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Department of Computer Science and Engineering

Subject Name: COMPUTER HARDWARE AND NETWORK TROUBLE SHOOTING

Subject Code: CS T72

STAFF NAME: S.SARAVANAN & D.VINOTH

APPROVED BY :

UNIT – I

Personal Computer: Introduction – History of the Personal Computers – System Components - Data flow

inside the PC – Processor types and specifications – 16-bit to 64-bit evolution – specifications – Cache

Memory – Processor Features: System Management Mode – Super scalar execution – Dynamic

Execution - Dual independent bus architecture – Hyper threading – Dual and multi core technology -

socket and slot types – Intel’s Pentium and Core Processors – AMD K6 to K8 series processors.

2 Marks

1. Define Personal Computer (PC)?

A personal computer (PC) is any general-purpose computer whose size, capabilities, and

original sales price make it useful for individuals, and which is intended to be operated

directly by an end-user with no intervening computer operator.

2. Draw the data flow diagram inside the PC?

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3. Define PC System Design Guide?

The PC System Design Guide (also known as the PC 97, PC 98, PC 99, or PC 2001

specification) is a series of hardware design requirements and recommendations for

IBM PC compatiblepersonal computers, compiled by Microsoft and Intel Corporation

during 1997–2001.

4. What is UMA and HMA?

Upper Memory Area (UMA): This is the upper 384 KB of the first megabyte of system

memory (immediately above conventional memory). It is reserved for use by system

devices and for special uses such as ROM shadowing and drivers. It uses addresses

A0000h to FFFFFh.

High Memory Area (HMA): This is the first 64 KB (less 16 bytes) of the second megabyte

of system memory. Technically this is the first 64 KB of extended memory, but it can be

accessed when the processor is in real mode, which makes it different from the rest of

extended memory. It is usually used for DOS, to allow more conventional memory to be

preserved. It occupies addresses 100000h to 10FFEFh.

5. Define Over clocking?

Over clocking is the process of making a computer or component operate faster than

specified by the manufacturer by modifying system parameters.

6. What is Cache Memory?

Cache memory is random access memory (RAM) that a computer microprocessor can

access more quickly than it can access regular RAM. As the microprocessor processes

data, it looks first in the cache memory and if it finds the data there (from a previous

reading of data), it does not have to do the more time-consuming reading of data from

larger memory.

7. Clarify Super scalar execution?

A superscalar CPU can execute more than one instruction per clock cycle. Because

processing speeds are measured in clock cycles per second (megahertz), a superscalar

processor will be faster than a scalar processor rated at the same megahertz.

8. Write the Microprocessor Types and Specifications?

Processor Types

P1 (086) First-Generation Processors

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P2 (286) Second-Generation Processors

P3 (386) Third-Generation Processors

P4 (486) Fourth-Generation Processors

P5 (586) Fifth-Generation Processors

Pseudo-Fifth-Generation Processors

P6 (686) Sixth-Generation Processors

Pseudo-Sixth-Generation Processors

P7 (786) Seventh-Generation Processors

Processor Upgrades

OverDrive Processors

OverDrive Processor Installation

OverDrive Compatibility Problems

Processor Benchmarks

Processor Specifications

Processor Speed Ratings

Data Bus

Internal Registers

Address Bus

Internal (Level 1) Cache

Processor Modes

Processor Features

Processor Manufacturing

Physical Packaging

Processor Sockets

CPU Operating Voltages

Heat and Cooling Problems

Math Coprocessors

Processor Bugs

Processor Update Features

Intel Processor Codenames

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9. Define Dual Independent Bus (DIB)

Dual Independent Bus (DIB) is a processor architecture that includes two buses: one to

the main system memory and another to the level 2 cache. The processor can access

both simultaneously for improved performance. In Dual Independ ent Bus (DIB)

architecture systems the single system bus is replaced by a back-side bus for accessing

level 2 cache, and a front-side bus for communicating data between the CPU and main

memory and input and output devices.

10. What is Hyper-threading?

Hyper-threading is a technology developed by Intel Corporation. It is used in certain

Pentium 4 processors and all Intel Xeon processors. Hyper-threading technology,

commonly referred to as "HT Technology," enables the processor to execute two

threads, or sets of instructions, at the same time. Since hyper-threading allows two

streams to be executed in parallel, it is almost like having two separate processors

working together.

11. What is Dual-core Technology?

A single chip that contains two distinct processors that work simultaneously. IBM

introduced dual cores in its Power 4 chips in 2000. In 2004, Sun and HP introduced their

first dual core CPUs.

12. Define Processor Codenames?

Intel, AMD, and Cyrix have always used codenames when talking about future

processors. The codenames usually are not supposed to become public, but they

typically do. They can often be found in online and print news and magazine articles

talking about future-generation processors. Sometimes, they even appear in

motherboard manuals because the manuals are written before the Processors are

officially introduced.

13. What is meant by Power Management?

Power management is a feature of some electrical appliances, especially copiers,

computers and computer peripherals such as monitors and printers, that turns off the

power or switches the system to a low-power state when inactive. In computing this is

known as PC power management

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14. Explain the history of PC?

The history of personal computers began in the 1970s. A personal computer is one

intended for individual use, as opposed to a mainframe computer where the end user's

requests are filtered through operating staff, or a time sharing system in which one

large processor is shared by many individuals. After the development of the

microprocessor, individual personal computers were low enough in cost that they

eventually became affordable consumer goods. Early personal computers – generally

called microcomputers – were sold often in electronic kit form and in limited numbers,

and were of interest mostly to hobbyists and technicians.

15. Differentiate hardware and software?

Hardware and software work together in digital devices and systems to provide

computerized functionality. Hardware includes the physical components, such as the

motherboard, chips, memory, and hard drives, while software includes the programs

that run on the hardware.

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11 MARKS

1. Explain the basic of PC with neat diagram

A personal computer (PC) is comprised of hardware, an operating system and

software. Each of those components is fairly complex; however this article provides a basic

description of their function and how they work together.

The Hardware

The most fundamental elements of a PC's hardware are the Central Processing Unit

(CPU) and memory modules mounted onto a motherboard. When the PC is powered on, the

CPU begins communicating with the motherboard and starts the Basic Input Output System

(BIOS) which is stored on a chip on the motherboard. After verifying that the required

components are present and functioning, it searches for an Operating System (OS). It may

check the floppy drive, hard disk or CD-ROM for the presence of an OS.

Other common examples of hardware which may be a part of a PC include a modem, sound

card, network card, and video card. The components attached outside of your computer

such as the keyboard, mouse, printer and monitor are called peripherals.

The Operating System

The OS is responsible for everything from enabling hardware components to function

(components like modems, printers and monitors) to how to communicate with the Internet

as well as playing the role of traffic cop for all of the software.

The OS allocates the resources of the PC to the software and hardware in an organized way.

The resources include things like memory storage space, access to the hard dis k and what is

displayed on the monitor. Without the OS, the software programs might interfere with each

other, causing the PC to malfunction or crash continually. Even with the OS, many PCs have

difficulty operating smoothly. That illustrates just how complicated the tasks of an OS

actually are.

The Software

While the OS is technically a software program, it is distinct from other software

specifically referred to as "application software". Application software, we'll just call it

software, are programs that you install onto a PC that make the PC useful.

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Software is a complex series of instructions telling the computer what to do. The instructions

are very detailed because they have to tell the computer every single step to be performed.

For example a word processing program has instructions for what to do when you press the

letter "A". The software tells the computer to take the letters as they are pressed on the

keyboard, then it tells it to add the letter to the letters you already typed and it tells the

computer to display the letter on the screen so you can see what you have typed. The

computer doesn't do anything without very explicit instructions.

2. Explain briefly about History of the PC

The first personal computers, introduced in 1975, came as kits: The MITS Altair 8800,

followed by the IMSAI 8080, an Altair clone. (Yes, cloning has been around that long!) Both

used the Intel 8080 CPU. That was also the year Zilog created the Z-80 processor and MOS

Technology produced the 6502. Bill Gates and Paul Allen wrote a BASIC compiler for the

Altair and formed Micro-soft.

In 1976, Apple's two Steves (Jobs and Wozniak) designed the Apple I, Apple's only "kit"

computer (you had to add a keyboard, power supply, and enclosure to the assembled

motherboard), around the 6502 processor. That was also the year the first word processing

program (Electric Pencil) and the first text adventure for microcomputers (Adventure) were

released. Shugart introduced the 5.25" floppy drive; it would become a key component in

the personal computing revolution.

The young industry exploded in 1977 as Apple introduced the Apple II, a color computer

with expansion slots and floppy drive support; Ra dio Shack rolled out the TRS-80;

Commodore tapped into the pet rock craze with its PET; Digital Research released CP/M, the

8-bit operating system that provided the template for MS-DOS; and the first ComputerLand

franchise store (then Computer Shack) opened.

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Software took center stage in 1978 when Dan Bricklin and Bob Frankston produced VisiCalc,

the first electronic spreadsheet. This turned the personal computer into a useful business

tool, not just a game machine or replacement for the electric typewriter.

WordMaster, soon to become WordStar, was released and went on to dominate the word

processing industry for years. Atari leveraged its video game experience and household

name to enter the personal computing market, and Epson shipped the TX-80, the first low-

cost dot matrix printer.

The third important software category, the database, blasted onto the scene in 1979 with

Vulcan, the predecessor of dBase II and it's successors. That was also the year Hayes

introduced a 300 bps modem and established telecommunication as an aspect of personal

computing.

Texas Instrument's poorly designed and ill-fated TI-99/4 also shipping in 1979 as the

industry's first 16-bit computer. It was hobbled by an 8-bit bus for memory and peripherals,

which slowed memory access significantly.

1980 was the year Commodore opened the floodgates of home computing with the $299

VIC-20. Sinclair tried to one-up them with a $199 kit computer, the ZX80, which was quite

popular in Britain, but it was destined to remain a bit player in the PC industry. The same can

be said of Radio Shack's fairly impressive TRS-80 Color Computer, which suffered primarily

from complete incompatibility with its existing TRS -80 line.

Yet another 1980 disaster was the Apple ///, which shipped with 128 KB of memory, an

internal floppy drive, and Apple II emulation. Alas, it just didn't work right, forcing Apple to

recall them all, fix a number of problems, and rerelease the Apple /// some time later with

192 KB of RAM. This was also Apple's first computer to support a hard drive, the 5 MB

Profile.

Estimates are that there were one million personal computers in the US in 1980.

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In early 1981, Adam Osborne introduced the first portable computer. The Osborne 1 was

about this size of a suitcase, ran CP/M, included a pair of 5.25" floppies, and had a tiny 5"

display. The innovative machine was bundled with about $1,500-2,000 worth of software,

and the whole package sold for $1,899.

The first laptop computer also arrived in 1981, the Epson HX-20 (a.k.a. Geneva). The HX-20

was about 8.5" by 11" and maybe 1.5-2" thick and used a microcassette to store data. If I

recall correctly, it displayed 4 lines of 40 characters on an LCD screen above the keyboard.

The IBM PC

Of course, the most significant event of 1981 for the personal computing industry was the

introduction of the IBM PC on August 12. This computer ran a 16-bit CPU on an 8-bit bus

(the Intel 8088), had five expansion slots, included at least 16 KB of RAM, and had two full -

height 5.25" drive bays.

Buyers could get a fairly loaded machine with a floppy controller, two floppy drives, a

monochrome display adapter and monitor, a color display adapter and monitor, a parallel

card, a dot matrix printer, and an operating system - with the choice of CP/M-86, the UCSD

p-System, or PC-DOS (a.k.a. MS-DOS). Pretty much everything was an option, and everyone

recognized that the IBM PC was based on ideas perfected in the Apple II, particularly general

use expansion slots.

The second most significant event of 1981 was dependent on the first: Microsoft got IBM to

agree that DOS would not be an IBM exclusive. This paved the way for the clone industry,

which in the end marginalized the influence of Big Blue.

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Time magazine called 1982 "The Year of the Computer" as the industry grew up. By 1983,

the industry estimated that 10 million PCs* were in use in the United States alone.

* Ever since IBM entered the market, the term PC has taken on a different meaning.

Although it retains the original meaning of "personal computer", the IBM architecture has so

dominated the industry that it soon came to mean IBM compatible computers to the

exclusion of other machines.

VisiCalc met its match in 1983 when Lotus 1-2-3 shipped for the IBM PC. That was also the

year Microsoft Word 1.0 shipped, although it remained a small player until Windows

dominated.

Apple introduced the first consumer machine with a mouse and graphical user interface, the

Lisa. Of course, at $10,000, not many consumers could afford it, but it paved the way for the

Apple Macintosh of 1984. At $2,500, it was much more affordable than the Lisa.

IBM took the PC beyond the 8-bit bus when the introduced the AT (for Advanced

Technology), a 6 MHz 80286-based computer with a 16-bit bus, high density 5.25" floppies,

and a new video standard, EGA.

Windows

Microsoft first shipped Windows in 1985, and this DOS shell was content to run even on old

4.77 MHz PCs, albeit slowly. That was also the year Aldus invented the fourth major

software category by releasing PageMaker. Desktop publishing was born, and Apple found a

strong niche market for the Macintosh and LaserWriter.

Compaq, an early IBM compatible maker and the first to make a portable IBM compatible,

shipped the first 80386-based PC in 1986. Compared with the typical 8-12 MHz performance

of the 80286, the 16 MHz 80386 was a real barn burner. It also introduced some new

operating modes that would make later versions of Windows far more powerful.

In 1987, Apple introduced slots to the Macintosh in the Mac II (which Apple designed to

support a then-mind-boggling 128 MB of RAM), IBM introduced Micro Channel Architecture

with its PS/2 line, IBM and Microsoft co-released OS/2, and Windows reached version 1.01.

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We also saw the first fax cards that year, and Sun shipped the first RISC CPU. (The Acorn

Archimedes, another early RISC computer, also shipped in 1987 and may have beat Sun to

market.)

Perhaps the most significant computing event of 1988 was the first Internet worm, which

infected about 6,000 Unix computers in very short order. Microsoft updated Windows to

v2.03, Apple introduced high-density floppy drives compatible with IBM formatted 3.5"

disks, and there were an estimated 30 million DOS users.

The overall count was about 54 million personal computers in the US in 1989, the vast

majority of them running MS-DOS. Apple shipped the heavy (16 pounds!) Mac Portable, the

first "notebook" computer with a built-in trackball and possibly the first with an active

matrix display.

Windows moved to version 3.0 in 1990, and it was nearly ready for prime time. The first

'486-based PCs shipped, and Apple trumped the DOS world's 33 MHz computers with the

"wicked fast" 40 MHz Macintosh IIfx, which was also one of the first personal computers to

use an accelerated video card.

Linus Torvalds created his own version of Unix, naming it Linux, in August 1991. It remained

obscure for a while, but it has grown to become the second major operating systems for

Wintel computers and one of the leading examples of free open source software.

Windows 3.1

Microsoft Windows 3.1 shipped in 1992. Between Windows and the hardware of the

day, the resources finally existed for Windows to become a major player. Windows soon

became the default operating system shipped with new PCs.

In February 1993, Apple shipped its 10 millionth Macintosh. The same year Intel introduced

the original Pentium, a 60 MHz CPU with an undetected math bug, and Microsoft announced

over there were over 25 million licensed Windows users. By the end of the year, the Apple II

line - the granddaddy of personal computers - was discontinued.

Intel acknowledge the Pentium math bug in 1994 and issued a recall. Apple shipped

the first Macintosh with a factory-installed DOS card, the Quadra 610 DOS Compatible.

(There had been DOS cards for Macs going back to 1987, but this was the first DOS card to

bear the Apple brand.) This was also the year Apple decided to allow licensed Mac clones

and shipped the first Power Macs, Macintosh models based on the then-new PowerPC

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601processor.Although the World Wide Web had b een created many years earlier, it was in

1995 that it rocketed into public view. Window 95 shipped in August, and Intel unveiled the

Pentium Pro in November. The Pentium II and Pentium MMX followed in 1997. Be began

porting its BeOS to Intel hardware in 1997, 56k* modems took the industry by storm, and

the first cable modems shipped.* As explained on the No Hype 56k Modem Page, these

modems could theoretically reach 56 kbps, were limited by the FCC to 53 kbps, and

commonly connected somewhere in the low-to-mid-40s. Still, that was faster than the old

28.8 and 33.6 modems - and most users never realized that what they gained in download

speed (up to 56k) came at the expense of upload speed, which was still limited to 33.6 kbps

and decreased as download speeds increased when both processes were taking place

concurrently.

Windows 98 shipped in 1998, and Intel unveiled its low-cost Celeron CPU the same year. On

the Apple side of things, the iMac helped push USB as the eventual successor to the parallel

and serial ports common on Windows PCs.

The Pentium III arrived on the scene in 1999, as did the AMD Athlon, which became locked

in a MHz war with Intel. The Athlon reached 800 MHz by the end of the year and was first

past the 1 GHz mark in 2000. That was also the year Microsoft tweaked Windows 98 to

create Windows Me (Millennium Edition).

In 2001 Intel shipped the Pentium 4, a processor theoretically more powerful than the

Pentium III which tended to turn in lower performance ratings at the same MHz speed. The

first Pentium 4 ran at 1.4 GHz, and by September Intel was selling 2 GHz P4s. During the

summer of 2001, Intel finally began shipping its oft-delayed Itanium processor, designed as a

64-bit successor to the aging x86 architecture, itself designed as a successor to the 8 -bit

8080 processor of 1975.

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3. Explain briefly about Data Flow inside the PC

The flow of data through our computer and discover exactly what happens to the data

along this journey. There are four devices involved in the flow of data through your

computer.

Input Devices - These are devices used by the operator to send data into the computer.

Some basic examples of input devices would be your keyboard and mouse.

CPU - (Central Processing Unit) This is the brain of your computer and where all the

processing of data takes place.

Storage - This is a device used to store data either permanently or temporarily. Some

examples of storage devices are Main Memory, ROM, RAM and floppy disc.

Output - An output device sends processed information from the computer to the operator.

Some basic examples would be your monitor and your printer.

Now that we know the devices involved in our data flow lets start our journey. We can think

of our data flow like a trip to the doctor.Our operator will input the letter d into his word

processing program using his keyboard.This could be compared to our doctor's receptionist

taking our information.Our keyboard contains a small chip that has the binary codes for each

key stored. This binary code is then sent to our computers RAM.Think of this as the

receptionist giving our information to the nurse.The easiest way to think of RAM is as a

temporary storage bin where data waits to be processed. Our d is now sitting in our storage

bin waiting for the computer to send it to the CPU.This would be much like our information

being put into the pile until the doctor is ready to see us.

The CPU will read the binary code and follow the coded instructions. These instructions tell

the CPU where to send the data next. In this case our d will be sent to our graphic card and

then displayed on our screen.The CPU would be like our doctor examining us, deciding on a

treatment, and carrying it out.

Input a Operator types the letter d on the keyboard. a The keyboard sends binary codes for

our letter to our RAM a Our letter d waits in RAM until the CPU is ready to process it a Our

CPU reads the binary code and sends it to our graphics card a Our graphic card displays our

letter d on our monitor a Output

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4. What is PCDesign Guides?

The PC System Design Guide (also known as the PC 97, PC 98, PC 99, or PC 2001

specification) is a series of hardware design requirements and recommendations for IBM PC

compatiblepersonal computers, compiled by Microsoft and Intel Corporation during 1997–

2001. They were aimed to help manufacturers provide hardware that makes best use of the

capabilities of the Microsoft Windows operating system, and to simplify setup and use of

such computers.

Every part of a standard computer and the most common kinds of peripheral devices are

defined with specific requirements. Systems and devices that meet the specification should

be automatically recognized and configured by the operating system.

5. Explain about DOS Memory Organization

The design decisions made in the earliest PCs, memory is broken into the following four

basic pieces:

Conventional Memory: The first 640 KB of system memory is the (in)famous

conventional memory that every PC user has over time grown to know and hate. This

is the area that is available for use by standard DOS programs, along with many

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drivers, memory-resident programs, and most anything else that has to run under

standard DOS. It is found at addresses 00000h to 9FFFFh.

Upper Memory Area (UMA): This is the upper 384 KB of the first megabyte of system

memory (immediately above conventional memory). It is res erved for use by system

devices and for special uses such as ROM shadowing and drivers. It uses addresses

A0000h to FFFFFh.

High Memory Area (HMA): This is the first 64 KB (less 16 bytes) of the second

megabyte of system memory. Technically this is the first 64 KB of extended memory,

but it can be accessed when the processor is in real mode, which makes it different

from the rest of extended memory. It is usually used for DOS, to allow more

conventional memory to be preserved. It occupies addresses 100000h to 10FFEFh.

Extended Memory: This is all the memory above the high memory area until the end

of system memory. It is used for programs and data when using an operating system

running in protected mode, such as any version of Windows. Extended memory is

found from address 10FFF0h to the last address of system memory. (Technically, the

high memory area is part of extended memory, it all depends on how you are looking

at things).

Extended Memory upto

4 GB of total memory

Upper Memory area

(Reserved Memory

384K)

High Memory area – 64K

Conventional Memory

640K

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DOS Memory Organization

6. Explain briefly about Microprocessor Types and Specifications

Microprocessors

The brain or engine of the PC is the processor (sometimes called microprocessor), or

central processing unit (CPU). The CPU performs the system’s calculating and processing.

The processor is easily the most expensive single component in the system, costing up to

four or more times greater than the motherboard it plugs into. Intel is generally credited

with creating the first microprocessor in 1971 with the introduction of a chip called the

4004. Today Intel still has control over the processor market, at least for PC systems. This

means that all PC-compatible systems use either Intel processors or Intel-compatible

processors from a handful of competitors (such as AMD or Cyrix).

It is interesting to note that the microprocessor had only existed for 10 years prior to

the creation of the PC! The microprocessor was invented by Intel in 1971. The PC was

created by IBM in 1981. Now nearly 20 years later, we are still using systems based more or

less on the design of that first PC (and mostly backward compatible with it). The processors

powering our PCs today are still backward compatible in many ways with the 8088 selected

by IBM in 1981.

Processor Specifications

Processors can be identified by two main parameters: how wide they are and how

fast they are. The speed of a processor is a fairly simple concept. Speed is counted in

megahertz (MHz), which means millions of cycles per second —and faster is better! The

width of a processor is a little more complicated to discuss because there are three main

specifications in a processor that are expressed in width. They are

Internal registers

Data input and output bus

Memory address bus

Intel Processor Specifications

Process

or

Proc

ess

Cloc

k

Volta

ge

Registe

rs

Data

Bus

Max.

Mem

ory

L1 L2 L

3

Mul.

Instr

u.

Transist

ors

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8088 3.0 1x 5v 16 bit 8 bit 1MB - - - - 29,000

8086 3.0 1x 5v 16 bit 16 bit 1MB - - - - 29,000

Pentiu

m Pro

0.35 2x+ 3.3v 32 bit 64 bit 64GB 2x8K

B

256

KB,5

12K

B,1

MB

- - 5.5M

Pentiu

m II

0.35 3.5x

+

2.8v 32 bit 64 bit 64GB 2x16

KB

512

KB,

- MMX 7.5M

Celeron 0.25 3.5x

+

1.8v-

2.8v

32 bit 64 bit 64GB 2x16

KB

0KB, - MMX 7.5M

Pentiu

m III

0.25 4x+ 2.0v-

2.05v

32 bit 64 bit 64GB 2x16

KB

256

KB,

- SSE 44M5

Pentiu

m IV

0.18 3x+ 1.7v 32 bit 64 bit 64GB 12+8

KB

256

KB,

- SSE2 42M

Core 2

Duo

0.065 1.75

x+

0.9v-

1.3v

64bit 64 bit 1TB 2x32

KB(x

2)

1/2

MB(

x2)

- SSE3 291M

AMD Processor Specifications

Process

or

Proc

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Cloc

k

Volta

ge

Registe

rs

Data

Bus

Max.

Mem

ory

L1 L2 L

3

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AMD K5 0.35 1.5x

+

3.5v 32 bit 64 bit 4GB 16+8

KB

- - - 4.3M

AMD

ATHLO

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0.25 5x+ 1.6v-

1.8v

32 bit 64 bit 4GB 2x64

KB

512

KB,

- Enh.

3D

now

32M

AMD

ATHLO

N XP

0.13 5x+ 1.5-

1.8v

32 bit 64 bit 4GB 2x64

KB

256

KB,

- 3D

Now!

Pro

32.2M

Dept of CSE RAJIV GANDHI COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY PUDUCHERRY

18 | P a g e C o m p u t e r H a r d w a r e a n d N e t w o r k T r o u b l e s h o o t i n g

7. Explain the Following : a)Overclocking b)Cache Memory c)Super Scalar Execution

d)Hyper-Threading e)Dual-Core Technology f)Dual Independent Bus (DIB)

OVERCLOCKING

Overclocking is the process of making a computer or component operate faster than

specified by the manufacturer by modifying system parameters. One of the most important

techniques is running at a higher clock rate (more clock cycles per second; hence the name

"overclocking"), but other parameters, such as CPU multiplier and memory timings, can also

be changed and would be considered to be overclocking. Operating voltages may also be

changed (increased), which can increase the speed at which operation remains stable. Most

overclocking techniques increase power consumption, generating more heat, which must be

carried away.

The purpose of overclocking is to increase the operating speed of given hardware.

The trade-offs are an increase in power consumption and fan noise, the system can become

unstable if the equipment is overclocked too much, and the risk of damage due to excessive

overvoltage or heat generation. In extreme cases costly and complex cooling (e.g., water-

cooling) is required.

CACHE MEMORY

Cache memory is random access memory (RAM) that a computer microprocessor can access

more quickly than it can access regular RAM. As the microprocessor processes data, it looks

first in the cache memory and if it finds the data there (from a previous reading of data), it

does not have to do the more time-consuming reading of data from larger memory.

Cache memory is sometimes described in levels of closeness and accessibility to the

microprocessor. An L1 cache is on the same chip as the microprocessor. (For example, the

PowerPC 601 processor has a 32 kilobyte level-1 cache built into its chip.) L2 is usually a

separate static RAM (SRAM) chip. The main RAM is usually a dynamic RAM (DRAM) chip.

PROCESSOR FEATURES : Power Management

SUPERSCALAR EXECUTION

A superscalar CPU can execute more than one instruction per clock cycle. Because

processing speeds are measured in clock cycles per second (megahertz), a superscalar

processor will be faster than a scalar processor rated at the same megahertz.

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19 | P a g e C o m p u t e r H a r d w a r e a n d N e t w o r k T r o u b l e s h o o t i n g

A superscalar architecture includes parallel execution units, which can execute instructions

simultaneously. This parallel architecture was first implemented in RISC processors, which

use short and simple instructions to perform calculations. Because of their superscalar

capabilities, RISC processors have typically performed better than CISC processors running at

the same megahertz. However, most CISC-based processors (such as the Intel Pentium) now

include some RISC architecture as well, which enables them to execute instructions in

parallel. Nearly all processors developed after 1998 are superscalar.

DUAL INDEPENDENT BUS (DIB)

Dual Independent Bus (DIB) is a processor architecture that includes two buses: one to the

main system memory and another to the level 2 cache. The processor can access both

simultaneously for improved performance.

In Dual Independent Bus (DIB) architecture systems the single system bus is replaced by a

back-side bus for accessing level 2 cache, and a front-side bus for communicating data

between the CPU and main memory and input and output devices.

HYPER-THREADING

Hyper-threading is a technology developed by Intel Corporation. It is used in certain Pentium

4 processors and all Intel Xeon processors. Hyper-threading technology, commonly referred

to as "HT Technology," enables the processor to execute two threads, or sets of instructions,

at the same time. Since hyper-threading allows two streams to be executed in parallel, it is

almost like having two separate processors working together.

While hyper-threading can improve processing performance, software must support

multiple processors to take advantage of the technology. Fortunately, recent versions of

both Windows and Linux support multiple processors and therefore benefit from hyper-

threading. For example, a video playing in Windows Media Player should not be slowed

down by a Web page loading in Internet Explorer. Hyper-threading allows the two programs

to be processed as separate threads at the same time. However, individual programs can

only take advantage of Intel's HT Technology if they have been programmed to support

multiple processors.

DUAL-CORE TECHNOLOGY

A single chip that contains two distinct processors that work simultaneously. IBM introduced

dual cores in its Power 4 chips in 2000. In 2004, Sun and HP introduced their first dual core

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20 | P a g e C o m p u t e r H a r d w a r e a n d N e t w o r k T r o u b l e s h o o t i n g

CPUs.

The first dual core chips for x86-based PCs and servers were introduced in 2005 and included

the Pentium D and Pentium Processor Extreme Edition 840 from Intel and the Opteron 800

and Athlon 64 X2 from AMD. A year later, Intel added dual cores to its Itanium line.

Because the continual increase in single core clock sp eeds were using more and more power

and generating excessive heat, dual cores were developed to expand performance without

more heat. Dual core systems may use the same or a little bit more energy, but achieve

approximately an 80% increase in processing power over single core CPU chips.

Dual-core chips are not just for advanced applications; rather, everyday tasks can take

advantage of two simultaneous processing streams. For example, routine downloads of e-

mail and software updates that increasingly take place in the background no longer slow

down the foreground application. Virus scans and backup programs can be initiated without

interfering with the primary task.

8. Explain briefly about Processor Codenames

Intel, AMD, and Cyrix have always used codenames wh en talking about future

processors. The codenames usually are not supposed to become public, but they typically

do. They can often be found in online and print news and magazine articles talking about

future-generation processors. Sometimes, they even appear in motherboard manuals

because the manuals are written before the processors are officially introduced. Table lists

processor codenames for reference purposes.

AMD

Codenames

Processor

Description Socket/Slot

X5 5×86-133 Socket 3

SSA5 K5 (original PR75-PR100) Socket 5, 7

5k86 K5 (newer PR120-PR200) Socket 7

K6 The Original AMD K6 core (cancelled) n/a

NX686 NexGen K6 Core which became the K6 Socket 7

Littlefoot 0.25µm K6 Socket 7

Chompers K6-2 Socket 7, Super 7

Sharptooth K6-3 Super 7

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21 | P a g e C o m p u t e r H a r d w a r e a n d N e t w o r k T r o u b l e s h o o t i n g

Argon Previously K7 n/a

K7 Athlon Slot A

K75 0.18µm Athlon Slot A

K76 0.18µm Athlon (with copper

interconnects) Slot A

K8 Athlon 64

Thunderbird Athlon Slot A, Socket A

Mustang Athlon with a large L2 cache (cancelled) n/a

Corvette Previously mobile Athlon (now

Palomino) n/a

Palomino 0.180.18µm Athlon XP/MP, Mobile

Athlon 4 Socket A

Thoroughbred-A 0.13µm Athlon XP/MP 1700-2100+ Socket A

Thoroughbred-B 0.13µm Athlon XP/MP 1700-2400+,

2600-2800+, Semperon 2200-2800+ Socket A

Barton 0.13µm Athlon XP/MP 1700-2100+ Socket A

Thorton Athlon XP (256KB L2 cache) Socket A

Spitfire Duron Socket A

Camaro Previously Morgan

Morgan Mobile Duron & Mobile 7 Duron

900MHz – 1.3GHz Socket A

Applebread Duron 1.4 – 1.8GHz

Appaloosa 0.13µ Morgan Socket A

ClawHammer Athlon 64 (64bit) Socket 754 &

Socket 939

ClawHammer

DP Early name for the now Opteron DP Socket 940

Newcastle Althon 64 Socket 754 &

Socket 939

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22 | P a g e C o m p u t e r H a r d w a r e a n d N e t w o r k T r o u b l e s h o o t i n g

Winchester 0.09µ Athlon 64 Socket 939

San Diego 0.09µ Athlon 64 and the Athlon 64 FX

with SSE3 extensions Socket 939

Venice 0.09µ Athlon 64 with SSE3 extensions Socket 939

Odessa 0.09µ Mobile-version Athlon 64

Manchester Athlon 64 X2 with 512KB L2 cache and

SSE3 extensions Socket 939

Toledo

Athlon 64 X2 with 1024KB L2 cache and

SSE3

extensions

Socket 939

SledgeHammer Opteron with a large L2 cache Socket 940

Palermo 0.09µ Sempron Socket 754

Paris Sempron Socket 754

Oakville Mobile Athlon 64 and Sempron Socket 754

Windsor Athlon 64 X2 and Athlon 64 FX-62 Socket M2

Orleans Athlon 64 Socket M2

Manila Sempron Socket M2

Intel

Codenames Processor Description Socket/Slot

P23 486SX Socket 1, 2, 3

P23S 486SX SL-Enhanced Socket 1, 2, 3

P23N 487SX (coprocessor) Socket 1

P4 486DX Socket 1, 2, 3

P4S 486DX SL-Enhanced Socket 1, 2, 3

P24 486DX2 Socket 1, 2, 3

P24S 486DX2 SL-Enhanced Socket 1, 2, 3

P24D 486DX2 (with write-back cache) Socket 3

P24C 486DX4 Socket 3

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23 | P a g e C o m p u t e r H a r d w a r e a n d N e t w o r k T r o u b l e s h o o t i n g

P23T 486DXODP (486 Overdrive) Socket 3

P4T 486ODPR (486 Overdrive) Socket 1, 2, 3

P24T PODP5V (486 Overdrive) Socket 2, 3

P24CT Pentium Overdrive 3.3v Socket 2, 3

P5 Pentium 60/66MHz Socket 4

P5T Pentium Overdrive 120/133MHz Socket 4

P54C Pentium 75MHz – 120MHz Socket 5, 7

P54CQS Pentium 120MHz – 133MHz Socket 5,7

P54CS Pentium 120MHz – 200MHz Socket 7

P54CT(A) Pentium Overdrive Socket 5, 7

P55C Pentium MMX Socket 7

P54CTB Pentium Overdrive MMX Socket 5, 7

Tillamook Mobile Pentium MMX Mobile Module

P6 Pentium Pro Socket 8

P6T Pentium II Overdrive Socket 8

Klamath 0.35µm Pentium II Slot 1

Deschutes 0.25µm Pentium II Slot 1

Drake 0.25µm Pentium II Xeon Slot 2

Tonga Mobile Pentium II Mobile Module

Covington Celeron (Pentium II without cache) Slot 1

Mendocino 0.25µm Celeron with 128KB on-die L2

cache Slot 1, Socket 370

Dixon Mobile Pentium II with 256KB on-die L2 Mobile Module

Katmai 0.25µm Pentium III with SSE Slot 1

Tanner 0.25µm Pentium III Xeon with SSE Slot 2

Coppermine 0.18µm Pentium III with on-die L2

cache Slot 1, Socket 370

Tualatin 0.13µm Pentium III Socket 370

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24 | P a g e C o m p u t e r H a r d w a r e a n d N e t w o r k T r o u b l e s h o o t i n g

Coppermine-T 0.18µm Pentium III with Tualatin

Voltage Socket 370

Cascades 0.18µm Pentium III Xeon Slot 2

Coppermine-

128 0.18µm Celeron with 128KB L2 Socket 370

Timna Mobile Celeron with DRAM controller

(cancelled) n/a

P68 Willamette n/a

Willamette 0.18µm Pentium 4 Socket 423, 478

Northwood 0.13µm Pentium 4 Socket 478

Prescott

0.09µm Pentium 4 with

HyperThreading, Celeron D (Sockett

478), Celeron D (socket 775)

Socket 775

Smithfield Pentium D, Pentium Extreme Edition Socket 775

Presler 0.065µm Pentium D

Conroe 0.065µm Pentium D (with reduced

power consumption)

Banias 130nm Pentium M with 1MB L2 cache

Yonah Dual Core Pentium M and Single Core

Celeron M

Merom 64bit version of the Yonah

Foster Xeon DP Socket 603

Foster MP Xeon MP Socket 603

Prestonia 0.13µm Xeon DP Socket 603

Gallatin 0.13µm Xeon MP Socket 603

Nocona

0.09µm Xeon (Socket 603) and Pentium

4 Extreme Edition (Socket 478 and

Socket 775

Dothan 90nm Pentium M with 2MB L2 cache

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25 | P a g e C o m p u t e r H a r d w a r e a n d N e t w o r k T r o u b l e s h o o t i n g

P7 Previously Merced (Itanium)

Merced Itanium PAC 418

McKinley Itanium 2 with 3MB on-die L3 cache PAC 418

Madison 0.13µm Itanium 2

Deerfield Low cost Madison

Montecito 0.09µm Madison

Shavano Future Itanium family chip (Itanium 3?)

Dimona Future Itanium family chip (Itanium 3?)

Tukwila Future Itanium family chip (Itanium 3?)

Pondicherry University Questions

PARTA

1. What is processor? (NOV 2013)

2. Define system clock? (NOV 2013)

3. What are the two types of hardware interrupts (NOV 2010)

4. List the type of switching logic control in SMPS? (NOV 2010)

5. What is BIOS? (APR 2011), (NOV 2012)

6. List any four components of Mother Board? (APR 2011)

7. Expand SMPS, DMA? (APR 2012)

8. What are the types of memory? (APR 2012)

9. List out the Hardware components of PC? (NOV 2012)

10. Define computer? (NOV 2012)

11. What is meant by cache memory? (NOV 2012)

12. What are the two types of system boards? (NOV 2012)

PART B

1. Explain parallel and serial interface with block diagram? (NOV 2010)

2. Describe the DMA Architecture of the PC in detail? (NOV 2010)

3. Draw the functional Block diagram of the PC and explain its parts (APR 2011)

Dept of CSE RAJIV GANDHI COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY PUDUCHERRY

26 | P a g e C o m p u t e r H a r d w a r e a n d N e t w o r k T r o u b l e s h o o t i n g

4. List and explain the various test performed by POST sequence? (APR 2011), (NOV

2012)

5. Explain the working principle Mtt SMPS with functional block diagram. (APR 2012),

(NOV 2012)

6. Explain in detail about computer mnemonics. (APR 2012)

7. Describe the classification of computer? (NOV 2012)

8. Briefly explain the terminologies of the processor (NOV 2012)

9. Explain the types of Microprocessor. (NOV 2013)

10. Describe in detail about computer room preparation (NOV 2013)