denr air quality status report 2010-2011

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NATIONAL AIR QUALITY STATUS REPORT

2010-2011

Environmental Management Bureau

Department of Environment and Natural Resources

2012


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Inner cover


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NATIONAL AIR QUALITY STATUS REPORT

2010-2011


Department of Environment and Natural Resources

2012


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©2012 Department of Environment and Natural Resources. All rights reserved.

Department of Environment and Natural Resources, 2012. “National Air Quality StatusReport: 2010-2011”. DENR. Quezon City, Philippines.

This publication may be reproduced in whole or in part in any form for educational or non-

profit purposes without special permission from the copyright holder, providedacknowledgment of the source is made. No use of this publication may be made for resale or

for any other commercial purpose whatsoever, without prior permission in writing from the

Department of Environment and Natural Resources.

Contact

Air Quality Management Section (AQMS)-

Environmental Quality Division (EQD)


DENR Compound, Visayas Avenue,

1101 Diliman, Quezon City, Philippines

Telfax: +63-2-928-4430

http://emb.gov.ph/air/air1.htm

Environmental Education and

Information Division (EEID)


DENR Compound, Visayas Avenue,

1101 Diliman, Quezon City, Philippines

Telfax: +63-2-928-4674

http://emb.gov.ph/eeid/index.htm

http://emb.gov.ph/air/air1.htmhttp://emb.gov.ph/air/air1.htmhttp://emb.gov.ph/eeid/index.htmhttp://emb.gov.ph/eeid/index.htmhttp://emb.gov.ph/eeid/index.htmhttp://emb.gov.ph/air/air1.htm


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Table of Contents1. Introduction ........................................................................................................................17

1.1. About the National Air Quality Status Report ................................................................... 17

1.2. National and Socio-Economic Conditions of the Philippines........................................... 17

2. Sources of Air Pollution ......................................................................................................24

2.1. Sources and their Emissions ............................................................................................. 24

3. Status of Air Quality ...........................................................................................................37

3.1. Air Quality Monitoring ......................................................................................................... 37

3.2. Air Quality Trends ............................................................................................................... 40

4. Impacts of Air Pollution ......................................................................................................44

4.1. Impacts on Health ............................................................................................................... 44

4.2. Impacts on Agriculture ........................................................................................................ 45

4.3. Other Impacts ...................................................................................................................... 46

5. Achievements and Challenges in Air Quality Management ................................................49

5.1. Ambient Air Quality Management...................................................................................... 49

5.2. Management of Stationary Sources .................................................................................. 55

5.3. Management of Mobile Sources ........................................................................................ 56

5.4. Management of Area Sources ........................................................................................... 58

5.5. Environmental Education and Awareness Initiatives ....................................................... 595.6. Other Stakeholder Initiatives .............................................................................................. 65

5.7. International Involvement ................................................................................................... 62

6. Recommendations .............................................................................................................67

6.1. Policy .................................................................................................................................... 67

6.2. Research and Development............................................................................................... 67

6.3. Capacity Building and Institutional Framework ................................................................ 67

6.4. Finance ................................................................................................................................ 68


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List of Figures

Figure 1. Population and Urbanization of the Philippines (2000-2010) ......................................18

Figure 2. Number of Philippine Cities by Population Size (2010) ...............................................19

Figure 3. Economy of the Philippines: GDP (Current US$) with GDP Growth Rate ...................20

Figure 4. Trend of Energy and Self Sufficiency Philippines (2000-2010) ...................................21Figure 5. Primary Energy Mix (2010) .........................................................................................21

Figure 6. Philippines’ Share of Renewable Energy and Non-Renewable Energy Comparedwith other Countries ..................................................................................................................22

Figure 7. Oil Consumption in kTOE (2010) ................................................................................22

Figure 8. Power Generation Mix (2000-2010)............................................................................23

Figure 9. Electricity Sales in GWh (2010) ..................................................................................23

Figure 10. PM emissions by region, tons/yr (2009) ...................................................................26

Figure 11. SOx emissions by region, tons/yr (2009) ...................................................................27

Figure 12. NOx emissions by region, tons/yr (2009) ..................................................................28

Figure 13. CO emissions by region, tons/yr (2009) ...................................................................29 Figure 14. VOC emissions by region, tons/yr (2009) .................................................................29

Figure 15. National Emission Inventory by Sources and Criteria Pollutant ................................31

Figure 16. PM, SOx, NOx, CO and VOC Emissions for Stationary Sources in NCR (2011) ......32

Figure 17. Number of Vehicles (in thousands) in the Philippines (2000-2010) ...........................33

Figure 18. Fuel Consumption (2010-2011) ................................................................................33

Figure 19. Distribution of Construction Projects by Region (2010) .............................................36

Figure 20. National Network of Existing Monitoring Stations .....................................................38

Figure 21. Proposed Air Quality Monitoring Set-up in Metro Manila ..........................................40

Figure 22. PM10 Levels per Station ............................................................................................41

Figure 23. TSP Levels per Region (2010-2011) ........................................................................42Figure 24. Annual Average SO2 levels for Cebu, CAR and Cagayan de Oro (2007-2011) ........42

Figure 25. Annual Average NO2 levels for Cebu, CAR and Cagayan de Oro (2007-2011) ........43

Figure 26. Corn Yield in tons per hectare (2000-2011) ..............................................................45

Figure 27. Rice Yield in tons per hectare (2000-2011) ..............................................................46

Figure 28. Poor Visibility at 9 a.m. on 1 January 2012 ...............................................................47

Figure 29. New Year PM2.5 Concentrations (2003-2012) ...........................................................47

Figure 30. Number of Apprehensions (2000-2008) ...................................................................57

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List of Tables

Table 1. Top 10 Most Populated Cities in the Philippines (2010) ...............................................19

Table 2. Top 10 Most Densely Populated Cities in the Philippines (2010) .................................19

Table 3. Sources Included in 2009 Emissions Inventory ...........................................................24

Table 4. Coverage of Emission Sources by Region in 2009 Emissions Inventory .....................25Table 5. Motorization Index in the Philippines per Region and Vehicle (2007) ..........................34

Table 6. Air Quality Monitoring Capacity by Region (2011) .......................................................37

Table 7. PM10 Monitoring Stations by Most Populated City Required vs. Actual Number...........39

Table 8. TSP levels during New Year (2011 & 2012) ................................................................48

Table 9. Number of Flights Affected by Poor Visibility (New Year 2011 & 2012) .......................48

Table 10. Comparison of Philippine NAAQGV and WHO Air Quality Guidelines .......................49

Table 11. Airsheds per Region (2011) .......................................................................................50

Table 12. Total Deposits and Certifiable Available Funds made by EMB and LTO under the

AQMF in Million Pesos (PHP) (2002-2011) ...............................................................................53

Table 13. Summary of Special Allotment Request Order for 2008 in Philippine Pesos (‘000PHP) .........................................................................................................................................53Table 14. Anti-Smoke Belching Test Results (2011) .................................................................57


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Acronyms and Abbreviations

ADB Asian Development Bank

AIP Annual Investment Programs

AQI Air quality index AQMF Air Quality Management Fund

AQMS Air Quality Management Section

CAA Clean Air Act

CAR Cordillera Administrative Region

CDO Cease and Decease Order

CEMS Continuous Emission Monitoring System

CFCERT Committee on Fuel Conservation and Efficiency in Road Transport

CNG Compressed natural gas

CO Carbon monoxide

CO2 Carbon dioxide

COC Certificate of conformity

DA Department of Agriculture

DAO Department Administrative Order

DepEd Department of Education

DENR Department of Environment and Natural Resources

DILG Department of Interior and Local Government

DOE Department of Energy

DOH Department of Health

DOTC Department of Transportation and Communication

DOST Department of Science and Technology

DTI Department of Trade and IndustryEANET Acid Deposition Monitoring Network in East Asia

EEID Environmental Education and Information Division

EMB Environmental Management Bureau

EST Environmentally Sustainable Transport

GB Governing Board

GDP Gross Domestic Product

GHG Greenhouse gas

HNO3 Nitric acid

IEC Information, education and communication

KBP Kapisanan ng mga Brodkaster ng PilipinasLDC Local development council

LDIP Local Development Investment Programs

LGC Local Government Code

LGU Local government unit

LPG Liquefied petroleum gas

LTO Land Transportation Office

MC Memorandum circular

MO Manila Observatory

MOA Memorandum of Agreement

MOOE Maintenance, operations and other expensesMMDA Metro Manila Development Authority


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MVIS Motor Vehicle Inspection System

NAQSR National Air Quality Status Report

NAAQGV National Ambient Air Quality Guideline Value

NCA National Cash Allocation

NCR National Capital Region

NEECP National Energy Efficiency and Conservation ProgramNGO Non-government organizations

NGVPPT Natural Gas Vehicle Program for Public Transport

NH3 Ammonia

NO2 Nitrogen dioxide

NOV Notice of violation

NOx Nitrogen oxides

O3 Ozone

PAB Pollution Adjudication Board

PCO Pollution control officer

PETC Private Emission Testing CenterPHAP Pharmaceutical and Healthcare Association of the Philippines

PIA Philippine Information Agency

PM Particulate matter

PM10 Particulate matter with aerodynamic diameter of 10 microns

PM2.5 Particulate matter with diameter of 2.5 microns

PMA Philippine Medical Association

PNRI Philippine Nuclear Research Institute

PTO Permit to operate

PUB Public utility bus

RA Republic ActRO Regional Office

SARO Special Allotment Request Order

SMR Self-monitoring report

SO2 Sulfur dioxide

SOx Sulfur oxides

SUV Sports utility vehicle

SVPCF Special Vehicle Pollution Control Fund

TC Tricycle

TPES Total primary energy supply

TSP Total suspended particulates

USEPA US Environmental Protection Agency

UV Utility vehicle

VOC Volatile organic compound

WHO World Health Organization

UNITS AND MEASURES

°C Degree Celsius

GWh Gigawatt-hours

km Kilometerskm2 Square kilometer


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kTOE Kilotons of oil-equivalent

MTOE Million tonnes of oil equivalent

PHP Philippine Peso

µg/Nm3 Micrograms per normal cubic meter

US $ United States Dollar


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EXECUTIVE SUMMARY

The Environmental Management Bureau (EMB) of the Department of Environment and

Natural Resources (DENR) as tasked by the Philippine Clean Air Act (RA 8749) prepares

the required National Air Quality Status Report (NAQSR). The NAQSR serves as a basis for

evaluation of current programs and formulation of policies to improve air quality. To further

the relevance and application of NAQSR, this latest edition also presents the drivers of air

pollution (urbanization, economic growth, energy consumption and mobility), success stories

and best practices; challenges and problems encountered; public awareness and

environmental education programs; research outputs and activities of the different

stakeholders including various government agencies, civil societies, and the international

development community.

The Philippines’ socio-economic conditions for 2010 are presented as follows: the Philippinepopulation has an estimate of 92.3 million (92,337,852), a 2% of the world’s population, with

a growth rate of 1.9% which is higher than the world growth rate of 1.1%; Philippines wasranked 12th out of 220 countries in terms of population. In 2010-2015, Philippine urban

population is 49% with 2.3% estimated annual rate of urbanization and as of 2011, the

Philippines has 138 cities, majority of these cities have a population between 100,000 to

500,000 persons. The most populated and dense cities are located in the NCR and in the

neighboring regions. The Philippines’ gross domestic product (GDP) grew by 7.3% in 2010from 2009, 1.1% in 2009 from 2008, for the year 2010, GDP per capita was at P148,

645.21(about US$ 3,500), showing an increase from 2009 figures, which was at US$3,300.

It implied an increase in the country’s economic growth likewise in the spending capacity perindividual. Economic growth brings increased demand for mobility, energy, goods and

services which may result in increased air pollution, if policies and measures are not in place

to manage this adverse impact. The total primary energy supply (TPES) of the country is

somehow stable in 2000 from 39.3 million tons of oil equivalent (MTOE) to 40.7 MTOE in

2010, an increase of 3.6%. The country’s renewable energy share is among, if not thehighest in the world. The transport sector has the highest percent share in oil consumption,

having consumed 9,002.67 kTOE of the total 24,744.96 Ktoe. The share of coal and oil-

based sources however has been increasingly reduced through replacement of natural

gases and other renewable energy sources.

Air pollution may be due to natural or human-made (anthropogenic) sources. For the

purposes of formulating air quality management strategies, sources of pollution may be

classified into stationary, mobile and area. Definition of stationary, mobile and area sourcesare defined from RA 8749.EMB Regional Offices compile emissions inventory every three

years pursuant to the RA 8749 and consolidated to a national emissions inventory. Using the

results from the 2009 National and Regional Emissions Inventories, the emissions of the

following pollutants – particulate matter (PM), sulfur oxides (SOx), oxides of nitrogen (NOx)and volatile organic compounds (VOC), carbon monoxide (CO) are determined. Due to

limitation of resources, it is noted that not all EMB Regional Offices are able to compile

emissions to achieve 100% coverage of all of the sources. As expected, VOC, NO x and CO

emissions primarily come from mobile sources. More than half of PM emissions were from

area sources, while stationary sources were mostly responsible for SOx emissions.


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Air quality monitoring is routinely conducted by the EMB Regional Offices. Aside from EMB

Regional Offices, some cities also conduct their own air quality monitoring activities funded

from internal city funds or international projects, as in the case of Iloilo and Cagayan de Oro.

EMB-DENR is planning to expand the air quality monitoring activities in the country. The

bureau aims to install at least one PM2.5 monitoring station each for highly urbanized cities by

2013.

Out of 17 regions, only seven regions are capable of PM10 monitoring. The station located inCaloocan has the highest recording of PM10 at 167 µg/Nm3. Another station with high levelsof PM10 is at MRT-Pasay-Taft station where the annual average reading of 2010 was at 130µg/Nm3. Only seven regions have complete data on TSP emissions for 2010 and 2011. Interms of geometric mean, Region 9 and NCR have the highest TSP levels and Region 12the lowest TSP levels for both 2010 and 2011. Although TSP readings have declined since2004, all exceeded the air quality guideline value of 90μg/m3.

A large number of studies has demonstrated that air pollution is associated with a range of

adverse health outcomes, ranging from mortality to subclinical respiratory symptoms. TheWorld Health Organization (WHO) estimates that air pollution causes 3.12 million premature

deaths worldwide - 1.15 million due to urban outdoor air pollution and 1.97 million due to

indoor air pollution (WHO, 2009). Data from the Philippine Health Statistics expressed that

four out of 10 leading causes of morbidity in 2008 were attributed to air pollution, i.e. acute

respiratory infection, acute lower respiratory tract infection and pneumonia, bronchitis, and

heart diseases. In 2010, 1,948 (17%) cases and 1,561 deaths out of 11,458 cases and 9,184

deaths from all medical causes were attributed by the Philippine Cancer Society to air

pollution, having an attributable fraction of 17%. The total direct costs of the effects of

particulate matter on respiratory health due to exceeding air quality guideline values in Metro

Manila alone amounted to PHP 368.8 million and PHP 400 million in 2004 and 2007,

respectively.

Air pollution especially ozone has been known to affect agricultural yield of some crops such

as rice, tomato and pumpkin. In some Asian countries, crop yield has already decreased by

between 5 and 35%. Studies estimate that the yield of rice, wheat, and legumes – Asia’sstaple crops—will decrease even more as ozone production is expected to increase rapidly.In the Philippines, rice and corn are common agricultural products that could be affected by

air pollution. In the New Year’s Eve of 2011, only six out of nine stations in Metro Manilaexceeded the guideline values but in New Year’s Eve of 2012, all of th e stations exceededthe same guideline values. The Clean Air Act established the National Ambient Air Quality

Guideline Values (NAAQGV) to protect public health and safety, and general welfare. Thesewere based on the US Environmental Protection Agency, European Union, WHO air quality

guidelines or standards applicable at that time RA 8749 was drafted and adopted.

Airsheds are designated areas with similar climate, weather, meteorology and topology

which affect the interchange and diffusion of pollutants in the atmosphere. They are also

areas which share common interest or face similar development programs, prospects or

problems. As of 2011, there are 20 airsheds established in the Philippines. Pursuant to

Section 14 of RA 8749, the Air Quality Management Fund (AQMF) was established as a

special account in the National Treasury administered and managed by the DENR through

EMB. A third of the AQMF is normally reserved for national purposes while two-thirds is

allocated to airshed management. The Fund finances: 1) containment, removal and clean-up


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operations of the government in air pollution cases; 2) restoration of ecosystems and

rehabilitation of areas affected by violators of RA 8749; 3) research, enforcement and

monitoring activities, and capability-building of implementing agencies; and 4) provision of

technical assistance to implementing agencies to finance similar activities undertaken within

an airshed.

For the period 2010-2011, the following DENR Administrative Orders (DAOs) were

published: Guidelines on the Use of Alternative Fuels and Raw Materials in Cement Kilns

(DAO 2010-06); Re-designation of the Metro Manila Airshed into three individual Airsheds

and establishment of their Governing Board (DAO 2011-11); and Clarificatory Guideline on

DAO 2000-81, Part VI, Rule XIX, Section 13 of the IRR of RA 8749 (Memorandum Circular

[MC] 2011-004). Meanwhile, the DOE has started the process on the update/revision of the

Fuel Quality Standards for Stationary and Mobile Sources. A draft of the update is expected

by 2012 for finalization and promulgation.

Monitoring and enforcement of policies and regulations related to stationary sources is

primarily done through EMB Regional Offices (ROs). ROs survey, issue permit and monitor

firms, furnish information on the levels of criteria pollutants to local government units (LGUs),

provide technical assistance to stakeholders, and conduct information, education and

communication (IEC) activities. Based on the regional reports submitted by five regions, a

total of 142 NOVs and 2,432 PTOs were issued in 2010-2011. Two cases resulting in a

dismissal and an issuance of a Cease and Desist Order (CDO) were filed at the Pollution

Adjudication Board (PAB) in 2010 while three cases were filed in 2011 resulting in an

issuance of a CDO, a final lifting order, and a temporary lifting order. Aside from the EMB,

the different LGUs have also implemented systems that aim to manage emissions from

stationary sources such as manufacturing plants, companies and businesses operating

within their boundaries.

In relation to mobile sources, the following DAOs and Department Circulars were released in

2010 and 2011:Revised Emission Standards for Motor Vehicles Equipped with

Compression-Ignition and Spark Ignition Engines (DAO 2010-23);Revised Emission

Limits/Standards for Motorcycles/Tricycles and Mopeds (DAO 2010-24); and, Mandatory

Bioethanol Blending (Department Circular No. 2011-002-001). Local government units also

assist in addressing pollution from mobile sources through their anti-smoke belching

programs. In 2011, 60,444 vehicles underwent smoke-belching tests in Metro Manila. The

LTO also conducts roadside apprehensions to accost smoke-belching vehicles. From 2000

to 2008, LTO recorded the highest number of apprehensions in 2006. On August 2011, Air

Quality Management Section (AQMS) personnel of EMB conducted garage emission testing

of public utility buses (PUBs) operating in Metro Manila. Fourteen bus terminals, with a total

of 840 authorized vehicles, were visited. Out of the 840 vehicles, 191 units (22.74%) were

tested - 175 vehicles (91.62%) found to be in compliance with the standards, while 16 units

(8.38%) failed to comply. It was observed that compliance to emission standards is not

dependent on the age of the engine as long as proper preventive maintenance system is

undertaken on a regular basis. As part of the “Linis Hangin Program”, a seminar/training on“Fuel Efficiency and Motor Vehicle Preventive Maintenance” was conducted to educate busoperators, drivers and mechanics on the proper preventive maintenance processes. The

regulations and policies to reduce pollution from area sources may also be covered by other


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laws – e.g. ban on waste burning – under the Ecological Solid Waste Management Act of2000, or construction permit systems by local government units.

Area sources of pollution are by nature complicated to manage because of the lack of

distinct points for regulation such as a stack for stationary sources and tailpipe for mobile

sources. A key challenge to enforcing measures on area sources is the assumed yetindistinct mandates or the lack of strong collaborations with other agencies on related

measures – e.g. ban on firecrackers by DOH which looks into the regulation of firecrackersfrom the perspective of safety as compared to environmental health.

The EMB, through its Environmental Education and Information Division (EEID), has

initiated, in partnership with the EMB’s Air Quality Management Section (AQMS), othergovernment agencies, private organizations, and the civil society, three major public

awareness and education campaigns on air quality management, all under the Linis Hangin

program are the following:

The Clean Air 10 Plus One Forum held in 2010 was organized with the theme,“Moving the Clean Air 10 Declaration: A Step Forward” and the two-day Clean Air10+2 Forum held in 2011 was with the theme, “Strengthening Partnerships towardsCleaner Air and Climate Action”. Both stressed the need to strengthen partnershipsand coordinated action toward cleaner air.

EMB, in partnership with telecommunications giants SMART Inc. and Globe

Telecommunications, came up with the Text Brigade Campaign involving the general

public via MMS (Multi-media Messaging Service). The EMB-EEID provided

assistance to the EMB-AQMS as DENR, through the EMB, inked an agreement with

major government agencies and a media watchdog to further strengthen itscampaign against smoke-belchers. Among the signatories of the Memorandum of

Agreement (MOA) were the DENR, DILG, DOTC, Metro Manila Development

Authority (MMDA), mayors of Metro Manila, the Kapisanan ng mga Brodkaster ng

Pilipinas (KBP), and the Philippine Medical Association (PMA).Information and

education campaigns have been likewise facilitated in the regions through EMB

Regional Environmental Education and Information Sections (EEIS). Achieving

healthy levels of air quality requires multiple stakeholder effort and using different

mechanisms.

Some of the initiatives undertaken by different organizations in the period 2010-2011 are the

following:

In a collaborative project with DOH and DENR, Makati City localized environmental

health monitoring by conducting its own survey of pollutant exposure in specified

stations in the city;


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In cooperation with Mandaluyong City, Pasig City and other stakeholders, with

funding support from the Philippine Institute of Petroleum (PIP), the project swapped

old 2-stroke motorcycles which emit higher levels of CO and PM, with brand new 4-

stroke motorcycles benefitting members of the Mandaluyong Federation of Tricycles

Associations (MAFETA) and the Pasig S-Tricycle Operators and Drivers Association

(TODA);

PCA, together with the Electric Vehicle Association of the Philippines (EVAP),

Meralco and other stakeholders, organized the 1st Electric Vehicle Summit in 2010.

The summit brought together various stakeholders from the private sector, academe,

civil society, and government, which led to the formation of the Electric Vehicle

Alliance of the Philippines;

“Iwas Paputoxic” Campaign on Firecrackers of Eco-waste in partnership with theMiss Earth Foundation, Ministry of Ecology of the Our Lady of Remedies Parish in

Malate, and the Philippine Animal Welfare Society to organize creative events for thepublic to understand the ill-effects of firecrackers including its impact on air quality;

Padyak Project, as part of its long-term advocacy for non-motorized modes oftransport, ESI, together with Don Bosco Technical College, modified the design ofthe pedicab to provide drive train durability, driver convenience, passenger comfort,vehicle safety and economic viability.

Clean Air Initiative Asia’s five-year Exchange Program (supported by Fredskorpset-Norway) involves young professionals from six countries which included thePhilippines to gain practical skills in air quality management (AQM) andstrengthening the linkages between academic and research institutions engaged in

AQM in Asia. Clean Fleet Management by CAI-Asia serves as the conduit for theUNEP-TNT Clean Fleet Toolkit that enables fleet managers and other stakeholdersto practice clean fleet management in Asia. In the Philippines, CAI-Asia, togetherwith the Philippine Business for the Environment (PBE) trained in 2009, the MeralcoSouth Distribution Services on clean fleet management and the use of the toolkit;

Eco-G Nanotechnology, Inc. Introduced the Eco-G3000 is a fuel vaporizer thatreduces toxic emissions from fuel combustion, such as carbon monoxide (CO),hydrocarbons (HC), carbon dioxide (CO2), and nitrogen oxide (NOx);

Pacific Paints (Boysen) Philippines initiated the The KNOxOUT Project is an urban

renewal initiative to lessen air pollution along EDSA through large-scale artworks(each 1,000 square meters);

Maynilad Water Services, Inc. AP and GHG Emissions Accounting, Maynilad

became the first company in the Philippines to receive the ISO 14064:2006, a

certification for the verification of a company’s greenhouse gas (GHG) or carbonfootprint quantification and reporting initiative;

MAPECON Green Charcoal Philippines, INC. (MGCPI) JCEL (Hydrogenated Diesel

Fuel Oil).MGCPI started commercializing its hydrogenated diesel fuel oil, JCEL, in

2011;


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Asian Development Bank (ADB), 5th& 6th Asia Clean Energy Forum (ACEF). ADB

provides a knowledge-sharing platform for learning and exchange of experience on

key issues in clean energy through its annually-conducted Asia Clean Energy Forum.

World Bank (WB) Chiller Energy Efficiency Project. In 2010, the World Bank

approved the Chiller Energy Efficiency Project for the Philippines which aims toreduce GHG emissions by replacing inefficient chillers.

United States Agency for International Development (USAID), Climate Change and

Clean Energy Project (CEnergy). CEnergy demonstrates the support of USAID to the

Philippine government’s progressive response to address energy security andcombat climate change

German International Cooperation (GIZ), Clean Air for Smaller Cities. Clean Air for

Smaller Cities is a project financed by the German Federal Ministry for Economic

Cooperation and Development that aims to improve air quality in non-metropolitanareas of selected Association of South East Asian Nations (ASEAN) cities, including

those in the Philippines. Iloilo and Cagayan de Oro were selected to participate in the

project.

EANET, As the National Center of the Acid Deposition Monitoring Network in East

Asia (EANET), the EMB continues to conduct monitoring activities on wet deposition

and dry deposition to measure concentrations and fluxes of acidic substances

deposited to the ground. In lay terms, this refers to acid precipitation or acid rain or

soil acidification. The monitoring data indicate that the acidification, if any, is

insignificant or at very low levels.

The Philippine Nuclear Research Institute has conducted the monitoring of PM10 inthe air since 1998 to identify major sources of air pollution and estimate theircontribution from multi-element data. Recent studies have identified black carbon(BC) as a short-lived climate forcer – or pollutants that contribute to global warming.Reduction of black carbon has been considered, therefore, as a short-term solutionto climate change while waiting for mitigation measures for the GHGs to take effect inMetro Manila.

Considering the existing challenges and future development plan, recommended steps and

measures for National Air Quality Management are focused in four main aspects – policy,research and development, capacity building and institutional framework, and finance, whichvarious stakeholders can consider to implement in the immediate or long-term periods, with

strong support at the national and local levels of governance in the country.


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1. INTRODUCTION

1.1. About the National Air Quality Status Report

The Philippine Clean Air Act (RA 8749) requires the annual preparation of a National Air Quality

Status Reports (NAQSR) as a basis for evaluation of current programs and formulation ofpolicies to improve air quality.1 The Environmental Management Bureau (EMB) is tasked to

prepare the Report which shall contain:

A summary of the extent of air pollution in the country, per type of pollutant and per type

of source;

An analysis and evaluation of the current state, trends and projections of air pollution;

An identification of critical areas, activities, or projects which will need closer monitoring

or regulation;

Other pertinent qualitative and quantitative information concerning the extent of air

pollution and the air quality performance rating of industries in the country.

Recommendations for necessary executive and legislative action; and,

Since 1999, four NAQSRs have been issued covering the following years: (1) the 1970s up to

2002; (2) 2003-2005; (3) 2005-2007; (4) 2008-2009. This Report will be the 5 th edition covering

2010 and 2011.

In addition to providing information mandated above, the NAQSR also presents the drivers of air

pollution (urbanization, economic growth, energy consumption and mobility), success stories

and best practices; challenges and problems encountered; public awareness and environmental

education programs; research outputs and activities of the different stakeholders including

various government agencies, civil societies, and the international development community.

This edition of the NAQSR will cover analysis on pollutants covered by RA 8749, as follows:

total suspended particulate matter(TSP), particulate matter with aerodynamic diameter of 10

micronsor smaller (PM10), Sulfur dioxide (SO2), Nitrogen dioxide (NO2), photochemical oxidants

as Ozone (O3), Carbon monoxide (CO) and Lead (Pb), including other air pollutants that may

have impacts on public health and the Philippine environment.

Since 2004, EMB Regional Offices have been required to compile their own annual Regional

Ambient Air Quality Status Reports.

1.2. National and Socio-Economic Conditions of the Philippines

The Philippines is an archipelago of 7,107 islands, with a land area of 299,764 km 2. The

Philippines is located to the east of Indochina and to the north of eastern Indonesia. The country

is bounded by the Pacific Ocean on the east, the Celebes Sea on the south and the West

Philippine Sea on the west and north.

1Republic Act (RA) 8749 – also known as The Philippine Clean Air Act of 1999 - http://emb.gov.ph/ECA%20Center/RA8749.pdf2 Index Mundi. 2012. http://www.indexmundi.com/philippines/area.html

http://emb.gov.ph/ECA%20Center/RA8749.pdfhttp://emb.gov.ph/ECA%20Center/RA8749.pdfhttp://emb.gov.ph/ECA%20Center/RA8749.pdfhttp://emb.gov.ph/ECA%20Center/RA8749.pdfhttp://www.indexmundi.com/philippines/area.htmlhttp://www.indexmundi.com/philippines/area.htmlhttp://www.indexmundi.com/philippines/area.htmlhttp://www.indexmundi.com/philippines/area.htmlhttp://emb.gov.ph/ECA%20Center/RA8749.pdf


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As of March 2012, there are 17 regions, 80 provinces and 138 cities.3 Metro Manila or the

National Capital Region (NCR), the country’s capital, is an urban agglomeration composed of 16cities and one municipality.4 It has a population of 13.9 million, making it a megacity.5

The Philippines is located in a tropical climate zone and has two distinct seasons—rainy (Juneto November) and dry (December to May). The temperature ranges from 25.5°C in January to

28.3°C in May, and remains fairly high throughout the year.6 The climate of the Philippines is

influenced by the complex interaction of various factors such as geography, principal air

streams, ocean currents, among others. The country is also frequented by typhoons which help

in the dispersion of air pollution in cities.

Population and Urbanization

The Philippines has a population of 92.3 million (92,337,852) according to the 2010 census.7

While the country accounts only for less than 2% of the world’s population, its growth rate of1.9% is higher than the world growth rate of 1.1%.Philippineswas ranked 12th out of 220

countries in terms of population in 2010.8

The share of the urban population is 49% with an estimated annual rate of urbanization of 2.3%

for the period 2010-2015.9 As of 2011, the Philippines has138 cities.Statistics indicate the

steady increase of urban population along with an increasing total population (Figure 1). On the

other hand, rural population remained stable for the past decade, apart from a slight decrease in

2001.

Figure 1. Population and Urbanization of the Philippines (2000-2010)

Reference: Philippine Census, 2000,2007 & 2010

3NSCB. 2009. Provincial Summary number of Provinces, Cities, Municipalities, and Barangays, By Region.

http://www.nscb.gov.ph/activestats/psgc/NSCB_PSGC_SUMMARY_Jun2009.pdf4 National Nutrition Council. http://www.nnc.gov.ph/component/k2/itemlist/category/89 5United Nations. 2010. An Urbanized World. http://www.un.org/ga/Istanbul+5/10-11.pdf6PAGASA. 2009. Climatology and Agrometeorology. http://kidlat.pagasa.dost.gov.ph/cab/cab.htm7NSCB. 2010. Population of the Philippines. http://www.nscb.gov.ph/secstat/d_popn.asp8Index Mundi. 2012. http://www.indexmundi.com/world/population_growth_rate.html9Index Mundi. 2010. http://www.indexmundi.com/philippines/demographics_profile.html

0

20

40

60

80

100

2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010

M i l l i o n s

Total Population Urban Population Rural Population

http://c/Users/CAI-Asia/Downloads/Philippinehttp://c/Users/CAI-Asia/Downloads/Philippinehttp://www.nscb.gov.ph/activestats/psgc/NSCB_PSGC_SUMMARY_Jun2009.pdfhttp://www.nscb.gov.ph/activestats/psgc/NSCB_PSGC_SUMMARY_Jun2009.pdfhttp://www.nscb.gov.ph/activestats/psgc/NSCB_PSGC_SUMMARY_Jun2009.pdfhttp://www.nscb.gov.ph/activestats/psgc/NSCB_PSGC_SUMMARY_Jun2009.pdfhttp://www.nnc.gov.ph/component/k2/itemlist/category/89http://www.nnc.gov.ph/component/k2/itemlist/category/89http://www.nnc.gov.ph/component/k2/itemlist/category/89http://kidlat.pagasa.dost.gov.ph/cab/cab.htmhttp://kidlat.pagasa.dost.gov.ph/cab/cab.htmhttp://kidlat.pagasa.dost.gov.ph/cab/cab.htmhttp://www.indexmundi.com/philippines/demographics_profile.htmlhttp://www.indexmundi.com/philippines/demographics_profile.htmlhttp://www.indexmundi.com/philippines/demographics_profile.htmlhttp://www.indexmundi.com/philippines/demographics_profile.htmlhttp://kidlat.pagasa.dost.gov.ph/cab/cab.htmhttp://www.nnc.gov.ph/component/k2/itemlist/category/89http://www.nscb.gov.ph/activestats/psgc/NSCB_PSGC_SUMMARY_Jun2009.pdfhttp://www.nscb.gov.ph/activestats/psgc/NSCB_PSGC_SUMMARY_Jun2009.pdfhttp://c/Users/CAI-Asia/Downloads/Philippine


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Majority of thecities have a population between 100,000 to 500,000 persons (Figure 2). The

most populated and dense cities are located in the NCRand in theneighboring regions (Table

1andTable 2). In 2010, 4 cities had a population of above 1 million withQuezon City, located in

Metro Manila,asthe most populous city.

Figure 2. Number of Philippine Cities by Population Size (2010)

Table 1. Top 10 Most Populated Cities in the Philippines (2010)

Rank Cities/Municipalities Population (2010)Density

(persons/sq.km)Region

1 Quezon City 2,761,720 16,083.62 NCR2 Manila 1,652,171 66,139.75 NCR3 Caloocan 1,489,040 26,685.30 NCR4 Davao 1,449,296 593.00 Region XI5 Cebu 866,171 2,749.75 Region VII

6 Zamboanga 807,129 544.11 Region VIII7 Antipolo 677,741 2,214.12 Region IV-A8 Pasig 669,773 13,821.15 NCR9 Taguig 644,473 14,255.10 NCR

10 Cagayan de Oro 602,088 1,458.55 Region XSource: National Statistics Office, 201210

Table 2. Top 10 Most Densely Populated Cities in the Philippines (2010)

Rank City PopulationArea

(sq.km)Density

(persons/sq.km) Region

1 Manila 1,652,171 25 66,140 NCR

2 Mandaluyong 328,699 9 35,382 NCR

3 Pasay 392,869 14 28,122 NCR

4 Navotas 249,131 9 27,867 NCR

5 Caloocan 1,489,040 56 26,685 NCR

6 Makati 529,039 22 24,527 NCR

7 Malabon 353,337 16 22,491 NCR

10 Household Statistics Department. National Statistics Office as posted in -http://census.gov.ph/data/pressrelease/2012/pr1227tx.html

50

80

3 3 1

37

83

133 1

below

100,000

100,000 -

500,000

500,000 - 1

million

1 million - 2

million

above 2

million

2000 2010

http://census.gov.ph/data/pressrelease/2012/pr1227tx.htmlhttp://census.gov.ph/data/pressrelease/2012/pr1227tx.htmlhttp://census.gov.ph/data/pressrelease/2012/pr1227tx.html


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8 San Juan 121,430 6 20,408 NCR

9 Marikina 424,150 22 19,710 NCR

10 Las Pinas 552,573 33 16,903 NCRSource: National Statistical Coordination Board11

Economy and Industry

The Philippines’ gross domestic product (GDP) grew by 7.3% in 2010 from 2009, 1.1% in 2009from 2008, 3.7% in 2008 from 2007, and 7.1% in 2007 from 2006 (Figure 3). The Servicesector, has the highest percent share of the GDP, at 54.4%, followed by the Industry sector at33.3% and by the agriculture, fishery and forestry sector at 12.3% (2011 estimate).12For theyear 2010, GDP per capita was at P148, 645.21(about US$ 3,500), showing an increase from2009 figures, which was at US$3,300. It likewise implied an increase in the spending capacityper individual. Economic growth brings increased demand for mobility, energy, goods andservices which may result in increased air pollution, if policies and measures are not in place tomanage this adverse impact.

Figure 3. Economy of the Philippines: GDP (Current US$) with GDP Growth Rateand GDP per Capita (2000-2010)

Reference: World Bank, 2011 Indicators.http://data.worldbank.org/indicator ; National Accounts of the Philippines. 1946-2010.

Energy

Despite the rapid growth in population, the total primary energy supply (TPES) of the country issomehow stable where in 2000 it was at 39.3 million tones of oil equivalent (MTOE) andincreased 3.6% to 40.7 MTOE in 2010. To ensure energy security, the country includes a targetof self sufficiency from indigenous energy sources. The energy self sufficiency has beenincreasing generally since 2000 but 2010 self-sufficiency (57.5%) share has reduced slightlyfrom 2009(59.2%) (Figure 4). Share of renewable energy and other green energy sources are

11http://www.nscb.gov.ph/activestats/psgc/listcity.asp12National Accounts of the Philippines. 1946-2010

http://data.worldbank.org/indicatorhttp://data.worldbank.org/indicatorhttp://data.worldbank.org/indicatorhttp://www.nscb.gov.ph/activestats/psgc/listcity.asphttp://www.nscb.gov.ph/activestats/psgc/listcity.asphttp://www.nscb.gov.ph/activestats/psgc/listcity.asphttp://data.worldbank.org/indicator


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increasing since 2000 and in 2010, renewable energy share accounts for almost 39% (Figure5).

Figure 4. Trend of Energy and Self Sufficiency Philippines (2000-2010)Source: DOE

Figure 5. Primary Energy Mix (2010)

Source: DOE

When compared with other countries and international averages, the country’s renewableenergy share is among, if not the highest in the world (Figure 6).

30

35

40

45

50

55

60

2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010

P e r c e n t S h a r e

INDIGENOUS ENERGY NET IMPORTED ENERGY


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Figure 6. Philippines Share of Renewable Energy and Non-Renewable Energy Compared withother Countries

Source: BP Statistical Review of World Energy, 2011

The transport sector has the highest percent share in oil consumption, having consumed9,002.67 kTOE of the total 24,744.96 kTOE (Figure 7).

Figure 7. Oil Consumption in kTOE (2010)Source: DOE

Power generation in the Philippines for 2010 has been constantly increasing to meet thegrowing populations’ demand. In 2000, total power generated was at 45,290 GWh whichincreased to 67,743 GWh in 2010. The share of coal and oil-based sources, however, has been

increasingly reduced through replacement of natural gases and other renewable energy sources

Figure 8). The Philippines is also is among the top producers of geothermal energy in the world.

INDUSTRY26%

TRANSPORT

36%

RESIDENTIAL

25%

COMMERCIAL

11%

AGRICULTURE

1%

OTHERS, NON-

ENERGY USE

1%


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Figure 8. Power Generation Mix (2000-2010)

Source: DOE

Electricity sales, on the other hand, were dominated by the residential sector, which held 28% ofthe total sales (Figure 9).13In all sectors, electricity demand increased from 2009 figures.14

Figure 9. Electricity Sales in GWh (2010)Source: DOE

13Department of Energy14 Almendras, Jose Rene. The Philippine Energy Sector. 2011.

0%

10%

20%

30%

40%

50%

60%

70%

80%

90%

100%

2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010

Oil-based Hydro Geothermal Coal Other RE Natural Gas

Residential

28%

Commercial

24%

Industrial

27%

Others

2%Own-use

7%

System Loss

12%

Other

19%


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2. SOURCES OF AIR POLLUTION

2.1. Sources and their Emissions

Air pollution may be due to natural or man-made (anthropogenic) sources.15

For the purposes offormulating air quality management strategies, sources of pollution may be classified into

stationary, mobile and area. From RA 8749, stationary, mobile and area sources are defined as

the following:

Stationary source – any building or immobile structure, facility or installation which emitsany air pollutant

Mobile source – any vehicle/machine propelled by or through oxidation or reductionreactions, including combustion of carbon-based or other fuel, constructed and operated

principally for the conveyance of persons or the transportation of property or goods that

emit air pollutants as a reaction product

Area source – relatively large areas of specific activities that generate significantamounts of air pollutants.

The detailed sources are listed in Table 3.

Table 3. Sources Included in 2009 Emissions Inventory

Stationary Sources Mobile Sources Area Sources- Power generation- Steel- Food manufacturing- Paper- Refineries- Cement- Chemical plants- Among others

- Diesel and gasoline-fedvehicles from cars, utilityvehicles, buses, trucks,motorcycles

- Gasoline refilling stations- Structural constructions- Dust resuspension for paved

and unpaved roads- Open burning- Agricultural activities- Residential fuel burning- Livestock- Structural fires- Dry cleaning- Kaingin- Surface Coating- Structural and Automobile

Fires- Dry Cleaning- Industrial Degreasing

Source: EMB

15As defined in the Implementing Rules and Regulations of R.A. 8749, air pollution is the “alteration of the physical, chemical and biological

properties of the atmosphere, or any discharge thereto of any liquid, gaseous or solid substances that will or is likely to c reate or to render the

air resources of the country harmful, detrimental, or injurious to public health, safety or welfare or which will adversely affect their utilization

for domestic, commercial, industrial, agricultural, recreational, or other legitimate purposes” (Environmental Management Bur eau, 2000).


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EMB Regional Offices compile emissions inventory every 3 years pursuant to the RA 8749.

These regional emissions inventory is then consolidated to a national emissions inventory. This

report usesresults from the 2009 National and Regional Emissions Inventories.

The inventory covers emissions of the following pollutants – particulate matter (PM), sulfuroxides (SOx), oxides of nitrogen (NOx) and volatile organic compounds (VOC), carbon

monoxide (CO). Due to limitation of resources, it is noted that not all regions are able to compile

emissions to achieve 100% coverage of all of the sources.Table 4lists the coverage of

emissions from the regional offices.

Table 4. Coverage of Emission Sources by Region in 2009 Emissions Inventory

Region % Coverage of StationarySources

% Coverage of MobileSources

% Coverage of AreaSources

NCR 70 100 100

I 55 75 48

II 95 75 30

III95 75 30

IV-A 80 70 25

IV-B 100 100 25

V 3.45 100 100

VI 9 10 5

VII 27 55 18

VIII 45.83 100 73.56

IX 79.5 100 83.3

X 55 100 98

XI 92 100 45

XII 100 90 90

CAR 70 75 70

CARAGA 100 100 70Source: EMB

Note: NS – No submission yet/awaiting submission

For 2009, Region Iwas the main source of PM emissions (Figure 10), Region 8 for SOxemissions

(Figure 11), Region4-A for NOxemissions (Figure 12), and NCR for CO emissions (Figure 13).


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Figure 10. PM emissions by region, tons/yr (2009)Note: Some regions have higher coverage of emission sources than others.

0

50

100

150

200

250

300

350

400

450

T h o u s a n d s


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Figure 11. SOxemissions by region, tons/yr (2009)Note: Some regions have higher coverage of emission sources than others

0

50

100

150

200

250

300

T h o u s a n d s


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0

20

40

60

80

100

120

140

T h o u s a n d s

Figure 12. NOx emissions by region, tons/yr (2009) Note: Some regions have higher coverage of emission sources than others.


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Figure 13. CO emissions by region, tons/yr (2009)Note: Some regions have higher coverage of emission sources than others.

0

200

400

600

8001,000

1,200

T h o u s a

n d s


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Figure 14. VOC emissions by region, tons/yr (2009)

Note: Some regions have higher coverage of emission sources than others.


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As expected, VOC, NOx and CO emissions primarily come from mobile sources (Figure 15).

More than half of PM emissions were from area sources, while stationary sources were mostly

responsible for SOx emissions.

Figure 15. National Emission Inventory by Sources and Criteria PollutantNote: Coverage of emission sources is not 100%

Stationary Sources

Only EMB-NCR was able to disaggregate its emission inventory by industry source in 2011,results of which are shown inFigure 16. Stationary sources contribute mostly to SOx and PMofthe nine stationary sources identified, food manufacturing was responsible for highestcontribution to PM (91%), SO2 (40%), NOx (25%), and CO (64%). Paper and packagingmanufacturing contributed the most to VOC emissions (25%) while chemical and allied productswere second to food manufacturing in most emissions for PM (4%), SOx (33%), and NOx (25%).


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Figure 16. PM, SOx, NOx, CO and VOC Emissions for Stationary Sources in NCR (2011) Source: EMB

Mobile Sources

According to the Land Transportation Office (LTO), the total number of registered vehicles in

2010 reached 6,849,784, a spike from 2000 figures of 3,796,274(Figure 17). From 2000 to

2010, the numbers grew by 80.4% with the most recent annual vehicle growth rate from 2009 to

2010 at 6.75%. Of all the vehicles, motorcycles and tricycles had the highest growth rate at

8.9% from 2009 figures while trailers had the lowest growth rate at 1.9%.Metro Manila, alone,

reached a vehicle population of 1,814,753 in 2005, which increased to 1,904,395 in 2010.

Steel

Manufact

urers

Food

Manufact

urers

Glass

Manufact

urers

Paper &

Packaging

Manufact

urers

Cigarrete

Manufact

urers

Textile

Products

& Allied

Services

Rubber &

Plastic

Manufact

urers

Chemical

& Allied

Products

Other

Services

PM 57 4076 11 33 2 37 76 158 32

SOx 682 2433 114 355 93 86 92 2018 181

NOx 398 733 46 532 32 32 22 729 415

CO 88 733 9 109 3 21 5 18 149

VOC 26 25 5 28 0 0 1 20 9

0

500

1000

1500

2000

2500

3000

3500

4000

4500

u g / N c m


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Figure 17. Number of Vehicles (in thousands) in the Philippines (2000-2010)Source: LTO

Motorcycles and tricycles comprised 53% of the total vehicles in the Philippines in 2010. Two-

and three-wheeler vehicles emit high amounts of major pollutants (i.e. CO, NO x, PM10, VOCs)

andgreenhouse gases(GHG).They also contribute to noise pollution, and to the adverse effects

on the human respiratory system. The Philippine government has recently acted on its interest

in shifting to electric 2- and 3-wheelers.16 Experiences in Vietnam and India indicated that

following electric vehicle adoption and reinforced by aggressive supportive policy, emissions

could be reduced, in some cases, to a maximum of 42%.17

The Transport sector consumed the most diesel fuel in 2010 and 2011 at 3,059 million liters and2,990 liters, respectively. It also had the highest percent share in gasoline consumption at 86%

in 2010, and 83% in 2011 (Figure 18).

Figure 18. Fuel Consumption (2010-2011)Source: LTO

16 For more information on government e-vehicle programs, refer to Appendix A17Asian Development Bank. 2009. E-Bikes in India and Vietnam.

0

500

1,000

1,500

2,000

2,500

3,000

3,500

4,000

Cars UV SUV Trucks Buses MC/TC Trailers

N o . o f V e h i c l e s ( I n t h o u s a n d s )

2000 2009 2010

0

1,000

2,000

3,000

4,000

FY 2010 FY 2011

i n m i l l i o n l i t e r s

Transport (Retail) Commercial/Industrial


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Motorization indices refer to the number of vehicles per 1,000 inhabitants and are indicative of

an area’s economic development and its impact on the environment. A high motorization indexcorresponds with a high level of economic development and quality of life, but may pose a

burden on the environment because of the extensive use of energy sources, local air pollution

and development of road networks.18NCR had the highest motorization index at 137.3 followed

by Region II at 75.9 and Region III at 75.5. Majority of the vehicles from Region II and Region IIIwere comprised of motorcycles and tricycles, which have a motorization index of 46.6 out of

75.9 and 37.2 out of 75.5, respectively. Out of the 5 regions with the highest indices, 4 were

located in Luzon alone (Table 5).

Over all, vehicles, motorcycles and tricycles have the highest country motorization index at

449.63 followed by diesel utility vehicles at 148.04, but the gap between the two vehicles is

considerably large.

Table 5. Motorization Index in the Philippines per Region and Vehicle (2007)

Region CARS UV SUV TRUCKS BUSESMC/TC TRAI-

LERSRegion

alG D G D G D G D G D G

I 5.0 0.0 4.9 11.4 0.3 0.6 0.0 2.7 0.0 0.5 42.8 0.2 68.4

II 3.3 0.2 4.1 13.7 0.2 0.9 0.1 5.6 0.0 0.5 46.6 0.7 75.9

III 7.4 0.0 7.8 16.4 0.8 1.1 0.0 4.1 0.0 0.3 37.2 0.3 75.5

IV 6.3 0.0 5.8 11.7 0.4 0.5 0.0 1.8 0.0 0.2 28.7 0.1 55.6

V 1.7 0.0 2.1 4.6 0.1 0.2 0.0 1.6 0.0 0.3 22.5 0.1 33.1

VI 3.8 0.1 4.6 7.5 0.3 0.5 0.1 4.0 0.0 0.2 23.5 0.1 44.6

VII 5.8 0.611.5 6.1 1.3 1.6 0.8 3.9 0.0 0.4 35.9 0.2 68.1

VIII 1.0 0.0 3.4 3.6 0.1 0.3 0.0 2.2 0.0 0.2 19.7 0.0 30.6

IX 1.3 0.0 5.4 3.7 0.2 0.4 0.2 1.7 0.0 0.2 39.2 0.1 52.2

X 2.9 0.0 4.8 6.0 0.3 0.8 0.1 3.0 0.1 0.2 21.7 0.2 40.1

XI 4.8 0.0 5.2 6.5 0.3 0.9 0.0 3.3 0.0 0.2 31.1 0.3 52.6

XII 3.7 0.1 4.5 6.4 0.2 0.4 0.3 3.6 0.0 0.2 34.0 0.2 53.6

NCR 34.1 1.216.8 29.5 5.7 4.0 0.2 4.9 0.2 0.7 39.2 1.0 137.3

CAR 6.2 0.1 3.2 18.2 0.6 0.9 0.2 3.1 0.0 0.2 9.7 0.0 42.5

CARAGA 1.0 0.2 2.4 2.7 0.0 0.3 0.0 1.2 0.0 0.1 17.8 0.0 25.8Note: G = Gas, D = Diesel

Road density in the country also increased from 0.54 km/sq.km in 2003 to 0.67 km/sq.km in

2007, and country road networks improved at a rate of 25% between 1990 and

18


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2007.19Regardless of expanding roads, however, traffic congestion is still a persistent problem.

Meanwhile, the amount of pollutants emitted by vehicles is going up.

With government-led programs, the country has also experienced an increased interest in

compressed natural gas (CNG) and liquefied petroleum gas-fuelled vehicles. According to the

DOE, as of 2010, there were 41 CNG fuelled buses commercially operating along Batangas-

Laguna-Manila route which is estimated to have displaced 2.7 Million liters of diesel in 2010 and

3.3 Million liters of diesel in 2011. By end of 2011, there were 19,052 taxi units using auto-LPG

(increased from 17,500 taxi units in 2010) displacing an estimated 136 Million liters of gasoline

in 2011. Electric vehicle population is also increasing and numbered 560 units by end of 2010.20

Despite the continuous improvement of fuel and compliance of oil companies with fuel

standards, air quality of major cities remains poor. It may possibly be attributed to the poor

maintenance of vehicles, overloading, and congestion, which contribute to increased emissions .

Area Sources

The most common area sources are road dust, construction activities and waste burning. Thepast decade has seen a growing number of construction activities especially in the urban areas

in the country. In 2010, most of the construction projects were concentrated in Region IV-A or

CALABARZON (Figure 19).CALABARZON had a percent share of 25.9% (or 29,379 projects) of

the construction projects followed by NCR at 12.9% (or 14, 623), and Central Luzon at 12.8%

(14,541). A total of 113,230 new construction projects were approved in 2010, which was a

slight increase of 1% compared to 112,102 construction projects in 2009.

19UN Center for Regional Development. 2010. Formulation of a National Environmentally Sustainable Transport Strategy for the Philippines20http://www.doe.gov.ph/Sec%20Corner/SRDA%20Energy%20Sector%20-%20Clark.pdf

http://www.doe.gov.ph/Sec%20Corner/SRDA%20Energy%20Sector%20-%20Clark.pdfhttp://www.doe.gov.ph/Sec%20Corner/SRDA%20Energy%20Sector%20-%20Clark.pdfhttp://www.doe.gov.ph/Sec%20Corner/SRDA%20Energy%20Sector%20-%20Clark.pdfhttp://www.doe.gov.ph/Sec%20Corner/SRDA%20Energy%20Sector%20-%20Clark.pdf


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Figure 19. Distribution of Construction Projects by Region (2010)Source: NSCB. Private Building Construction Statistics, 2010.

As indicated in the emissions inventory compiled in 2009, area sources contribute significantlyto PM emissions. PM emitted by area sources, however, are often of particulates in bigger sizes

(e.g. resuspended dust from road or construction).


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3. STATUS OF AIR QUALITY

3.1. Air Quality Monitoring

Air quality monitoring is routinely conducted by the EMB regional offices. Table 6and Figure

20indicates the number of air quality monitoring stations installed and in operation for 2011. Italso shows the pollutants covered and the type of samplers/monitors installed.

Table 6. Air Quality Monitoring Capacity by Region (2011)

Region

Parameters measured and methodology/sampler used

TSPType of

sampler/monitor and number

PM10 Type of sampler and

number

NO2,SO2,O3

Type of samplerand number

CentralOffice

√ Low Volume Sampler (1) √ DOAS (4)-open path;BTX-CO

NCR √ High Volume

(HV) sampler(10)

√ BAM RT w/ PM 2.5 (3)

High Volume Sampler (5)

I √ HV sampler (2) √ Low Volume Sampler (1)

II √ HV sampler (1) √ Low Volume Sampler (1) *

III √ HV sampler (3) √ Dichotomous PM 10/2.5(1)*

CAR √ HV sampler (1) √ TEOM (1)RT √ CAMS/DOAS (1)-open path

IVA √ HV sampler (3) √ BAM RT w/ PM 2.5 (3)IVB HV sampler (2) √ Low Volume Sampler (1)

V √ HV sampler (3) √ Low Volume Sampler (1) *

VI √ HV sampler (3) √ Low Volume Sampler (1)CAMS/DOAS (1) –

open pathVII √ HV sampler (3) √ High Volume Sampler (2) √ DOAS (1)-open pathVIII √ HV sampler (1) √ Low Volume Sampler (1)

IX HV sampler (3) √ Low Volume Sampler (1) *

X1 √ TEOM (1)RT √ DOAS (1) – openpath

XI √ HV sampler (4) √ Low Volume Sampler (1) * √ Manual Method/3-Gas Sampler (1)

XII HV sampler (3) Low Volume Sampler (1) *CARAGA √ HV sampler (2) √ Low Volume Sampler (1) *Notes:

TEOM - Continuous Particulate Tapered Element Oscillating Microbalance (TEOM) which is part of the CAMS

BAM - Beta Attenuation Monitor

CAMS - Continuous ambient monitoring station equipped with monitors for NO2, SO2, and Ozone

DOAS - Differential Optical Absorption Spectrometer - Open Path Analyzer

Low Volume Sampler - (Partisol)1 No data reported in 2008 due to the breakdown of samplers* For repair/maintenance/No DataRT REAL-TIME


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Figure 20. National Network of Existing Monitoring Stations

Aside from EMB regional offices, some cities also conduct their own air quality monitoringactivities funded from internal city funds or international projects, as in the case of Iloilo and

Cagayan de Oro.

EMB-DENR is planning to expand the air quality monitoring activities in the country (Table

8).The bureau aims to install at least one PM2.5 monitoring station each for highly urbanized

cities by 2013.


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Figure 21 maps the proposed monitoring set-up for Metro Manila. Three stations are up for

restoration while ten stations are being proposed to be set up, one each in Caloocan, Navotas,

San Juan, Pasig, Pateros, Pasay, Paranaque, and Las Piñas.

Table 7. PM10Monitoring Stations by Most Populated City Required vs. Actual Number

Rankof

City

Cities/Municipalities

PopulationRequired No. of Stations Actual No. of

PM10 StationsLow

ConcentrationsMedium

Concentrations1 Quezon City 2,761,720 2 –4 4-8 42 Manila 1,652,171 2 –4 4-8 13 Caloocan 1,489,040 2 –4 4-8 04 Davao 1,449,296 2 –4 4-8 45 Cebu 866,171 1-2 2-4 26 Zamboanga 807,129 1-2 2-4 37 Antipolo 677,741 1-2 2-4 08 Pasig 669,773 1-2 2-4 19 Taguig 644,473 1-2 2-4 010 CDO 602,088 1-2 2-4 4

Reference:US Code of Federal Regulations (CFR) 40 Part 58-Ambient Air Quality Surveillance Subpart G

Notes: Medium concentration refers to PM10ambient concentrations exceeding 80 percent of the

PM10NAAQS.Low concentration refers to PM10 ambient concentrations less than 80 percent of the

PM10NAAQS.


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Figure 21. Proposed Air Quality Monitoring Set-up in Metro Manila

3.2. Air Quality Trends

Out of 17 regions, only 7 regions are capable of PM 10 monitoring. The station located inCaloocan has the highest recording of PM10at 167 µg/Nm3. Another station with high levels ofPM10 is at MRT-Pasay-Taft station where the annual average reading of 2010 was at130µg/Nm3.


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Figure 22 indicates the data readings per station. Seven of these stations exceeded the airquality guidelinevalues. PM2.5 monitoring started in the last quarter of 2011 for NCR.

Figure 22. PM10 Levels per Station

Only 7 regions have complete data on TSP emissions for 2010 and 2011. Most TSP readings

per region are sparsely distributed, except for Region 12. In terms of geometric mean, Region 9

and NCR have the highest TSP levels and Region 12 the lowest TSP levels for both 2010 and

2011. Although TSP readings have declined since 2004, all exceeded the air quality guideline

value of 90μg/m3.


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Figure 23. TSP Levels per Region (2010-2011)

SO2and NO2 data were only available forCebu, Cagayan de Oro, and CAR. Cebu has the

highest levels from 2007 to 2011 for SO2, but it has steadily declined over the years. SO2 levels

in CAR have declined but only marginally, while levels in Cagayan de Oro reached its highest in

2008 before declining as well(Figure 24. Annual Average SO2 levels for Cebu, CAR and

Cagayan de Oro (2007-2011)

Meanwhile, CAR had the highest NO2 reading of all three; however, the data did not meet the

required 75% capture rate per year. All three cities are compliant with long-term guideline

values of RA 8749 for SO2 and NO2.

Figure 24. Annual Average SO2 levels for Cebu, CAR and Cagayan de Oro (2007-2011)

0

2

4

6

8

10

12

14

16

2007 2008 2009 2010 2011

u g / N m 3

Cebu

CAR

Cagayan de Oro


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Note: CAR station is located on the roadside while CDO and Cebu Stations are at ambient locations.

Figure 25. Annual Average NO2 levels for Cebu, CAR and Cagayan de Oro (2007-2011)Note: CAR did not meet the required 75% capture rate per year andCAR station is located on the

roadside while CDO and Cebu Stations are at ambient locations.

0

10

20

30

40

50

60

70

80

90

2007 2008 2009 2010

u g / N m 3

Cebu

CAR

Cagayan de Oro


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4. IMPACTS OF AIR POLLUTION

4.1. Impacts on Health

A large number of studies have demonstrated that air pollution is associated with a range ofadverse health outcomes, ranging from mortality to subclinical respiratory symptoms. The World

Health Organization (WHO) estimates that air pollution causes 3.12 million premature deaths

worldwide - 1.15 million due to urban outdoor air pollution and 1.97 million due to indoor air

pollution (WHO, 2009). The morbidity and mortality risks due to air pollution are also highest in

developing countries. An international review of various health-air pollution studies also

concluded that the risks are even higher if you live within 300-500 meters from major

thoroughfares.21

In the Philippines, there are a few studies conducted by different organizations which look into

the relationship of health and air pollution. This exercise, however is not conducted on a regular

basis so studies may be conducted for different years, different scopes and using differentmethodologies.

Data from the Philippine Health Statistics expressed that 4 out of 10 leading causes of morbidity

in 2008 was attributed to air pollution, i.e. acute respiratory infection, acute lower respiratory

tract infection and pneumonia, bronchitis, and heart diseases.

In 2008, 65,887 (4%) out of 1,647,178 cases of acute respiratory infection, 327,684 (42%) out of

780,199 cases of acute respiratory tract infection and pneumonia, 218,325 (42%) of 519,821

cases of bronchitis, and 5,207 (16%) out of 32,541 cases of heart diseases were attributed by

the Department of Health to air pollution.22

In 2010, 1,948 (17%) cases and 1,561 deaths out of 11,458 cases and 9,184 deaths from all

medical causes were attributed by the Philippine Cancer Society to air pollution, having an

attributable fraction of 17%.

The total direct costs of the effects of particulate matter on respiratory health due to exceeding

air quality guidelines in Metro Manila alone amounted to PHP368.8 million and PHP400 million

in 2004 and 2007, respectively.23 Air pollution, along with poor sanitation and water pollution

among other environmental problems, contributed to an estimated 22% of reported cases of

diseases and nearly 6% of deaths. It also cost about PHP14 billion (US$ 287 million) per year in

lost income and medical expenses in the country.24

The Pharmaceutical and Healthcare Association of the Philippines (PHAP) reported that based

on reports from their members, respiratory-related market movement in the country increased

21 HEI Special Report 17: HEI Panel on the Health Effects of Traffic -Related Air Pollution, 2010. Traffic-Related Air Pollution: A critical Review of

the Literature on Emissions, Exposure, and Health Effects. HEI Boston, Massachusetts, USA22Department of Health. 2011.23Estanislao, Manapat, Pabila, et.al. 2011. Respiratory Disease and Varying PM2.5 and PM10 Concentrations in Metro Manila from 2000-2007..24 WHO, 2011. Philippines Country Profile 2011. http://www.wpro.who.int/countries/phl/26PHLpro2011_finaldraft.pdf

http://www.wpro.who.int/countries/phl/26PHLpro2011_finaldraft.pdfhttp://www.wpro.who.int/countries/phl/26PHLpro2011_finaldraft.pdfhttp://www.wpro.who.int/countries/phl/26PHLpro2011_finaldraft.pdfhttp://www.wpro.who.int/countries/phl/26PHLpro2011_finaldraft.pdf


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by 9.39% in 2011 at PHP 14.983 billionas compared to 2010 figures at PHP13.697 billion. Both

figures are more than double of the 2000 figures at PHP5.939 Billion. The relationship of the

medicine market with air pollution impacts on health however have not been studied to date.

4.2. Impacts on Agriculture

Air pollution especially ozone has been known to affect agricultural yield of some crops such as

rice25, tomato and pumpkin.26In some Asian countries, crop yield has already decreased by

between 5 and 35%. Studies estimate that the yield of rice, wheat, and legumes – Asia’s staplecrops—will decrease even more as ozone production is expected to increase rapidly.27 In thePhilippines, rice and corn are common agricultural produce that could be affected by air

pollution.

There are no existing studies in the country to date on the correlation of air pollution and

agricultural yield but this report looked into the yield trends of rice and corn. Rice and corn yield

for 2011 were one of or the highest since 2000. Corn yield fluctuated and grew very slowly

(Figure 26) while rice yield had a more stable slow growth for the same period (Figure 27).

Figure 26. Corn Yield in tons per hectare (2000-2011)Source: Bureau of Agricultural Statistics

25 Mauzerall, Denise. The Adverse Impact of Surface Ozone on Agricultural Crops. 2002

http://www.giss.nasa.gov/meetings/pollution2002/present/4_mauzerall.pdf 26http://cleanairinitiative.org/portal/system/files/articles-60278_presentation.pdf 27http://www.sei-international.org/mediamanager/documents/Publications/Climate/food_security_ozone_climate_policybrief.pdf

0.00

0.50

1.00

1.50

2.00

2.50

3.00

3.50

2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011

http://www.giss.nasa.gov/meetings/pollution2002/present/4_mauzerall.pdfhttp://www.giss.nasa.gov/meetings/pollution2002/present/4_mauzerall.pdfhttp://cleanairinitiative.org/portal/system/files/articles-60278_presentation.pdfhttp://cleanairinitiative.org/portal/system/files/articles-60278_presentation.pdfhttp://cleanairinitiative.org/portal/system/files/articles-60278_presentation.pdfhttp://www.sei-international.org/mediamanager/documents/Publications/Climate/food_security_ozone_climate_policybrief.pdfhttp://www.sei-international.org/mediamanager/documents/Publications/Climate/food_security_ozone_climate_policybrief.pdfhttp://www.sei-international.org/mediamanager/documents/Publications/Climate/food_security_ozone_climate_policybrief.pdfhttp://www.sei-international.org/mediamanager/documents/Publications/Climate/food_security_ozone_climate_policybrief.pdfhttp://cleanairinitiative.org/portal/system/files/articles-60278_presentation.pdfhttp://www.giss.nasa.gov/meetings/pollution2002/present/4_mauzerall.pdf


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Figure 27. Rice Yield in tons per hectare (2000-2011)Source: Bureau of Agricultural Statistics

4.3. Other Impacts

Episodic pollution causing poor visibility has been an issue of concern during the New Year’scelebrations (Figure 28). For many years now, the Manila Observatory has also been

conducting special air quality monitoring activities (for PM10 and PM2.5) around Metro Manila to

measure the effect of fireworks and firecrackers on ambient air.

0.00

0.50

1.00

1.50

2.00

2.50

3.00

3.50

4.00

4.50

2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011


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Figure 28. Poor Visibility at 9 a.m. on 1 January 2012 (courtesy of Abby Favis)

PM2.5 levels during New Year ’s Eve (sampled between 12PM on 31 December to 12 PM on 1January) often exceeded 24-hour WHO and USEPA guidelines (Error! Not a valid bookmark self-

reference.). The Philippines does not have any ambient air quality standard on PM 2.5. 30 out of

50 samples collected were “Hazardous to Health” (>210 µg/m 3) based on the USEPA Air QualityIndex for PM2.5 while samples from the outskirts of Metro Manila were deemed “Unhealthy forthe General Population”.

Figure 29. New Year PM2.5 Concentrations (2003-2012)Source: Manila Observatory, 2012


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Table 8 compares TSP monitoring data from New Year’s celebrations in 2011 and in 2012. IntheNew Year’s Eve of 2011, only 6 out of 9 stations in Metro Manila exceeded the guideline valuesbut in New Year’s Eve of 2012, all of the stations exceeded the same guideline values.

The EMB reported that the significant increase in TSP levels between 2011 and 2012 was

aggravated by prevailing weather conditions in NCR before and after the 2012 New Year’sCelebration. They observed that unfavourable weather conditions such as low ambient

temperature, low wind velocity, low hanging clouds (fogs), and others triggered the air pollution

episode that eventually contributed to poor visibility, which in turn resulted in the cancellation,

diversion or delay of flights (Table 9). While there are no available cost estimates to monetize

the cost of flight cancelations, diversions and delays to airlines and airports, these have also

caused inconveniences for the passengers and their well-wishers.

Table 8. TSP levels during New Year (2011 & 2012)

STATION1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9

µg/Nm3

New Year 2011 430 130 206 185 252 350 289 281 361

New Year 2012 540 205 421 363 415 469 832 630 424

% Increase from 2011 to2012

125 157 204 196 164 134 287 224 117

TSP 24-hour guideline value is 230 µg/Nm3 Data is based on average values for monitoring conducted within 6 days before and after 31 Decemberand 1 January

Table 9. Number of Flights Affected by Poor Visibility (New Year 2011 & 2012)

NAIATerminal

2010-2011 2011-2012Cancelled Diverted Delayed Cancelled Diverted Delayed

I 0 0 6 0 0 0II 7 0 19 0 0 90III N/A N/A N/A 23 4 289

Source: Manila International Airports Authority (MIAA)

Despite availability of long-term air quality monitoring data during the days leading to or after the

New Year’s eve, there has yet to be a study that correlates firecrackers, air quality and healthand other impacts in the country. The existing air quality monitoring only covers particulate

concentrations but no research yet on levels of heavy metal concentrations potentially affected

by heavy metal components of fireworks. The special episodic monitoring is also limited to NewYear’s Eve and none during special events which use fireworks and firecrackers like Lunar NewYear or Pyrolympics.


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5. AIR QUALITY MANAGEMENT

The Department of Environment and Natural Resources (DENR) through the EMB,is the lead

agency in the implementation and enforcement of RA 8749. Other departments share in this

mandate through the regulation of sector activities or products affecting air quality. These

include the Department of Energy (DOE), Department of Transportation and Communication(DOTC), Department of Trade and Industry (DTI), and the Department of Interior and Local

Government (DILG). The Department of Science and Technology (DOST) provides research

and development (R&D) support in various areas. As mandated by RA 8749, local government

units play an important role in the management and maintenance of air quality within their

territorial jurisdiction. Through the years, international development organizations and civil

societies have made significant contribution in attaining milestones for the improvement of air

quality in the country.

This section will provide an overview of the achievements and challenges in addressing

pollution from different sources – categorized according to stationary, mobile and area sources.In some instances, the challenges areas for improvement may be highlighted in boxes for easyreference when they are tackled in the Recommendations Section, otherwise these are

integrated in the main text.

5.1. Ambient Air Quality Management

5.1.1. Air Quality Guideline Values and Standards

The Clean Air Act established the National Ambient Air Quality Guideline Values (NAAQGV) to

protect public health and safety, and general welfare. These were based on the

USEnvironmental Protection Agency, European Union, World Health Organization (WHO) airquality guidelines or standards applicable at that time RA 8749 was drafted and adopted. WHO

guidelines are designed to offer guidance in reducing the health impacts of air pollution, to

inform policymakers, and to provide appropriate targets for a broad range of policy options for

air quality management in different parts of the world.28

Table 10. Comparison of Philippine NAAQGV and WHO Air Quality Guidelines

Pollutant Average Time NAAQGVa WHO Guidelinesa

PM10 24-hour 150 50

Annual 60 20

PM2.5

24-hour - 25

Annual - 10

TSP24-hour 230 -

Annual 90 -

NO2 1-hour - 20024-hour 150 -

Annual - 40

28 World Health Organization. 2006. WHO Air quality guidelines: particulate matter, ozone, nitrogen dioxide and sulfur dioxide


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Pollutant Average Time NAAQGVa WHO Guidelinesa

SO2

10-minute - 5001-hour - -24-hour 180 20

Annual 80 -

O3 1-hour 140 -8-hour 60 10024-hour - -

CO 1-hour 35,000 30,0008-hour 10,000 10,000

Pb3-month 1.5 -

Annual 1.0 0.5aValues with unit µg/Nm3, except for CO

The WHO introduced the concept of Interim Targets in its 2006 Revision of Ambient Air QualityGuidelines to provide the principle of continuous air quality improvement. In other countries, thestandards are promulgated years in advance but may be for implementation at a later stage,

allowing different sectors enough time to prepare for implementation. The Philippines mayreview its standards and consider updating of the guideline values within such or similarframework.

5.1.2. Airshed Management

Airsheds are designated areas with similar climate, weather, meteorology and topology which

affect the interchange and diffusion of pollutants in the atmosphere. They are also areas which

share common interest or face similar development programs, prospects or problems. 29 As of

2011, there are 20 airsheds established in the Philippines. Table 11provides more details on

each airshed.

Activities under the airsheds include meeting with multi-stakeholders per airshed, broadeningthe regular ambient air monitoring areas in the airshed, providing updates/briefing of issues

related to air quality management, rendering of briefing of tasks and roles of new members of

the governing board, and conducting awareness-raising on the importance of air quality

management to the public.

A key challenge to maximizing the activities of and benefits from airshed management is the

lack of technical assistance and capacity which c

denr air quality status report 2010-2011

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