovered that most of the Bunyas of

Multan settled in Persia while developing their trading network in Persia. The Hindu

Khitri merchants of Multan were considered the most powerful merchant class of early

modern India. This trading cast played an important role in India’s caravan trade under

the Mughal patronage. In the same way important trading classes of Hindu and Jain were

Agarwal, Oswal and Parwar. Arora-Khatri was a sub caste of Khatris who were

controlling trade throughout Afghanistan and Turan. Major component of the Indian

Diaspora is identified as Marwari. This title was given to them or their old links with

urban centers of Marwar and affiliated with Jainism. The members of this caste started

their business in the Diaspora in seventeenth century. (43) Not only were the Jain Khatris

running the business but also they were cultivators. The high status of Todal Mal in the

court of Akbar as finance minister was the best example about the rise of Khatris under

Mughal patronage. Khatris were also considered as Khshtriyas, the second highest Varna

in the Indian society, below only the Brahmans. In the same way Muslim Khojas, and

Paraschas and Bhotias communities from Punjab and Gujarat as the mixed Hindu Muslim

merchants had a key role in Diaspora trade. (44)

Trading Technique and Relations with Host Societies:

As the Multani Diaspora appeared, the Hindu and Jain and Muslims

established a new trade system while enlisting agents to promote their business in distant

countries. The agents had to get training like accounting, mathematical formulas, and

credit and deposit techniques. A certain amount of capital as loan also was given to the

agents before sending them to Diaspora this loan usually given in the shape of

commodities like cotton for export. Mutani agents used to give credits to cotton farmers

and weavers and then got cloths, cotton textiles. They also focused on money lending

activates in Diaspora. In 1660 Raphael du Mans observed that all the Mutalni were the

cloth merchants in Isfahan. In the same way Anthony Hankinson observed 1558 that

Indian merchants were focusing in textile business, the first important job of merchants

who travelled into Afghanistan, Central Asia, and Iran. The transportation was arranged

by Afghans Powindas or by some caravan. After several months the caravan reached at

the destination and the agents selected some residence under the direction of the senior

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representative of the firm. This agent was known in Central Asia as ‘aqsaqal’ and in Iran

as the ‘Kalanlar’. At this occasion the agents started to sell their commodities. Usually the

Indian traders used to spend two or three years in Bukhara before returning home and it

was an interesting experience for them to stay at Diaspora for trade. Some other historians

say that these merchants and agents usually stayed at Diaspora between six to seven

years. The Indian communities were therefore almost exclusively comprised of a rotating

population of men. The firm directors looked after the families of agents in Multan. No

sooner did the agents sell their textile than they again invest their capital in other

commercial activates and preferred to invest their capital in money lending to earn a lot of

profit. They gave credits in Diaspora as several types of loans, especially in agriculture.

They also provided seeds and other necessary things for new crop. The Indian merchants

also purchased the agriculture production in harvesting season and then sold them in

urban markets while recovering their loans from host farmers. The host Muslim

administration also encouraged the Indian agents. In some locations Indian merchants

congregated in urban areas but majority of agents lived in caravanserais. The environment

of caravanserais represented a Hindu microcosm within their Islamic host societies. No

doubt the Indian caravanserais were preferred by the Indian merchants for staying but it

was also a favorite residence for Indian cooks, barbers, jewelers, tailors, servants. In these

caravanserais retail shops also established where the Indian agents purchased many of the

goods necessary for their day to day lives, including religious paraphernalia from other

Indians. Moreover in these caravanserais non Muslim Indians were exempted from any

legal restrictors which were applied to the general Muslims population. Although the use

of alcohol and tobacco were prohibited in the city of Bokhara but inside of these

caravansaries Indian smoked and drank alcohol freely. Hindus were allowed to celebrate

their religious festivals in Indian Merchant Diaspora. They celebrated holi and divali in

Diaspora. Russian observer says that he saw the celebration of diwali in Tashkent in 1895

the same observer also describes holi festival which he referred to as a festival with

alcohol. Muslim also participated in such festivals. (45) Whenever any Hindu or Jain

merchant died in Diaspora, the last ceremonies were performed according to their own

faith. When a gentile died his survivors went to the Muslim administrator to get

permission for ritual cremation and also demanded military protection in order to avoid

any lawlessness in the duration of the ceremony. Through this way a wave of

discouragement also created to stop the local trouble makers from disturbing the funeral

pyre. Following cremation of the deceased were collected and sent to India. It was

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common that Multani firm directors sent to Brahmans to Diaspora to lead the religious

festivals and other religious guidance in daily life. These religious leaders stayed in

Diaspora for a specific time and then were replaced by others. Their families in India

looked after by firm directors. Although the Indian merchants enjoyed a peaceful and

prosperous life in Diaspora but they had to obey some social restrictions. Hindus were not

allowed to get Muslim slave and to ride on horseback in towns. Hindus and Jews were

only allowed to tie their clothes with a hemp rope and they could not carry their weapons

with them. Hindus were also instructed to wear distinctive square hats, tight shalwars,

leather shoes and even a distinctive hair style so that they could be easily distinguished

from Muslims. They had to pay jizya. They were said that they must dismount from the

horse back, if the king or Qazi (judge) passed by them. In some places the Hindus were

allowed to build temples. In Central Asia the Hindus developed rooms in their

caravansaries for religious books and fixes places for worship. The old Hindu

caravansaries in Taskant reportedly housed an icon of Kali which had been brought from

Banaras. The Indians who lived in that caravanserai could not complain about the rulers

because Iranian rulers allowed them to built temples outside of their caravansaries. John

Fryer also describes about two Hindu temples existed in Noaband near Bandar Abbas

where several Hindus where living. A famous temple also existed in Baku modern

Azerbaijan an important trade centre. (46) In short the Indian merchants enjoyed a

peaceful life in Diasporas.

Shifting from Multan to Shikarpur:

The identification of Diaspora merchants changed from Multani to shikarpuri

during the late 18th century. It was said that the titles Multani and Shikarpuri were used

for Indian merchants and agents who were operated from Multan and Shikarpur. During

Mughal rule Multan became a principal agriculture centre and textile production centre.

Multan was also a mint town. Multan played an important role in trade and commerce

during sixteen and seventeen century. But during the eighteen the century the situation

was changed under the invasion of Nadir Shah in 1739 to the Mughal Empire. Between

1749 and 1849 Multan suffered from a series of attacked directed by Afghans, Marathas,

Sikhs and British. These political situations force the merchants to shifte from Multan to

Shikarpur, a city of Sindh. This region was heavily populated by Lohanis not only were

controlling business networks but also worked as transporters of bulk commodities

between India and Central Asia. Shikarpur was a very wealthy city and its principal

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citizens were Hindu bankers and moneylenders who maintained close commercial

connections with their agents in Diaspora. Both terms Multani and Shikarpuri were used

for Khatris, Bhatias, Bohras, Lohanis, and various other Muslim and non Muslim

merchants who were trading in Diaspora. In the last portion of nineteenth century political

situation had been changed in Diaspora under different circumstances which forced the

merchant to retire. Although the trade actives continued in these region but it lost its

importance. (47)

Development of Trade in Different Directions of World:

Indian foreign trade reached at its peak in the Mughal period. There were

many reasons behind the progress of this trade. The Indian old civilization, rich cultural

heritage and high resources always attracted the people of the world, who reached in the

country for many purposes including trade. Its mountains and the seas separate it from the

rest of Asia but also provided channels to approach to it. (48) The history of the trade

relations among Europe, India, China and other countries and nations can be traced in

ancient times. The trade network was covering different areas of Indian Ocean where

different communities were exercising commercial activities; goods were brought and

sold at the ports existed in different directions of Indian Ocean. Over the centuries the

Indian Ocean successfully moved this system of trade. Indian Ocean and the South China

Sea had many links in the east, these links also extended to Indonesian archipelago which

became the cause of promotion of trade among India, China and Japan. In the west the

relations of trade developed among Europe and Asia, when through Persian Gulf and Red

Sea channels Indian commodities reached on the southern coast of Mediterranean while

using river-cum-land transportation, where the European traders regularly travel to buy

them. The system of trade changed when Portuguese at the end of the fifteenth century

reached at Calicut while using of the all water route via the Cape of Good Hope. Both the

old and new routes were used throughout the sixteenth century but after the arrival of

other European companies to challenge the Portuguese monopoly then the new

discovered route were used for trade between two continents. (49)

Monopoly of Portuguese in Seaborne Trade:

Vasco de Gama reached Calicut in 1497. Vasco de Gama reached to India just

for spices and promotion of Christianity. After two years when Vasco de Gama reached

back to Lisbon, he was welcomed by the King Manuel. The Portuguese higher authorities

dispatched Pedro Alvares Cabral, a Portuguese commander to India in 1500. On this

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occasion he was instructed to tell to the ruler of Calicut about the old enmity between

Christians and Muslims. The Muslim merchants also lived in Calicut. During the first two

decades of sixteenth century the Portuguese started individual attacks on Muslim trading

ships between Red Sea and the western coast of India to control spice trade. Then the

Portuguese decided to get naval superiority over Asian ships and the establishment of few

outposts on land. The Portuguese attacked on Calicut in 1502 under the reason that king

Zamorin was not co-operating in expelling the Muslim traders from the port. The first

Portuguese fort was constructed in the territory of Cochin during 1503. Under the

command of Alfonso de Albuquerque, the Portuguese captured the island of Goa in 1510

from the sultan of Bajapur and founded Portuguese maritime empire in Indies. In 1509

another person Francisco de Almeida defeated an armada sent by the Mukluk ruler of

Egypt at Diu and after capturing Malaca in 1511, Goa then became administrative seat of

the Portuguese to control the sea routes. In 1515 Ormuz in the Persian Gulf was captured.

In later years Portuguese succeeded in establishing their settlements at Sao Tome de

Meliapur on the coast of Coromandel, Hugli and Chittagong in Bengal, Macau on the

estuary of Pearl River in China and Colombo in Ceylon. The Portuguese empire adopted

the name of Estado da India. It is difficult to say why the Portuguese traders by the trade

of pepper and spices tried to fulfill their imperial ambitions. The Portuguese succeeded in

maintaining their trading empire while getting power over sea. From the long distance

trade the rulers collected revenue from merchants. Then these levies became necessary

expenditures. In commercial points of view these payments considered as protection fee.

The Asian states had weak naval forces and the Portuguese became major power in sea.

They then introduced a new system of taxation and without getting passes, known as

‘cartaze’ from the authorities of Goa no ship could move in the sea. Indian Muslim and

non Muslim states were forced to recognize their supremacy. During 1548 Sultans of

Bijapur sent several ships from Babhol to Mecca under ‘cartaze’ system. Even Akber got

passes from Portuguese while sending his mother Hamida Bano Bagum and Gulbadan

Begam to Mecca through Surat. The Portuguese supremacy forced Indian ship-owners

adopted indirect partnership with Portuguese officials and merchants in Goa. Not only

Portuguese got huge wealth through cartaze system as well as by plundering. Although

the Portuguese succeeded in controlling sea-borne trade of India but the corruption of its

officers in the Indies became the reason of its decline. (50) Neither did De Gama and his

men come in India as conquerors nor did they representatives of their country which was

famous for its experience of maritime trade. In those days Portugal was a small and poor

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country. The estimated population was one million. The food stuff was brought from

Azores and North Africa. The Portuguese monarch also played a prominent role in the

country overseas expansion. In 15th century the major portion of spice trade was

controlled by Muslims of Asia who sent it to Europe. Although the Muslim merchants

had a control over sea trades but it is the fact that often the spices were not owned by the

Muslims traders. Mostly these Muslims were the agents of Hindu spice merchants and

used to travel in the seas while performing the responsibility as representatives of Hindu

spice merchants who lived along the western coastal line of Mughal India. The

Portuguese was the first nation who succeeded in maintaining monopoly over spice trade

from India to Europe while imposing taxes to those trading ships, traveling through the

Portuguese controlling sea with textiles, rice, precious stones and metals. The Zamorin of

Calicut, a Hindu ruler of this state had no naval power and impressed by the Portuguese

naval power. De Gama purchased spices from merchants of Calicut, on this occasion the

Hindu and Muslim merchants had no idea that de Gama would earn 3000 percent profit

through the trade of these poor quality spices. This huge profit encouraged a lot of

Portuguese ships to travel for spices to India. No sooner had the Portuguese lost political

power then monopoly also had to face hurdles. This monopoly also lost its grip when the

spice merchants had to face unbearable expenditure while defending their ships from the

attacks of rivals. Then trade gradually went under control of other nations like Dutch, the

French and the English. In 1606 the newly founded Dutch Vereeniged Oostindische

Compagnie (United East India Company) established a factory in Petapuli 1606 on the

Coromandel Coast, this factory fortified in 1613 and received new name of Fort Geldria.

During next some decades Dutch established fortified factories at Negapatam, Chinsura,

Colombo and elsewhere in India. Dutch trading networks could not maintain their grip for

a long time like French and English. (51)

Networks of Information about Different International Markets:

Having controlled over seaborne trade, the Portuguese maintained a network

of information about different trading markets of India and eastern Mediterranean. The

main source of this information was those traders and “Hajj pilgrims” who were going to

Mecca from all directions of India. The trade caravan routes which joint the trade of two

continents also source of information where traders frequently moved for trade. During

seventeenth century the German traders maintained a system of information about trade

conditions of the markets of Mediterranean countries. This system also became the source

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for the collection of information about the trading vessels of Dutch which were used to

move to the Indian Ocean from the Atlantic. The Hajj Pilgrims from different regions of

Indian Ocean used to take goods with them to sell them in the largest bazaar of Islam to

meet their travel costs. Hajj pilgrims got popularity as the great carriers of information of

Indian Ocean. The important and holy cities of Muslims were also the hub of information

between India and the Mediterranean. When the Portuguese developed there authority

over seaborne trade, this situation forced the Jewish traders to maintain their links with

the Egyptian synagogue which then developed as a centre of information about Indian

markets and European markets. It is said that during sixteenth century the Jews of Cockin

and Christians converted from Judaism developed a network of information from Cockin

to Cairo. Isaac do Cairo, a Jewish of Cairo used to supply cargo to the Christian traders of

Cockin. The ports the Persian Gulf became another source of information between India

and Mediterranean. Portuguese used this port for transporting of horses to Goa and

Cockin. These ways of information and trade moved through the markets of the Ottoman

Turks and the Safavi Persia. Leonhard Rauwolfd who visited the Persian Gulf in 1574

confirmed the Sharpe movement of Indian goods by this way. The detailed information

were received by the writings of Ferdinand Cron, who was the agent of the Foggers and

the Welsers in India, he succeeded in establishing a business at Goa when Welsers

stopped their Indian contract in 1591. He used to get information about the political and

trade situation of Europe and shared the information to Portuguese authorities to get some

trade concession from them. On May 9, 1598 Ferdinand Corn received letters from

Foggers and the Welsers sent from Augsburg through the overland postal system in 1597

while providing news about the Dutch fleet moving to the east from the Atlantic.

Ferdinand Cron immediately shared this information to the Portuguese viceroy Conde De

Vidigueira (1597-1600), who soon sent a fleet to Malacca for its protection. In 1605,

1606 and 1607 he also provided information to Portuguese about Dutch fleets. In short

the Portuguese got more and more advantages from Ferdinand. Moreover Ferdinand Cron

also took interest in the market situation of India and decided to establish his personal

business empire. He then founded his business empire in different major centers of

ecommerce and launched diamond trade. He used to send diamonds from Deccan to

Europe. But his information network was stopped when he was arrested by the Dutch

men in 1615. After this the Portuguese used other source of information and in the same

way other European companies developed information systems to aware the political and

market situation of different countries. (52)

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Dutch, English and French Companies in Inter Asian Trade:

Dutch started to individual attacks on fortified ships of Portuguese and then

soon extended their possessions on land. Some years later the Dutch blockaded Goa and

Malacca from the sea and the Dutch succeeded in broking the naval power of Portuguese.

In spite of these defeats the Portuguese cloth sales reached at its peak. In 1633, Philip

Lucasz, a Dutch officer said that the Portuguese textile sales in Malacca disturbing to the

company trade. The major export of Coromandel and Surat textiles to Indonesian

archipelago was still under the Portuguese control. Then the Dutch decided to occupy

Malacca and blockaded Goa and started to patrol the Coromandel Coast. From 1636 to

1648 Goa was blockaded every trading season and then by occupying Malacca, Colombo

and Cochin the Dutch victories reached at its final stage. The English East India

Company was equally active. The early voyages of the English company focused on

paper ports of Indonesia and ports in Spice Islands. The English company recognized two

difficulties in the pepper and spice trade, the English company discovered that the Dutch

company possessed a strong naval as well as military power and Dutch would never bear

any rival in trade and the other problem was that the English market in England was very

small to promote trade. Not only had the English higher authorities sent a fleet to India to

counter with the danger of Portuguese and Dutch but also with the purpose to purchase

the pepper and spices, consumed in England. But the company force to change its policy

when in 1603 East India Company fleet returned, particularly nothing but pepper. Then

English company forced to develop relations with Indian ports to extend its trade. The

English established trading posts in Gujarat, Coromandel and in Bengal. In 1607 a plan

was prepared in London for approaching Surat as well as Red Sea to extend trading

prospects. Then the third voyage was dispatched under the command of Captain Keeling

and William Hawkins. The later reached at Surat and spend some time in the court of

Jahangir. In 1612 Thomas Best, an English Captain reached with three ships in India and

succeeded in getting a royal edict for trade. Experienced factors reached in this voyage to

the promotion of trade at Surat and not only succeeded in establishing relations with local

officers but also with the Mughal court. Their letters to the court in the next three years

gave a complete outline of their trading method in India. The English Company decided

to improve their naval power to counter the power of Portuguese. After controlling the

attacks of Portuguese, they could establish their trading post at Surat. Through Surat they

could send one or two ships of Indian commodities direct to England and on the other

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then they could easily develop trading relations with eastern markets while sending the

rest of their ships with goods suitable in those markets where they could earn 300 percent

profit. A factory in Surat was established in 1613 for the purpose of direct trade with

Europe. To establish the trade on solid grounds the company appointed two Dutch men

named Peter Floris and Locas Antheunis and then were sent to with a voyage in the 1610

to the coast of Coromandel. This plan was successfully completed and the English factory

at Masulipatam in 1611 became one of the most important trading centers in India even

after the rise of Madras. Then the English company extended their factories in inland

areas of trade and Sir Thomas Roe (1615) was appointed ambassador of England to the

Mughal court. In 1633 Mughal armies succeeded in expelling the Portuguese from Hugli

which was the chief trading town in eastern province. This decline of Portuguese

provided a chance to English and Dutch companies to establish their trade in Bengal. The

major factories of the VOC were situated at Surat, Cochin, Pulicat Negapatam,

Masulipatam and Hugli. The Dutch maintained their maritime trade but had to face bad

situation when English East India Company got political stability in the second half of

18th century. The English company then had wished to maintain fortified settlements to

avoid paying tribute to Indian rulers. The Company established their fort in Madras.

Bombay and Calculate in 1696-9. English power was reached at its peak under the

viceroyalty of Sir Josiah Child when the company decided to start war with the Mughal

Empire during 1687-9. During 1500 century the population of England and Wales was

estimated 3,000,000 which extended to 5,000,000 and 5,500,000 during 1700 century.

(53) Not only had the Dutch East India Company advanced ship building industry but

also had sharp trading vessels which gave them a way to maintain a monopoly on

European shipping trade, they could easily divert a great number of ships to India Ocean

to control Indian spice and textile trade. A major portion of Indian Muslim and non

Muslim merchants used to try to move in the open sea under the production of Dutch

armed ships because a surety was given from the Dutch authorities to the merchants of all

community about the complete safety from the pirates of sea. The Dutch also maintained

a network of pirates in the Indian Ocean. (54) The officers of Dutch company were highly

skilled and experienced who enabled the company to promote the trade in India. Although

the Portuguese maintained a monody in the trade of pepper but in later period not only

had the Dutch developed their trade in Indian textiles but also in spice trade. English East

India company founded in London in 1600, only two year earlier from the formation of

the Dutch company. The English Company had shorter resources relating capital and

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volume of trading ships than the Dutch resources. The English traders converted their

attention from spice trade to the textile trade along with tea trade. The lack of trade

resources forced English traders to introduced important innovating which could help

them in promoting of trade. So they started to use big armed ships for their trade. In the

early stage they built their ships on their own dockyard but in the last quarter of 17th

century the company leasing rather than owing ships. Accordingly the country trade was

left entirely to private traders, who were sometimes called ‘interloper’ by the

representatives of the company but these traders played an important role in developing

the British trade in the Indian Ocean. Another necessary thing is being shared here that

the Muslims and the non Muslim traders had their own trading ships to conduct their

trade in Indian Ocean like European companies. The European demand for Indian

productions could not bring any change in the production of Indian goods. The silver

which brought from Europe to India had some impact over Indian commerce. Many

Indian ports were playing an active part in export and the ingenious artisans were engaged

in production for this trade. The situation changed in eighteenth century when British

converted their attention towards Bengal which had not played a major role in the textile

trade in earlier times. (55) After the death of Aurangzeb in 1707, the decline of empire

started. The French was the only rival of British power. The French company named

(compagnie des Indes Orientales) Company of Oriental Indies established in South Asia

in 1647 at Pondicherry on the Coromandel coast South of Fort St. George. A series of

factories were established in Surat and Chandernagore similar to British settlements. The

both companies continued trade competition until 1740 and the French Company

succeeded in achieving higher profits than English Company. Then the two trade

companies entered into an open war. French forces got some victories under the

command of Joseph Francois Dupleix (1697-1764) but lost the war. On this occasion

Louis xv, a French ruler did not provide any help. At last the French forces lost the battle

and left the British as the principal European power in South Asia after 1763. The

Mughals adopted a neutral policy during the war between English and France and was

said by the governor of Surat to the elders of English Company in 1744 not to disturb the

peace of the port of Surat. This was agreed by the English traders but the growing trade

progress created a sort of competition among the descendents of that governor and

launched a military operation against the agents of company and destroyed the factories

of Surat. The elders called a meeting and said that a city where commercial actives were

tried to press could not progress. (56) But when the English Company succeeded in

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maintaining political authority, the other European companies had no chance to continue

their trading activities in India.

European Seaborne Early Trade in India:

In the early portion of seventeenth century the size of import small. There was

no market in India for European goods because the European products were very costly

and the common people could not buy them. But trifles and novelties attracted by the

nobles of empire. Indian merchants always demanded gold or silver in exchange. This

demand also shorted Indian exports in future because a high resistance was appeared in

England to the free export of bullion to the east. Europe was obliged to supply her agents

to India with the money they needed for these purchases. The rates of interest on loans

was raised in the Indian markets, which were usually heavy and consequently the free

export of gold and silver bullion to India formed the only feasible method of financing.

This was the reason that Sir Thomas Roe said that Europe bleedeth to enrich India. Dutch

and English merchants modified the Indian trade with East Africa and Asia during

Jahangir, Shah Jahan and the Aurangzeb periods. They established direct trade among

eastern and western markets. The period of Jahangir was searching period for both

European nations to see the possibility of new trade. In 1625 indigo and calicoes trade

was started and then Surat became an important European import and export centre. The

famine of 1630-32 also provided a chance to extend their trade further with the subject to

supply the needs of Gujarat. In 1650, during the Shah Jahan reign the Dutch and English

established their trading posts firmly from Sind to Bengal and Behar. In the early years

the European goods could not attract the Indian markets, this demand just confined for

knick-knack which could purchase only Mughal nobles. Jahangir liked European rarities,

antiquities and toys. Covert says that he presented Jahangir a little whistle of gold,

weighing almost an ounce decorated with rubies. The emperor enjoyed with it nearly an

hour. Ravesteyn a Duchy factor demanded to his superiors in Europe to send curiosities

for the emperor, including pictures mirrors as tall as man with frames wrought with

festoons. A Dutch presented a lantern to Shah Jahan and got trade concessions. Two

mastiffs were presented to Jahangir by Sir Thomas Roe. The emperor was very happy and

he appointed four attendants to each dog and had them carried about in palanquins. John

Child, president of Surat factory in 1683 said that once he succeeded in changing mind of

governor of Surat by giving a present of two toy spaniels. The European traders found the

rich markets of the world in India which had maintained a monopoly over commercial

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activities. The merchants and traders of India had high experience in trading activities.

Virgi Vora (1619-1670) financed the transactions of English merchants and controlled the

whole trade of Surat and was considered the richest trader of world. The Mughal

governor and high officials usually interfered in trade activities while maintaining

monopoly over trade. The governor of Ahmadabad maintained a monopoly in indigo in

1647. The governor of Surat also maintained monopoly in food grains in 1632 when the

territory was suffering from famine. Mir Jumla was a Mughal noble who at the height of

his career owned ships and land transport. (57) Many Europeans travelers settled in

coastal regions of southern India. The foreign traders and local Muslim and non Muslim

traders used to control the indigenous and foreign trade from the port cities of Calicut,

Khambat and Mangalore. Chinese ships used to dock at Quilon and Calicut. Nearly 3000

ships used to dock at Khambat every year, from this one can estimate the volume of

foreign trade. The Gujarati and Marwari business men controlled trade between the coast

towns and North India. Although Akbar and Jahangir gave favors towards seaborne trade

but they did not take serious steps for the supremacy of the marine trade. According the

Vincent smith Akbar wanted to enhance commercial profits but Akbar did not try to

control the Portuguese monopoly on the sea. In the last year of Jahangir reign Batavia

governor of Bengal wrote emperor that weak political structure disturbed Bengal trade

and sea pirates are also disturbing traveling ships. (58)

Cotton Textiles and Other Goods in Seaborne Trade:

The textile manufacturing made Mughal Empire, the world’s most popular

industrial society and all important countries became the market of Indian textile

products. By 1750 India succeeded in archiving the title of the largest producer of textiles.

In 1600 the foreign traders started to use American silver for Indian products which

became another source of supply of money to India. Indian businessmen developed their

trading networks towards every direction of world. Indian merchants possessed heavy

capital resources and trading skills which helped their firms to compete Europeans and

Asian rivals. Some merchants in Surat there were the richest person of world. A Dutch

diplomat wrote that the merchants of Bengal were experienced and skilled persons and

they were sober, modest, and thrifty. (59) F. Bernier, a French man, who arrived in India

during the rule of Aurangzeb, while discussing the resources of Bengal said that Bengal

had become the cotton storehouse for Mughal Empire, neighboring countries and even for

Europe. Then Portuguese, Dutch and English and other nations of the world, succeeded in

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reaching into India mostly through the state of Bengal and in this way a hundred gates

were opened for entrance but not one for departure. At the time when India was famous

for her wealth and high artistic skills of her craft men the Europe was inhabited by

uncivilized tribes. The European countries had to depend on Indian silk and cotton goods

to fulfill their needs. By this trade the English state was depriving from precious metals.

In this situation not only had English administration took steps to control the transferring

of bullion to India but also tried to stop to give access the Indian products to the markets

of England. The industries depended for its prosperity on the patronage of the Court.

Urban industries were engaged in producing luxury and semi-luxury goods served the

town folk and wider foreign markets. Silk, woolen and cotton fabrics, calices and metal

industries reached on its peak in different regions of state. The reputation of Indian

products extended all over the world. In urban areas each craft was organized into guilds

which looked after the welfare and also the quality of work of their members. Nager seith

played an impotent role in the prosperity of industries who served as the titular head of

the guilds. The urban industries were well organized and were the first to feel the impact

of foreign competition. (60) The textile productions like quilts of embroidered tussar or

munge or cotton or jute silk and brocade-edged handkerchiefs. Muslin was famous of

Dhaka. The Qasim bazaar was famous cotton trade centre of Bengal. Sriband was

prepared in Bengal which was used in tying turbans. Duarte Barbosa, a Portuguese

official during the start of sixteenth century tells that Surat was an important cotton trade

centre. Gujarat textile productions were exported to Arab countries and to south East

Asia. Patola was a kind of silk which was very liked in South East Asia, Malaya,

Indonesia and Philippines. Korala, Golconda, Shaliat and Pulicat were important cotton

producing centers. These were finely painted cotton fabrics with motifs from the Hindu

mythology and they were exported from Masulipatnam port. Palampores was a painted

fabrics, was liked in Mughal court. Indian textile productions were liked in abroad for

their fine texture, elaborate design and brilliant colors. (61) During Akbar period textiles,

pepper, indigo, opium, drugs and miscellaneous goods were sent to other countries.

Bullion, horses, raw silk metals, ivory, coral, amber, precious stones, textile, silk, velvet,

brocade, broadcloth, perfumes, drugs, china goods, European wines and African slaves

were brought from other Muslim and non Muslim countries. Chinese goods like Chinese

porcelain were very popular among nobles and royal families. Akbar dinner was always

served on these porcelain dishes. “When Akbar died 1605 he left in Agra alone more than

two millions and half of rupees worth of most elegant vassals of every kind in porcelain

160

and colored glass. The glass probably came from Venice.” Wood furniture was prepared

according to European design but the costly carvings and inlays were inspired by the

ornate Mughal style. Sind, Gujarat and Deccan were its chief manufacturing centers.

Carpets weaving reached at high rank during Mughal period and one of export items.

There were many varieties of ornamental work in cut stones, ivory, pearl and tortoise

shells which were produced in South India and then sent to Europe. Diamonds were

procured from the Deccan while sapphires and rubies were procured from Pegu in

Myanmar and Ceylon. Major centers were established in Puliat, Calicut and Vijayanagar

for cutting and polishing these stones. Indian arts and crafts were patronized by Mughal

Emperors which were popular all over the world for their beauty and fineness. Commonly

the foreign traders used to employ local artisans at the production centers which were

established at various places in India by them. Several things were brought to India from

other countries. Glassware was brought from Europe, satin from West Asia and from

China raw silk and porcelain were brought. Foreign luxury goods were highly popular

among the members of royal family and in the houses of the nobles of court. Precious

stones, corals, scented oils, perfume and velvets were main items which brought from

abroad. (62)

Decline of Indian Trade:

The monopoly of Indian products could not continue its impact ultimately in

the last portion of eighteenth century the English manufacturing items were succeeded in

controlling the Indian markets. Another reason of loosing of markets, local people did not

try to develop commercial technology which had impressed Europeans already. These

things became the reason of political instability and the reduction of revenue. During the

last portion of eighteenth century the village handicraft began to collapse and village

prosperity started to decline. Indian agriculture and manufacturing did not adopt new

changes and was surpassed by Europe and china. Mughal did not desire in naval power.

Neither did Mughal take interest in promoting the sea power nor did try to save the sea

route for hajj pilgrims. They just took interest in luxuries of life. During the middle of

eighteen century the political instability of Mughal Empire led to veritable collapse of

Indian shipping. The old ports like Surat, Calicut and Masulipatam lost their importance.

Bombay, Madras and Calcutta developed as famous ports under British patronage.

Internal needs were increased because hundreds of rulers appeared in Indian political

system. Not only did new rulers started to purchase weapons and uniform for their armies

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but also luxury goods which could express their status and importance. As the demand of

foreign made things was increased, it provided a vast market for European manufacturing

goods into India. It also became reason of rise of dynamic commercial classes like new

nawabs and zamindars. Not only had this political-cum-merchants classes acquired

political importance but also succeeded in proving themselves as bankers. These new

nawabs and zamindars provided loans to merchants and traders and provided advances to

artisans as well to support them in manufacturing of textile goods. (63) The textile

industry was a major component of artisan production and probably accounted for

between 20 and 30 percent of the local artisan population of towns and villages. Perhaps

60,000 specialist weavers and dependants lived in the Benares region, 250,000 in Awadh,

200,000 in Rohilkhand and 30,000 in the lower Doab. There were three levels of activity.

Production of the highest quality was designed for royal and aristocratic consumption and

for export by the East India Company. The second level production was for local military

and small royal courts. And the third level production for other peoples. (64)

Relations of Surat Administration with Merchants:

Surat was a famous port in Mughal period where Christian, Muslims, Hindus,

Jews, Janis and Parsis were residing for trade. This port was managed by the governor of

Surat. The every governor of Surat had to follow the policy of imperial court. The

emperor always adopted a policy to develop relations with Muslim and non Muslim

traders. Although the rulers of Surat adopted trade promoting policy but some trading

community had to face difficulties from the administration. The wealthy traders like Virji

Vora and Mohandas Parekh and others were enjoying favors from the court but the

average business runners had to face many problems. During the 17 century there are

several examples when the small bunyas had to face the wrath of governor or his agents.

Sometimes the bunyas succeeded in reaching to imperial with their complaints which

sometimes became the reason of termination of governor but some time such complains

increased the problems of concerned merchants. During the year 1670, the governor of

Surat Mirza Saif–ullah, adopted a cruel policy towards non Muslim merchants. In this

situation some principal merchant wrote letter against the said governor to the imperial

court but the brother of the governor who was a high officer in the court, succeeded in

stopping the letter and sent it back to his brother, the governor of Surat. The governor

called for the merchants to his court and beat the principal merchants with his slippers

and seized two large ships. Having informed about the departure of Hindu merchants

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under the fear of the attack of Shivaji, he charged a million dinars as fine, saying this

money had to pay to the soldiers as salary who would take field in the case of Shivaji

attack. The Hindu and Jain merchants organized their own ‘Mahajan organization’ which

protected their interests. The perceptive governors always maintained good relations with

merchant communities because they were awarded that the trade could bring prosperity

and development. Whenever the complaint was brought to the court of governors, they

took action and punished to the culprits. Once Aurangzeb ordered a general religious

persecution of Hindu bunyas merchants but the governor opposed this order. On the other

side to stop this order, exodus of Bunyas was prepared from Surat under the leadership of

Bhimji Parikh. European traders maintained direct relations with Agra and they were the

masters of sea and behind them there were powerful commercial organizations. They

recruited guards and purchase guns for the protection of their factories. They had power

to take step against any injustice. Europeans often offered bribe to the governors which

was accepted. They history of Surat in 17th Century was full of conflicts between

Europeans and local traders and administration. In all such cases the Europeans remained

successful. In 1648 a group of 150 armed men attacked the Dutch factory, this huge group

interred in the city and the governor and officers were unaware, it was strange. In 1659

the Surat became a garrison more than of trading centre. In 1664 the governor Inayat

Khan failed to defense the town when Shivaji attacked it but Europeans supported the

governor while providing fire power. When this news reached in the court not only had

Aurangzeb rewarded the English men but also gave them concession in custom duties.

The emperor Aurangzeb wanted to build warships with the help of Europeans but ja’far

khan discourage him by saying that the Mughal Empire could not trust in foreigners.

Anyhow Aurangzeb ordered to Ortencio Bronzone, an Italian to built a small ship which

when ready was flooded on a great tank. The European craftsmen demonstrated their

skills while managing the movement of ship and piloting the vessel and firing off the

guns mounted on it. At this Aurangzeb concluded that to sail over and fight on the ocean

were not things for the people of Hindustan but it was doubtful because Indian people had

reason able experience in ship-building and sailing. The English and Dutch were used the

ships built by Indian at Gandevi, Navsari, Daman and Kalyan. A significant part of the

crew on them was Indian. (65)

163

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166

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167

Chapter No. 4

Muslim and non-Muslim Educational Relations

Muslims’ interest towards Education:

Muslims took interest in education in every period after the advent of Islam as

a religious principle. With the passage of time not only the Muslims took interest in

Islamic sciences and physical sciences but also promoted secular sciences. For this

purpose the examples can be given of Baghdad, Cairo and other principal cities of Islamic

world, where Muslim and non Muslim scholars not only had preserved the Greek, Iranian

and Indian sciences but also presented the whole knowledge to the world for the further

study and research. Although this knowledge had brought the news of prosperity for

Muslim society but it also encouraged the thinking of materialism. When the Mongol

forces destroyed the Bagdad, the Muslim scholars converted their attention towards

religious education and ignored the knowledge of Greek. So al-Ghazzali and Nizam-ul-

Mulk reshaped the education system while reviving the pure Islamic sciences in Baghdad

during 12th century. According to them the secular sciences had confused the minds of

people and under the influence of secular sciences different sects like Mutazilis, Islamilis

and the Sufis were appeared in Muslim society. Then al-Ghazzali introduced moral values

in education which resulted eternal bless. This educational system reached in India and

put a reasonable impact on the Muslim society in Subcontinent. Mathematics was an

important subject of this education system because it was used by Muslims to divide the

property of deceased Muslims. In this educational system, the minor preference was given

to medicine and body sciences as well as logic and philosophy. The other subjects like

physics, chemistry, mathematics, biology, astronomy and geography were ignored.

Although the secular sciences were deprived from the support of Muslim rulers after the

destruction of Bagdad but the individual efforts were also reported to develop the secular

sciences in Islamic world. Some Muslim rulers promoted astronomical studies like Ulugh

Beg Mirza who established the astronomical research institution in Bukhara and produced

astronomical tables. The emperor Akbar was the first Mughal ruler of India who

encouraged to the teachers to teach secular sciences in educational institutions. In spite of

the imperial patronage the Muslims did not take much interest in these sciences. Muslims

individual efforts could not create any good result in the development of the secular

sciences and consequently the Muslims were deprived from the quality of enquiring and

research. When Al-Baruni converted his attentions towards mathematical geography

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some rigid doctors did not support this and he had to write “Tahid Nihayati’l-Amakin

Tashih Masafati’ Masakin” in his defense. The Turks rulers tried to promote astronomical

education in madrasas which were working in the then Islamic world. Although some

rulers tried to promote secular sciences in madrasas but there are several names of Turk

rulers who participated in establishing the rigid educational system. Ghaznavids rulers

first time introduced the madrasa system in India which was followed by their successors

and other Indian dynasties. So the Indians had to follow the educational pattern of Al-

Ghazali while ignoring the secular sciences. Although the Emperor Aurangzeb was great

lover of religious sciences but he did not give the high status to his teacher because the

teacher deprived the emperor from secular sciences. Akbar tried to revive the secular

sciences in his empire but in declining period of Mughal Empire, the Mulla Nizam-ud-din

developed a new madrasa system while giving the name of Dar-i-Nizami. When the

European nations came in India and they succeeded in establishing their political

authority, the Indian education system had no worth to resist against the educational

system of European nations. Then the western education entered into Indian culture while

destroying the old values and forms of education. (1) N. Hanif has copied the words of

Professor H. A. R. Gibb while saying this, “The earliest theologians in Islam were

scholars who had been suddenly introduced to Greek philosophy and under its

fascination, set out to systematize the teachings of Quran in agreement with the doctrines

of Aristotle and the Neo-Platonists. It was a perfectly legitimate object. That is what

theology is for to state the truths of religious (which are, so far, only intuitively known) in

terms of the highest intellectual concepts of the time. But one thing the theologian may

not do. He may not, on the pretext of accommodating religion and philosophy, question

the truths he has set out to defend. At this point theology stops short. But these early

Muslims went on, with the result that the great body of believers was outraged. The

orthodox theologian evolved, in their turn, a dialectic weapon, to the cutting edge of

Greek logic they fitted in place of the universals of Greek speculative thought, the

positive doctrines of the Quran and with this they ultimately drove the Hellenizers from

the field. It was not any intrinsic superiority in their logic but the intuitive clinging of the

masses of the community to the truth of Quran that really defeated the Hellenizers. That

the Quran is anticlassical in spirit seems tom me undeniable; to that extent popular and

the scholastic reactions were in harmony” N. Haneef more says, “This repudiation of

Greek philosophy, which was paving the way for modernity in Islamic though, by

orthodox theologians resulted in some Muslim thinkers pursuing philosophy for its own

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sake. Thus men like Al-Kindi, al-Farabi, Ibn-Sina and Ibn-Rushd was philosophers not

theologians. The fact had for its consequence a complete reversal of the process of change

in harmony with growing knowledge in the Islamic world. The movement to divide

learning into subjects that were indigenous to Islam such as, on the one hand,

jurisprudence, traditional lore, grammar, lexicography, history, the study of literature,

poetry and metrics; and on the other, science, philosophy, and mathematics which were

regarded alien and a danger to Islamic orthodoxy, greaduly set a seal on the movement

onward in the intellectual adventure of Muslims in the Middle ages. Scholars and

religious philosophers had to work under the watchful and suspecting eyes of champions

of orthodoxy and of a people jealous of the purity of their faith. Many of them accused of

heresy and persecuted-and their works were burned. Some were condemned to exile and

some even murdered. A curious but significant development takes place as a consequence

of theologians separating themselves from Greek learning and denouncing thinkers

pursuing it. In contrast, in the West, Christian theologians were making the greatest

contributions under the inspiration of the writings of the Muslim philosophers.” (2) N.

Haneef also copies the words of Christopher Dawson, “The development of Western

theological speculation was decisively influenced by the discovery of Arabian philosophy

and of the philosophy of Aristotle. St. Thomas Aquinas in the 13th century was greatly

influenced by Aristotelianism as conveyed to Europe through Latin translations from

Arabic in effecting an understanding between Christianity and the new knowledge. Ibn-

Rushad’s influence was no less significant. A spirit of enquiry and passion for knowledge

was stirring in the West. Toledo, the cosmopolitan centre, with its mixed population of

Jews Muslims and Christians attracted the new intelligentsia of the West in quest of

knowledge in the 12th century-more so because of the school of translators founded by

Archbishop Raymond 1. The entire Aristotelian corpus was translated from Arabic to

Latin and this was followed by translations of the chief works of the great Islamic and

Jewish Philosophers and religious thinkers, al-Kindi, al-Farabi, at Battani, Ibn-Sina and

Al-Ghazzali. It was from Muslim Toledo that Europe first learnt to understand that

learning knows no frontiers, that it is universal, global and human; it concerns mankind as

a whole, without respect of race or religion. Entering Europe through philosophy, Toledo

Muslim philosophy exercised a profound influence on its theology. It provided an

intellectual stimulus for the reconciliation of faith and reason leading to developments of

far reaching consequences over centuries.” (3)

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Education before Mughals:

When the Muslim reached in India the education was not taken under the state

responsibility and allowed the Muslims and non Muslims to get education from old

educational institutions. Although they could not encourage the secular sciences in India

but the Muslim rulers established (schools) and madrasas (colleges) while following the

orthodox educational system which had been introduced by Al-Gazzali as mentioned

above. In this educational system the non Muslims were totally ignored. As Bhanwar Lal

Dwivedi says, “The education of the majority of the population was not regarded as a

responsibility of the state. A few schools and colleges were opened for the public and

they too were based on Quran and Arabic literature. The colleges were not necessarily

large institutions. It may mean a class attached to mosque with a single teacher in

charge…….. The maktabs and madrasas opened were meant for Muslim religious

education. The Hindus were totally neglected. The result was that most of the population

of Hindu remained illiterate. Some Kayastha families began to study Persian during the

reign of Skandar Lodi and that too for getting service in the court. The Muslims were

least interested in schools education……. Instead of being educated they preferred

playing, hunting and being admitted in military where they got a chance of sudden rise.”

(4) Although the Hindus were neglected by the rulers but individual interest succeeded in

keeping the flame of learning among Hindus. Ibn Batuta had shared the information about

thirteen schools for girls and 23 schools for boys in Hanaur. (5) With the Muslim invaders

some learned Muslim scholars also arrived here who tried to understand the doctrines of

local religious and secular sciences, among them one learned man was Al-Baruni. While

staying in India Abu Rihan Al-Beruni watched the Indian culture and shared the

information in his writings. He told that the Hindus did not like the foreigners and called

them Mleechs and disliked to make any contact with them. He says that the Hindus

believe in one god while worshiping the images of different deities. He also discussed the

celebration of different Hindu festivals which expressed the prosperity of the people. Al.

Baruni found some difficulty in learning of Sanskrit books because the pundits dislike

giving the books to the foreigners. (6) Anyhow the educational system which was

introduced in India had some aims.

Aims of Education:

Professor A. L. Shrivastava also said that the Indian education was controlled

by religious scholars and the Indians had ignored secular education. There were no proper

171

attention towards history, philosophy, Sanskrit language and literature. This policy helped

the Molvis to control the education who wanted to develop orthodoxy thoughts in society.

The most importance was given to develop the personality of persons. For this purpose in

schools the children used “Takktis” while learning alphabets and counting. The teachers

spent most of their time in improving the arithmetic’s skills and hand writing of the

students. Kabaddi was very popular game in India. The principal aims of Muslim

education the spread of knowledge, propagation of Islam, propagation of a particular

morality, propagation of Muslim principles and social customs and enhancement of

religion in Muslims. (7) In Muslim period education progressed in slow way. They

established maktabs (schools) and madrasas (Colleges) and supported them while

allotting jagirs to meet their expenses. The madrasas and maktabs were run inside or

outside of the mosques. The Muslim rulers gave high status to Muslim and Non Muslim

teachers in their courts. It was compulsory for the state employ to learn Arabic and

Persian languages. So the non Muslims started to learn these languages from Muslim

scholars and doctors. Although the education of that period was religious based but the

teachers also tried to give that education which would helpful the people to earn their

livelihood. So the teachers used to provide the training in the fields like military sciences,

painting, sculpturing, constructing of houses and producing of weapons. The training of

such fields was given to the people by the experts of these fields. The Mughal Emperors

expressed their interest in history while writing Baber Nama, Akbar Nama and Jahangir

Nama as well as other books. Consequently the people of all communities converted their

attention towards history writings and succeeded in producing huge material in this field.

Urdu language was reached at its peak in the period of Mughal rulers. Many Muslim and

non Muslim writers and poets produced their creative works in Urdu under Mughal

patronage. (8)

Organization of Educational System:

The education of a Muslim child started with the ceremony of “Bismillah, at

the age of four years, four months and four days. The ceremony of Bismillah was only

celebrated in India. It is said that it was similar to the Upnayan and the Pabbaja

ceremonies, the former was celebrated by Hindus in Vedic period and the later was

celebrated by Buddhists. While wearing new dress the child reached to the teacher for

education that started the lesson with the recitation of verses from Quran. The primary

education was given in maktab schools. The teachers of these schools were known as

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Moulvis. In first day of school the Arabic alphabets were taught to the students and

encouraged for the recitation of Holy Quran. These institutions were attached mostly with

mosques. Although the most importance was given to reading and writing of Arabic and

Persian texts but the recitation of the Quran and the training of offering the nimas

(prayers) as well as the skills of calling azaan were important part of education. In the

same way arithmetic formulas, drafting, conversation, letter writing skills were also

taught in these schools. After the completion of the maktab education then madrasas

offered the higher education to the students. This madrasas were patronized by the rulers.

The teachers delivered the higher education through their lectures to the Muslim and non

Muslim students and these students could also enjoy the hostel facility. These hostels

were under the possession of nobles or owned by the state. These madaras not only had

provided the education of Islamic religious sciences but also taught the education of

Persian grammar, literature, logic, philosophy, law, astrology, history, geography,

agriculture and medicine. In these madrasas Hindu students also came to get knowledge

and education in Sanskrit language. In Mughal Empire some educational centers also

established for the specialization in some particular subjects. Under Mughal rule the most

preference was given to reading, writing and arithmetic. The teachers provided guidance

to every student and also got help from monitors to maintain discipline. The madrasas

administration tried to develop good relationship among students and teachers.

Aurangzeb received his teacher Mullah Shah Saleh with warm arms in his court.

Although the teachers were received a few money as their salary but they had possessed

respectable status in society. The teachers could beat the students with stick to control the

students and brilliant students and reputed teachers were received awards from the courts

of rulers. The education was given through the mediums of Persian and Arabic but the

successors of Aurangzeb developed the Urdu language. This education system not only

put an impact on Muslim culture but also its influence can be seen on Hindu culture. The

highly skilled and learned persons from the Muslim and non Muslim communities were

taken to the high offices of state. The educational institution provided the experts in

different fields. Females were discouraged from getting education but ladies of royal

families received education from special teachers. (9)

Mughal Emperors’ Efforts for the Promotion of Education:

Zahir-ud-din Muhammad Babur (1526-1530) was not only the great conqueror

but also a great writer of the period and wrote Babar Nama in Turkish language. He was

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also a poet of excellence. He opened an institution Shuhrat-a-Aam for the promotion of

literary work and encouraged Muslim and Hindu scholars to take part in this work. (10)

While seeing Babur’s interest in literature, art, history and other educational fields, it can

be assumed easily that his children would have got education from the learned men of the

age. Humayun gathered learned men in his court. Yousuf b. Muhammad was one of his

court physicians who wrote Riaz-ul-Advia, Jamah-ul-Fawaid and Fawaid-ul-Akhbar.

Humayun had a great interest in astronomy. (11) Humayun also took interest in literature

and he had a big library in his palace and he opened several madrasas, maktabs and

libraries. Tazkirat-ul-Wakiyat was a famous writing which was written in the rule of

Humayun. He also converted Shermandal into a library. It can be assumed that Hindu

nobles and scholars also visited this library. He established a Madrisa in Delhi like as

university where people came from different cities. (12)

Akbar’s Interest in the Promotion of Education:

Emperor Akbar converted his attention towards education while encouraging

the teachers to teach logic, arithmetic, menstruation, geometry, astronomy, accountancy,

public administration and agriculture to the students. This scheme gave a secular

foundation to the education. Although he was illiterate but he showed high interest in the

early education of children. The child education is mentioned in detail in Ain-i-Akbari

and this information is being shared in the words of Bhanwar Lal Dwivedi, “Ain 25 of the

Ain-i-Akbari (book Second) is devoted to the organization of elementary education for

children. His Majesty orders that every school-boy should first learn to write the letters of

the alphabet and also learn to trace their several forms. He ought to learn the shape and

name of each letter, which may be done in two days, and then the boy should proceed to

write the joined letters. They may be practiced for a week, after which the boy should

learn some prose and poetry by heart and then commit to memory some verses in praise

of God or moral sentences each written separately. Care should be taken that he learns to

understand everything himself but the teacher may assist him a little. He then ought, for

some time, to be daily practiced in writing a hemistich (half lime of a verse) or a verse,

and soon acquire a current hand. The teacher ought especially to look after five things-

Knowledge of the letters, meaning of words, the hemistich, the verse and the former

lesson. If this method of teaching be adopted, a boy will learn in month or even in a day

what it took others years to understand, so much that people will be quite astonished” (13)

Akbar was the first ruler who took interest in the education of all communities. In his rule

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not only the education of all communities promoted but also the educational relations of

Muslims and non Muslims were developed. He summoned the doctors of different

communities for the promotion of religious education and arranged debates with them. In

the Akbar court there were nine personalities who were the great scholars of the age and

the history preserved them while saying nine jewels of Akbar. Abul Fazl, Faizi, Abdur-

Rehim Khankhana, Abdul Qadir, Balayusu, Birbal, Tansen, Man Sing and Todar Mal

were the authorities in their fields. He established a lot of schools and colleges for the

education of Hindus and Muslims. He supported Hindus and Muslim to secure the

knowledge of their own religious. The Emperor Akbar patronage of literature and several

Indian languages were developed in his rule. He supported the Hindu, Christian,

Zoroastrian and Jain scholars while giving cash awards and allotting jagir. Ebadat Khana

became popular place for educational discussion like a university. He had a big library

consists of many books provided by many Muslim and non Muslim scholars. Faizi was

the head of that library. Akbar also supported education department while giving Jagirs to

the meet the expenses of madrasas. (14) Dr. P. Saran Says “It sounds almost like our

modern scientific methods of education to read that Akbar laid down some very definite

instructions as to the method of teaching in schools in order to save the great waste of

time involved in the methods which were than in vogue. The teachers are enjoyed first to

practice the pupils in writing and then to make them commit to memory some morel

sayings and precepts. “Care is to be taken that he learns to understand everything himself,

but the teacher may assist him a little.” The following subjects were prescribed by the

emperor as essential for everyone to study according to the need of the time: morals and

social behavior, arithmetic, notations of numbers, agriculture, geometry, astronomy, the

science of foretelling, household economy, rules of government, medicine, logic, the tabi,

riyazi and ilahi sciences and history. Those who studied Sanskrit were required to study

grammar and philology, logic, Vadant and Patanjal.” (15) It is not confirmed whether the

students of different communities were studied the whole above mentioned sciences or

the portion of these courses in different grades but it is true that patronage of Akbar for

education encouraged the people to go to higher education. Although the schools and

seminaries of the all directions of Mughal state depended usually on private enterprise but

these schools were patronized by the Empire under irregular ways. Not only had the

earlier Emperors supported the Muslim and non Muslim educational institutions while

providing financial support but Aurangzeb also gave funds to the educational institutions.

(16) The same scholar expresses these words about the educational system of Akbar, “He

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knew nothing of the growth of a popular consciousness in Europe and little or nothing of

the wide educational possibilities that the Church had been working out in the West. His

upbringing in Islam and his native genius made it plain to him that a great nation in India

could only be cemented by common ideas upon a religious basis, but the knowledge of

how such solidarity could be created and sustained by universal schools, cheap books and

a university system, at once ordained and free to think, to which the modern state is still

feeling its way, was as impossible to him as a knowledge of steam-boats or aero

planes…..The essential factor in the organization of a living state, the world is coming to

realize, is the organization of an education. And he had no class of men available who

would suggest such an idea to him or help him to carry it out. The Moslem teachers in

India were not so much teachers as conservators of an intense bigotry; they did not want a

common mind in India, but only a common intolerance in Islam. The Brahmins who had

the monopoly of teaching had the conceit and slackness of hereditary privilege. Yet

though Akbar made no general educational scheme for India, he set up a number of

Moslem and Hindu schools. He knew less and did more for India in these matters than the

British who succeeded him. British viceroys have aped his magnificence, his costly tents

and awnings, his palatial buildings and elephants of state, but none have gone far enough

beyond the political outlook of this mediaeval Turkoman to attempt that popular

education which is an absolute necessity to India before she can play her fitting part in the

commonwealth of mankind.”(17).

The Efforts of Jahangir and Shah Jahan for the Promotion of Education:

Jahangir also showed interest in literature, art and paintings. He established a

lot of maktabs and madrasas and supported pathshalas as well. He wrote Jahangirnama.

The Hindu poet Surdas, Tulsidas and Kashavadas were the famous poet of his court.

Jahangir adopted a different policy to support the education department. When any Amir

of his court died, his jagir was then given to the madrasas under imperial decree. Akbar

also constructed buildings for madrasas. Jahangir also increased the allowances of

teachers. (18) Shah Jahan interested in arts, literature and education. He did not introduce

any new educational policy and just followed the policies which were introduced by his

predecessors. It is said that he did not open new educational institutions but renewed the

old educational institutions while supporting the teachers with jagirs. His son Dara was

the great lover of education. He gathers a lot of the learned men from different

communities in his court and showed a great interest in the philosophies of different

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religions. Shah Jahan mostly took interest in the construction of building. For this purpose

he gathered the builders of different communities in his court. Shah Jahan built a royal

Madrasa near Royal mosque and he also repaired the Madrasa Dar-ul-Baqa. (19) His son

Dara Shikuh was a learned prince of the age. He had great interest in Sanskrit, Hindu

literature and Hindu mysticism. He was also expert of Arabic and Persian. He got

education of Persian language from Sheikh Harvi Khurasani and wrote a lot of books. He

converted the Beds into Persian with the help of learned Hindus. He also translated the

Upanishads under the name of Sirrul-asrar (the secrets of the secrets) or Sirr-i-Akbar (the

Great secret). He also translated Bhaghagavat Gita, Ramain, and Yoga Vasistha. He

discussed the religious doctrine with Baba Lal Das and wrote an article under the name of

Dialogue of Baba Lal Das. He also wrote Safina-tul-Aulia, Nadir-ul-Nukat, Hasnat-ul-

Arfien, Risalah-ul-Haqnuma and Majma-ul-Bahren. (20)

Aurangzeb’s Educational Policy:

Aurangzeb made new educational policy while banning the old policy.

Aurangzeb also struggled hard to promote education for all communities. He very first

time introduced vocational education for women. (21) During the reign of Aurangzeb a

lot of famous madrasas were opened in the whole country and fixed stipends for teachers

and students. He fixed this allowance according to the grade of learning. He fixed one

Anna for the student of Mizan as a daily allowance. In the same way the students who

were in the grade of Munshaib, used to receive two annas from the state and the students

of higher grade like Sharhe Waqayah got eight annas daily. Aurangzeb issued an order to

the provincial diwans (mostly Hindus or Jains) to provide scholarship to the boys of

Mizan and Kashshaf. The maktabs usually exists in mosques. The madrasas (colleges)

were no more than a class of few students. Separate buildings were constructed for them.

(22) Mirat Ahmadi describes that Aurangzeb took steps for the education of Buhras while

appointing teachers and arranging examination system. The results were sent directly to

the emperor. Not only the emperor provided grants to the state schools but also a lot of

examples can be produced in which the emperor gave the financial support the

institutions established by private enterprises. In 1678 he fixed a reasonable amount for

the restoration of the schools of Gujarat and in 1697 he gave the villages of Sohindra and

Siha to the Maddrasa of Akram-ud-Din Khan. In the same way he gave financial support

to Madrasa Saif Khan. The Madrasa Rahimiya and Midrisa Nizamia of Faringi Mahal

were established in the reign of Aurangzeb and these Madrasas put a remarkable impact

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on the educational history of India. In the reign of Aurangzeb the Hindu and Muslim boys

got education from the same teachers and for higher education they went in specific

institutions. Hindus often used to go to Banaras for the higher education because the

degree of Benares was very valuable. (23) In this period the Muslim scholars also

founded madrasas. In Biana Qazi Rafi-ud-Din founded a madrasa. (24)

The Management for Education Department:

Under Mughal rule education was managed by religious and judicial

departments. These departments were supervised by Qazis and pundits. These schools

were unable to provide higher education or higher knowledge to the Muslim and non

Muslim students. It is difficult to trace out the detail information about schools and

seminaries which were working in that period and fulfilling educational needs of the

people. The Mughal rulers supported the extraordinary creations and learned man while

giving gifts and high status in the court. While following the footsteps of Mughal

emperors the Muslim and non Muslim court nobles also participated in establishing

schools and colleges. During Akbar reign the Hindus and Muslims students studied in the

same schools and colleges. (25) The education system which introduced by the Mughal

emperors had a quality to give the training to the people of India which could help them

to earn their living. The schools and colleges were working in every city and villages.

While ignoring vernacular languages, the Mughal rulers tried to promote Sanskrit, Persian

and Arabic languages. The Hindu and Muslims both had well disciplined schools and

colleges. There was no university in Muslim education. There were no regular

examination system for the promotion to next grades but the students were awarded

degrees who completed the specific courses. War training was also given to the Muslim

students in madares against Hindu Kings. In the same way the Hindu teachers also trained

the Hindu boys against Muslim rulers. The education was compulsory in Mughal period

especially for boys. This education system had many merits like well managed, promoter

of values, personal touch, practical stressing, and supporter of literature, free educational

system and specific education system. In the same way there were many demerits in this

educational system like unsuitable, misbalanced, promoter of materialism, no concept of

university education, one sided curricula, lack of co-ordination, low status of teachers,

women ignoring education and no development of reasoning. (26) It is interesting to share

that financial support was given through the non Muslim diwans. Basham says, “Other

Hindu castes and classes rose to prominence upon the reorganization of the finance and

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revenue departments. High officers, known as diwans, were generally by caste khattris

and Kayasthas, and occasionally Brahmans. The jagirdars also employed Hindu diwans.

The revenue returns of Jagirs, and the rent-free land grants of Hindus and Muslim

scholars, theologians, and charitable institutions, passed through the hands of Hindu

diwwans. Many ‘ulama’ and sufis, resentful yet powerless, nourished hostility to the

Hindus as a class.” (27)

Mughal Syllabus and Books for Maktabs and Madrasas:

In the schools and colleges of Mughal period it was necessary for students to

study books on moral, arithmetic formulas, the notation peculiar to arithhmatic,

agriculture, geometry, astronomy, physiognomy, house hold matters, politics, medicine,

logic, the natural science, higher mathematics and metaphysics and theology and history.

These know ledges were acquired slowly. The Hindu students had to learn Sanskrit, the

Bayakaran, Niyai, Bedanta and Patangla. Some books also were the part of syllabus like

Talima Azizi, Inshaa Faiq, Ruqaate Alamgir, Gulistan, Maktubati Abul Fazal, Bahare

Danish, Anware, Suhaili, Sch Nasra Zuhuri and Waqa’e Nia’mat Khan e ‘Ali. In the same

way some books of poetry also part of syllabus like Karima, Ma Muquima, Kaliqe, Bari,

Bustan, Yousuf Zulaikha, Qasaide Urfi, Qasaidi Badr Chach, Diwane Ghani and

Sikandara Nama. In the declining period of Mughals Molvi Nizam-ud-din who was

contemporary of Shah Waliullah, arranged a education syllabus which is known as Dars-

e-nizami. While ignoring previous subjects, Dars-e-nizami introduced some subjects like

Sarf, Nahv, Mantiqe (logic), Hikmat (philosophy), Riazi (mathematics), Balaghat

(rhetoric), Figh (jurisprodence), Usul-e-Fiqh (principles of jurisprudence), Kalam

(dialectics), Tafsir (exegesis of Quran), Had its (tradition) and some years later Adab

(literature), Faraiz (obligation) and Usul-e-Hadis (principles of Hadis).”(28) The

historians have preserved the name of some more books in prose, poetry, fiction, history

and ethics which were taught in the schools of Mughal period where the children of

Muslim and non Muslim communities were studding. The list of such books has been

shared. The Mughal emperors advised to add many books in prose like Rukkat a Abul

Fazl, Letters of Chandra Bhan Brahman, Letters of Molvi Munir, Insha-i-Yusufi, Insha-i-

Madho Ram, writings of Shelikh Inayatulla, Bahr-i-Sukhan, Insha-i-kalifa, Khealat-i-

Nadir, Dustoor-us-Sibyan, Epistles of Shaida and Mulla Tugra, Story of Lal-Chand,

Translation of Teelavati by Sheikh Faizi and Writings of Sheikh Nasr-i-Jauhri etc. In

Mughal period some books in poetry also attached with the school education like Shah

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Nama of Firdausi, Poems of Amir khusro, Tuh-Fatu-a-Abrar, Tujhatul Abrar, writings of

Nizami-Sikandar Nama, Makhjan-ul-Asrar, Haft-Pakar, Shirin-Khusro, Laila-Majnu,

Dewan-Hafiz, Khakani, Anwari, Sham-a-Navroz, Tahir-a-Fariyadi, Sadi and Salih, Kasia-

Badar-a-Chach, Arfi and Faizi. In this period some fiction books also studied in

madarasas like Tutiya Nama of Nakkashi, Anwar-a-Danish of Husain Baiz Kashafi,

Aiyar-a-Danish of Abul-Fazl, Shah-Nasr-Juhri of Inayat-Ulla were important texts in the

Mughal schools. It is said that some books of history also important part of madrasa

education like Jafar-Nama-a-Kangra by Raja Hussain, Akbar Nama of Abul Fazl, Ikbat

Nama a Jahangiri by Abul Fazl, Jafar Nama by Sharif-ud-din Ali Yazdi, Tarikh-a-Firoz-

Shahi and Razm Nama. In same way some books about ethics also interred in the higher

education like Akhlaqi-a-Nasiri, Akhlaqi-a-Jalali, Akhlaq-i-Mushani, and Acts of Sharif-

ud-Din Maniri, Naizhut-ul-Arwah, and Mashavi of Maulana Room were taught in

Mughal period. (29)

Principal Education Centers in Mughal Period:

Delhi appeared as principal educational city for the education of Muslim and

non Muslim communities in Mughal rule. Not only had they promoted old madaras like

madras Nasria but also founded new colleges. The Hindu nobles also founded their new

religious educational institution. Humayun founded a madrasa for the higher education of

astronomy, geography, Persian grammar, Arabic grammar and philosophy. The foster

mother of Akbar established an educational institution in Delhi in 1561 and Badauni got

education from this madrasa. There was also a missionary school in Delhi where the kids

of local Christians came to get education. Agra was also an educational city. The Mughal

rulers not only tried to promote the education of this capital city but also encouraged to

establish training centers for different fields. It is said that Emperor Akbar founded an

educational institution that can be given the status of university, where the doctors of

different communities were invited for religious debates. ‘In his book, Muslim Education

in India, Mr. Jaffar described this situation as following: “Men of learning and erudition

from Arabia, Persia, and Bokhara poured into it in ever increasing numbers at the

prospect of receiving better patronage from the rulers of India, who were remarkable for

their munificence…….The result was that, in course of time, Agra grew into a great

literary city, containing several schools and colleges where people flocked from far and

wide for higher education.” So the learned man of Christianity, Hinduism, Jainism, and

Zoroastrianism used to deliver lectures in these universities and many scholars wrote

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books in different fields and topics. Jaunpur was also popular as the educational city

where Muslims and non Muslims came to get education. Muhammad Shah established

twenty educational institutions in this city. Bihar, Fatahpur Sikri, Sindh, Lahore, Multan,

Bengal, Gujarat, Surat and other cities were famous for education and thousands of boys

from different communities came to get education from the existing educational

institutions. (30) He established a collage in Agra where the scholars from Shiraz used to

deliver lectures. Jesuits also established a collage there. Emperor Humayun set up a

madrasa at Delhi and Madrasa-i-Begum (Khair-ul-Manjil) as mentioned above

established by Maham Anaga, the foster mother of Akbar and was a famous educational

institution where students from far off areas came to get education from the madrasa; the

institution also provided the hostel facility to those students who came from other cities.

Shah Jahan also built a royal collage near jama masjid. The educational institutions were

famous in providing specialization in different fields of learning. For example the

madrasa of Shah Wali Ullah in Delhi was providing specialization in different fields of

Islamic education like Hadis and Tafsir. Farangi Mahal madrasa of Luckhnow was

famous in the specialization in jurisprudence (Figha) and Sialkot madrasa was famous for

its grammar specialization. Gujarat and Jaunpur also were also famous for their

educational institutions during Mughal period and Jaunpur was called Siraz-i-Hindustan.

The emperor Aurangzeb struggled to make Jaunpur as important educational city.

Kashmir was also an important area of learning. Sher Shah built a college in Narnaul.

(31) During this period Agra, Delhi, Fatah Purr Sikri, Jaunpur, Bihar, Ajmir, Banaras,

Bijapur, Golkunda, Hyderabad, Malwa, Goa, Khandesh, Gujarat, Lacknow, Sialkot and

Bengal were the principal educational cities where the students of different communities

came to get education from Muslim and non Muslim teachers. In spite of the struggle for

the promotion of secular sciences the educational system developed materialism (32) and

the educational system could not get rid from rigid and non creative thoughts. The Hindus

were neglected in this educational system, some Brahmins and Baniyas could read or

write. The Sanskrit was the language which was used by the pundits and Hindu learned

men, it was difficult to give education to the people in this language. But this age

produced many great scholars. (33) Even English learned men had acknowledged the

maturity of the culture of India which possessed the valuable work in different fields like

ethics, religious philosophy, mathematics, astronomy and in other sciences. Many

scholars admitted that no doubt the nation which succeeded in developing ‘Upanishads,

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Buddhism, decimal system and an international market for its handicraft textiles, for

example, could be great once again.’ (34)

Organization of Educational System:

Muktabs were performing the services to provide primary education but the

Madrasas were famous for the higher education as well as training institutions. The

principal objective of education was the promotion of religious beliefs. The Emperor

Akbar had struggled to develop the education in practical shape. But in spite of these

efforts the education could not get rid from its religious shape and form. The Muslim

students studied the Islamic religious sciences and Hindu students studied Hindu religious

texts in these madrasas. The Islamic religious sciences were not compulsory for Hindu

boys. Abul Fazl had described the educational system in Ain-i-Akbari which had been

introduced by Akbar. Vedanta, Juris prudence and Pantanjali were important texts for the

education of Hindu boys. But the subjects like medicine, history, geography, economics,

political science, philosophy, astrology, law and mathematic were taught to the Muslim

and Hindu students and in these madaras. Hindu teachers also were appointed. Muslim

and non Muslim writers were appointed to write the major events of the time by Mughal

Emperors. (35) In the declining period of Mughal rulers from 1707 to 1759 in Punjab

there were several types of educational institutions were working like Quran schools,

Persian schools, Gurmukhi schools, Sanskrit schools, the Mahajani schools, Urdu schools

and Hindi schools. (36)

Examination System:

When the teachers found some competency in their students about different

sciences then they advised them to go in some higher educational institutions. The

teachers evaluate the ability of students through their own way. The main purpose of

education was to develop the personality. There was not a proper system for declaring a

student failed or passed. It cannot be said that all the students had similar abilities. There

was no annual and semester examination system. The students’ abilities were evaluated in

different ways like in debate sessions which were arranged in courts and poets groups.

The practical situation of life was the best way to evaluate the ability. The ability of a

student was carefully evaluated on such occasions. The successful people were received

awards and rewards. The students who could not show good performance, they were not

advice to go to next grades. The state gave cash prizes to the brilliant students. (37)

There was no regular academic certification system. The degree was given according to

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the ability of students. The students who completed the education of logic and

philosophy, was given the degree of Fazil. The religious doctors received the degree of

Alim. In the same way literature experts, were awarded the degree of Qabil. For this

purpose ceremonies were arranged. There is no confirming information about awarding of

degree in Hindu education system. But scholars received appropriate tittles. After

completing medical education, Bhishakavara title was awarded. Kavi and Kaviray were

the titles for those who had acquired proficiency in poetry. Vachpati was higher title

which was given to experts. Pundit and Acharya also were considered high titles which

were given to religious doctors. Upadhyaya was also a title superior to the title of pundit.

Mahopadhyaya was also a title borne by reputed scholars like Jain Hamsagani,

Vidyasagar etc. (33)

Vocational Education:

Feroz Tughlaq converted workshops into institutions of vocational training

where the prisoners were taught different arts and crafts to make them good citizens.

Babur also mentioned economic activities in his writings Babur Nama. Many historians

shared information about industrial education in Rajasthan which was given in family

schools. Not only had the Mughal rulers encouraged the people to get training in different

fields like carpentry, black smithy, dyeing, tanning, sculpturing and carving but also

developed many educational branches like agriculture, accountancy, public administration

and political science. Through this uniform educational policy they wanted to get political

advantages and confidence of Muslim and non Muslim communities. (39) There was also

the arrangement of training of women. Bhanwar Lal Dwivedi has copied the words of

Farishta in this way, “According to Farishta women were taught dancing, music, sewing,

weaving, velvet making, carpenter’s craft, gold-smith’s craft, iron-smith’s craft, quiver-

making, shoe-making, wrestling and military arts. But such education was limited to the

rich families through private tuitions. The growing curtailment of their freedom caused by

purdah system, child marriage and other social evils and practices were chiefly

responsible for the prevailing mass illiteracy among them during the Mughal Age.” (40)

Education for Muslim and non Muslim Women:

Purdah was important thing for Muslim ladies in Islamic society. The girls

were not allowed to go to madrasa for higher education. But they could go in maktabs for

primary education where the importance was given on reading, writing and basic

arithmetic. But in spite of this restriction there were several ladies in Mughal history who

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had done a remarkable work in literature and education. Nur Jahan was a highly educated

Mughal lady who was not only a good poet but also played an important role in the state

affairs. The education was given to the royal ladies inside the palace by the Muslim and

non Muslim learned men of the age. In the same way the Mughal nobles also arranged the

education of their girls in their houses. The education of Music was also given to royal

ladies. Several other ladies were highly educated like Sultana Razia, Princes Gul Badan,

the daughter of Babur and Zebunnisa the daughter of Aurangzeb. Gul Badan wrote

Humayun Nama. Zebunnisa was expert in Arabic and Persian. Sultana Suleema, Mumtaz

Mahal and Jahan Ara were highly educated in art and literature. But the education of

common Muslim women was completely ignored. In the same way the Rajput Rajas also

allowed ladies of raj mahal to get education. But only rich ladies could get education. (41)

Not only had Hindu rulers took an important role in painting but also Hindu ladies

showed great interest in this field. Rama bai, the daughter of Maharana Kumbha was

expert in music and Hindu Sastras. In same way Mira Bai a Hindu lady was expert in

Hindu religious doctrine. (42)

Libraries in Mughal Period:

The Mughal rulers were fond of books and libraries. Humayun spent more

time in his personal library which was given to him by his father. He died in an accident

while descending from the stairs of his library. In Mughal period the Sham-a-Burkani was

a famous library in Ahmadabad. Sheikh Faizi had a big library which was consist of 4600

books. It can be assumed that the non Muslim scholars also visited to the said library

because Fasizi had good relations with Hindus like Abul Fazl. There were also several

libraries in Rajasthan owned by non Muslim scholars. Many Jain Upasaras of Rajasthan

had good collection of books in various subjects. The royal families also possessed

libraries and appointed librarians for their look after. The books were also collected while

attacking the territories of other rulers. The special attention was given in look aftering

the books. The special cupboards were arranged for books. In ancient times the books

were written on leaves of Tad or skin of birch in black ink. (43) Abdul Fazal says that the

Emperor had a big library which had been divided into two big portions. A portion of the

library was inside the harem and other portion was outside the harem. Then the library

was next divided into many sub categories where the books were arranged according to

their value. These sub libraries were arranged under some subjects like secular sciences,

literature, Prose and religious books. These books were checked daily and read over to the

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Emperor by the experts from the start to end. The read out pages were made a sign daily

by the Emperor with his pen. The Emperor gave gifts and even gold according to the read

out pages. Through this practice the emperor succeeded in getting information about the

historical events, discoveries of science and interesting points of philosophy. The

Emperor did not tired of hearing a book over again but he heard the book with keen

interest. The Akhlaqi-i-Naciri, the Kimiya-i-Saadat, the Qabus Nama, the Masnawi of

Manawi, the Bustan, the Shah Nama, Masnawis of Sheikh Nizami, writings of Khusrau,

the Diwans of Khaqam, Anwri and a lot of books in History were read in the presence of

Emperor. (44) A historian says, “In ancient India Gurukulus had excellent libraries. For

example Nalanda and Takshila were famous for their rich libraries. It is unfortunate that

foreign invaders destroyed this price less collections. Thereafter, in Mughal Period,

madaras and Pathshalas never tried to build libraries. This indifference to libraries

continued even in the British days as they were not interested in really educating slave

Indians.” (45)

Translation of Sanskrit Books to Persian:

Arabic translation from Sanskrit texts was started during the 8th century in

Bait-ul-Hikmat under the patronage of Abbasid Caliphs. In this Bait-ul-Hikmit the

Sanskrit, Greek and Persian books were converted into Arabic by Muslim and non

Muslim scholars. The Muslim not only had succeeded in preserving this ancient

knowledge but also gave it a new life while presenting this huge knowledge to the whole

world for further research. He Muslim and non Muslim scholars of Abbasian court

succeeded in developing Hindi decimal system and the numerals which are being used in

every field of life. The translated Sanskrit books gave detail information about Hindu way

of life and culture. These books first time in the world converted from Sanskrit into

Arabic in the court of Abbasid Caliphs. The reputed Muslim doctor Albaruni converted a

lot of Hindu religious books into Arabic while staying in Hindustan. He gave such

information in his famous book kitab fi Tahqiq malil Hind. (46) Emperor Akbar started to

convert the Sanskrit books into Persian while following the footsteps of Abbasids. Abul

Fazl says that the experts were appointed to convert the Hindi, Greek, Arabic and Persian

books into other languages in Mughal Court. For this purpose some portion of the Ziech

of Ulugh Beg was converted by Mir Fathullah Shirazi in Persian. The Mahabharat was

translated into Persian by Naquib Khan, Maulana Abdul Qadir of Badaon, Faizi and

Sheikh Sultan which was consists of thousand of verses and was given the name of

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Razam Nama by the Emperor. The Mulana Abdul Qadir of Badaon also converted

Ramayan into Persian from Hindi. This book describes about the life of Ram Chandra but

full of religious doctrines. Sunghasin Battisi was translated by Abd-ul-Qadir and a Hindu

scholar and then gave the name of Nama Khird Afza. The most important work was the

conversion of Lilawati into Persian by Sheikh Abdul Faiz Fizi, this work was consists of

the formulas of Arithmetic which were produced by Hindu Mathematicians and was

given the name of Ayyar-i-Danish. Muhammad Khan of Gujarat converted into the

Persian the work of Astronomy. The memoirs of Babur were converted into Persian from

Turkish by Mirza Abd-ur-Rahim Khan the khan khanan (commander-in-Chief). The

History of Kashmir Raj Trangini was converted into Persian by Maulana Shah

Muhammad of Shahabad. This book describes the ancient history of Kashmir. The

Mujam-ul-Buldan and Kalilawadamna were also converted into Persian. The Mujam ul

Buldan gave information about the towns, cities and countries. (47) Mirza Muhammad

Kazim wrote Alamgir Name in 1688 and said that Prince Dara Shukoh also impressed

with the religious poetry of Hinduism. He converted his attention towards Hindu Vedanta

and gave this thinking the name of Tasawwuf or Sufism. The prince started to join the

company of Brahman poets, Jogis and Sannyasis while giving high status to their ideas

and entertained as the true masters of wisdom. The Prince entertained Bed as the word of

God which revealed from heaven and was one of ancient books of Hinduism. Under such

feelings he decided to translate the Bed and for this purpose Brahmins and Sannyasis

were collected from all over Mughal Empire for translate this poetic work. He paid not

only reverence to these non Muslim translators but also spent all his time in this unholy

work and devoted all his attention to the contents of these wretched book. This book put

an influence on the religious feeling of Dara and he had given up the prayers, fasting and

other obligations which had been imposed by the Islamic law. It can be said easily that if

the Prince Dara succeeded in getting the throne then the Islamic faith was in danger under

Dara Shukoh. (48) The work of translation continued after the death of Akbar and

Muslim scholars played an important role in this field. For example Abd-ur-Reman

Chishti had discussed the Hindu ideas of cosmogony in his Mirat-ul-Makhluqat and

explained Bhagavad Gita under Islamic philosophy. Dara shukoh describes in Majma-ul-

Bahrain that Muslim and Hindu mysticism were the two ways of same thought which

could easily merge in each other. He was the first Muslim Prince who directly approached

the religious texts of Sanskrit. He succeeded in converting 52 Upanishads into court

language and he converted the text within six months in 1656-7 while getting help from

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Hindu scholars and pundits. In these ideas he followed Nath Yogis. (49) The Hindu books

of technical nature were converted into Persian and Arabic language. Then several books

about astronomy were converted into Persian. In the period of Muhammad Shah, Mirza

Raja Jai Singh of Ambar established observatories in Jaipur, Ujjain, Mathura, Banaras

and Delhi. Under his suggestion the pundit Jagannath translated from Arabic the famous

Ptolemy’s Almagest and gave it the name of Siddhantsara Kaustubha. Several books

converted from Sanskrit to Persian especially in the field of medicine. While following

the footsteps the Hindu wrote several books on medicine in sixteen century and later

centuries under the influence of Arab medicine. The first book of music which was

converted to Persian was Labjate Sikandar Shahi which was compiled in the reign of

Sikandar Lodi. (50) The translation of Athera Bed was translated by Haji Ibrahim

Sirhindi, Hariband was translated by Nasrullah Mustafa, and Punch Tantur was translated

by Maula Hussain Waiz under the name of Kalilah WA Damnah. Kishan Joshi, Ghanga

Dhar and Maheish Maha Nanda were translated under the supervision of Abul Fazl. (51)

Development of Hindu Literature under Mughal Rule:

From ancient times the Indians had established their own language, literature

and philosophy. Not only the Muslim rulers’ patron aged the literature of non Muslims

but also preserved them. W. W. Hunter discussed about the Indian languages in these

worlds, “First that in grammatical structure and in their vocabularies. The modern

analytical vernaculars of India represent the old synthetic Prakrits, after a process of

development, decay, and regeneration, which has been going on as the result of definite

linguistic laws, during the past fifteen hundred years. Second, that the modern vernaculars

contain a non-Aryan elements, derived from the so-called aborigines of India, but that this

element has very slightly affected their grammatical structure, and that the proportion

which it holds in their vernaculars is yet undermined. Third, that the modern vernaculars

have enriched themselves, for literary and philosophical purpose, by direct and conscious

borrowings from the Sanskrit. Forth, that they have also imported many terms connected

with the administration, the land revenue, judicial business and official life, from the

Persian court language of the Afghan and Mughal dynasties.” (52) Sir William Hunter

more says that Sandi, Punjabi, Gujarati, Hindi, Marathi, Bengali and Orissa languages got

success under the patronage of Mughal India. In the period of Mughal rulers there were

uncountable literary personalities who had done creative work. Dina Krishna Dam (1550)

was a popular poet of Orissa who shared information about the sports of Krishna. In the

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same way another poet of Orissa during sixteenth century had produced twenty three

works on religious philosophies and metaphysical subjects, such as, A walk round the

sacred Enclosures of the Puri Temple and ”The Sea of the Nectar of Faith.” Upendra

Bhanj was a ruler of Gumsar who succeeded in producing forty two collections of poems

and treatises. Messrs, Hoernle and Grierson succeeded in displaying the famous poems of

Behar which were produced under the patronage of Mughals. Rev. John Traill,

Presbyterian missionary at Jaipur also saw the poetic works of Rajputana. The territory of

Rajputana was a big store of religious poetry and traditional stories. Dadu created Bani or

body of sacred poetry, was a famous Hindu literary person who born in 1544 at

Ahmadabad. After his death his fifty two disciples enhanced the work of their Guru while

spreading his message in whole Rajputana and Ajmier. His disciples had a huge

collection of religious literary works. Gharib Das produced 32,000 lines for religious

poetry. In the same way other disciples like Jaisa had produced 124,000 times, Prayag

Das 48, 000, Rajab Ji 72, 000, Bakhna Ji 20, 000, Baba Banwari Das 12000, Shankar Das

4400, Sunder Das 12000 and Madhu Das had produced 68,000 lines. Chandai Bardai was

a famous poet of twelve century who produced a remarkable literary work in Lahore.

During fifteenth century Kabir succeeded in producing religious literary work. Ramainis

and Sabdas are famous sacred work. During 16th century, Surdas, Nabhaji and Keshava

Das wrote the Sursagar, the Bhaktamala and the Ramchandrike. The former personality

was from Mathura and later two personalities were from Bijapur. In the same way in 17th

century Bikari Lal of Amber produced Satsai and Lal Kavi wrote Chhatra Prakas. When

the Mughal rulers lost their political authority, consequently the Hindu religious literature

face some hardships for a short period and this difficulty removed when the printing press

was established in India. Sridhar compiled Puranas in Marathi in 1571. Tukaram (1609)

succeeded in giving the high status to Marathi poetry. In 1720 Mayur pundit produced a

high work in religious poetry. Chandi Das, a Birbhum Brahman converted Hindu

religious doctrine in Bangali poetic language. During sixteenth century Chaitanya

appeared as a reformer of Hinduism who through his poetry converted the attention of the

people towards the worship of Vishnu. Kirtibas Ojha was a religious poet of Bengal of

16th century, who translated Ramayana in Bengali. This version got popularity in the all

direction of Mughal India and still the pundits recite it on the occasions of religious

festivals and other religious gatherings. In modern world its new edition is also famous in

the class of religious elders but the version which was produced by Kirtibas in 1693 was

unique in its style, rhythm, attraction and beauty. Makunda Ram Chakravarti was a

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Brahman and was contemporary of Kirtibas Ojha, was deprived from his house by

Muslim officers because he provoked the people of Bengal through his poetry against

Muslim revenue system. Kasi Ram Das translated Mahabharata during seventeenth

century. This religious poet was also from Bardwan district. Ram Prasad Sen and Bharat

Chandra Rai were both the famous Bangali religious poets. The former was born in 1720

at Nadiya and the later was died in 1760 in Bengal. There were a lot of non Muslims

poets who were dwelling in Mughal Empire but the Mughals never tried to persecute

them on their religious sentiments. Some poets were residing in the states of Rajas which

were directly or indirectly were under Mughal rule. (53)

Europeans Efforts in the Development of Indian Literature:

Jesuits founded the first printing press in Goa in 1566 and then Tamil and

other Dravidian books were started to print. They translated Bible and then spread it in

the whole Mughal Empire including capital cities. The Jesuit Fathers wrote Christian

Puranas and developed the new grammars as well as dictionaries, these books were very

useful for the Muslim and non Muslim doctors and scholars of the Mughal Empire. A lot

of missionaries learnt Indian languages. The principal work was done by Zieganbalg and

Beschi in Tamil language, the former missionary was a German scholar and the later was

an Italian person. There are several other missionaries who had produced valuable literary

work in local languages. The European Christians also played an important role in

preserving the literature of Bengal. The western knowledge also arrived in Bengal

through different European nations. After getting political power the English company

started to introduce modern education system in Bengal under the so-called permission

from weak Mughal rulers. In 1800 the Fort William College was founded in Calcutta

while establishing Baptist Mission press in Serampore. The translated books of literature

and manuscripts were published by Baptist Mission Press. This press succeeded in

developing the Bengali and the literature of other languages. The English company

established Hindu College in 1817 and while ignoring Persian they used English as the

language of law. In this period many writers of Bangal tried to promote Bangeli literature,

one of them was Raja Ram Mohan Roy (1772-1833) who promoted modern Bengali. (54)

The Portuguese merchants brought the language which was used in the ports of India.

They are right in saying that they had developed a sort of Lingua Franca in the ports of

India. When the other European nations reached on the seas of India for trade they also

got help from Portuguese trading language while dealing trade agreements with Muslim

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and Hindu brokers. While following the steps of Portuguese the English Company used

Portuguese business terms in Surat and two centuries later in Calcutta. Some business

terms from Portuguese language are frequently being used in Goa even today. The

Portuguese succeeded in preparing the dictionaries of the different Indian languages. The

Jesuit fathers played an important role in spreading religious literature throughout the

Mughal Empire. Francis Xavier the superior of Jesuit fathers in India learnt Malabar

language from local scholars and became expert in its grammar and vocabulary which

encouraged the other Christians to learn Malabar language. The English missionary

Thomas Stephens was famous for his Christian Purana and who succeeded in creating a

grammar. In the same way Biogo Ribeiro developed a vocabulary. This religious text has

been preserved while printing in printing press. As the missionary work was progressed

then the literature was also promoted. At the first stage the literary work was printed in

Tamil language in 1578 and then was converted by the missionaries into Persian which

expressed the influence of Mughal court. (55) The missionary used all their skills while

converting the attention of locals towards the true message. Hindu and Muslim songs

were stopped to sing in Goa but Portuguese songs were educated in schools and in the

seminaries of the order. In Europe there was fashion to give music education in schools;

this tradition was exported to India. In the colleges of Jesuits not only the arrangements

had been made to transfer the religious philosophy to the locals Christians but also gave

the training of dancing, singing and playing of music instruments. Some of skilled

musician were invited from Goa to celebrate a feast in the Jesuits chapel which was

existing in the Mughal court. (56) The Christian missionaries were expert in carving,

paintings and sculpturing. These missionaries were not only the ambassadors of Portugal

art but also the representatives of the art of all European nations. Although the Portuguese

founded a royal factory in Antwerp but it was also representing of Flemish and Italian art.

By this was the Portuguese were the representatives of traditions of European nations.

Although they were experts in the Christian paintings but they succeeded in putting an

influence on Mughal paintings. Akbar and Jahangir not only were the fans of Christian

religious paintings but also supported this field while deputing the court painters for the

preparation of the copies of Christian paintings. For this purpose the historical records of

Jesuits, Mughal, Portuguese and English gave complete information about Muslim and

Christian art. Abul Fazl says that the European paintings got popularity in Mughal court

and these paintings put an impact on local paintings which remained in Indian art until the

18th century. It is said that the Jesuit Fathers decorated the churches of Agra and Lahore

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with the Christian religious pictures and they also presented the pictures of Jesus and

Mary in the courts of Jahangir and Akbar. Hawkins says Jahangir had the paintings of

Crucifixion and of the Madona and Child. To the decoration of audience hall the emperor

Jahangir fixed the Christian pictures. Kesho the elder was a famous artist of Mughal court

who successfully prepared copies of all Christian pictures under the imperial order. The

Christian pictures succeeded in putting impacts on Mughal paintings and this influence

can be seen in many aspects. ‘The idea of the equestrian portrait, the use of a dark

background of foliage, the rounding out of figures, new ways of handling spatial

relationships are examples of such borrowings.’ When the Jesuit Fathers displayed

Borghese Madonna in 1580 and Madonna Del Populo in 1602 in their chapel, thousands

of people from different communities came to see these pictures. Some paintings were

made under decree of Jahangir for Lahore churches. (58)

The Education of Hindus in Orissa under Mughal Rule:

Chatasalas or pathsalas (village schools) were important educational

institutions which were patronaged by the rulers. The state not only provided food to the

teachers as well as students but also provided shelter to poor students. Chatasalas or

pathasalas (village schools), mathas and temples got popularity as important educational

system in ancient times and in Mughal Period. Thousands of mathas were established for

the education of the people. These mathas had used Sanskrit as medium of education and

delivered religious doctrine to Hindu children. These Hindu village schools or chatasalas

gave importance just on reading, writing and simple mathematics. The teachers were

called Abadhanas and students were known as Chattas. The teachers were attached with

Matibamsa or the Karana caste. The title of Guru was also given to the teachers which

were then divided under three categories like Bidya Guru, Diksh Guru and Kodanda

Guru. The schools were working under two shifts. The students had to start their

education with Sriphala and then they had to learn thirty four letters, twelve mantras,

anuswar and bisarga. The students were taught astronomy, kamasastra, mantras, tantaras,

Uluka vidya, naganta vidya, aiswarya vidya and Udreka vidya. These vidyas next divided

into five hundred kinds. It is said that a students could not complete the syllabus nor got

perfection in knowledge in his life. In the same way Hindu Pilgrimages sites, tols and

Rajasabhas of the Hindu nobles were the principal centers of higher education. The

Brahmins took interest in the progress of the education of the children of rajas and they

were considered the main pillars of education. The courts of rajas rewarded and supported

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them for this purpose and then the villages of Orissa became the principal centers of

learning. Not only had the teachers adopted polite attitude towards students but also in

this period the students also respectful towards the teachers. It is said that the students

also helped the teachers in their domestic works. When the students completed their

studies then the teachers demanded gurudakshina from the students. In those days the

students and teachers used palm leaf and iron pen for writing. Abul-Fazl says that the

students and teachers of that period had not pen, paper and ink for writing. The principal

literary work was Jyotis Sastra, Ganita Sastra, Alankara, and Sastra and in other subjects

which got popularity in the whole empire and expressed that the education had reached at

the highest level in sixteenth century in Orissa. Muslim rulers did not interfere in Hindu

Educational system and Mughal rulers allowed them to continue their education through

this old system. (59) The female education was not common in that period, the people did

not allow the women to get education but royal ladies and the women from noble families

were given education and these women were then raised to high state offices. Sastras,

music, Puranas, Smritis and Sahitya were taught to the ladies as important subjects. Some

ladies were famous for their philosophical approaches and done a lot of literary work. The

royal ladies were highly educated whereas the vast majority of woman remained illiterate.

The Mughal rulers did not interfere in Hindu educational system and education was

flourished in traditional ways. They did not take steps to open new Hindu educational

institutions. The madrasa at Khatbinshani, Cuttack, Patamundai, Binjharpur, and Ali

Alamahat and at Saradharpur were the famous educational institutions which were

established for the education of the children of all communities. The alphabets, vowels,

consonants, combination of words, spelling, grammar, elementary mathematic were

considered important in these madarasas. The medium of instruction for the Hindu

students was Sanskrit and Oriya. In spite of these efforts education of Sanskrit language

and literature was just in approach of pundits and other Hindu nobles. Vedas, Sastras,

Puranas, Kavya, Alankara, Vyakarana, Chhanda, Nirukta, Jyostisha Vidya, Sangita

Vidya, Yudha vidya, Chikitsha vidya, Kama sastra, Tantra sastra, Mantra Sastra and

Darsan sastra were recommended only for Hindu boys. Under Mughal rule the

professional training like technical and commercial training was very common. Business

families arranged education of commerce to their children. Training of fine arts, painting

and music was given to the students. (60)

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Benares as Hindu Educational City under Mughal Empire:

Bernier says that Benares was the principal city of Hinduism as well as Hindu

educational city. It is right to give this city the name of Athens where Brahmans devoted

them in teaching activities. There was not a regular system of education but the Brahmans

privately provided education in private houses, gardens which were provided by rich

merchants for educational activities. In groups the students got education from Brahmins.

Usually these groups could be consisting of four or six or seven students but the big

groups which were extended to twelve or fifteen students were taught by the reputed

teachers. The rich merchants supplied food to the teachers and students. The pundits gave

much attention towards Sanskrit and this language was known by pundits and Rajas. They

believed that the four holy Beds had been revealed by God through this language. The

religious education was compulsory for these students. About Puranas the Pundits

believed that these were the interpretation of the Beds. The Pundits never allowed any

Muslim even to touch it. There were six great schools of thought in Hinduism. To teach

Physics the students were provided several small books, these ancient books were written

in verse. (61) The European physicians were very popular and more successful in

Hindustan especially in Mughal Empire. The Hindu physicians were not familiar with

anatomy. The Indian Muslim and non Muslim physicians never opened any human or

animal body. For this purpose European physicians helped the Indian Muslim and Hindu

physicians. Bernier opened a living goat to explain to his Muslim Agah (master) about the

circulation of the blood while showing him the vessels ‘discovered by Pequet, through

which the cycle is conveyed to the right ventricle of the heart.’ The Hindus had their own

tables of astronomy through them they could foretell about eclipses. They had no

knowledge about geography. They believe that the world is flat and triangular. Although

the Hindu pundits had made high claims about Sanskrit language but it is true that it had

lost its importance because it was confined in the premises of temples or the courts of

rajas. The learned Hindu teachers were received regular pension from the Mughal courts.

Bernier reported that the chief pundit of Benares was regularly received the pension from

the court of Shah Jahan and Bernier also says that he saw this pundit while wearing his

scanty dress at Delhi not only among the court of nobles but also before the king. This

traveler also saw this Pundit several times in the court of his Muslim Aqah (master) while

requesting to help in restoring his pension which was stopped by Aurangzeb. In traveling

from Agra to Bengal in 1665 the said traveler stayed for sometime in Banaras where he

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saw a house which was given to the pundits by Raja Jai Singh, a Hindu noble in the

Mughal court, for the education of kids. There were several Brahman teachers in Banaras

who taught the Sanskrit only to the children of Hindu nobles. Hindu mysticism was an

important issue for discussion, the pundits of Benares succeeded in putting an influence

on the religious feelings of Prince Dara and Sultan Sujah. The said traveler also reports

that during conversation the Chief Pundit of Benares tried to tell the exact age of the

world. The Bernier shared that the Hindu yogis and Muslim Sufis were impressed by

Greek philosophy. (62)

Organization of non Muslims Educational system:

There are many types of Hindu schools in the Hindu society which were

working under the patronage of Mughal rulers. In the early years of the boys and girls the

father personality performed the responsibility as a teacher in the house while teaching

the basic concepts of Hindu religious philosophy, ethics and helps the children to

understand the daily jobs of life. This was called family school. The father was also the

head or manager of a family. Usually the businessmen gave training their young boys to

run the business. The students also studied in the houses of teachers, these schools were

supported by the Hindu nobles. ‘The house of a teacher was the remnant of an ashram of

old days, which was headed by a teacher of great repute and was maintained by land

grants made either by rich persons or charitable rulers and by presents from princes and

private persons.’ The Hindu rajas got education from the Brahmans through manuscripts.

Hindu boys lived in the houses of their teachers like the members of the family. Upasaras

were also important educational institutions in Mughal India. These educational

institutions were managed by the Jain teachers and these teachers were helped by two or

three senior students. The Jain priests used to stay in these educational institutions and

taught the senior members of the Jain community. Not only the Jain monks provided the

education but also played an important role in coping classical manuscripts and

illuminating them very beautifully. “A similar agency for the spread of education was the

institutions known as Maths. These Maths, headed by capable gurus, wielded a great

cultural influence in those medieval days. Examples-Savina Khera Math of Udaipur and

Kaushik-Ram Math of Jaisalmer.” There were some other educational instructions which

were called Pathsala, Nesal, Posal, Chok etc. These institutions were playing an important

role in the urban and rural areas. (63)

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Syllabus of Hindu Education in Mughal India:

In Mughal India Hindu rulers also tried to improve the reading and writing

skills of the students. Arithmetic was necessary for every student in Hindu states. In

higher institutions subjects like Puranas, logic, astrology, astronomy, ethics, metaphysics,

literature, grammar, Rhetoric, mathematics, medicine, veterinary science were taught by

Hindu teachers. For the boys of Rajas it was necessary to get education of Vedas, logic,

the Dharmashatras, grammar, politics and music. In the same way the war education and

training of using weapons was compulsory for Kshatriya boys. “Young Khatriya boys

took daily exercise in riding horses, mounting elephants, raiding forts, as well as in

wielding bow and other weapons. It is interesting to note that artillery was prescribed as a

subject of study of Kshatriya Youngman in Rajasthan during the 17th Century” (64)

The Hindus Interest in Persian Language:

The Mughals also developed the Persian Language. A. L. Basham says,

“The Mughal may be said to have re-established Persian influence not so much by

bringing in something which was not there before, as by the enthusiasm with which they

propagated all things Persian. Though Turkish-speakers, they were Persian lovers and the

love remained with descendants became Persian speakers. They spread the use of Persian

from the court and diplomacy to the whole range of administration. Their conquests

extended their administration to the south of India and with it a widespread and pervading

Persian influence. Indo-Persian poets and historians there had been before, though none

surpassed Faizi and Abu’l Fazl of Akbar’s day. What was new was the spread not only of

the Persian language, but of Persian ideas, tastes, and terminology to a wide Hindu class

as well as the Muslim ruling class. The Hindu managerial and secretarial classes

cultivated Persian and produced a school of poets which has persisted to this day. Along

with literature went Persian manners and customs. Persian modes of address, dress,

etiquette, and tastes (such as the love of formal gardens) spread with the new regime all

over the country. Their traces were to be found in Rajput and Maratha courts, whatever

their political or religious feelings towards the Mughals at any given time. They became

the norm of social judgment and social department.” (65) It is interesting to share that

during the Mughal period the revenue department was under the control of non Muslim

officers who could converse in Persian and could write it. Mughal rulers also appointed

the non Muslim officers for official correspondence. During Mughal period non Muslim

converted their attention to learn Persian because it was official language. (66)

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The Progress of Hindu Astronomy:

Muslim and non Muslims astronomers had done a remarkable work under the

Mughal patronage. Basham says, “In astronomy the Muslim tradition of instrumental

technology survived in India until the middle of the eighteenth century. The astrolabe

which had been lovingly perfected by generations of Persian ad Arab craftsmen and was

again executed in fine workman shop by the family of Isa. B Allahabad in Lahore in the

reign of the Mughal emperor Jahangir (1605-27), was used by the astronomers in the

service of the Maharaja Sawai Jai Singh 11 (1686-1743) at his observatories in Delhi,

Jaipur, Ujjain, Varanasi (Benares) and Mathura. Though Jai Sing’s principal astronomer

was the Hindu Jagennath he made full use of European and Islamic Ideas. In particular his

massive masonry quadrants and dials, constructed to attain maximum accuracy, in the

absence of the telescope in India, closely follow the precedent set by the Samarkand

observatory of Ulugh Beg. On a much simpler level the gnomon which in Borneo consists

of a vertical staff placed in the ground (the co-tanget form), appeared with a short

horizontal piece inserted near the top of the staff (the tangent from). A shepherd’s time

stick of the latter type, inscribed in nagari script and from Nepal, has been described

elsewhere by the present writer.” (67)

Christian Efforts in Promotion of Religious Education:

Education of different fields was flourishing in Mughal Empire. In Agra there

was a church of Jesuits as well as a college where the children of twenty five or thirty

different Christian families came to get education. The learned Christian doctors were

received monthly pension from the courts of Mughal Emperors. The hope was born in the

hearts of Christian doctors that they would succeed to transfer the teachings of Gospel in

whole Hindustan and this claim proved true under the close intimacy between Dara and

Father Buzeo. Bernier was much disappointed by the progress of missionary activities

and he expressed his sadness while saying that in ten years one Muslim converted to

Christianity. According to Bernier Muslim pay respect to New Testament and Jesus while

listing the lectures from religious Christian doctors. They believe in his miracles and born

of a virgin mother. (68) Fatter Heinrich Roth S. J was a Christian missionary who stayed

in Agra from 1650 to 1660. While staying in Agra not only he converted his attention

towards Sanskrit but also towards Hindu religious philosophy. He then became the expert

of Sanskrit and developed the education relations with court nobles. In 1665 said

Christian teacher then returned to Rome. ‘He there drew up for Father Kircher, the five

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engraved plates published by him in his China Illustrate.’ The first four plates were

consists of Sanskrit alphabets and elements of Sanskrit which were explained in Latin and

the fifth was about Our Lord’s Prayer and an Ave Maria. The Father Roth learned the

Sanskrit knowledge from a Persian Munchi (clerk). (69) Bernier more says, “I entertain

no doubt that the Reverend Father Roa derives from the Baths his knowledge of the

doctrines held by the Gentiles and that the account he gave me forms the basis of their

mythology. I had written at considerable length upon his subject, sketched the figures of

several of the gods or idols placed in their temples and caused then to give me the

characters of their language, Sanskrit, but finding that the principal matter of my

manuscript is contained in the China Illustrate of Father Kicker (who obtained much of

his information when at Rome from Father Roa). (70) The writer of the Warrior of the

Crescent says that the Akbar gave permission to the Jesuits fathers to construct churches

in Agra and Lahore and later also gave permission to built a college where local Christian

and the children of Mughal nobles came to study the education of European languages

and the new concepts of political education. (71) The Jesuit teachers also put an impact

on the religious feelings of Dara. Father Francois Catron says, “No sooner had Dare

began to posses authority, than he became disdainful and inaccessible. A small number of

Europeans, alone shared his confidence. The Jesuits especially ever in the highest

consideration with him. There were the Father Stanislaus Malpica, a Neapolitan, Pedro

Juzarle, a Portuguese and Hanry Busee, a Fleeming. The last had much influence over the

mind of the prince, and had his counsels been followed.” (72)

Mughal Interest in Music and Painting:

Tansen was the great musician of the Mughal court who succeeded in

developing many musical turnes, Rag and Ragnis. Dance training also given in Mughal

period. Anarkali was the great dancer in Akbar period. The Hindu dance masters trained

the Hindu girls for religious purposes. (73) The Emperor Akbar gathered several Muslim

and non Muslim male and female musicians in his court from different nations. The

historians had gathered the name of musicians like Miyan Tausan, Baba Ramdas, Subhan

Khan, Srigyan Khan, Miyan Chand, Muhammad Khan Dhari, Bir Mandal Khan, Baz

Bahadur, Daud Dhari, Sarod Khan, Miyan Lal (son of Miyan Tansan), Tantarang Khan,

Mulla Ishaq, Nanak Jarju, Purbin Khan, Surdas, Chand Khan, Rangsen, Sheikh Dawan

Dhari, Rehmat Ullah, Mir Syed Ali, Qasim, Surnamed Kohbar, Tash Beg, Sultan Hafiz

Hussein, Shah Muhammad, Muhamamd Amin, Hafiz Khwajah Ali, Mir Abdullah,

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Pirzadah and Muhammad Hussein were the famous musicians and singers of Mughal

court. (74) The Mughal rulers not only were the great patronage of music but also had

showed interest towards it. Even Babur and Humayun took interest in music while taking

in service Hindu and Muslim musicians. When Humayum conquered Mandu, there he

was informed about a Hindu musician who was then pardoned and was taken in royal

service. These Emperors also discussed with musicians about the different kinds of music

and poetry. Man Singh and Raja Bhaghwan Das took interest into music and converted

several Sanskrit music books into Persian. (75) The Mughal Emperors also showed great

interest in painting and under their patronage the artists got respect and fame. On every

week the artists used to come in the court of Akbar and presented their works and were

received gifts and appreciation from the court. Sometimes the salaries of permanent

artists of the course were increased by the emperors. The awards were given after seeing

the quality of work. Bihzad was one of the principal painters of his age; his excellent

paintings not only had enjoyed fame in Mughal Empire but also succeeded in getting

popularity in the whole world. In the same way the paintings of Hindu artists were

excellent in quality and concepts and not only appreciated by the Muslim nobles but also

by the common Muslims. Mir Sayyid Ali, Khajah Abd-us-Samad, Daswant’h, Basawan,

Kesu, Lal, Mukund, Mushkim, Farrukh the Qalmaq (Calmuck), Madhu, Jagan, Mohesh,

Khemkaran, Tara, Sanwlah, Haribans Ram were famous in the whole world. (76) Abul

Fazal says, “I have to notice that the observing of the figures of objects and the making of

likenesses of them, which are often looked upon as an idle occupation, are, for a well

regulated mind, a source of wisdom, and an antidote against the poison of ignorance.

Bigoted followers of the letter of the law are hostile to the art of painting, but their eyes

now see the truth. One day at a private party of friends. His Majesty, who had conferred

on several the pleasure of drawing near him, remarked, ‘there are many that hate painting,

but such men I dislike. It appears to me as if a painter had quite peculiar means of

recognizing God; for a painter in sketching anything that has life and in devising its

limbs, one after the other, must come to feel that he cannot bestow individuality upon his

work, and is thus forced to think God, the Giver of life, and will thus increase in

knowledge”. The famous painters of Akbar court were Abdul Samad, Mir Sayyid Ali,

Farakh Beg, Waswant, Sanul Das, Tara Chand, Besun and Jagat Nath, Waswant was

given to Abdul Samad gained higher training of paintings. These painters converted

Ching Nama, Zafar Nama, Razam Nama, Ramayana, and Maha Bharata into pictures

under the decree of Akbar. In Jahangir period Bashan das, Kashu, Manuhar and Tulsi

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were famous painters. (77) This patronage succeeded in providing an environment to the

Mughal Society in which the painters and artists provided high class works which got

world wide popularity. In Mughal period the prose and poetry books were adorned with

pictures while describing any story or incident. This way a large number of paintings

were collected. The Story of Hamzah was described under 12 volumes and the artists

decorated this while adding a lot of paintings. The Chingiz Nama, the Zafar Nama, the

Razm Nama, the Ramayan, the Nal Daman, the Kalilah Damnah, the Ayar Danish were

the famous stories which decorated with beautiful paintings under the decree of Mughal

Emperor. Not only the Emperor sat for the preparation of his pictures but also ordered his

Muslim and non Muslim nobles to provide their portraits. Through this way a reasonable

collection of pictures were availed which expressed the lifestyle of Muslim and non

Muslim nobles. Through these pictures they are still alive. While following the footsteps

of Emperor the court nobles started to employ painters of different communities and gave

them high salaries. (78) In Mughal period the art was also flourished in different kinds.

The different Indian pictures which are showing the dancing girls in different posses as

well as the use of several musical instruments, expressed that these fields had also been

progressed under the patronage of Mughal Emperors. Other professional training in the

fields of temple making, the sculpture making, the jewelry making and weaving the cloth,

must have some sort of training. Sarals Das gave many references of technical education

and secular education in Mahabharata. (79)

Jahangir Interested in Paintings and Relations with non Muslim Artists:

Jahangir loved paintings and he succeeded in developing this art while

developing Persian, European and Hindu styles of paintings, which was called Mughal

painting. For this purpose not only the Muslim experts but also non Muslims artists and

painters were appointed in the court. This interest in paintings made the emperor an

expert of this field and he could tell the name of the artists just seeing paintings. Sir

Thomas Roe presented a painting in the imperial court. While seeing the picture the

Emperor claimed that one of his courtiers could make the copy type of picture. When the

painting was completed, Sir Thomas Roe was astonished while seeing the copy of the

picture because there was no difference in the two pictures. Kamal-ul-din Bahzad was a

famous Persian painter. Once Bahzad’s Picture was brought in the imperial court,

Jahangir appreciated it and under the decree of Emperor a Hindu artist Nahiya made its

copy that no one could find the deference between them. The emperor had shared the

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information in his writing while saying that once he dispatched khan Alam and Bashan

Das towards Iran, for the preparation of painting of Shah Abbas and his courtiers. The

both personalities completed the task and brought the painting which showing the court of

Iran, through this way the Emperor got the information about the court of Iran as well as

their life style. Jahangir prepared the portrait of Raja Rambir when he was seriously ill.

This picture was not making for the purpose of rejoicing but for the purpose of

discovering the disease. Muqrrab Khan a Mughal noble sent a picture of Amir Tairmur

which was showing the envoys of the Emperor of Rome in the court of Amir Taimur with

precious gifts. The Emperor rejected this picture while saying that this picture was not

expressing the true personality of Amir Taimur. Jahangir was well familier about the

European paintings. He first time saw the Christian religious pictures in the court of his

father which were brought by the Jesuit fathers. There was a big collection of European

pictures in the court of Jahangir including the pictures of religious importance. A Hindu

artist Gurodhun joined the service of Jahangir after the death of Akbar. Jahangir also

arranged debates with the said artist about the quality of pictures. Gurodhun produced the

picture of Jahangir court, in this picture Jahangir was sitting on his throne and his

courtiers were also standing in the court. This picture not only was showing the dresses of

courtiers and colors of carpets of the court but also expressing the lifestyle of the people

of that age. Manuhar was also a famous artist of court; the Emperor gave him a high

status in his court and rose to the high military office. Still a lot of painting found in the

world reputed museums and these pictures had been captured about the scenes of hunting

which made by Muslim and non Muslim artists. A picture had been prepared which was

made in the 10th year of his rule. In this picture the departure had been showed of Rana

Kunwar Kiran. Jahangir also shared this in his writing that he wanted to put an impression

of his matured hunting skills on the Hindu raja. In spite of the evening time the Emperor

successfully hit the middle of the tiger’s eyes and offered a Hindu raja to astonish.

Jahangir describes his meeting with Gosain jad rup, a Hindu jogi in Ujain and Mathara.

He said that on the 11th year of his reign, he went to meet Jud Rup in his cave. During the

meeting the Emperor asked some questions about Hindu religious philosophy. He was

learned as well as wise man but the said yogi disliked the pleasure and rejoicing of life.

Jahangir was impressed by his personality and met him many times. The last time

Jahangire met with him at the 14th year of his rule at Mathura. This meeting has been

shown in a picture, which is now the property of Paris museum. In this picture Jahangir is

busy in conversation with Jud Rup and in the bottom of picture, his courtiers were visible

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and it is said that Khan-i-Azam requested to Jud Rup for the pardon of Khusru which was

entertained under the request of Jud Rup. Bushan Das, Kashu, Manuhar and Tulsi were

the famous painters of Jahangir reign. The Hindu Rajas had great influence in the court of

Mughal Emperors. The Hindu style of paintings was transferred through these rajas and

other Hindu nobles and then a remarkable impact on the Mughal paintings. The Hindu

artists had collected pictures of Hindu Rajput rajas while showing their bravery in the

pictures. The pictures also had been prepared under Rajput rulers while expressing

religious sentiments. (80)

Training for Different Fields:

Crafts were also developed in Mughal period and the Hindu and Muslim

experts received precious awards from the royal courts. Embroidery, ivory work,

exquisite ornaments were considered high works and Hindu experts succeeded in creating

valuable productions in this field under Mughal period. Although there was no regular

institutions for technical educational training in such fields but these trainings were

provided to new generation by the family members. Muslim and non Muslim artisans

made war goods like boats, ships and chariots as well as other things. The Mughal royal

buildings are also still showing the high skills of the builders. (81) The artisans and textile

workers were very sincere with their profession. They not only fulfilling the court

demands but also transferring the skills towards their children. They provided training to

new generation in their karkhanas. The textile makers, gold smiths, soldiers, the

physicians, politicians and the people of other fields tried to transfer the skills of their

own adopting fields to the new generation. Even they encouraged marrying in their own

business and this attitude observed in Muslims and Hindus families. (82) The Mughal

rulers not only took steps for the promotion of education but also allowed the people of

other nations to work for the promotion of education. Basham says that Mughals

succeeded in developing new architectural style while merging three different styles of

construction like Indian, Persian and Mughal architectural style which later was called

Mughal architecture. In this field Muslim and non Muslim architectures learned new

techniques of construction from each other while constructing the royal palaces and

mosques in capital cities under the royal supervision. This mixed construction style can

be seen in the palaces, mosques and other royal buildings, existing in Agra, Lahore, Delhi

and Fatah Pur Sikri. Aurangzeb tried to introduce pure Islamic way of construction but

failed completely. In his reign the royal buildings were also constructed where the

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services of Hindu masons also gotten by Mughal officers. (83) The Mughals introduced a

new aristocratic Indo Persian culture. This put a remarkable influence in producing new

forms of art and literature and also developed new rules of behavior and a fresh way of

speech. Mughal architecture and painting developed a new style while adopting new

elements of Persian and Hindu thoughts. Although the Urdu language was shaped in

Sultanate period but the Mughals succeeded in developing it as a literary language. The

Muslim and Hindu poets produced their literary work under the patronage of Mughal

rulers. Muhammad Shah Rangila tried to make the Urdu as a court language. In manners

the Delhi court became the Versailles of India. Akbar under his religious policy took in

service thousands of non Muslims for administrative purposes. These employments

helped in developing a culture and they became a bridge between the Mughal rulers and

their subjects. Moreover through these peoples not only the Urdu language developed but

also the architecture and painting turned towards new manners and in taste. (84) In the

reign of Shah Jahan Chishty school of Sufism not only had became popular in Muslims

but also in non Muslims communities. Sheikh Muhibb-ullah (1648) said that he got

mystic knowledge even from the Hindus. He also took interest in the learning of Hindu

philosophy and Hindu mysticism and deputed one of his pupils to learn knowledge from

Hindu yogis. (85)

Education System at the Time of Arrival of British Company:

British reached in India during the 16th century as traders. This was the time of

the Mughals absolute authority. But when the Mughal rulers lost their political influence

it supported the British traders and they succeeded in maintaining the British raj and after

this they ruled 150 years. They tried to introduce the best of western literature, science,

culture and technology. While introducing educational reforms in India the education was

given under the board of Directors of the East India Company. Lord Macaulay was a

great reformer who came to India in 1834 and after him some other thinkers arrived in

India and studied the system of education. But all the benefits of education were confined

for local nobles and common peoples were ignored. At the time of arrival of English

traders in India, the existing education system was fulfilling the needs of education of the

people but the Indian school was controlled by single teacher. The maktab schools or

pathshalas were opened in every village of India and it is said that only in Bangel in 1835

there were thousands of such pathshalas and students had to get admission in madrassas

for higher education. In spite of this big number of schools, there were insufficient school

202

buildings, insufficient educational infrastructure as well as there was no concept of

teacher training institutions. When the English educational system was established in

India, these old institutions were disappeared gradually because this so-called indigenous

system had no worth and value, so the British officers took steps to discourage such

institutions. (86)

Efforts of Christian Missionaries:

In the early years of their rule the English officers did not take much interest

in the progress of education of common people of all communities. In this situation

Christian missionaries established schools and colleges in Mughal India and started to

give education to the local communities and for this purpose they did not depend on the

support of company. While establishing educational institutions the missionaries also

started to spread the true message of Jesus and established their principal education

centers in Calculate, Madras and Bombay. Some year later the English Company

converted their attention towards the education of the subjects. Then a discussion was

raised in British pertinent about the poor educational condition of the peoples of India.

Then not only the history of India preserved the charter of 1813 but also observed

education policy which was made for the people of India by the English Company. For

this purpose one lakh rupees were reserved for the progress of the educational policy. The

major problem was that in which medium the education should be delivered. The Indian

and British thinkers were divided into two groups. The one group of Indian thinkers were

stressing to give the education to local people in local languages like Sanskrit, Arabic,

Persian and other Indian languages but some Indians and foreigners were stressing to use

English as the medium of education. H. H. Wilson, H.T. Prince and some Indian leaders

wanted that the Indian classical languages must be used as the medium of education while

David Hare, Lord Macowlay, Raja Ram Roy and other thinkers were stressing for

English. (87)

Education under the East India Company:

The British Company also wanted to impress the people of India while taking

interest in the progress of masses. After getting diwani powers from Mughal Emperors

the Company tried to prove that they were better political administrators as compare to

local nawabs and lords. Then they converted their attention to promote the education for

Muslims and Hindus. They started to the government grants to the local educational

institutions. In spite of this support they did not want to bring any big change in the

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existing educational system. Muslim and Hindu scholars also get grants and rewards from

the Company. The Company officers succeeded in getting the support of local Muslim

and Hindu nobles while offering them high offices in civil service. Then the Company

established collages in Calcutta, Madras and Banaras where only Muslim and non

Muslim nobles could get admission. The Muslim nobles of Calcutta demanded to found a

madrasa for the people of Calcutta and the English officers entertained this request

without any hesitation because they wanted to get the support of the nobles. So in October

1780 Warren Hastings opened a madrasa in Calcutta. The principal aim of this institution

to educate the Muslim nobles and then offered them high offices in state service. In this

institution the education was given under the Muslim religious principles and the

education was completed in seven years. The education of Law, logic, philosophy,

astronomy, mathematics and grammar were taught in the institution including Islamic

sciences. Madrasa became very popular among Muslims and the Muslim students reached

for education from far off areas. To satisfy the educational needs of Hindus a Sanskrit

madrasa was established in Benares by Jonathan Duncan in 1791. In Calcutta madrasa

Arabic and Persian languages were used as the medium of education. But in Hindu

madrasa the education was given through Sanskrit language and the Hindu religious

subjects were taught in this institution. In the institution of Calcutta Muslim teachers were

appointed for the education of Muslim boys and Hindu teachers were appointed in

Benares collage. But the local teachers could not run these colleges then English officers

were appointed there and they succeeded in running the college under the religious

philosophies of both religions. In spite of the establishment of these colleges the

Company was not ready to take the complete responsibility of the education of the people

of India. There were many reasons which forced the Company not to involve in the

education of locals. It is said that the first was that the education system was under the

control of private enterprises in England so the Company wanted to follow the pattern of

England. The second reason was very important. The English Company had much

reservation about the education of Indians and they were thinking that after getting the

modern Education the Indians would resist against the British raj. The third reason was

the real policy of English company to educate only Indian nobles and ignored the masses

and then used them as their instruments. The vast majority from Hindus and Muslim

communities had no desire to get education from English institutions and thinking was

developed that through the education the English men were trying to transfer their culture

in India. The Company wanted to just confine its attentions towards its own interests. (88)

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Role of Charles Grant in the Education of Mughal India:

Charlas Grant was an ordinary man who reached in India in 1773 and played a

principal role in the promotion of education of that period. While staying in India he

noted the problems of education of Indian people. On returning to England he wrote an

article about the issues of Indian education system. This article was succeeded in reaching

the English parliament where the condition of education was discussed. Then the

educational responsibility was taken by the English parliament. Charles Grant also

suggested in his article to use English as a medium of education to transfer new trends of

literature, science, philosophy, religion and other subjects. English language would bring

a revolution in the thoughts of Indians. He also suggested that colleges should be

established where at first stage English teachers should be appointed and after some

period they should be replaced by able Indians. The England higher authorities not only

entertained the recommendations of Grant but also ultimately implemented. But the

implementation was seen in 1813 when a Charter was published. Charles Grant’s views

gave a new shape to the education of the people of India. While taking the responsibility

of Indian education, the English Company decided to spend one lakh rupees on education

in very year. These efforts succeeded in changing the thoughts of Indian people. The

Christian missionaries started the missionary work with full religious zeal in India and

they built missionary schools in every direction of the country. Seeing the outcomes of

education several Muslim and Hindus noble decided to open new schools and colleges. In

1833 another charter was published while expending the new and old educational

systems. During the period of first charter and second charter a change can be seen in

education progress. Although the Sanskrit Hindi, Urdu, Arabic, Persian, Gujarati,

Marathi, Bengali, Tamil, Telugu and many other local languages were the language of

literature and science but were not used as medium of education in English period. The

most of the learned men of local communities were demanding to use local languages as

medium of education but in spite of the demand of Indians the company wanted to use

English as medium of education. The English company wanted to bring a revolution

through education while getting education under the state control. Another question also

discussed whether the missionary activities brought under state control or given free hand

in their activities. (89) While discussing over the medium of education the local and

Indian thinkers divided into three groups. Munroe the governor of Madras and Mount

Elphinstome a Company officer wanted that local languages should be used as a medium

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of education. The second group which was consists of Warren Hastings and Minto had

desired that Sanskrit, Arabic and Persian should be used as medium of education. The

third group consisted of some English officers and Raja Ram Mohan Roy had desired to

apply English as a medium of education. Ultimately the English was selected as the

medium of education. This decision not only had pushed the Persian, Arabic and Sanskrit

into darkness but also stopped the development of Indian culture and Muslim civilization.

Consequently soon a group appeared in the society which was Indian by birth and English

in manners and lifestyle. Soon these people became a bridge between the company

officers and the people of India and this group only wanted to safeguard the interests of

Company and did not lake interest in prosperity of locals. The Christian missionaries

were converting the people to Christianity and them also entertaining the interests of

Company. The Company education officers appreciated the Indian scholars who not only

developed the Indian education system but also preserved the famous books of local

writers. Then the directors supported the Indian teachers while recommending financial

support and grants for the teachers as well as for schools and colleges. Some educationist

says that education system of India was not satisfactory. But it is true that the Mughal

rulers introduced many amendments in education system and patronaged the educational

system. In spite of some faults the existing education system of Mughal period was

superior than that of many European countries of the time though inferior to the English

educational system. The English wanted to introduce such a system which suits their

needs. The Muslim did not like the English education system. They were particularly

averse to learning the English language. This system destroyed Muslim position and they

were deprived from all important offices. . (90)

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69. Bernier, Francois, Travels in the Mogul Empire, P: 290.

70. Bernier, Francois, Travels in the Mogul Empire, P: 289.

71. W. H. Davenport Adams, Warriors of the Crescent, Hutchinson & Co, London, 1893,

P: 213.

72. Francois Catrou, Father, History of the Mughal Dynasty in India, J. M. Richardson,

London, 1826, P: 202.

73. R. N. Sharma, R. K. Sharma, History of education in India, P: 73.

74. Abul Fazl, Allami, The Ain-i-Akbari, 1/612, 613.

75. Nasik, Slah-ud-Din, Dor-i-Mughalia, P: 480.

76. Abul Fazl, Allami, The Ain-i-Akbari, 1/108, 109.

77. Nasik, Slah-ud-Din, Dor-i-Mughalia, P: 479, 480.

78. Abul Fazl, Allami, The Ain-i-Akbari, 1/107.

79. Sharma, Bina, Development of Modern Education in India, P: 11.

80. Nasik, Slah-ud-Din, Dor-i-Mughalia, P: 479, 480.

81. R. N. Sharma, R. K. Sharma, History of education in India, P: 72.

82. Bernier, Francois, Travels in the Mogul Empire, P: 259.

83. A. L. Basham, A Cultural History of India, P: 292, 353.

84. A. L. Basham, A Cultural History of India, P: 354.

85. A. L. Basham, A Cultural History of India, P: 292, 293.

86. Yogesh Kumar, Singh, Ruchika Nath, History of Indian Education System, P: 55.

209

87. Yogesh Kumar, Singh, Ruchika Nath, History of Indian Education System, P: 59, 60.

88. R. N. Sharma, R. K. Sharma, History of education in India, P: 77, 78.

89. R. N. Sharma, R. K. Sharma, History of education in India, P: 76, 77.

90. R. N. Sharma, R. K. Sharma, History of education in India, P: 79. S. M. Ziauddin

Alavi, Muslim Educational Thought in the Middle Ages, Atlantic Publishers &

Distributers, New Delhi, 1988, P: 86.

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Chapter No. 5

The Social Impact of Muslims and non Muslims Relations on

Society

Impact on the Different Fields of Society:

The Muslims and non Muslims relations not only had developed in Mughal

Period but also in the periods of earlier Muslim dynasties. These relations developed in

every field of life and put a reasonable impact on the social and cultural lives of Muslim

and non Muslim communities. The impact of these relations developed in every field like

languages, literature, arts, music, painting, dance, economic and social life, and in social

habits and customs. On the arrival of Muslims as Al-Biruni said that “The Hindus totally

differ from us in religion, as we believe in nothing in which they believe, and vice-versa.”

Though these relations were started as a cultural conflict among different communities in

early periods but these conflicts lost their importance when all communities started to

attach with each other while adopting the rituals, customs and life style. These social

contacts and mutual impact reached at the highest grade in the Mughal Period and even

Babur forced to characterize it as a unique way of life while giving the name of

Hindustani way. Mohamed, (1) The First such examples were produced by the rulers and

then were followed by the common people of all communities. The Muslim preachers

played an important role in maintaining religious harmony among different communities.

Their polite preaching way brought the non Muslim very close to them and then the non

Muslims converted towards Islam. The newly converted Muslims continued to meet their

non Muslim relatives which also became the reason of transfer Hindu social customs into

Muslim families. These relations not only put impact on religious life but also social and

cultural life. (2) Although the ancient writers ignored to describe the impact of Muslim

culture on Hindu society but the modern writers wrote much about it. Muslim society also

put a reasonable impact on arts, architecture, painting, music and way of life. The Hindus

adopted several Muslim social customs. A new music tradition developed in the court of

Akbar by Tansen which got popularity as Hindustani music. Then the Muslim poets and

Hindu singers produced tunes and melodies to express their joys and sorrows in a similar

way. Hindu and Muslim masons gathered to build a mosque or a temple. In the same way

they also gathered to build a palace of Raja or a Mughal court. The same changes took

play in painting, Rajasthani style is the best example of this purpose which succeeded in

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preserving the scenes of Ramayana and Krishna’s exploits as well as the love of Laila

Majnu or Shirin Frad. It can be observed easily in Mughal paintings that not only the

Hindu and Muslim adopted the dresses styles of each other but also Muslim and Hindu

ladies are visible while wearing Hindu saris and dupatta. The Muslims and Hindus

developed social contacts while ignoring religious barriers and traditional orthodoxy. Urfi

was a famous poet in Akbar period who wrote a poem in which he has shared that one

should live with others in such a way that after his death the Muslim might wish to wash

his body with zamzam water and Hindus might wish to burn him. This poem also reminds

the personality of saint Kabir. After his death the Muslims wanted to bury him and

Hindus wanted to burn him. But when the sheet had been removed from the dead of saint

they found the heap of flowers which were then divided by conflicting groups. The

Hindus burnt their share at Varanasi and the Muslim buried their share at Maghar. (3)

Impact of Harem and Rajas on Akbar:

The influence of harem on Akbar cannot be ignored. The most of the wives of

Akbar and the harem ladies were Hindus; these ladies were not only allowed to worship

the idols in the palace but also were encouraged for doing so. Under the influence of

Hindu ladies, the Emperor himself followed the rituals of Hindus regularly. In the same

way some Hindu nobles had also put an influence on Akbar. For this purpose the

personality of Birbul can be presented as example that encouraged the Emperor to made

‘tika’ like Hindus on his forehead and also said the Emperor to wear sacred thread like

Hindus. He also encouraged Akbar to worship the sun. To show some affection towards

Hindu Rajas, the Emperor Akbar started to wear the dresses of Rajput style while

deserting long gown and turban. Even the Emperor arranged his court like Hindu Rajas.

Then the mughal nobles also followed the life style of their rulers. This practice of

Mughal rulers in Muslim state had put a reasonable impact on the social life of all

communities. Then the Indian society was shaped under the influence of Hindu and

Muslim cultures. (4) During the Mughal reign Hindu and Muslim relationship was based

on mutual co-operation and peaceful co-existence. The Hindu nobles played an important

role while serving as army generals and civil administrators in Mughal Empire. Several

powerful Hindu nobles had provided their services as ministers in Mughal court and

Mansubdars in the army. Raja Ghagwan Das and Raja Todar Mall were raised to high

offices of Mughal Empire. In the same way In the Deccan, the Bahmani rulers also

appointed Hindus as civil and military officers. Hindu rulers also followed these

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examples. Devaraya 11, the ruler of Vijayanagar, appointed the Muslims as generals in

the army. Akbar played an important role in Hindu Muslim unity while developing

matrimonial relations with Hindu royal families and gave full permission to celebrate

Hindu festivals in his royal palace. (5)

The Impact of Bhaghti Movement and Sufism in Society:

This movement was appeared long before the Mughal period. The followers of

this movement stressed upon the love of god and unity of human beings. The first

preacher of this movement was Rama Naj who born in 1016 but it got popularity under

the preaching activities of Rama Nand in fourteenth century. Though he did not give

much importance to the Beds and Shastras but he put more stress to love with Ram. Then

Kabir tried to spread the preaching of Rama Nand through his poetry. In his poetry he put

more stress on the love of god while rejecting the visible bounding of Hinduism. He

condemned the attitude of Pundits and Molvis. The poetry of Kabir not only impressed

the cultural life of Mughal India but also put an influence on language. The followers of

Bhaghti movement ignored the ancient ways of worship. They stressed to preach one god.

Their ideas and their other rituals are very clear examples which tell that they were

impressed by Islam and their activities also impressed the preaching efforts of Muslims.

(6) In the book ‘The Cambridge History of Islam’ has been mentioned the impact of

Islam in these words, “There was some impact of Islam on Indian religious thoughts at

this time. Certainly some Sufi teachers, especially those of the Chisti order, had made a

popular front for their own views through their allegorical romances in Indian

vernaculars; probably with some acceptance, for Sufi mysticism often has much in

common with the pantheistic mysticism of the Indian Vedanta. To their influence, both

from their teachings and on account of the popular respect they command as saints and

thaumaturgies, may be attributed the partial conversions amongst the lower strata of

Indian society-communities with more or less of Muslim belief on particular points of

doctrine but generally faithful also to the god lings of popular Hinduism, its rites,

festivals, social implications and prescriptions. On a higher level of influence comes the

strictly monotheistic thought of such teachers as Kabir-who in spite of his Muslim name

preached strongly against what he considered to be the fallacies of both Hinduism and

Islam-and Nanak, who added to Kabir’s monotheism a discipline of religion which he so

much admired in Islam. But his Sikhs later developed an antagonism to the Mughal

rulers, and Sikhism became the implacable adversary of Islam in north India.” (7) The

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Hindus and Muslims used to pay respect and reverence to the saints of each other. The

Muslims took interest in Hindu religious texts and the Hindus impressed by the Islamic

spirit of equality, brotherhood, simple ways and monotheism. Even they worship to

‘satyapir’ or true saint. The Bhakti movement was the result of Muslim influence. On the

other side Sufism played an important role in spreading the peace message in the Indian

society. Through these movements the ideas and values were exchanged among Muslim

and Non Muslim communities. The most important impact of Sufism on Hindu society

was a social harmony. (8) The Hindus also had great affection towards Muslim Sufis. It is

said the grandfather of Maratha ruler Shiva ji was an adherent of Muslim Sufis. The said

noble was a follower of Hazrat Shah Sharif who buried in Ahmad Nagar. He suggested

the names of Shah Ji and Sharif Ji for his sons which were pure Islamic names. (9) The

Chisti School of Sufism under the supervision of Shah Kalim-ullah Jahanabadi believed

in coexistence with Hindus. These thoughts were supported by Qadiris, Shattaris and a

large population of Muslim community who were still bearing the Hindu customs after

the conversion of their ancestors to Islam. (10) Sufism also impressed by non Muslim

religious thoughts, “The Naqsabandi order’s practice of tasawwur-I shayikh, or

concentration on the mental image of the preceptor in the early stages of the initiate’s

education, seems also to have been a borrowing from Buddhism, traceable ultimately to

post-Vedic substitution meditation in early Hinduism. Balk, which had been a Buddhist

monastic centre in Central Asia, later became the home of a number of eminent Sufis.

The use of the rosary is either a Christian or an Indo-Buddhist borrowing. On a higher

plane, Buddhist ascetic meditation and intellectual abstraction left their mark on Sufism.

But, as Nicholson reminds us, the features which the two systems have in common only

accentuate the fundamental difference between them. In spirit they are poles apart. The

Buddhist moralized himself; the Sufi become moral only through knowing and loving

God.” (11)

Influence of Hindu Yogis on Mughal Emperors:

Not only Akbar was impressed by the Hindu Yogis but also Jahangir followed

the footsteps of his father. Akbar usually invited Hindu doctors, yogis and pundits on the

occasions of religious festivals to understand Hindu religious philosophy and other

information. Sivrat was a religious night of Hindus, the Emperor often to invite Hindu

Yogis and arranged the dinner for them. He met many time with a Hindu Yugi Jadrup,

just for sake of knowledge and to understand the doctrine of creation of universe while

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meeting him in his cave. When Akbar met him the Yogi Gosain Jadrup was sitting in a pit

and was in loincloth. Jahangir met this person three times in Ujjain. After discussing with

Jadrup Akbar said that “the wisdom of Vedanta is the wisdom of Sufism.” (12) The

influence of Yogis travelled to the descendants of Akbar. Not only had Dara liked to join

the company of Hindu Yogis but also enjoined the company of Muslim Sufis. This

situation has been shared by Bernier in these words, “Dara shukoh in his later days did

not restrain himself to the free thinking and heretical notions which he had adopted under

the name of Tasawwaf (Sufism) but showed an inclination for the religion and institutions

of Hindus. He was constantly in the society of Brahamans, Jogis and Sannyasis and he

used to regard these worthless teachers of delusions as learned and true matters of

wisdom. He considered their books, which they call Bed, as being the word of God and

revealed from heaven and he called them ancient and excellent books. He was under such

delusion about this Bed that he collected Barahmans and Sannyasis from all parts of the

country and paying them great respect and attention, he employed them in translating the

Bed. He spent all his time in this unholy work and devoted all his attention to the contents

of these wretched books. Though these perverted opinions he had given up prayers,

fasting and other obligations imposed by the law. It became manifest that if Dara Shikoh

obtained the throne and established his power the foundations of the faith would be in

danger and the precepts of Islam would be changed for the rant of infidelity and Judaism”

(13) Dara tried to remove the conflicts of Hindu and Muslim cultures while arranging

meeting with Hindu Yogis. He met with Baba Laldas in 1653 at Lahore and tried to

understand the Hindu religious terminology from him. In 1803 the 50 Upanishads were

converted into Latin by A. H. Anquetil Duperron, these Upanishad had already translated

in Persians by Dara. “In Dara Shikoh’s view, the Upanishads were among the works

alluded to by the Qur’an, which makes a number of references to the fact that no race of

people is ‘without The Book’ (Sura 17: 16; 53: 22; 57: 25). His efforts to effect a

rapprochement between Vedanta and Sufism were astutely titled Majma’ al bahrayn.”

(14) The Naqshbandi Sufi Jan-i-Jahan (1781) was also impressed by Hindu religious

doctrine and expressed his views about Hindus like Dara Shikuh. According to Jan-i-

Jahan the Vadas had been reveled in the early period of creation and in his eyes all

Hindus believe in one God. According to Mirza Mazhar Karishna and Rama Chandra

performed the prophetic work and known as avatar should be entertained as messenger. In

the past the people of India followed the prophets who were sent to their country. But

after the advent of Islam all the other religious were dismissed. (15)

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Impact of Muslim and non Muslim Festivals in Society:

Mughal rulers and nobles participated in the festivals of non Muslim

communities. They participated in the Hindu festivals like Holi and Diwali. Akbar

celebrated Shivrati and wore rakhis. (16) In the same way the Hindu also participated in

Muslim festivals. Although nearly all Mughal Emperors participated in the festivals of

Non Muslims but Aurangzeb stopped the celebration of these in court while banning solar

Ilali, celebrate of Nauroz and the custom of Tuladan. But after the death of Aurangzeb his

successors again continued these rituals. Aurangzeb completely prohibited dance and

music parties in the court. But in spite of these restrictions, the Mughal administration

failed to stop it in villages and even nobles secretly enjoyed with it in cities. Jharoka

darshan was prohibited. The emperor encouraged the courtiers to say salam-ale-kum

instead of saluting like Hindu fashion by raising the hand to the head. He stopped the

custom of tica on the forehead of a new Hindu raja in May 1679. Although he dismissed

Imperial astrologers but these objections could not completely imposed. Clay toys of

birds, animals were banned in 1665, the practice of lighting lamps on the tombs of the

saints on Thursday night was stopped, and pilgrim aging of women to the graves of saints

was banned. (17) The Muslims started to pay great respect to their Sheiks and after their

death used to celebrate their Urs. According to Muslims Sheikh had gained the status of

mystical union with God and had been bestowed miraculous powers by God. This fashion

was developed among Muslims under the influence of Hindu customs. Urs are celebrated

on the death anniversaries of the saints on their tombs scattered in the whole Hindustan.

The Hindus also joined these Urs of Muslim saints. (18) Shab-e Barat is an important

festival in Muslim society. On this occasion special prayers are performed on this night.

The Hindus also make special preparation for this festival. On this occasion Muslims use

fire work. Some Muslim scholars say that these displays of fireworks have been borrowed

by the Hindu festival of Kanagat. The display of fireworks may be a copy of Diwali. (19)

Impact of Hindus Marriage Customs and Marriage Dresses on Society:

When the Muslim developed relations with non Muslims consequently some

marriage customs entered into the Muslim societies. These customs not only adopted in

Sultanate and Mughal periods but also even today followed by Muslims. When a man and

women entered in a relation of marriage, the families of their parents entered into a new

relation of samdhana in Hindu society this terminology adopted by Muslim families. On

the time of marriage the sisters of bride demanded money from the groom, purely Hindu

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custom but had been adopted by Muslims and still exist in Islamic society. The bride used

to wear gorgeous dresses and bride groom also did this. A special dress was prepared for

bride that was made of silk or satin and on this dress special embroidering work of zari or

tabak was done with the thread of gold or silver. In Islamic society the simple dresses

were used for marriage ceremonies. The Indian culture had fixed such dresses. The

bridegroom also put sehra to hide the face made of flowers. The Hindus had the same

custom. The Muslim families while following the Hindu customs developed special

dresses for bridegrooms like kurti, dhoti and turban, in the same way for bride sari, blouse

or choli and Ghaghara. In modern world the bridegrooms usually wear suit tie and brides

wears embroidered sari blouse. (20) Although the khatna is an Islamic custom but the

members of the family started singing, dancing and other enjoyable events while

celebrating it like a marriage ceremony. It is said that the Muslims celebrated this custom

while following the ritual of janeo among the Kashmiri Hindus. There was a custom in

Mughal royal family that they were not subjected to circumcision to those princes who

had a chance to ascend the throne. The Molvi Syed Ahmad Dehlavi said that Emperor

Akbar wanted to make strong his empire so he avoided from the custom of khatna to

those princes who could ascend the throne. But the others were subjected to circumcision

according to the Islamic law. Hassan Dehlavi gave interesting information that the

Mughals had not mentioned about khatna ceremony of some princes from birth to

marriage. (21)

Impact of Hindu Dresses on Common Muslim Dresses:

The Hindu dresses also put a reasonable impact on the dresses of Muslims.

The Muslim women impressed mostly from the dresses of Hindus. In modern world the

European dresses also put an influence on the both sexes. Sari, kurta and pajama and

dupatta were popular dresses in Muslim society. Among these dresses sari was very

popular. A piece of cloth with 6 meters length was used for Sari. The dress of Sari is

usually is used with blouse and petticoat. The ladies wear these dresses on the occasions

of marriages. The brides wore red colored and widows wore while colored saris. This

dress was used in India while following the Hindus. Though this dress is wrong according

to the Islamic point of view because it shows the part of the body of women like stomach

and waist but even the wives of Molvies also wear saris. It can be assumed easily that the

roots of these dresses can be traced in Sultanate and Mughal periods and a possibility of

coping of the Hindu dresses by Muslims after their arrival in Hindustan. (22) Ornaments

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have very importance for women and men. Islam allows women to use gold, diamond end

and silver ornaments but the Muslim males cannot use the gold and diamond but alone

silver rings and chains. The Muslim jewelers reached in India and established their

business in India while introducing Islamic designs in India but with the passage of time

the Islamic designs were vanished from Indian society and Hindu designs took their

place. (23) Nak Kan Chadwana has become an important ritual for making the young

girls to able to wear the ornaments while puncturing nose and ears of girls. On this

occasion some distributions also made like sugar, candy and coconut. It is said that this

custom had entered into Islamic society from Hindu culture. The Hindus performed

special ceremony while sending the child at the age of fifth year to pathsalas. This

Muslims adopted this custom after giving the name of Bismillah. On this occasion the

child were wore new dresses before sending to molvi at maktab where the molvi started

the education of children with the ceremony of Bismillah and with the recitation of some

verses from holy Qur’an. (24)

Mughal Interest in Social Reforms:

Mughal rulers took steps against inhuman customs and rituals like sati,

burning of widows on the pyres of their dead husbands and child marriage. Hindu poets

produced verses describing its horror and paid tribute to Indian women who sacrificed

their lives in the love of their deceased husbands. Akbar also appreciated to those women

who had desired to die with their deceased husbands. But in 1583 he issued an order

while banning the unwilling sati. On this occasion Abul Fazl says that it was interesting to

discuss the magnanimity of Hindus who wished their own salvation through the sacrifice

of their wives. The poet Nau’I (died in 1610) dedicated his epic “Suz u gudaz” Burning

and Melting to Danyal the son of Emperor Akbar. (25) Hindu widows were permitted for

second marriage by Akbar. He banned unwilling sati, in one case he had to travel hard to

stop such type of sati. The Akbar made the rule that one could marry one wife and the

second marriage was allowed only in the case when the first wife had no child. Old ladies

who could not able child bearing were not allowed to marry but Hindu widows were

allowed to second marry. To please Hindus cousin marriage was tried to stop which has

been permitted in Islam and child marriage was also forbidden. But in spite of these steps,

this ill custom could not eradicate completely. (26)

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Begging and other Social Evils:

Begging was also a social evil; he took steps to stop this social evil. To

provide the needs of beggars, he established three colonies like Khair pura for the

Muslims, Dharm pura for the Hindus and Jogi pura for the Hindu yogis. (27) Jahangir

issued orders against the public sale of wine and bhang. Sati without permission was

forbidden as done by Akbar. The burning of child widows was banned but special

permission could be granted by the governors. By this way Jahangir tried to stop

unwilling satis. Such cases were diet in Agra by the Emperor Jahangir. Shah Jahan also

took steps for social reforms. Shah Jahan banned on public or private sale of wine. Shah

Jahan gave permission to Christians to make wine for their own use. Shah Jahan

prohibited slaughter of animals in certain days like Akbar and Jahangir. It is reasonable to

suppose that these prohibitions were not confined to the principal cities but also in for off

areas. It is said that Hindus could not wear dress like the Muslims but it could not in

forced. Stamping of Kalima on the coins was stopped in 1659 by Aurangzeb and also

took steps for social reforms. (28) Under the influence the Muslims especially in the

Mughal rule and in later periods the Hindus first tried to rid from Hindu inhuman

practices like the burning of widows and female infanticide. In the same time they also

tried to discourage the caste system and converted their attention towards the education of

women which was ignored before. (29)

Development of Tolerance in Societies:

Akbar was a great ruler and he made the Islamic Empire very strong. But

instead of confining his full attention towards political matters he started to interfere in

religious matters. This encouraged him to develop a method of Sulah-i-iKul. This policy

was purely adopted to develop administrative and political structure. The Sulah-i-Kul was

not a new thing for Indian Islamic state. Whereas the matter of tolerance, this was first

adopted by Muhammad b. Qasim and the reign of Zain-ul-Abdin in Kashmir was full of

the examples of tolerance. While adopting the Sulah-i-Kul Akbar married the Rajput

princesses and then he raised the Hindu Rajas to high offices. It is true that under the

policy of Sulh-i-Kul the importance of Muslim contribution in state offices was grew

down and non Muslims were raised to important offices. With the passage of time under

this concession the Hindus got unlawful advantages and created problems for later rulers.

(30) Bahadur Shah gave high status to Rajas and adopted a polite policy towards them.

Under the influence of this policy Ajit Singh gave his daughter in marriage to Farrukh-

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siyar but was taken back to home when the rule of Emperor was declined. These

Emperors gave equal status to Hindus in the state affairs. Even once Emperor Ahmad

Shah placed his jeweled turban on head of Raja Madho Singh of Jaipur. In same way the

Christian influence in later Mughal period, careers of Mirza Zulqarnain and Donna

Juliana a good example for this purpose. (31)

Development of Tolerance in Hindu Society:

Although the Hindu religious thinking divided the society into compartments,

in castes and jajis which developed inequality in society and the laws of Manu had played

an important role for this purpose but the Muslim neighboring and good attitude forced

them to change their behavior. Then a tradition of tolerance was developed. “The most

outstanding feature of Indian culture is its tradition of tolerance. This tradition of

tolerance is not merely an attitude of indifferences to others. It is a fundamental postulate

of Hindu thought that every way of life has its own contribution to make to human

welfare. It is this positive approach to other groups and communities this convinced

eschewal of the doctrine that one’s own way is right which gives to the Indian doctrine of

toleration its special significance. It is a wide tolerance, a feeling that others may be

equally right in the methods they follow, that is the essence of Hindu teaching. This has

colored Hindu life to such an extent that it may truly be considered the differentiating

mark of Indian culture, a respect for the faith and beliefs of others and a generous charity

in understanding the approach of other people to the problems of life, It is this sense of

tolerance and charity that gives harmony to the inner life of an Indian of culture; for a

while he is firm in his own faith, he is prepared to approach other faiths with an open

mind. The result of this tolerance has been added to the richness and variety of Indian life.

The Hindu religion provides perhaps the best illustration of this fact. While the basic

tenors and even the outward forms of this great religion have remained unchanged

through many centuries, the interplay of forces generated by the toleration of other

religions has led to a continuous re-interpretation of its doctrines and a readjustment of its

approach to the problems of life.” The Islam played an important role in reviving the

monotheistic teachings in Indian society. The religious revival of Hinduism during

fourteenth, fifteenth and sixteenth was the main result of this impact. (32) While seeing

the examples of tolerance in Muslim society the Hindu rulers and common men adopted

this policy. History has preserved a lot of such examples. The Maratha Chief Shiva Ji

issued an order forbidding his followers from harming mosques, Quran and women while

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plundering in Muslim territories. He used to pay respect to Qur’an whenever it reached

into his hands and then handed over to his Muslim followers. He never adopted harmful

attitude towards Muslim and non Muslim prisoner women and treated well until their

relations came to buy their liberty with reasonable ransom. In the same when Akbar

invited Man Singh to accept Din-i-Ilahi: “I know of Islam and respect it; I know of

Hinduism and am proud to own it; but I know nothing of this new faith, and cannot accept

it”. (33)

Muslims and non Muslims Mutual Marriages:

Muhammad b. Qasim’s soldiers started to marry with local ladies in Sind

because Muslim soldiers arrived without their families and in later periods the Arabs,

Turks, Arminians, Afghans and Mughals developed their relations with local

communities by marring the local women. It is also seen that sometimes the foreigners

married after converting them to Islam and sometimes they married the Hindu ladies

without converting them to Islam. This was the first source in which Hindus customs

penetrated into Muslim houses and in the same way Islamic philosophy, rituals and

customs entered into Hindu families through these wives. Hindu concubines also became

a source to introduce Islam in their families. A lot of examples can be produced in which

the Muslim rulers married with Hindu ladies. Sultan Bahlol Lodi had a Hindu wife and

her son Sikandar was nominated as successor of Bahlol. Ghias Shah married a daughter

of Rana Udai Singh of Mewar. Bhawani Das’s daughter was handed over to Abdul

Muzaffar Nasir-ud-din Shah in 1504 and that lady received the title of rani of Chittori. In

the same way Sultan Katb-ud-din of Gujarat, Sultan Mahmud Bigara, Sultan Muzaffar

shah II married to Hindu ladies. Sultan Shams-ud-din Nika ruler of Bangal married a

Hindu widow. In the same way some Muslim rulers gave in marriage their daughters to

Hindu rulers. Husain Shah joined his two daughters in marriage to Brahman Raja of

Sakotia. In Deccan Bahmani Sultan Firoz married to a Hindu princes in 1407. Qutub Shah

and Prince Mohammad Quli both married Hindu girls. Yusuf Adil shah ruler of Bijapur,

Muhammad Shah of Gujarat, Sultan Shihab-ud-din the ruler of Kashmir, Sultan Qutb-ud-

din and Zain-ul-Abdin married Hindu princes. In Punjab, Maharaja Ranjit Sing had two

Muslim wives, named Gul Bahar and Moran. He used to discuss in state matters with

them. Moran was Ranjit’s favorite wife. She did not wear a veil and used to appear

unveiled in public with Ranjit Singh. Ranjit Singh issued a coin Moran Shahi, engraving

her name on it. In Lahore there is a mosque under her name near the Moti chowk. Akbar

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married the Raj put princesses; one of them was Jodhabai who had great influence upon

Akbar. Jahangir married to Manbai, daughter of Bhagwandas and gave her the little of

Shah Begum. Jahangir’s son Khurram was born of Jagat Gosain. Shah Jahan was married

to Bailila wati, a granddaughter of raja Gaj Singh. Aurangzeb also had two Hindu wives.

It could not confirm whether these ladies converted to Islam or not. Sulaman Shikoh the

eldest son of Dara Shikoh married to the daughter of Amar Sing. Emperor Farukh Siyar

also married to Hindu lady named Inder Kunwar. The mother of the last emperor Bahadur

Shah Zafar was also a born by a Hindu mother named Lal bai. (34)

Purdah or Seclusion in Mughal Society:

Before the arrival of Muslim towards India there was no Purdah system in

Hindu society. The Muslim women observed purdah and under this influence the Hindu

women started to observe purdah in Sultanate and Mughal period but under some

difference. (35) The Purdah or seclusion has many roots and cannot be confined to

Muslim society alone. Purdah refers to a range of behaviors which is used for limiting the

interaction between women and the males of outside of family excepting close relations.

The use of purdah is differing in Hindu and Muslim societies but this difference had put a

reasonable impact on each other. Usually the Muslim women wore burqa a type of

garment working as a type of seclusion or purdah. The same practice also had been

observed in Hindu ladies and some Muslim ladies who used to conceal their heads and

faces while using the draped end of a sari. Moreover purdah was also practiced without

physical concealment of gestures and speech. Actually the purdah is principle attitude

which can be used to a big variety of circumstances. The scholars are in opinion that in

India Muslims and Hindus adopted different ways for purdah. In Muslim society some

restrictions were imposed on female behavior stopping them from interaction with males

out of the immediate kin group. But in Hindus purdah practice is confined just in paying

respect and submission to others especially to in-laws. Some scholars presented a lot of

examples which have given clear information about the clear distinction between the

Muslim and Hindu purdah. But in spite of this difference the Muslim and Hindu ladies

used burqa when they were in total strangers. In the same way another scholar says that

purdah was common in Muslim and Hindu societies as common concern with “protecting

the sexual modesty of women.” Another scholar gave a different type of opinion while

saying that purdah divides man and woman in separate worlds and symbolic shelter.

While discussing on the separate Wolds and symbolic Pananek says that “The separate

222

worlds involve a sharp sexual division of labor and at the same time a high degree of

interdependence between women and men, who are mutually reliant on each other.

Symbolic shelter involves a cluster of related values: women are seen as vulnerable in and

to the outside world.’ (36)

Royal Women and Seclusion:

The Delhi Sultans and Mughal Emperors played an important role in the

promotion of seclusion and purdah. The Mughal palaces had thousands of women like

wives, concubines, female relations and the women who looked after household jobs.

Muslim Amirs and Hindu Rajas followed such practices while arranging purdah system in

their houses. The Mughal harem was controlled by a female Mahaldar and in charges of

some sections like writers, treasurers, personal attendants. In short highly skilled women

were employed to move the jobs of royal palaces. The educational system was also

developed in the premises of palace for the education of boys and girls where education

was given together until primary age then separated. The young girls continued their

education while arranging female teachers or old male teachers. ‘Then as now the logic of

seclusion carried with it avenues of sex-segregated female employment.’ The Mughal

ladies played an important role in the politics of state behind the purdah. In Lodi period

the ladies were also involved in court affairs. Even Babur used to act upon on the pieces

of advice of his grandmother. Bibi Mubarika was one of his wives who helped to

maintain his power in Afghanistan. Jahangir was recovered by Nur Jahan from the

possession of a powerful Amir. Akbar also had to follow according to the pieces of advice

of harem ladies in the start of his reign. But all the activities of noble ladies were

exercised behind the purdah. “If pariah practices shaped the limits of and political

methods used by women in the courts of the Delhi Sultanate and Munhall Empire, they

had an equally profound effect upon the ideology and methods of the women’s rights

movement, both Hindu and Muslim, which arose during the British Period. Sex

segregation encouraged the formation of single sex schools as well as social and political

associations.” (37) Although the women had much importance in houses but they were

stopped to go outside of houses. Even they were stopped from visiting the shrines of

saints outside the city. This put an impact on Hindus and they also put restriction like

Muslim rulers. The Muslims had a custom of child marriage the Hindus also developed

this custom. Some Muslims also adopted the Hindu customs like sati, Jauhar and giving

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of dowry. The Hindus did not like to marry in outside caste the Muslims also adopted this

practice. (38)

Conversion to Islam and Apostasy:

Brahmans tried to stop the Hindus from conversion but the people who were

belonged from lower costs, accepting Islam with rapid speed because by this way they

could get rid from brutal cast system. By converting to Islam not only had they enjoyed

the equal status in religious beliefs as their rulers but also availed a chance to get high

posts in state affairs. On the other side a lot of examples have been preserved by the

history about the apostasy of Muslim under the influence of Muslim and non Muslim

relations. For the encouragement of conversion the Muslim rulers and Muslim saints

played an important role. Although the Muslim rulers could not involve in preaching

activities directly like the Muslim saints who could go to village to village for the

preaching purposes but the Muslim rulers gave high status to newly converted people.

Some rulers exempted them from paying jizya. Under this concession thousands of non

Muslims entered into Islam. For this purpose they took many steps, for example they gave

financial support to those captured non-Muslims who accepted Islam. Ghakkar tribe

converted to Islam by the influence of Muhammad Ghori at the end of twelfth century.

Their chief was captured by Muslim ruler who encouraged him to embrace Islam

moreover on returning to his tribe his title was restored. This generous attitude became

the reason of conversion of his tribe to Islam. Khiljis also offered some special offers for

conversion. Whenever a non Muslim converted to Islam, he was presented to Sultan, who

not only gave special honor to him but also used to support with gold and valuable gifts.

Muhammad b. Tughlaq dislike to use force for conversion but he appreciated the

conversion through the Muslim saints. In short all the Sultans of Delhi and Mughal rulers

except Akbar encouraged the non Muslims for embracing Islam. The Emperor Akbar

tried to change this tradition while allowing the Christians to made willing conversion

towards Christianity. In the Muslim period the non Muslims converted to Islam to save

themselves from paying jizya and pilgrimage taxes. But Akbar abolished jizya and

Pilgrimage tax and gave equal citizen rights. This followed by Jahangir and Shah Jahan

but Aurangzeb re-imposed jizya. The new converts continued to practice the customs of

their old religion. (39) Some writers have claimed that Islam spread by force, among them

one is Dr. Arnold. According to Dr Arnold: “Islam owes its existence and force

continuance in existence to be settlement in it of foreign conquering Muhammad an races

224

who have transmitted their faith to their descendants, and only succeeded in spreading it

beyond their own circle by means of persecution and force conversion. Thus the

missionary spirit of Islam is supposed to show itself in its true light in the brutal

massacres of Brahmans by Mahmud of Ghazna, in the persecutions of Aurangzeb the

forcible circumcision effected by Hayder Ali, Tipu Sultan and the like. But among the

sixty six million of Indian Muslmans there are vast numbers of converts of descendants of

converts, in whose force conversion played no part and the only influences at work were

the teaching and persecution of peaceful missionaries”. Babur established a powerful

Mughal empire and in this period religious influence of Islam became more permanent.

Dr. Arnold more says: “These influences are certainly apparent in the Hindu theistic

movements that arose in the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries and Bishop Lefroy has

conjectured that the positive character of Muslim teaching attracted minds that were

dissatisfied with the vagueness and subjectivity of a Pantheistic system of thought.”

During early period of his reign, Akbar converted many Rajputs to Islam. Akbar arrested

Bodh Mal, raja of Majhauli in Gorakhpur district he accepted Islam and got new Muslim

name Salim. On getting information of her husband’s conversion to Islam, she did not

allow him to enter into castle and she ruled in the said state during the minority of his son

Bhawani Mal. Dr Arnold says, “The most important perhaps among these in the

Musalman branch of great Bachgoti clan, the head of which is the premier Muhammadans

nobles of Oudh. According to one tradition, their ancestor Tilak Chand was taken

prisoner by the emperor Babar and to regain his liberty adopted the faith of Islam, but

another legend places his conversion in the reign of Humayun. This prince having heard

of the marvelous beauty of Tilak Chand’s wife, had she carried off which she was at a

fair. No sooner however, was she brought to him than his conscience smote him and sent

for her husband. Tilak Chand had despaired of ever seeing her again, and in gratitude he

and his wife embraced the faith which taught such generous purity.” (40)

Emperors’ Efforts in Conversion to Islam:

In 1603 an order was issued by Akbar to give permission to Jesuit Fathers to

make desiring converts and he already stopped practice of force conversion. He stopped

making slaves to war prisoners because by this way they were forced to adopt the faith of

their religion. There is not clear information about the condition of war prisoners. But in

spite of these steps conversion to Islam was not stopped. When some Portuguese were

made prisoners in war at Surat, were asked to accept Islam. In 1604 a Christian was

225

converted to Islam by force. Jahangir encouraged the persons for converting to Islam. He

gave allowances to converted persons. He pardoned the prisoners who accepted Islam. He

punished two Muslim nobles who had shown their affection towards Hinduism. When

Jahangir got information about the activities of Hindus who were converting the Muslim

girls to Hinduism at Rajauri, were punished by the court. Jahangir also issued order to

stop force conversion to Islam. Roz Afzun, son of Rana Sanghram got high status by

Jahangir after converting to Islam. Shah Jahan issued an order while stopping missionary

activities of Hindus and Christians. Shah Jahan was informed that in Kashmir some

Hindus marrying with Muslim girls after converting them to Hinduism. While declaring

unlawful such marriages, he separated such girls from their husband and punished the

involved Hindus. In spite of this punishment conversion to Hinduism continued in his

later years especially Muslim girls. In 10th year of his reign a case was reported in which a

Hindu Dalpat converted to Hinduism a Muslim girl Zanib while giving the name of

Ganga. The said also converted some more Muslims to Hinduism. He was arrested and

freedom was offered if he accepted Islam but he refused. He was put to death. Many cases

reported in his later years mentioning Muslims conversion to Hinduism by Viragis. Mirza

Salih and Mirza Haider were reported who converted to Hinduism. In 1645 Hargobind a

Sikh guro converted a large number of Muslim to Sikhism. (41)

Decline of the Status of Brahmans:

As the mutual relations of Hindus and Muslims developed then the Hindus

came to know that these heavy customs and rituals were the principle reasons of their

misery. The costly sacrifices, rituals and customs introduced by the Brahmans. While

seeing the simple way of worship the Hindus started to dislike the Brahmans. Then they

were informed that the so-called social difference were nothing but established under the

monopoly of priestly class. This awareness deprived the Brahmans from their status and

people began to dislike Bahamans. Rama Nand, Kabir, Nanak, Nam Deva and Tuka Ram

played an important role in removing inequality from society under influence of Islamic

thoughts. (42)

Development of Cast System:

Hindus divided their society under caste system in a rigid way and Muslims

also adopted caste system while following the footsteps of Hindus. Caste system was very

important element in Hindu society and religious beliefs. In Hinduism, “Members of a

caste are born into it, will remain in it, and are expected to marry within it and to conform

226

to its norms, especially the upwardly respectful, hierarchical relationships among the

castes. It is by such conformance that individuals accrue good karma and thereby raise

their expectations of being born into a higher caste in their nest reincarnation. Thus the

caste into which one is born is a function of one’s pre-existing karma, the net balance of

one’s positive and negative behavior in previous lives. Karma, the law of moral

consequences, is a fundamental belief of Hinduism and its antecedents and serves as the

vehicle by which religious values shape behavior, and by which one rises or falls

according to one’s willingness to accept one’s station in the current life and caste……As

India’s society became more complex and pluralistic, the caste system became more

elaborate. Invaders, even relatively egalitarian Muslims, and other new comers have been

assimilated into the caste system thereby contributing to the proliferation of sub castes.

Given the specialization of labor that accompanies economic development, there are now

in excess of three thousand sub castes or jatis, each with its own set of behavioral norms.

It is these jatis, not the four varnas that are meaningful in day to day life. Occupation is

the major differentiator of caste, and, therefore many casts are represented in a village.

The individuals thus reside at the nexus of horizontal relationships within his caste that

extend beyond the village and the vertical relationships within village, clan, family, and

the caste hierarchy. An additional complication is that there are no universal criteria for

ranking castes, and the hierarchy thus varies from place to place. Another is that the

social ranking of a caste does not necessarily correspond to its relative wealth.” (43)

Caste system is one of the principal elements in Indian society and succeeded in putting

its influence on other communities. Muslims of India also impressed by this. Caste

system had been developed by Hindus. The caste system entered into Muslim society and

changed its social behavior. Although some Muslims say that they do not believe in caste

system but while deciding about marriages of their son or daughter they usually

entertained caste system. When Muslims reached in India they had no caste system but a

tribe system but with passage of time they adopted caste system while following Hindus.

(44)

References:

1. Mohamed, Malik, The Foundation of the Composite Culture in India, Published by

Aakar Books, Delhi, 2007, P: 22.

2. R. S, Chaurasia, History of Medieval India, Published by Atlantic Publishers and

Distributors, New Delhi, 2002, P: 117. James Wynbrandt, A Brief History of

227

Pakistan, Foreword by Fawaz A. Gerges, Library of Congress Cataloging-in-

Publication Data, New York, 2009, P: 85.

3. Nanjunda D. C, Dr, Contemporary Studies in Anthropology, Published by Krishan

Mittal for Mittal Publications, New Delhi, 2010, P: 192, 193.

4. Syed, Mu’in-ul-Haq, Dr, Mu’ashri wa Elmi Tarikh, Sulman Acadamy, Karachi, 1965,

P; 202.

5. Nanjunda D. C, Dr, Contemporary Studies in Anthropology, P: 132, 133.

6. Syed, Mu’in-ul-Haq, Dr, Mu’ashri wa Elmi Tarikh, P; 202.

7. P. M. Holt, Ann K. S. Lambcon, Bernard Lewis, The Cambridge History of Islam,

Cambridge University Press, New York, 1970, 2A/61.

8. Mohamed, Malik, The Foundation of the Composite Culture in India, P: 22, 23.

9. Muhammad Akram, Sheikh, Rud-i-Kosar, Edara-i-Saqafat-i-Islamia, Lahore, 1990,

P: 465.

10. A. L. Basham, A Cultural History of India, P: 293.

11. Mohamed, Malik, The Foundation of the Composite Culture in India, P: 93.

12. Schimmel, Annemarie, The Empire of the Great Mughals, History, Art and Culture,

Published by Reaktion Books, LTD, London, 2004, P: 113.

13. Francois, Bernier, Travels in the Mogul Empire, P: 345.

14. Schimmel, Annemarie, The Empire of the Great Mughals, History, Art and Culture,

P: 114.

15. Mohamed, Malik, The Foundations of the Composite Culture in India, P: 56.

16. Schimmel, Annemarie, The Empire of the Great Mughals, History, Art and Culture,

P: 114.

17. Sri, Ram, Sharma, The Religious policy of the Mughal Emperors, P: 102.

18. Mohammad Yamin, Impact of Islam on Orissan Culture, Readworthy Publications (p)

Ltd, New Delhi, 1971, P: 112.

19. Mohsen Saeidi Madani, Impact of Hindu Culture on Muslims, M D Publications PVT

Ltd, New Delhi, 1993, P: 136.

20. Mohsen Saeidi Madani, Impact of Hindu Culture on Muslims, P: 124.

21. Mohsen Saeidi Madani, Impact of Hindu Culture on Muslims, P: 113.

22. Mohsen Saeidi Madani, Impact of Hindu Culture on Muslims, P: 140.

23. Mohsen Saeidi Madani, Impact of Hindu Culture on Muslims, P: 144.

24. Mohsen Saeidi Madani, Impact of Hindu Culture on Muslims, P: 113.

228

25. Schimmel, Annemarie, The Empire of the Great Mughals, History, Art and Culture,

P: 131.

26. Sri, Ram, Sharma, The Religious policy of the Mughal Emperors, P: 131.

27. Sri, Ram, Sharma, The Religious policy of the Mughal Emperors, P: 31, 32, 33.

28. Sri, Ram, Sharma, The Religious policy of the Mughal Emperors, P: 121.

29. Klaus K. Klostermaier, A Survey of Hinduism, Published by State University of New

York, 1994, P: 431.

30. Muhammad Akram, Sheikh, Rud-i-Kosar, P: 85, 86, 126.

31. R. Sharma, Mughal Empire in India, P: 788, 801.

32. Mohamed, Malik, The Foundation of the Composite Culture, P: 28.

33. S. R. Sharma, Mughal Empire in India, P: 789.

34. Mohamed Malik, The Foundation of the Composite Culture in India, P: 299, 300.

35. R. S Chaurasia, History of Medieval India, P: 119.

36. Margot I. Duley and Mary I. Edwards, The Cross Cultural Study of Women, Libarary

of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data, University of New York, New York,

1986, P: 158.

37. Margot I. Duley and Mary I. Edwards, The Cross Cultural Study of Women, P: 156,

157.

38. R. S Chaurasia, History of Medieval India, P: 120.

39. T. W. Arnold, The Preacing of Islam, Sh. Muhammad Ashraf, Lahore, 1976, P: 261.

Jackson, Peter, The Delhi Sultanate A Politival and Military History, Cambridge

University Press, New York, 1999, P: 283, 284. Sri, Ram, Sharma, The Religious

policy of the Mughal Emperors, P: 31.

40. T. W. Arnold, The Preacing of Islam, P: 262.

41. Sri, Ram, Sharma, The Religious policy of the Mughal Emperors, P: 25, 86, 106, 107.

42. R. S Chaurasia, History of Medieval India, P: 118.

43. Jack, Scarborough, The Origins of Cultural Differences and Their Impact on

Management,

Quorum Book, Westport CT, 1993, P: 125.

44. Mohsen Saeidi Madani, Impact of Hindu Culture on Muslims, P: 40.

229

Conclusion

The announcement of the Holy Qur’an ‘There is no exertion in Din’ is no doubt a

noble constitution of Islam and every Muslim from the advent of Islam had to follow it

while developing relations with non Muslims in every field of life. The Holy Prophet

(PBUH) also developed relations with non Muslims in the field of science, technology

and trade as well as commerce. Several examples from the life of Prophet can be

presented in which we find clear instruction about Muslim and non Muslim relations. On

the occasion of battle of Badr the non Muslims prisoners got freedom after teaching

Muslim children. The Holy Prophet also developed trade relations with non Muslims

while travelling towards Syria with business commodities. The trade and commerce

relations also can be seen in the transactions of Madina which developed between

Muslims and non Muslims of Madina under the direction of Holy Prophet. Political

relations also developed by the Holy Prophet and these relations can be seen in Sulah

Hudabia and Misaq-i-Madina. Several other examples of political relations can be

presented from the life of Holy Prophet. For example a peace agreement was signed

between the Holy Prophet and the delegation of Najran in which the Holy Prophet gave

them the status of Ahlah Zimmah while giving the assurance of the protection of their

lives, properties, honor, worshiping places and their religious elders. The relations among

Muslims and non Muslims also developed in later periods including in Mughal Rule.

Although the Mughals developed relations with non Muslims in every field of

life but they violated the Islamic Law while developing the relations with non Muslims.

The Mughal rulers also developed toleration attitude towards non Muslims. Akbar invited

the doctors of different faiths in his court. Under these relations political stability was

developed. Toleration was developed among the Muslim and non Muslim societies. Trade

relations also brought prosperity in the Mughal Empire. The Mughal rulers not only gave

trade concessions to the indigenous traders but also to the foreign traders. Then the

commodities of India reached in all directions of worlds. The indigenous trade, foreign

trade, seaborne trade and Diaspora trade was extended. While selling the commodities

and productions of India to foreigners traders and companies the Indians merchants

demanded silver or gold in return. Not only the rich textile productions and artesian

works were liked in whole India but also the Indian goods succeeded in creating high

demand in foreign markets. The Indian goods maintained a monopoly in sixteenth and

seventeenth centuries in different countries of the world. The demand of silver and gold

230

from the side of Indian Muslim and non Muslim merchants created the opposition in the

foreign markets. In the last portion of seventeenth century the European traders started to

introduce their goods in Indian markets and with the passage of time the Indian

commodities lost their importance. The main reasons of this decline were the weak

political situation of Mughal Empire and ignoring the new ways of productions. The

different non Muslims trading classes played an important role in the progress of trade

and commerce. Agarwal, Oswal, Marwar, Bhatyas, Banyas, Prachas and other Muslim

and non Muslim classes maintained their business Empires in Mughal India. Bunjaras

serverd as transporters while traveling from one corner to another corner of the empire.

Although their movement was very slow but was the cheap way of good transporting.

While developing the education relations they progress religious and secular sciences.

These relations succeeded in converting thousands of non Muslims towards Islam but

several cases have been reported about the apostasy of Muslims. Cultural impacts also

developed under these relations. The fine arts also developed under these relations.

Music, panting and architecture styles also changed under these relations. In spite of these

developments some unfamiliar attitude also developed. The Muslims and Hindus mutual

marriages also had been reported. Not only the Mughal rulers married the non Muslims

women but also several examples can be seen in the period of early Muslim dynasties.

Akbar was the first Mughal ruler who developed matrimonial relations with Hindus.

Through this he wanted to get political support from them. He allowed them to found a

temple in the royal palace while allowing his wives to follow their own faith. It can be

assumed that this practice was followed by Mughal nobles as well as masses. Not only

Jahangir but also his descendants brought Hindu girls as their wives. By these relations

the Hindu customs and rituals entered into Muslim societies. These relations can be seen

in other perception, through this way the message of Islam reached in the houses of Hindu

nobles and the several Hindu princes and princesses converted to Islam. He abolished

jizya and pilgrimage tax while giving equal citizen status to the non Muslim communities.

On this occasion he said that the state could not get jizya from the non Muslims because

they were also participating in the defense of the country. This was the clear violation of

Islamic law. None of the rulers of Muslim dynasties exempted the non Muslims from

jizya paying. Jahangir and Shah Jahan also followed the footsteps of Akbar. But

Aurangzeb tried to re-impose the jizya and pilgrimage tax on non Muslims while giving

lesser status than Muslims. This created the opposition against his rule. On this occasion

the non Muslims educated class rejected this order while saying that jizya could not be

231

imposed in India where the condition of law and order was very bad. Not only the towns

and villages were suffered by the crimes but also the big cities were reported crimes. So

this order became the reason of fury in the non Muslim societies and ultimately they

roused their weapons against the Mughal Empire. The people who were offering their

lives for the defense of empire now became the worst enemy of the state. The basic fault

can be seen in the policy of Akbar who just for getting their support violated the principal

of Islamic law. While developing political relations the Mughal rulers succeeded in

maintaining political authority in India and their rule continued for next two centuries. In

the same way most of the Muslims also followed the thoughts of Hindu Upanishads.

Hindus also adopted the life style of the Muslims. While impressing from the cultures of

each other the Muslims and non Muslims used to attend the religious festivals of each

other. A lot of social customs and rituals were interred into the Muslim society from non

Muslim societies and even today a majority of Muslims is following these rituals without

knowing that these customs and rituals are not liked in Islamic law. Although these

Muslim and non Muslim relations have been encouraged in Islamic Law but with some

restrictions. While developing these relations a society or state can be progressed. Not

only the national but also the international trade relations should be developed with the

people of all religions. Through the trade prosperity can be brought in the society. While

developing the religious relations with the non Muslims toleration should be developed

that will be the source of peace and harmony in society. In the same way educational

relations also should be developed. Moreover social relations also should be developed

but under the philosophy of Islam.

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Recommendations

1. The Muslims ruled nearly the whole world in past while developing science,

technology, trade, literature as well as other fields of life. But today the Muslims

have lost the superiority and have to follow the other nations in these fields for

their survival. Instead of depending on the resources of others the Muslims should

follow the Islamic rules for their prosperity.

2. The Muslims should convert their attention towards modern education, technology

and science and in this way they can get a reason able status in the world. Several

countries have progressed while developing educational system.

3. Instead of looking the examples of the prosperity of others the Muslims should

look into their history which is full of such examples. While following the

examples of the Islamic history the Muslims can progress in every field of life.

4. The Muslims should develop relations with non Muslims in every field of life

while following the rules of Islam. These relations can be extended in science,

technology, education and other fields of life.

5. The education system of Mughals could not be discussed in detail so there is very

space for future research.

6. The Muslims developed matrimonial relations with non Muslims and even today

several examples can be presented about such practices, the Muslim should avoid

developing such relations.

7. The Muslims should avoid from participating non Muslim religious festivals.

8. The caste system entered into Muslim societies from Hindu society, the Muslims

must avoid following it. Because all Muslims are equal in society.

9. Several Hindu customs and rituals entered in Muslim societies especially in

marriage ceremonies, the Muslims must discourage such practices.

10. The Muslims should develop their own language and culture because this is the

only way for progress.

11. While developing the religious relations the Muslims should avoid following the

religious thoughts of non Muslims.

12. The Muslims must give the security to non Muslims in their society about their

live, honors and properties.

233

13. The Muslims must develop toleration attitude in their societies. The religious

freedom must be given to every person who lives in Muslim society while

following the Sunnah of Holy Prophet. It is the important part of Islamic Law.

Through this we can maintain peace and harmony.

14. The Muslims must follow the Sunnah of Holy prophet and should not adopt the

life style of non Muslims, especially in dresses.

15. The brief informations have been shared about the different communities of

Hindustan, so a huge space for research still exict.

234

Indexes

Ain-i-Akbari, a biography of Akbar, 31,

100, 101.

Akbar, 25, 27, 28, 29, 30, 31, 32, 33, 33, 34,

35, 37, 39, 41, 46, 47, 57, 66, 77, 73, 74,

75, 78, 79, 80, 81, 82, 88, 89, 90, 91, 99,

100, 101, 102, 103, 106, 111, 112, 113,

114, 115, 174, 178, 180, 182, 183, 184,

186, 187, 188, 192, 193, 197, 202, 204,

205, 207, 209, 218, 219, 220, 221, 222,

223, 226, 227, 228, 229, 231, 232, 233;

abolished Jizya and pilgrimage tax from

non Muslims, 32, 73, 232, 239; received

news of death of his father at Kalanur,

27; he allowed his Hindu wives to follow

their own faith, 31; impressed by Hindu

saint named Jadrup, 78, 79, 80, 222;

opinion about Vedanta and Sufism, 34,

43, 79, 188, 193; summoned to fire-

worshippers and sun-worshippers, 1o1;

his participation in some of Hindu

festivals like Rakhi, Dipavali, Shivaratri,

31, 223; a brave, wise and the righteous

king, 33; rturned to Agra from Sanbhar,

29; married the daughter of Raja Bihari

Mal, 29; Akbar was impressed by the

Hindu Yogis, 54; his invitations for

Hindu doctors, yogis and pundits, 31;

Sivrat was a religious night of Hindus,

79; the Emperor’s dinner with Hindu

Yogis 79, 202; his opinion about wisdom

of Vedanta and the wisdom of Sufism,

31; Akbar sent Abdullah Khan (died in

1589) and Dominic Peres, an Armenian

Christian to Goa, 62, 109, 118; three

members of mission, Jesuit fathers, 34;

Fathers also showed the Emperor a Latin

translated Quran, 110

Aziem-ul-shan, 60, 61.

Amulakh Rushi (1877-1936), 119.

Alu-ud-din Muhammad shah Khilji marched

towards Gujarat in 1297 and destroyed

several Jain temples, 87.

Afghan chief did not follow his promise,

100.

Apostasy, Dalpat converted to Hinduism a

Muslim girl Zanib, 233; Mirza Salih and

Mirza Haider were converted to

Hinduism, 233.

Abul-Fazal, 33.

Aurangzeb, 42, 43, 44, 49, 50, 51, 52, 53,

54, 55, 56, 57, 58, 60, 62, 74, 76, 77, 78,

80, 82, 83, 88, 92, 93, 103, 119, 120, 142,

148, 163, 164, 166, 169, 170, 175, 182,

183, 184, 188, 190, 200, 209, 223, 226,

229, 232; his simplicity and way of

earning, different taxes and jizya on non

Muslims, 59; gifts and rewards to Hindu

nobles on religious festivals, 59;

acknowledged Murad as his sovereign

49; his respect for Brahmans, 50; gave

jagir at Dehra Dun to Ram Rai the leader

of a group of Sikhs, 55; sent Dara’s head

in a box to his father, 50; became

emperor of Hindustan in 1658, 51; Shah

Alam, 60, 61, 65, 119; in 1701 crushed

the power of Maratas, 51; his routine of

work, 51 Orissa, 29, 39, 39, 80, 84, 190,

194, 198, 199; on November, 1665

Somnath temple was destroyed, 76;

Mughal rulers public life, 65; destruction

reports about Sind, Muthra and Benares,

76.

Amir Taimur the son of the chief of the

Barlas tribe, founder of the Tamurid

Dynasty, one of the ancestors of Babur

Beg, 1, 207.

Adham Khan, the son of Mahum Anagah,

28.

Alankawa, a common ancestor of Taimur

Beg and Chingiz Khan, 1.

Azam Shah, 60.

Altamgha of Tumana Khan, an agreement,

1.

Ala-ud-Din the brother of Sikandir Lodi, 14,

89.

Abu Sa’id the grandfather of Babur, 2, 12.

Andejan, 3, 4, 5, 7, 8, 9, 10.

Ali Wardi khan became sovereign in

Bungal, Bihar and Orissa, 64.

Ali Muhammad Khan Ruhila, 64.

Ahmad Shah Abdali, 64, 65.

Asif jah, 65, 146.

Babur, 1, 20, 74, 78, 106, 108, 152, 180,

189, 190, 192, 205, 218, 230, 232; he

was forced to capitulation, 10, reached

Uratippa, 10; he mounted the throne of

235

Alp khan the governor of Gujarat, 87.

Abud-ur-Rahman khan-i-khana, 108.

Ahmad Abad, 22, 46, 54.

Askari Mirza, 19, 22, 25.

Tarikh-I Ilahi, 100.

Al-Baruni writing in mathematical

geography, opposition of rigid doctors,

“Tahid Nihayati’l-Amakin Tashih

Masafati’ Masakin” in his defense, 175.

Antonio Vas and Pedro Dias reached in

Bengal, 109.

Atharva Veda, the Mahabharata, the

Harivamsa, and the Ramayana and other

religious books were converted into

Persian, 43.

Antonio de Monserrate, 91, 109, 110, 11,

first Jesuit mission was returned to Goa

without any success, 152.

Abdus Sattar Ibn-Qasim Lahori helped the

father Xavier, 116.

Asif Khan raised Bulaqi, the son of the

Prince Khusru to the throne, a brother of

Nur Jahan and Prime Minister of Mughal

Empire, 39, 42, 47; Hindu astronomy was

supported by Asif Khan, 47;

Nityananda’s works on Hindu astronomy

and support of Asif Khan, 47.

Ahmad Shah mounted on the throne, 89.

Ali Gohar was made emperor by Ahmad

Shah Abdali under title of Shah Alam

Sani, 65.

Ahlay Kitab (believers of some heavenly

book), 73.

Al-Ghazzali and Nizam-ul-Mulk reshaped

the education system, 17422, 23, 24;.

Abdul-Ghafar a noble businessman of Surat,

137.

Ahmad Chellaby of Surat, 137.

Atash Bakram (Iran Shah), 98.

Avesta and Pahelvi texts, 98.

Ali Quli Khan, 36, 37.

Baba Lal Das, 183.

Bunyas, 133, 143, 144, 145, 146, 147, 148,

149, 153; sub-castes, their identity, 144; a

sense of solidarity in Bunyas, 144;

Vaishyas, 144; Bunyas dwelling in

northern India, 144; Jain Bunyas’

monopoly in different provinces, 144;

Mirat i Ahmadi, 84 sub castes of Jain

Bunyas, 84 sub-casts of Hindu Bunyas,

Kabul, 12; his death, 5; Babur Nama, his

biography 18, 189; beautiful collection of

books, 18; disappointed the Afghan

nobles, 14;a Sunni Muslim, 17, 74;

Babur’s will about tolerant attitude

towards all communities, 74; Ibrahim

Lodhi and Hindu Rajas were defeated,

14; rivals wanted to expel him from

Hindustan, 16; battle of Khanwa, 17; old

lady of Dehkat, 10, 11; lady’s relation

joined army of Taimur Beg, stories of

Hindustan, information about India, 11;

at Panipat on April 12, 1526, 15.

Beyesanghar, 5.

Bairam Khan, 27, 29.

Bhakti movement, 31.

Bijapur and Golconda were forced to pay

tribute, 42, 51.

Brahmans accepted Akbar as carnation of

Ram-Krishna, 75.

Biana, 16, 184.

Battle of brothers, both the armies fought

near Banaras, defeat of Sujah, 49;

Aurangzeb and Murad encamped two

miles away from the capital, 50; Dara

marched with powerful army against his

rivals but defeated and took flight, 49;

death of Shah Sujah with his family, 50.

Brahman was put to death under the

complaint of blasphemy, 31.

Bidar Bakth was one of the sons of Azam

Shah, 60.

Burhan-ul-Mulk, 64.

Banjara camp, 150; movement of

Banjarays, their women and children, a

Tanda was formed under many families,

207; their trading activities, 151; Thomas

Roe (1615) saw 10,000 bullocks in one

troupe laden with corn, 151.

Birbal entered in Din Ilahi, 30, 101, 181.

Bhanu Chandara, 91.

Banaras, 193, 200, 211.

Bharat Chandra Rai famous Bangali

religious poet, 195.

Bhiksu (1726-1803), 87.

Bahgwan Das, 30.

Baba Lal Das, 183.

Bridegroom’s interest in sehra to hide the

face, 224; interest in Hindu customs,

developed special dresses for

236

145; Khatris were settled in Punjab, 145;

Aroras was a sub-caste of Khatris, 145;

Khatris as reputed class, below only the

Brahmans, 146; Khatri merchants

colonies, 146; Chandu Lal Khatri, 146;

Oswal, a trading community, 146;

Maroodes (Marwar), 146; Marwari

agents in Diaspora trade, 146; Jagatseth,

146; Marwari Baraev (Great Marwari),

146; Bhatia an important Bunya caste,

146; Jagat seiths and sarafs role in the

promotion of trade, 146; Virji Vora, 137;

Hundis as the facility of investment, 146;

Merchant bankers, 147; Bunya

communities controlled the network of

trade from India, 146; Hindu Khitri

merchants of Multan as powerful

merchants, 153; Agarwal, Oswal and

Parwar, 153, Arora-Khatri was a sub

caste of Khatris, 153; the high status of

Todal Mal in the court, 153; Khojas,

Parishes and Bhatia’s of Punjab, their key

role in Diaspora trade, 154; a certain

amount of capital for agents, 154.

Bunya word, banik or vanik, Baqqal an

Arabic word for Bunya, 144, colonies of

Hindu Bunyas in northern India, 145.

Brahmans teachers, 200; four holy Beds,

276. Pundits’ harsh attitude, 200.

Brahmans efforts to stop conversions, 230;

Ghakka tribe converted to Islam by the

influence of Muhammad Gory, 231; non

Muslims interest in saving themselves

from paying jazzy and pilgrimage taxes,

231.

Baptist Mission press in Sera pore, 196.

Bhagarias and the Kakalias, the sects of

Parsis, 98.

Conversion to Islam, Akbar’s efforts in the

expansion of Islam, 31.

Chandi Das, a Brahman, 195.

Chander Bhan the famous poet of Shah

Jahan, 47.

Chinese goods like Chinese porcelain were

very popular among nobles and royal

families, 167; Akbar’s interest in foreign

made goods, 167.

Carpets weaving reached at high rank during

Mughal period and one of export items,

167.

bridegrooms like kurti, dhoti and turban,

224.

Bais (Vaishyas), 144.

Bala Ghat, 44.

Bait-ul-Hikmat, 192; Muslim and non

Muslim scholars of Abbasian court, 192;

Hindi decimal system, 192; Albaruni

converted a lot of Hindu religious books

into Arabic, 192.

Brides interest in sari, blouse or choli and

Ghaghara, 224.

Bahadur Shah, 20, 21, 22, 60, 61, 62.

Bilgram, 20.

Bir Singh Bundela constructed a temple in

Muthra, 34.

Cultivation of tobacco after the death of

Akbar, the technique was introduced by

Portuguese in Mughal India, 141;

tobacco first time was cultivated in

Gujarat in 1613, 141.

Chatasalas or pathsalas (village schools) as

important educational institutions, 198;

mathas, 198; Matibamsa or the Karana

caste, 198; title of Guru, 73; Diksh Guru,

198; Hindu Pilgrimages sites, tols and

Rajasabhas as higher education centers,

198; Sastras, music, Puranas, Smritis and

Sahitya were taught to the ladies, 198; no

interfere in Hindu educational system,

199; medium of instruction for the Hindu

students, 199; syllabus for Hindu boys,

199; many types of Hindu schools in the

Hindu society, 201; houses of teachers as

educational institutions, 201; Upasaras as

important educational institutions, 201.

Arithmetic, 202; training of Khatriya

boys, 202

Chator, 21.

Dhamadas, 149.

Delhi, 13, 14, 15, 17, 19, 20, 21, 25, 26, 27,

28, 34, 38, 46, 50, 54, 60, 61, 63, 64, 65,

76, 77, 80, 82, 86, 87, 93, 95, 108, 135,

136, 140, 142, 145, 146, 147, 180, 185,

187, 188, 193, 200, 203, 209, Delhi as a

major centre for chintz manufacture, 140.

Decline of village handicraft and village

prosperity, 167.

Dewali and Holi were banned publically in

Gujarat, 82.

Decline of Portuguese, 121.

237

Caste system in Hindus and then Muslims,

234, 235.

Daily expenditures of royal ladies, 67.

Daud khan, the governor of Bengal,

destroyed several temples in Palamau in

1661, 76.

Dutch, 38, 48, 50, 57, 58, 139, 140, 143,

149, 159, 160, 161, 162, 163, 164, 165,

166, 169, 170; Dutch East India

Company, ship building sharp

technology, sharp trading vessels, 162; a

Dutch factory was looted in Surat, 50;

Dutch attacks on fortified ships of

Portuguese, 161; Dutch blockaded Goa

and Malacca from the sea, 161; opinion

of Philip Lucasz, a Dutch officer about

Portuguese textile sales in Malacca, 161;

foreign traders, American silver for

Indian products, 165; a Dutch diplomat’s

opinion about the merchants of Bengal,

166; a Dutch presented a lante to Shah

Jahan and got trade concessions, 165.

Diaspora trade, Multan or Shikarpur as the

residence of directors, activities of

Diaspora agents, 146; caravans to Russia,

a Diaspora community at Astrakhan, 146;

Hindu Diaspora Community of traders in

Bukhara, 147; Multani as the general

name for a Hindu or Muslim in Central

Asia and Persia and Afghanistan, 147;

Diaspora at Turan, 148; Muslim Multani

merchants interest in the textile industry

in Samarkand, 148; Muslim Multani

Lohani tribe in Diaspora trade, 148.

Dom Mathews arrived from Goa in the court

of Shah Jahan, 118.

Dars-e-nizami introduced 186.

Din-I Elahi, 100.

Denial and Murad died at their young age,

33.

Dance training also given, 204; Babur and

Humayun took interest in music, 204;

Man Singh and Raja Bhaghwan Das took

interest in music, 205.

Dorab Khan destroyed many temples on

March 8, 1679, 77.

Development of urbanization in Mughal

period, the use of money was expended,

134; was divided into four units, 186;

Dacca, Molda, Hughli, Radhanagar,

Dara, 42, 43, 44, 46, 47, 48, 49, 50, 54, 55,

75, 76, 80, 89, 90, 91, 93, 96, 104, 118,

119; was the eldest son of Shah Jahan,

the love of Shah Jahan for Dara, 42;

prepared mighty armies to defense the

throne, 42; Dara Shikuh’s religious

policy, 80; his interest in Hindu religious

books, 80; wrote Risala-i-Haqnama and

discussed about ‘bazer-i-but imanist

Pinhan’, faith lies hidden the idol, 80;

insulted Raja Jai Sing 45; dispatched a

powerful army under Rana Jeswant Sing,

45; Dara translated Yoga Vishshta,

‘tarjuma Joga Vashista’ 80; Majma-ul-

Baharin (meting of the two oceans), 80;

his relations with the Christian

missionaries and sessions of discussion,

162; his affiliation with Buzeo, 162; love

for Brahman poets, Jogis and Sannyasis,

193; Dara had given up the prayers,

fasting and other obligations, 193; Abd-

ur-Reman Chishti ideas about Hindu

cosmogony, 193 conversion of 52

Upanishads into court language, 194;

Nath Yogis, 194; Dara interest in the

company of Hindu Yogis as well as the

company of Muslim Sufis, 221; the

translation of 50 Upanishads in Latin by

A. H. Anquetil Duperron, 222.

Dutch established monopoly over pepper

and opium trade, 143.

Destruction of Hugli, 46.

Dadu, 78, 194.

Doulat Khan, 13, 14.

Export of English Company, 56; the

company shifted its business from Surat

to Bombay, 56; the brokers of the French

and of the new English Company were

released, 58.

European nations, their political and

military powers, their trading activities in

the southern India, 38, 197.

English traders introduce American cotton

gin in the southern territories of India,

141.

English East India Company, 161; their

trading posts in Gujarat, Coromandel and

in Bengal, 162; Thomas Best, an English

Captain reached with three ships in India,

162; during 1500 century the population

238

Santipur and Judia were chiefly

commercial centers rather than

manufacturing centers, 135.

Detail of migration of Zoroastrians, 95.

Dastur Meherji Rana (1510-91) of Navsari,

95.

Dabistan-i-Mazahib, 103.

Dharm pura for the Hindus and Jogi pura for

the Hindu yogis, 226.

Emperor Akbar efforts for the promotion of

secular sciences in educational

institutions, 174, 175, 177; the result of

individual efforts for the development of

the secular sciences, 174, 175, 177;

Emperor Akbar had a big library, 180;

library was next divided into many sub

categories, 180; sub libraries were

arranged under some subjects like secular

sciences, literature, Prose and religious

books, 180; books were checked daily

and read over to the Emperor by the

experts, 180.

European paintings, 197; Christian religious

pictures, 197; Jahangir had the paintings

of Crucifixion, 197; Kesho the elder,

198; Jesuit Fathers displayed Borghese

Madonna 198; Madonna Del Populo was

displayed, 198.

English introduced modern education

system in Bengal, 180.

Firoz Shah Tughlaq (1351-88) imposed jizya

on non Muslims, Brahmans paid Jizya, 73.

Feroz Tughlaq converted workshops into

institutions of vocational training, 189;

education was limited to the rich families

through private tuitions, 189.

Farokh Siar, 61, 62; killed by the Syed

brothers, 61.

Fort William College, 198.

Ghazi-ud-din khan marched with puppet

king towards Punjab, 65.

Ghaznavids rulers first time introduced the

madrasa system in India, 175.

Gulbadan Begam wrote Humayunnama, 27.

Ghayas-ud-din Tughlaq, 73.

God Ahura Mazda (Wise Lord), 94.

Girnar and Satrunjaya, 85, 87.

Gujarat and Malwa, 21.

Gujarat textile productions were exported to

Arab countries and to south East Asia,

of England and Wales, 162; the

foundation of English East India

company, only two year earlier from the

formation of the Dutch company, 163.

Father Pinhiero converted a lot of people to

true faith in Lahore, 112

Fatter Heinrich Roth S. J was a Christian

missionary, 203. Tansen was the great

musician, 204.

Francis Julian Pereira, 109.

Father Corsi arrived in the capital from Goa,

gifts for Emperor, 114.

February 1713 Bahadur Shah died, 61.

Father Enrichez (or Henriquez), 110.

Francisco Xavier the first Jesuit father

arrived in India for Christianity, 108,

133.

Family firms of Bunya brokers, joint family

firms, joint properties and join

commercial interests, 148; nearly 3000

ships docked at Khambat every year,

165.

French was the only rival of British power,

163; the neutral policy of Mughals

during the war between English and

France, 163; no market in India for

European goods, the costly goods of

Europe, trifles and novelties, 163, 164.

Fergana, 3, 4.

Fateh Pur Sikri Fort, 75.

Hindu princesses as wives of Akbar, 219.

Hindus started to dislike the Brahmans, 234.

Hiravijaya, 88, 89, 90, 91.

Hemcandra (1089-1172), 88.

Humayun, 14, 15, 16, 18, 19, 20, 21, 22, 23,

24, 25, 26, 27, 28, 29, 74, 99, 103, 106,

108, 109, 180, 186, 190, 191, was

defeated by Sher Shah at Chusa, 24, 26;

his death and tomb, 26; was raised to the

throne, 26; his defeats, 34; Humayun’s

religious policy, 26; the ruler of Iran gave

help, he then recovered Kandahar and

Kabul, 26; temple destruction, 47;

Humayun founded a madrasa for the

higher education of astronomy,

geography, Persian grammar, Arabic

grammar and philosophy, 186; Madrasa

of foster mother of Akbar, Badauni got

education from this madrasa, 185.

Interest rate in Agra, 148.

239

166. Export goods during Mughal period,

166; export goods during Mughal period,

166.

Gujarati and Marwari business men

controlled trade, 164.

Gujarati and Marwari business men, 164.

Gujarati and Marwari business men

controlled trade, 164.

Guru Arjun, 35, 92.

Ganges, 22, 23, 24, 85.

Governor of Surat also maintained

monopoly in food grains, 165.

Gregory XVI revived the Society of Jesuits,

dispatched missions, 121.

Guru Gobind Singh, 56.

Hemu Baqal, 27; defeated in the second

battle of Panipat, 28.

Hindu painter, named Nahina, 41.

Hindus were said not to copy the lifestyle of

Muslims, 54.

Har Rai died, his minor son Har Kishan

became his successor, 55.

Hindal Mirza, 19, 27.

Hindal Mirza, 19, 27.

Hindu merchants’ business techniques, 148.

Hindu Beg, 18.

Jain temples, 85, 86.

Jahanara’s mosque, 54.

Jai Singh was granted permission to appoint

head priest at the temple of Bindraban

from imperial court, 45.

Judicial disputes were decided according to

their personal law by Hindu judges, 59.

Jesuit Fathers were invited to Mughal Court

by Akbar from Goa, 46; Jesuits founded

the first printing press in Goa in 1566,

196; musician were invited from Goa,

198; Portuguese founded a royal factory

in Antwerp, 198; European paintings got

popularity in Mughal court, 198.

Jan-i-Jahan’s (1781) interest in Hindu

religious doctrine, 222.

Jahandar Shah was the eldest son of

Bahadur Shah, 61.

Jafar khan a Mughal noble, well wisher of

Christians, 120.

Job Cher Nuke, 78.

Jain monk Padmasundara, 89.

Kakka Suri a Jain monk, 87.

Khaja Sultan Hamid and Benedict were sent

Intra-local trade, inter village trade, 133.

Indian weavers were expert in dying,

printing and painting the cotton cloths,

141.

Jahangir, 3, 5, 7, 8, 11, 12, 29 30, 33, 34,

35, 36, 37, 38, 39, 40, 41, 44, 47, 54, 56,

66, 74, 75, 76, 79, 81, 82, 83, 88, 89, 91,

92, 96, 102, 103, 112, 114, 115, 116,

117, 118, 142, 148, 161, 164, 165, 178,

183, 186, 197, 203, 206, 207, 208, 221,

222, 226, 229, 230, 231, 233.

Jainism, 82, 84, 85, 86, 87, 88, 89, 90, 91,

92, 143, 146, 154, 187.

Jinadatta Suri (1075-1154)), 87.

Jinacandra, 88.

Jainas as chief accountants in the courts of

Rajas, 89.

Jain monks immoral practices, 35; Jahangir

ordered to Jain monks to leave the limits

of his imperial territories, 35.

Jesuit fathers, Edward Leioton (Leitanus)’

and Christopher de Vega were sent to the

royal court along with an assistant, 111.

Joseph Carvalho a Christian missionary,

120; Father Bertholdi, 120.

Jean Venant Bouchet, 120.

Kamalakar Bhatta, the writer of

Nirayasindhu, 65.

Kabir efforts about the spread of the

preaching of Rama Nand, his poetry,

304; his message for society, his attitude

to Pundits and Molvis, 304; poetry of

Kabir impressed the cultural life, 304;

followers of Bhaghti movement ignored

the ancient ways of worship, 304;

Reverence for Hindu and Muslim saints

in Mughal society, 305; interest in Hindu

religious texts, 305; Hindus impressed by

the Islamic spirit of equality,

brotherhood, 305; Bhakti movement was

the result of Muslim influence, 305.

Khiraj, 99.

Lad Malika, 22.

Liquor was mainly manufactured by

Christians, 142.

Lacknow, Sialkot and Bengal as the

principal educational cities, 188.

Mughal armies expelled the Portuguese

from Hugli, 162.

Mahamatya Nanu Godha, 162.

240

as ambassadors to Goa, 114.

Khatna as an Islamic custom, customs of

singing, dancing and other enjoyable

events, following of the ritual of janeo

among the Kashmiri Hindus, 224; this

custom was not necessary for those

princes, willing for throne, 224.

Khwajaki Khwaja, 5.

Khawaja Didar, 6, 9.

Karm Chand Jain from Bikanir, 89.

Khaja Kalan, 36.

Khawja Khalifa, Prime Minister, 26.

Kamran Mirza 27.

Khaja Kalan, 27.

Kamal-ud-din Bahraz, 41.

Khan Alam and Bashan Das were sent to

Persia, 41.

Kharshedji Pocaji a famous Zoroastrian,

103.

Kavindaracarya writer of commentary,

support of Shah Jahan, 65.

Kaum Buksh, 60, 61.

Members of Society of Jesus reached in Goa

who got popularity under the name of

Jesuits, 108; Christian society was

founded by St Ignatius, Francisco Xavier,

Diego Lainez, Alfonso Salmero, Nicolas

Bobadilla, Peter Faber and Simao

Rodrigues in Paris in 1534, 108.

Multani agents techniques of business, their

interest in cotton and cloths, 153; their

trading colonies in Isfahan, 153; caravans

of traders, selection of residence and

destination, commands of the direction of

the senior representative of the firm, 153;

their identity in Central Asia as ‘aqsaqal’

and in Iran as the ‘Kalanlar’, 154; Indian

caravanserais as favorite residence for

trading activities in caravanserais,

residence of different people, 155;

Hindus were allowed to celebrate their

religious festivals in Indian Merchant

Diaspora, 155; Hindu temples in

Noaband near Bandar Abbas, 156;

conversion of identification of Diaspora

merchants from Multani to shikarpuri,

157; Multan also a mint town, 157;

Lohanis as popular business community,

their services as transporters of bulk

commodities between India and Central

Masaudi Afghans, 15.

Mahtab Rai a Jain Jagat seith, 89.

Muslim rulers paid respect to non Muslim

religious festivals, 81.

Muslim festivals, 81.

Mir Baqi destroyed the temple at Ayudhya,

18.

Muhammad Adil Shah, 27.

Mahum Anagah, the foster mother of

Akbar, 28.

Mahajan organization, 169; Aurangzeb

ordered a general religious persecution of

Hindu bunyas merchants, 169.

Missionaries founded a school, 113.

Man Singh, 39, 40.

Mirza Shirf-ud-din, 29.

Mured Bux, 44.

Mir Jumla, 54.

Man Bai the daughter of Raja Bhagwandas

the ruler of Amber became Jahangir’s

first wife, 33.

Muqarrib Khan, a governor of Surat, 35.

Muslim rulers established (schools) and

madrasas (colleges), 177; the purpose of

education, 179; the ceremony of

“Bismillah, 179; importance of maktab

schools, 179; higher education in

madrasas, 179; importance of literature,

philosophy, law, astrology, history,

geography, agriculture and medicine,

179; Babar Nama in Turkish language,

179; Humayun gathered learned men in

his court, 179; Tazkirat-ul-Wakiyat was a

famous writing, 179; Child education is

mentioned in detail in Ain-i-Akbari, 180;

the important learned personalities in the

court, 180; Ebadat Khana as popular

place for educational discussion like a

university, 180; royal library, its head,

180; Jahangir interest in literature, 181;

Hindu poets in the Mughal Court, 181;

Akbar’s efforts for higher education, 181.

Maharana Ray Singh, 77.

Maharaja Jawant Singh died, 78.

Nassir Mirza, 3, 12.

Murad Bux, 44, 49.

Marathas, 42, 51, 55, 63, 64, 65.

Mohammad Begada the ruler of Gujarat, his

experience in politics, 99.

Mughal Troops against Sambhaji, 51.

241

Asia, 157; Shikarpur a very wealthy city,

157.

Multani and Shikarpuri terms for Khatris,

Bhatias, Bohras, Lohanis, trading

activities of Muslim and non Muslim

merchants in Diaspora, 156.

Majalis-i-Jahangir, 115.

Mirabai was visited by Tansen and Akbar,

78.

Mahavira was born in the province of Bihar,

83, 84.

Muhammad Hakeem Mirza, 25.

Muslim theologians’ participation in the

court of Akbar, 34.

Mullah Shah Ahmad, 34.

Mewar was a powerful state, 16, 17.

Malik Ambar the minister of Ahamadnagar,

an able politician, 39.

Mitramisra was the famous jurist of Mughal

court, his interpretations about Hindu

laws, 47.

Mahan Begam, the favorite wife of Babur,

19.

Matrimonial relations, Sultan Bahlol Lodi

had a Hindu wife, 228; Ghias Shah

married a daughter of Rana Udai Singh of

Mewar, 228; Bhawani Das’s daughter

was handed over to Abdul Muzaffar

Nasir-ud-din Shah, 228; Katb-ud-din of

Gujarat, Sultan Mahmud Bigara, Sultan

Muzaffar shah II married to Hindu ladies,

Sultan Shams-ud-din Nika ruler of Bagal

married a Hindu widow, 228; Maharaja

Ranjit Sing had two Muslim wives,

named Gul Bahar and Moran, 228;

Aurangzeb also had two Hindu wives,

228; Sulaman Shikoh the eldest son of

Dara Shikoh married to the daughter of

Amar Sing, 228; Bahadur Shah Zafar was

also a born by a Hindu mother named Lal

bai, 228.

Madrasa Dar-ul-Baqa, 183; Shah Jahan

efforts for the promotion of education,

Dara Shikuh as a learned prince of the

age, 183.

Madrasa Saif Khan, 184.

Mission schools, 188.

Mirza Muhammad Kazim wrote Alamgir

Name, 192.

Mirza Raja Jai Singh of Ambar established

Marathas occupied Gujarat and Malwa, 63.

Muhammad shah relations with Nasrullah

Mirza, the son of Nadir Shah, 64.

Muin-ud-din’s defeat, 65.

Mughals roads network and mail delivery

system, 66.

Muslims entered in Hindustan from

different ways and routes, 73.

Mohammad B. Qasim imposed jizya on

non-Muslims, 73.

Monetization promotes the growth of

market, 134. Zebt system as an

instrument for enhancement of cash crop

productions, 135.

Malay Chetti, Kasi Viranna and Sunca

Rama Chetti of southern Caromandel

were masters of huge business empires,

137.

Missionaries gave the Emperor the seven

volumes of Holy Bible, 110.

Mulla Nizam-ud-din developed Dar-i-

Nizami, 175.

Mahmud Lodi, 20.

Muktabs were performing the services to

provide primary education, 260; Abul

Fazl had described the educational

system in Ain-i-Akbari, 260; Vedanta,

Juris prudence and Pantanjali were

important texts, 260.

New English Company was established at

Surat, 57.

Nathadwara, 77.

Nadir shah the ruler of Persia, 63, 64.

New English Company was established at

Surat, 57.

Nirmali Fakhirs, 145, 146.

Narottamdas, 149.

Nahmardis lived in hill areas, 150.

Nizam-ul-mulk Fatah jang (Qaliej Khan)

the son of Faruz jang, 62.

Nor Jahan, the widow of Ali Quli Khan, 37;

her age at the time of marriage, her

beauty, 38.

Nityananda work on Hindu astronomy,

support of Asif Khan, 47.

Nak Kan Chadwana as an important ritual,

225; distributions of things, 225; struggle

for banning inhuman customs, 225.

Nariman Hoshang as representative to Iran,

89.

242

observatories in Jaipur, 193.

Mehdi Kawaja, the husband of Khanzada

Begum, 21.

Muhammad Zaman Mira, the husband of

Masuma Begum, 21.

Muhammad sultan Mirza, 21.

Meherji Vacha and Mehervaid high status in

court, their lectures on Parsi faith, 102.

Muslim did not like the English education

system, 213.

Mazdayasnans, 94.

Muslim used to purchase the jewelry from

these Hindu traders, 143.

Marghinan, 3, 8.

Portuguese, 22, 31, 32, 33, 37, 38, 44, 46,

48, 108, 109, 111, 112; their authority in

Indian sea, Indian ship-owners

partnership with Portuguese officials,

their victories in sea-borne trade of India,

corruption of their officers, their decline,

158; Muslims as agents of Hindu spice

merchants, 158; de Gama’s profit

through the trade of these poor quality

spices, 159; Dutch Vereeniged

Oostindische Compagnie (United East

India Company), their factory in Petapuli,

the Fort Geldria, 159; a network of

information, Hajj pilgrims as main source

of information, 159; Portuguese joined

the camp of Perviz, 48; Akbar did not try

to control the Portuguese monopoly on

the sea, 165; the arrival of Portuguese in

India, 43; Vasco de Gama reached to

India just for spices and promotion of

Christianity, 157 the attack of Portuguese

on Calicut, 158; Alfonso de

Albuquerque, 158; the possession of

Portuguese on the island of Goa, defeat

of Sultan of Bajapur, Portuguese

maritime empire in Indies, 158; Goa as

administrative seat of the Portuguese,

158; the Estado da India, 158; their

passes, ‘cartaze’, their monopoly on the

trade of sea, the policies of Indian

Muslim and non Muslim states to them,

158; cartaze’ system, 158; Akbar got

passes from Portuguese, the Portuguese

security for Akbar mother Hamida Bano

and aunt Gulbadan Begam, 158.

Popularity of textile manufacturing, 141.

Nau’I (died in 1610) epic “Suz u gudaz”

Burning and Melting to Danyal for the

son of Emperor Akbar, 225.

Permission to Jesuit Fathers to make

desiring converts 233; In 1604 a

Christian was converted to Islam by

force, 233.

Parsis, 31, 94, 95, 96, 97, 98, 99, 100, 101,

102, 103, 104, 105, 106; Akbar interest in

Parsi Kusti and the sacred cord, 138; the

importance of sun and fire, 139; their

victories in court, 139.

Punch Tantur was translated by Maula

Hussain, 194

Painting, Bihzad, 205; painters of Mughal

court, 205; Jahangir interest in paintings,

205; Kamal-ul-din Bahzad a famous

Persian painter, 205; Muqrrab Khan a

Mughal noble sent a picture of Amir

Tairmur, 206; Jahangir information about

the European paintings, 206; Gurodhun

joined the service of Jahangir, 206;

Manuhar also a famous artist of court,

286; Rana Kunwar Kiran, 206; Gosain

jad rup, 206; conversion of Hindu style

of paintings, 207; development of Crafts,

their popularity, 207.

Parsis or Persians, 94; Qisseh-I Sanjan of

Behman Kaikobad Sanjana Parsi, Qisseh-

I Zartustian-i Hindustan by Shapurji

Maneckji Sanjana in Navsari, 95;

popularity of Parsis of Variav in eleventh

century, 95; types od secred fires, 95; Bui

ritual, 96; their principal cities, 132; their

sects and customs, 96; Changa Asa (1450

to 1512) of Navsari a noble personality,

96; Navsari as the principal centre, 96.

Physicians popularity, 176; Hindu physicians

were not familiar with anatomy, 200;

Hindus’ tables of astronomy, 200.

Pepper, ginger, cardamom and wild

cinnamon became important trade items

at Malabar Coast, 143.

Population of India during sixteenth century

and seventeen century, 181.

Parsi books’ converted into Gujarati, 106.

Portuguese marched towards Broach, 99.

Purdah was important thing for Muslim

ladies, 190. Nur Jahan was a highly

educated Mughal lady, 190; education of

243

Pietro Tavares a Portuguese officer was

taken in imperial service in 1577, 109.

Principal cities for cotton cultivation, 141.

Persians, Armenians, Spanish, Portuguese,

English and Dutch interest in cloth of

Agra, their export through Surat for

different European countries, 140.

Pundit Jagannath’s love for Shah Jahan,

193.

Pratap Singh (1572-1597), 88.

Rana Sanga, 16, 17, 74, 79.

Raja Bikermajit, 15.

Royal treasury and courtiers as major source

of credit, 148.

Robbers of Europe as a danger for Mughal

Empire, 60.

Raja Ram Mohan Roy (1772-1833), 186,

213; Lingua Franca in the ports of India,

186; Jesuit fathers in India learnt Malabar

language, 186; English missionary

Thomas Stephens was famous for his

Christian Purana, 186; skilled

Rapid changes were seen in cotton textiles

after the arrival of spinning weal in

cotton industry, 141; Several types of

looms were developed in Mughal period,

141.

Robert Kalau conquered Karnatak, 65;

Royal officer was sent to destroy

Malirana temple in May 1669, 76.

Religious festivals of non-Muslims

communities, 44.

Rajput chief Bhaghwan Das interest in

mosque building, his son Man Singh’s

affection towards Muslims, 75.

Roxanara Begum the fifth of children of

Shah Jahan, 44.

Ram Prasad Sen a religious poet, 270.

Ruhilas became a danger in declining

period, 88.

Rafi-ud-doulah, 62.

Sir Nicholas Waite became its President, 57.

Relations impact, Hindu social customs,

302; impact on arts, architecture,

painting, music and way of life, 218;

development of social contacts, 218; Urfi

a famous poet in Akbar period, 218;

influence of harem on Akbar, 219; Impact

of Bhaghti Movement, 219; teachings of

Bakhti movement, 219; the birth of Rama

Music was also given to royal ladies,

191; Gul Badan wrote Humayun Nama,

191. Zebunnisa was expert in Arabic and

Persian, 191.

Qutb Khan lost his life in this war, 24.

Rapid changes were seen in cotton textiles

after the arrival of spinning wheal in

cotton industry, 141; several types of

looms were developed in Mughal period,

141.

Roz Afzun conversion to Islam to Islam,

222.

Rai Singh, 30.

Ridolfo Aquaviva, 110.

Raja Bihari Mal, 29.

Raja Nir Singh Dev, 33

Raja Man Sing and Aziz Koka were also the

supporters of khusru, 33.

Raja Jaswant Singh and Raja Jai Singh gave

elephant to Shah Jahan as present, 45, 82.

Raja Bhim and Kishen Singh celebrated a

festival of Holi in South India in 1692,

45, 82.

Rumi Khan, the chief artillery commander,

22.

Raja Jai Singh was sent against Shivaji to

the Deccan, 45.

Rafi-ud-darjat, a son of Rafi-ud-shan, 62.

Ruhilas as a danger in declining period, 64.

Rattan Chand the dewan of Syed brother on

his tern was tortured, 64

Sir William Norris was sent from England

as ambassador to the Mughal court, 57.

Savji Kahanji Parekh a Jain merchant, 93.

Shantidas jeweller built a Jain temple near

Ahmadabad, 94; Dara Shukoh had good

relations with the Jain merchants, 94;

Shanti Das provided financial support to

recruit a fresh army, 94; Gujarat was a

great Jain centre from ancient times, 85.

Subjects for Hindu and Muslim boys in

Mughal educational system, 186;

Sanskrit as medium of education for

Hindu students, Hindu religious texts, the

books of poetry, the books on history, the

books in medicine, the books in prose,

186; science and education, issues of

Secular sciences, existence of some sects,

170.

Siddhi Chandra received the little of Nadir-

244

Nand, 219.

Ram Prasad Sen a religious poet, 195.

Religious policy of Babur, 24.

Rajputs of Chator policy about marriage

with Mughals, as brave soldiers, 29.

Religious discussion, 31, 119.

Sir Thomas Roe, as the envoy of Britian, 37,

38, 56, 162, 164; Sir Thomas Roe said

that Europe bleedeth to enrich India, 164;

two mastiffs were presented to Jahangir

by Sir Thomas Roe, 164; Virgi Vora

(1619-1670) financed the transactions of

English merchants, the whole trade of

Surat, 164; English traders reorganized

their trading offices, their activities like

independent authorities, 56; Shaista

Khan, the governor of Bengal sent an

army against the Company, 56.

St. Jorge Fort in Madras, 56.

Sir John Child, the director of the Company,

57.

Sultan Ahmad Mirza got the throne of

Samarkand and Bokhara, 2.

Swami Tulsidas, 80.

Sultan Mahmud Mirza the ruler of

Badakshan, Khultan, Turmez and

Hisarshadman, 2.

Sheirkh Bahlol, 21.

Sultan Bahadur, his successes in the fort of

Chator, 22.

St Francis Xavier, one of the founders of the

Jesuits, 38.

Sham Guru developed some groups of

Sikhs, 61.

Shiva ji was an adherent of Muslim Sufis,

221; the Islamic names of Shah Ji and

Sharif Ji for his sons, 221.

Shah Kalim-ullah Jahanabadi thoughts about

coexistence with Hindus, 221.

Syed Brothers, Syed Hussain Ali Khan and

Syed Abdullah Khan, 61.

Syed Hussain Ali, 62; he was killed by

Haider Mirza, 37.

Sikandar Sur took refuge in the fort of

Mankot, 27.

Shahiryar, 40.

Shah Abbas and his court, 207.

Sikhs became a powerful force, 56.

Shiva Ji respect for mosques, Quran and

women, 228.

i-Seamen and khushfahm, 93.

Sikhs and jats destroyed mosques in Punjab,

78.

Sher Shah became the sovereign of Behar

and Chunar, 22.

Satidas, 88.

Shah Jahan, 36, 38, 39, 40, 42, 43, 44, 45,

47, 48, 50, 52, 67, 75, 76, 88, 92, 117,

118, 148, 164, 183, 187, 200, 209, his

rebellious activities, the title of Shah

Jahan, 39; an experienced soldier, a good

administrator, 39; love for Dara, the seat

of Dara in court, 41; Shah Jahan was the

third son of Jahangir, 39; the desire of

Nor Jahan for Shahiryar, 39; the children

of Shah Jahan, his favorite wife, 39; the

division of his state among his sons, 45;

his illness, 46; his efforts in revising the

Islamic law, his policy towards temples,

103; Sir Thomas Roe has special

complains against Prince Kharram, the

future Shah Jahan, 38; Sir Thomas Roe

finally obtained permission for English

merchants to trade, rate of customs

duties, 53; his policy for jizya and

pilgrimage tax, 63; Sujah efforts for

conversion the non Muslims, 65; his

Hindu wives, 65; his Justice, 69; Shah

Jahan also took steps for social reforms,

212; banned on public or private sale of

wine, permission to Christians to make

wine for their own use, 212.

Surat was a famous port in Mughal period,

residence of merchants of different

communities, 168; bunyas relations with

court, 168.

Shaivite and Vaistnavite Hindu ascetic

orders, 146.

Shivaji got Chouth (one fourth of the

revenues) from Mughal Provinces, 51.

Shamsuddin, the husband of Akbar’s second

foster mother, 28.

Sultan Ali Mirza, 7.

Shaista khan the governor of Bengal, 203.

Sultan Tipu expelled Christians of Karana,

165.

Shivaji, 81.

Sivrat, 106.

Swami Tulsidas, 108.

Samarkand a famous city, 8; the richest and

245

Silk was considered auspicious item used by

only wealthy persons, 44, 167, 169.

Shab-e Barat an important festival in

Muslim society, 223; special prayers for

this night, Hindus’ special preparation for

this festival, 223.

Surat as an important trading centre, 187.

System of examination, main purpose of

education was to develop the personality,

184; practical situation of life was the

best way to evaluate the ability, 184; no

regular academic certification system,

184; degree of Alim, 184; Bhishakavara,

184; Kavi and Kaviray, 184; Pundit and

Acharya, 184; Upadhyaya was also a

title, 184; Mahopadhyaya was also a title,

184.

Shah Alam announced his sovereignty in

Lahore, 83; his march towards Deccan,

60.

Sulah-i-iKul, 227.

Safdar Jang the viceroy of Udth, 65.

Sultan of Gujarat, 99.

Strong community system among weavers

and cloth makers in southern India, 194.

Sultan Ahmad Tambol, 7.

Sheibani Khan, a descendant from, the

eldest son of Chingiz Khan, 9.

Sultan Ahmad Mirza, 2; he entered into the

boundaries of Ferghana from the south

and took possession of Khojand,

Marginan, 2.

Sultan Ahmad Khan, the maternal uncle of

Babur, 5, 11.

Sultan Mahmud Mirza, 3.

Sheikh Bayezid the younger brother of

Tambol, invitation to Babur, 12.

Sher Shah and his descendants, ruled in

India with absolute authority, 21.

Sheikh Zia-ud-Din, 15.

Safina-tul-Aulia, 183.

Turks efforts in the promotion of

astronomical education in madrasas, 175;

his difficulty in learning of Sanskrit, 179.

Todarmal, a high Hindu officer in the court

of Akbar, punished a Muslim officer who

converted a Hindu temple into mosque

and school as well, 75.

Transoxiana (also spelled Transoxania),

known in Arabic and Persian sources as

popular city at that time in the world, 9;

rule of Babur on Samarkand, 10.

Translation of books, Akbar convert the

Sanskrit books into Persian, 192 Ziech of

Ulugh Beg was converted by Mir

Fathullah Shirazi, 192; Mahabharat was

translated, 192; Razam Nama, 192;

Lilawati into Persian by Sheikh Abdul

Faiz Fizi, 192; Hindu Mathematicians,

192; Ayyar-i-Danish, 192; Mirza Abd-ur-

Rahim Khan the khan khanan

(commander-in-Chief), 192; History of

Kashmir Raj Trangini, 193; Maulana

Shah Muhammad of Shahabad, 193;

Kalilawadamna were also converted into

Persian, 193.

Thirthankaras born in Northern India, 85;

they divided the society into four groups,

84.

Types of School in Mughal period, 160.

Thanjar a principal centre of Christianity in

Southern India, 120; attack of Hindu

ruler on the colonies of Christians,

persecution of Christians, 120.

The famous Jain scholars like Man Singh

and Jai Chand Suri reached in the court,

31.

Two slave girls of Mumtaz, the wife of

Prince Khuram were captured, 48.

Todar Mall became Akbar’s finance

minister and for some times his Prime

Minister as well, 30; the revenue system

of Todar Mall is called dustur-ul-amal of

Todar Mall, 30.

Trashka Dund, 74.

Taj Mahal, 23.

Trade in Mughal Period, intermediate

marketing centers in the three

providences, 134; Periodic ‘haats’, role

rajas and zimindars in Bengal, 134;

information of verities of different things,

134.

Thoughts of Qadiris and Shattaris, 221.

Training for weaving especially carpet

weaving, 142, 143; at Agra and Patna

saltpeter was produced, 143.

The rajas built temples for their favorite

gods, 32.

Upanishads, 222.

Uzun Hassan, 4, 6, 8, 9.

246

Mawarannahr is the ancient name used

for the portion of Central Asia, 2.

Third Jesuit mission, 112; Jerome Xavier

was the in charge of this third mission,

his long stay in court, 112; Emmanuel

Pinheiro the second member of the

mission, 112; Brother Benedict de Goes

the third member of this mission, 112;

Pinhiero remained in Lahore after the

departure of Akbar for Kashmir, 113;

Xavier’s opinion about Akbar’s faith,

114; spent a long time in the Mughal

court, wrote several letters to the church

of Goa, 114; Shah Alam had great

affection for Manucci, 119; his

information about the royal library, 117;

the little children used to say ‘padriji

Salam’, 117; disheartens of Jerome

Xavier and his return to Goa, 118.

Tatar Khan, 13. The emperor Humayun

introduced a modified religious policy,

26. Khaja Kalan, 26.

The pundits of Benares was renewed for

their sanctity, had been enjoyed financial

support by Emperors but Aurangzeb

stopped their allowance, 55.

Taj Khan, 22.

Total land was considered the property of

the emperor, 66.

Tax collecting method, 73.

Umer Sheikh Mirza the ruler of Ferghana, 3.

Ulugh Beg Mirza, the son of Shahrukh

Mirza, this prince was a learned man of

the age, especially in the field of

astronomy, 3; his astronomical research

institution in Bukhara, astronomical

tables, 174.

Urban industries were engaged in producing

luxury and semi-luxury, 166.

Villabb Vijay (1870-1954), 87.

Vikramaditya, 27.

Vijayasena, 88.

Virji Vora a very rich merchant of Mughal

period, 137.

Vasco de-Gama (1460-1524), direct trade

sea route from Europe to India, reached

with his three ships at Calicut, 108.

Vijayasena, 88.

Virgin Mary, 41.

Vamaji Homaji Parsi was slaughtered by

Ahmad Beg a Mughal officer of Broach,

96.

Wives of Umer Sheikh Mirza, 4.

William Hawkins came to Jahangir court in

1608, as ambassador, 38.

Xavier, 37, 108, 112, 113, 114, 115, 116,

117, writing “Mirror of Holiness” or the

life of Massiah in Portuguese language,

conversion Persian, help of a Muslim

scholar, writing was presented to the

Emperor, 113.

Zulqarneyn, an Armenian Christian, 34.

Zulfiqar Khan was a Mughal general, 61,

62.

Zoroastrian Panchyet, 105.

Zoroastrians Rivayats conversion into

Gujarati language, 105.

Zarathustra or Zoroaster, 94.

247

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Apology

The thesis has been completed but with several mistakes and deficiencies. The

deficiency can be seen in the names of places and directions due to the deficit of

knowledge of geography. The exact situation of places, towns and cities cannot be traced.

In the same way this fault can be seen in the formation of sentences and paragraphs due to

the poor knowledge of English grammar. In spite of the hard work about the educational

system of Mughal Empire, the detail information cannot be presented, so there is a big

space for the next researchers in this topic. There are some reasons in this deficiency; the

old writers did not give proper attention about the Educational System of Mughals, some

writers have shared brief information about this purpose. The main reason of this

deficiency is the weak and poor knowledge of educational philosophy. Economics and

trade are important elements in every society, the brief information about this field has

been shared in this thesis and detail information cannot be produced due to the deficit of

knowledge about the basic terminology of trade and commerce. So there is a huge ground

for the researchers in this field. Although the relations with Jains, Parsis, Hindus and

Christians have been discussed in this thesis but still a research is required to find the

relations with other communities. In the same way the social impacts is very important

topic but the strong and detail information cannot be presented due to the poor

knowledge.