deo-rahati: an ancient concept of biodiversity...

Mini-review Asian Agri-History Vol. 14, No. 2, 2010 (185–196)185

AbstractConservation of Deo-rahati (sacred grove) in India has ancient roots from Vedic period.Even in modern days ethnic groups conserve religiously preserved forest patchesthrough their customs, taboos, and local festivals associated with the deities. Therefore,these forest pockets serve the vital function of conserving biological diversity andnatural water streams. There is an urgent need of awareness and plantation aroundthe sacred groves to fulfill the need of local people and provide protection to sacredgroves.

Deo-rahati : An Ancient Concept of BiodiversityConservation

DS Nipunage 1 and DK Kulkarni 2

1. KMC College, Khopoli, Dist. Raigad, Maharashtra 410203, India2. Plant Science Division, Agharkar Research Institute, GG Agarkar Road, Pune 411004, Maharashtra,

India (email: [email protected])

In Vedic literature, the term aranyakasmeans forest, where life of the hermit waspeaceful. The tapovana was a special placein the forest used for meditation. Botharanya and tapovana are known asabhayaranya or sanctuaries, where kingsand commoners visited to seek the wisdom,blessing, and guidance of the sages. AncientIndian civilization was cradled in the forestsand abodes of saints and sages wereepitomes of man’s inherent concern for otherforms of life. The groves, pools, and pondswere sanctified in ancient time and are stillrevered as religious symbols of the past.

OverviewVrikshayurveda means the science of plantlife, which is known to have existed in ancient

India as a special branch of knowledge. Thistraditional text mainly deals with practicalaspects of plant science. Parashara’sVrikshayurveda (c. 400 BC) is a full-fledgedtreatise covering some basic aspects ofplants. Parashara’s chapter of BijotpattiKanda mentions Vanavargasutriyani,which deals with forest regions. Forests areconnoted by different terms such as atavi,bipina, gahana, kanana, vana,maharanya, and aranyani. Parashara hasdescribed forests where trees, shrubs,creepers, and grasses grow naturally.Caitraratha Vana means beautiful sylvantract frequented by Devas (gods) andGandharvas (heavenly persons). Theclassification of Vana is according to theregions; Kalaka Vana is situated on the west

186 Biodiversity conservation

of Caitraratha Vana, adorned with theManasarovara (verses 8–9). On theeastern side lies Kirata Vana with the riverHladini (Brahmaputra) flowing through(verse 10). These three forests are locatedat high altitude of Himalayas. Sahyadri hillregion has Aparanta Vana spreading up toBhrgu-Kaccha (the Kutch of Gujarat)(verse 18). Saurastra Vana belongs toAvanti and Dwaravati (verse 19). Thesewoodlands were characterized according totheir location and natural surroundings. Thevegetation in these forests is influenced bythe soil characters and plant variation occurswith the diversity of season (verse 20) (Sircarand Sarkar, 1996).

Kautilya’s Artha-sastra, the well-knownmanual of administration, dating back to the4th century BC, advocated establishmentand strict protection of forest reserves andspecially highlighted the concept of forestpreservation. Kautilya categorized forestsas Pashuvana (forest for cattle and othersuch animals), Mrgavana (deer forest),Dravyavana (forest for timber-yieldingtrees and other economically important

plants), Hastivana (forest for elephants),Paksivana (forest reserved for birds), andVyalavata (forest for tigers and other wildanimals). Kautilya elaborates that theDravyavana and Hastivana are sourcesof natural wealth. He also instructs the kingto establish the following forests in theuncultivable land:

• Vivita – grassland for cattle;

• Brahmaranya – forest where theBrahmins can continue their studies ofthe Vedas and other scriptures;

• Somaranya – forest fit for carrying outreligious sacrificial rites;

• Tapovana – forest for construction ofhermitages of the ascetics.

Kautilya’s classification of forests isapparently based on the concept of reserveforests by different means. It indicates thatthe conservation of biodiversity was animportant aspect in ancient period. Someflowers, plants, and forests were declaredas abodes of gods and demigods. Most ofthe forest dwelling tribal societies consideredcertain part(s) of each forest as the abode(s)of spirits and gods. Perhaps these help inprotecting the wild plants and animals frompoaching and other forms of vandalism(Sensarma, 1998).

Nature conservation through a religiouslypreserved forest pocket is known asDeorai or Deo-rahati, which means asacred grove (Kosambi, 1962; Gadgil andVartak, 1976). Devavana-raji is a sanctumsanctorum usually situated in remoteplaces. These sacred places are welldocumented and much praised in Sanskrit

Both aranya and tapovana are knownas abhayaranya or sanctuaries, wherekings and commoners visited to seek

the wisdom, blessing, and guidance ofthe sages. Ancient Indian civilizationwas cradled in the forests and abodesof saints and sages were epitomes of

man’s inherent concern for otherforms of life. The groves, pools, andponds were sanctified in ancient time

and are still revered as religioussymbols of the past.

Asian Agri-History Vol. 14, No. 2, 2010187

literature. The word Dev-rai is apparentlyfrom the Sanskrit word Devaraji.Sacredness is also attached to aspects ofnature like valley or tree, as is evident fromthe terms Devadroni or Devadaru. TheRaghuvansa verse tells us that Devadaruwas deemed child of Lord Shiva and theShakuntala passage narrates that KingDushyanta was prevented from killing thedeer and other herbivorous animals of thehermitage. These are evidences of plantreverence and animal reverence,respectively. Sanskrit literature abounds intestimony of environmental awareness inancient India. Kalidasa, in his playVikramorvanshiyam, narrates how hisheroine Urvashi was transformed into aclimber on accidentally entering the groveof Kumara, the misogynic son of Shiva andParvati. Our ancient sculptures also depictsacred plants and animals. Most of theaborigines worship ‘naga’, which meansa cobra. One can see sculptures of nagaassociated with Hindu gods, e.g., as agarland of Shiva and a bed or canopy forVishnu (Kosambi, 1974). There is a wealthof information on wild plants used inancient Indian literature. Aborigines knewabout the snakeroot plant, sarpagandha(Rauvolfia serpentina) at least 3000 yearsago and used to treat several diseases suchas mental disorders, insomnia, andsnakebite (Sinha, 1998).

Different species of trees also have specialassociation with particular deities: bel (Aeglemarmelos), rudraksha (Elaeocarpussphaericus – seeds), and ber (Zizyphusmauritiana) are considered dear to LordShiva, sal (Shorea robusta) and pipal(Ficus religiosa) to Lord Vishnu, kadamba

(Anthocephalus cadamba) to LordKrishna, amra (Mangifera indica; mango)to Lord Hanuman, ashoka (Saraca asoca)to Kamadeva, semur (Bombax ceiba; silkcotton) to Goddess Lakshmi, and shriphala(Cocos nucifera; coconut) to Varuna(Venkatachalam et al., 2005).

A large number of sacred groves are locatedin India (Fig. 1). The Indira Gandhi RashtriyaManava Sangrahalaya (IGRMS), Bhopal,Madhya Pradesh has reported the existenceof more than 100,000 sacred groves in India(Pandey, 2000). These forest patches exhibitvariations in the purpose of theirestablishment and relate to social, cultural,and environmental aspects. Also, theseforest patches harbor huge trees and giantclimbers, and serve as repositories of rare,endangered, and endemic plant species. Theterm “remnant vegetation” is broadly usedfor traditional conservation of nativevegetation that occurs within fragmentedlandscapes. “Remnants” are generally smallto medium-sized patches of vegetationsurrounded by highly modified land, such ascropping or grazing lands. “Remnants” areoften referred to patches of trees, shrubs,and huge climbers (Carle and Mike, 1997).However, “remnants” may also be used todescribe any fragmented native ecosystemspreserved for religious purpose. Thispractice of dedicating forests to deities wasonce spread throughout the Old World.

Nature conservation through areligiously preserved forest pocket is

known as Deorai or Deo-rahati,which means a sacred grove.


Greek mythology tells us about the grovesof Diana. Groves serve as sites for initiationof ceremonies, spiritual rites, femalecircumcision, and training grounds forherbalists. These groves are protectedagainst encroachment. Access is only tomembers of the respective secret society.The flora and fauna of these sacred grovesare protected under sanctions and taboos,which provide limits to overexploitation(Lebbie and Guries, 1995).

A “remnant” may be viewed as both a relicof natural ecosystem and a product ofexisting land-uses and managementpractices. In many cases, it is useful to recallthat a “remnant” exists only because of priordecisions made by the landholder or localpeople. Indeed, “remnant vegetation” mightbe considered a stand of native vegetationthat reflects current and past managementpractices. Hence, conservation of “remnantvegetation” can be perceived as securingand adapting existing management practicesrather than imposing a new managementregime (Kulkarni and Upadhye, 2006).

In Maharashtra, several groves arededicated to ferocious deities such asBapujiboova, Kalubai (Fig. 2),Navlaidevi, Mariai, Andharidevi, Kadjai,Dongraidevi, Jakuradevi, Kalkai,Kalbhairi, Vanghrunjai, Gulumbai, andChiraidevi. However, there are sacredgroves, which are dedicated to deities thatare not thought to be of ferocious naturesuch as Maruti, Ganpati, and Khandoba.

Figure 1. The sacred grove Kalubaicha Rahat in Junnar, Pune district, Maharashtra.

Figure 2. Stone idols of the ferocious deityKalubai outside Lawarde sacred grove inMaharashtra.


Local and tribal people are maintainingthese groves against all odds and disasters(Kulkarni and Kumbhojkar, 1999). RoyBurman (1991) conducted a survey in fourvillages of Ambegaon taluka of Pune districtin Maharashtra and recorded observationson deities, clans, and cultural and socialrelationships with sacred groves in theMahadeokoli tribe. Kulkarni (1992)collected information on ethnobotany ofMahadeokoli tribe and sacred groves fromtribal pockets in Pune, Raigad, Nasik,Thane, and Ahmadnagar districts ofMaharashtra. Developmental activities inthis area cause threat to most of the sacredgroves. Kulkarni (2005) reported thedisplacement of local people from theregions due to construction of four dams inRajgurunagar, Ambegaon, and Junnartaluka of Pune district. Major deities suchas Vanadeo, Vaghoba, Vira, and Varsubaiare believed to dwell in this region. Thereligious and cultural beliefs are centeredaround gods and goddesses. The principaldeity of the Mahadeokoli is Maruti. Theforest male gods are Vaghoba, Vira,Cheda, Bhiroba, Khandoba, Vetal,Mhasha, Chevata, etc. The deities maybe installed in the forest patch or evenunder a single tree. Female deities includeKamaljai, Mariai, Bhavani, Bhagvati,Tathawade, etc. There is some social

relevance with the forest deities. Vaghobais a forest god of all the villagers and theycollectively worship the deity in the monthof Chaitra (April) and sacrifice hens andgoats. Vaghoba worship is to ensure thatthe tigers cause no harm to the people andtheir animals. The Mahadeokoli used toattack the Gavali (cowherds) and theGhadashis (low caste musicians). Thedisplacement of the Gavali andGhadashis was continued for long years.In the memory of Gavali they maintainGavali Deo sacred grove in Madh area ofJunnar taluka. The deity Viroba resemblesthe Shiva linga. There are two bullsculptures made of stone in the forest ofViroba. A stone image of a ‘Vir ’, meaningphysical strength, is also placed nearby. Theforest female deity Kalamjai is supposedto protect the entire village from externalevil spirits or any infection or epidemicdisease. The Mahadeokolis collect driedwood after seeking permission from forestgods by a worship method called ‘Kaul.’If the rituals are not followed, it is believedthat people may fall sick or die or be bittenby snakes. Dry wood may also be utilized

A large number of sacred groves arelocated in India. The Indira GandhiRashtriya Manava Sangrahalaya

(IGRMS), Bhopal, Madhya Pradeshhas reported the existence of more

than 100,000 sacred groves in India.

In Maharashtra, several groves arededicated to ferocious deities such asBapujiboova, Kalubai, Navlaidevi,

Mariai, Andharidevi, Kadjai,Dongraidevi, Jakuradevi, Kalkai,Kalbhairi, Vanghrunjai, Gulumbai,and Chiraidevi . However, there are

sacred groves, which are dedicated todeities that are not thought to be offerocious nature such as Maruti,

Ganpati, and Khandoba.


for community use such as construction ofcommon temple (for community feasts),schools, and village panchayat building.These sacred groves and deities areworshiped by the Mahadeokoli on variousoccasions.

Nipunage et al. (1993) surveyed theSinhagad Hills1 in Pune district during 1985–86 for plant collection and reported sevensacred groves from the area. Theydescribed sacred groves from each dara;i.e., Bapujiboovahe ban (ThoralaDara), Kadjaichi rai (Kadjai Dara),Kalubaichi rai (Potfuga Dara), Maharrai (Mahar Dara), Navlaichi rai (NavlaiDara), and Sitabaichi rai and ZipariKalubai (Sitabaicha Dara).

Sagdara, in Pune district, is a religiousforest preserved for the village deityKhandoba. The older villagers are unableto predict the precise age of the grove. Theycould only say that it is being preserved forgenerations without any disturbance. Thedeity Khandoba was established by a monkat Sagdara in the ravine under two sag(Tectona grandis; teak) seedlings growingside by side. Due to the sacred congenialenvironment in the ravine, other seedlingsof sag started growing and now the forestpredominantly consists of more than 200 sagtrees (Nipunage et al., 1988). There arestrong restrictions against the lopping orcutting of trees inside the religious forestpreserved in Panshet water catchment area(Vartak and Gadgil, 1981).

Folklores associated withsacred groves

Folklores play a major role in confirmingbeliefs about cultural heritage of sacredgroves. The primitive tribal population isignorant about the art of writing and reading.The tribal people have scrupulouslypreserved their traditions, customs, rituals,ceremonies, and ways of forest life throughfolklores. Such traditions always suggestdo’s and don’ts, conventional norms ineveryday life and in society, and how tobehave with nature under variouscircumstances. The folklores also point outrewards and blessings for good behavior oract, and heavy punishment for the atheist orinfidel. We have recorded several suchfolklores depicting various facets of life andculture of the aborigines.

The deities generally demand animalsacrifices. The cult spots are rarely withina village but lie at a distance of at least halfkm. Kosambi (1962) discussed thesefeatures of the cult as primitive, dating fromthe hunting-gathering stage of the society.The villages are inhabited by male Gods suchas Maruti, who lives tamely in a temple andis happy with the offerings of coconut.

Smearing of Goddess with shendur[mercuric oxide (red)] represents the bloodof sacrificial victims. These victims wereno doubt humans in bygone days. Eventoday Goddess Shirkai in the villageShirkoli in Pune district is symbolicallyoffered a human victim every year.Kulkarni and Shindikar (2005) evaluatedShirkai sacred grove and investigated the

1. The Sinhagad Hill has eight spurs descendingtowards south and north from the top plateau.The spur is called dand and the ravine in betweenis called dara.


floristic composition in detail. The grovecomprises 116 species from 54 families and106 genera. A general composition andrichness of flora at family, genus, andspecies levels was prepared. Eighty-fiveclumps of Bambusa arundinacea weredominant in the sacred grove.

There are a number of folklores on reprisalof forest spirits for unauthorized hunting inthe sacred groves. In Dapsar grove in Punedistrict, a man tried to smoke out a monitorlizard (Varanus bengalensis) from the holein a tree trunk, the tree caught fireaccidentally, and the lizard disappeared. Theperson felt violently ill and escaped deathby placating the deity with sacrifice of agoat. Once a worshiper from Dapsardecided to construct a temple for the God.The forest spirit would not tolerate that thewood for the temple was being procured byfelling a tree within the sacred grove. Theworshiper nevertheless decided to take achance and started felling jambul(Syzygium cumini) tree for timber. The treecame down much before it was expectedand instantaneously killed all the treewoodcutters.

The protection to the present sacred groveswas offered by beliefs in omniscience andpower of local deities, complemented byenforcement of the deity’s will as interpretedby priests, locally called Bhagats. Thebeliefs in supernatural powers and the localdeities are weakening. Some localcommunities like the Mahadeokoli aresocially homogeneous and they believe inthe supernatural power of local deities(Kumbhojkar et al., 1996). Such sacred

groves are not felled either by politicalpressure or by other authorities.

Conservation ofbiodiversity in naturalforests throughpreservationNature conservation is deeply embeddedin the cultural ethos of the Indian society.Habitat and individual species conservationhas been practiced since time immemorial.The pioneering work in the world onconservation measures dates back to 300BC when Emperor Ashoka’s benevolenceextended to all living creatures. Sinceancient time, forests have been abodes ofsaints and sages; the groves, pools, andponds are still venerated as religioussymbols of the past.

There are other guidelines for protectedlandscapes, resource reserve, natural bioticarea/anthropological reserve, multiple usemanagement/managed resource area,biosphere reserves, world heritage site andscientific reserves, etc. The main objectiveof biodiversity conservation is to conservediversity of flora, fauna, micro-flora, andmicro-fauna. One of the important strategiesis to conserve total biological diversity andstudy the processes of natural successionin various forest types of the country(Khullar, 1992).

Ambaichi rai in Patan taluka of Sataradistrict in Maharashtra is an example ofnatural forest preservation. Plant speciessuch as Holigarna grahamii, Nothopegiacolebrookiana, Canarium strictum,Gnetum ula, Dalbergia horrida, and


Jasminum malabaricum are preserved. Thevegetation in the sacred grove stands in starkcontrast with that in the surrounding areas,where a dry patch or scrub type of forest isobserved. Some temperate plants are foundin this sacred grove on higher crests ofSahyadri mountains. This is due to the factthat all the parts between Himalaya andSahyadri have been completely eroded andwashed away. This hypothesis is surmisedthat once upon a time they must have hadcontinuous vegetation of temperate plants,but the softer part of the traps between themgot disintegrated and got transported leavingthe harder parts intact. As a result, thetemperate plants between the mountainsdisappeared and were replaced by the moistdeciduous or semi-evergreen species(Mahabale, 1979).

The most important justification regardingnature conservation through Deo-rahati orsacred grove is that it provides an insurancepolicy for the future. It preserves a reservoirof continually evolving genetic material,representative of natural ecosystem. Itpreserves a reservoir of wild animals,medicinal and economically important plants,and rare, endangered, and endemic plants,which may enable them to be cropped inthe surrounding denuded area.

Environmental impact ofsacred groves in westernMaharashtraThe impact of civilization, acculturation,industrialization, political situations,developmental activit ies, etc. isthreatening the ancient sacred grovespreserved on religious grounds. This

situation has created awareness amongthe ecologists, environmentalists, andsocial scientists. The way of preservingsuch sacred groves and the naturalenvironment with close participation oflocal people and efforts for reintroducingindigenous species would be worthfollowing. The selection of species to beplanted in the surrounding forest will meetthe demand of local people for firewood,fodder, timber, etc.

The sacred groves have presently attractedattention of the environmentalists,geneticists, and botanists for theirundisturbed natural conditions, whichenable them to become repositories ofvaluable germplasm of medicinal plants,wild fruit plants, and wild relatives ofcultivated plants (Fig 3). These wild specieswill thrive in different agroclimatic conditionsand can be used in breeding programs(Ghate et al., 1999).

Trees in sacred groves provide habitat andfood for many species of birds, insects,reptiles, and mammals that help to controlpest population in the agroecosystem,promote regeneration of tree species bydispersing seeds, and facilitate cross-pollination of many plant species. Thus,sacred groves play a dynamic role inbalancing the ecosystem including theagroecosystem of the region.

Nature conservation is deeplyembedded in the cultural ethos of theIndian society. Habitat and individual

species conservation has beenpracticed since time immemorial.


In other words, the deep foliage of the grovescreates microclimate which permitsregeneration and sustenance of biotic speciesthat are not usually found in the surroundings.Religious forest patches can provide ampleleaf litter and manure to the surroundingvegetation. Local and tribal people collect leaflitter to enrich their fields with organic manure(Kumbhojkar and Kulkarni, 1998).

Water conservation insacred groveMany sacred groves are associated withponds, streams, springs, or rivers and theyserve as micro-watersheds. There are somany temples near ponds or rivers, whichare excellent water reservoirs to preserverainwater and thus maintain the water tablethroughout the year.

Sacred groves trap the groundwater. The areaof the sacred grove in Pal village ofBhudargad taluka of Kolhapur district,Maharashtra is 4.86 ha. The natural waterstreams continuously supply water to thevillagers. The predominant unique tree in thegrove is Bischofia javanica. In Pune district,Jakhanichi rai near Chikalgaon village inMulshi taluka has the bamboo speciesBambusa arundinacea. The local people aswell as livestock depend on natural watersource in the grove in summer. Ghatai sacredgrove situated in Satara district harbors

Ambaichi rai in Patan taluka ofSatara district in Maharashtra is an

example of natural forestpreservation.

Figure 3. Kalbhiraobache ban with natural bamboo in Kolawade sacred grove in Maharashtra.


Nothapodytes nimmoniana. A continuouswater supply is available to the local peoplefrom the grove. This indicates that Deo-rahati plays an important role in conservationof water.

ConclusionDeo-rahati or sacred groves are importantfor the conservation of biological diversity.Sacred groves have social fence in order toprevent unreasonable exploitation of theresources within these pockets. This socialfence is now providing protection to variousspecies of plants and animals inside thesacred groves. Unfortunately, modernizationhas changed the culture of local tribalinhabitants. Due to westernized urbancultures, the institution of sacred grovesconservation is losing its cultural importanceamong the younger generations of localcommunities. It is essential to understandthe cultural and ecological values of grovesfor biodiversity management (Bhagwat andRutte, 2006). These ancient sites can be wellmanaged by planting suitable plant speciesthrough agroforestry or social forestry andenergy plantations. This will fulfill the needof local villagers and reduce the pressure

on the sacred groves. Planting exotic treesin sacred groves should be discouraged andpreference should be given to the indigenousspecies. Limited efforts have been made todevelop nursery technique and managementpractices for native species which areconfined to sacred groves. Local villagersor forest people should be trained in raisingnative plant nursery and these species shouldbe planted in nearby degraded sacred groveareas with the help of local people. Theawareness program for sacred groveconservation should be initiated consideringthe traditional wisdom of the local bodies.There is an urgent need to convert traditionalbelief of the tribal people into effectiveconservational values.

Acknowledgments

The authors are thankful to Dr PP Kanekar,Acting Director, Agharkar ResearchInstitute (ARI), Pune for facilities andencouragement, and also to Dr AMMujumdar, Head, Plant Science Division,ARI for appropriate suggestions. It is apleasure to acknowledge the willing helpreceived from Principal, KMC College,Khopoli, Raigad, Maharashtra.

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