THE SULTANATE OF DELHI

THE SLAVE DYNASTY (1206-1290)

• Muhammad of Ghur left his Indian dominions in the care of his trusted former slave, Qutb-ud-din Aibak.

• On Muhammad's death, Qutb-ud-din severed his ties with Ghazni and independently founded a new dynasty, generally referred to as the 'mameluks' or slave dynasty.

• The title is actually a misnomer as three dynasties ruled over Delhi during the period 1206 to 1290.

• The founders of these dynasties were Qutb-ud-din Aibak, Iltutmish and Balban who did not descend from a common ancestor. Only the founders of these dynasties, and no other member, had been slaves in their early career.

QUTB-UD-DIN AIBAK (1206-1210)

• Aibak received title of Sultan of Delhi from Ghiyas-ud-din Mahmud, nephew and successor of Muhammad of Ghur.

• He strengthened his position by political matrimonial alliances.

• He was a pious Muslim and his devotion to Islam is known by the two mosques, Quwwat-ud-Islam and Arhai Din Ka Jhonpara which he built at Delhi and Ajmer respectively.

• He also began the construction of the celebrated Qutb Minar.

• He was known as ‘lakk bakhsh’ or 'giver of lakhs'.

• He died in 1210, from the effects of a fall from his horse while playing polo.

ILTUTMISH (1210-1236)

• full name…Shams-ud-din Iltutmish…Aibak's son-in-Iaw• faced the challenge of Qutb-ud-din Aibak's incompetent son, Aram

Shah and defeated him in 1211 and made himself secure as the Sultan.

• On his accession to the throne he had to face many difficulties. But Iltutmish proved himself equal to the situation. One by one he defeated all rivals, and was honoured with the patent of investiture from the Caliph of Baghdad in 1229.

• It was in the reign of Iltutmish that Chengiz Khan, the Mongol leader, threatened to attack the infant empire. But Iltutmish overcame the situation by refusing to give any shelter to the Khwarizm ruler, Jalal-ud-din whose empire had been attacked by Chi Khan.

• Before his death he had consolidated his empire and provided it with a compact monarchy.

• To his military abilities he added a fine taste of arts and letters.• He completed the structure of the famous Qutb Minar (1232), in

honour of the famous saint, Khwaja Qutb-ud-din Bakhtiyar Kaki. • He was the first ruler to adopt a monetary standard the silver

'tanka', the ancestor d modem rupee.• He further organised the iqtas, the civil administration and the

army, which was now centrally recruited and paid.

Chengiz Khanborn Temujin, was the founder and Great Khan of the Mongol Empire, which became the largest contiguous empire in history after his demise. He came to power by uniting many of the nomadic tribes of northeast Asia

RAZIYA SULTAN (1236-1240)

• Iltutmish nomii …his daughter, Raziya as his successor but the nobles of court disregarded his wishes and placed his son, Ruk-din Firoz Shah, on the throne.

• The new ruler was totally worthless and was soon set aside in favour of Raziya Begum. She assumed the title of Sultan.

• She revised the and reformed the abuses of the government. But nothing could reconcile turbulent Turki chiefs of the court the rule of a woman .

• During the reign of Iltutmish…leading Turks had formed into a 'college of forty'.

• Raziya firmness and desire to exercise power directly did not please these nobles.

• Also, she offended the nobles by preference for an Abyssinian slave named Jamal-ul –Din Yakut, who was given the important office of superintendent of the stables

• Historians, however, do not believe t was any personal intimacy between Raziya and Yakut.

• Raziya was the only woman who ever sat on the throne of Delhi.

• She was murdered in 1240 near Kaithal.

first and the only lady to sit on the throne of Delhi.

GHIYAS-UD-DIN BALBAN (1286-1287)

• Court intrigue continued till Balban finally ascended the throne. However, from 1246 onwards, Balban began to dominate Delhi, first as one of the Chahalgani Turks, and gradually rising to the post of Lord Chamberlain. Meanwhile, a line of successors-Bahram Shah, Masud, Nasir-ud-din Mahmud (in 1246) along with vice-regents followed the death of Raziya.

• Balban got his daughter married to Nasir-ud-din in 1249, thus strengthening his position. At that time he was assigned the post of naib-i-mamlakat and the title of Ulugh Khan.

• The power of the state was legally transferred to him. But Balban’s position was not secure. He lost his post in the court intrigues got it back only in 1254.

• Nasir-ud-din died suddenly in 1265- some historians say he was poisoned by Balban- and Balban ascended the throne in 1266 as Nasir-ud-din had no child .

• 1246-1287 : age of Balban coz of d dominant role he played at delhi • Checked d anarchical tendencies of the Turkish nobles…he broke d pwr of

‘college of Forty’ • Liberal patron of Persian Literature …showed special favor to Amir

Khusrau…called d ‘ Parrot of India’ • His palace known as Red Palace LANDMARKS OF BALBAN’S RULE Putting forward the Iranian “Divine Right Theory’ of kingship- declaring the

Sultan as representative of god on earth. Introduction of the practice if sijda in whch ppl wer reqred to kneel n tuch d

ground with their head to greet the sultan. End of influence of Turkhan-i-Chahalgani or Chalisa. Abolition of the post of naik to give the Sultan control over the entire

admnistration

DIVINE-RIGHT THEORY OF KINGSHIPa political and religious doctrine of royal and political legitimacy. It asserts that a monarch is subject to no earthly authority, deriving the right to rule directly from the will of God. The king is thus not subject to the will of his people, the aristocracy, or any other estate of the realm, including (in the view of some, especially in Protestant countries) the Church. According to this doctrine, only God can judge an unjust king. The doctrine implies that any attempt to depose the king or to restrict his powers runs contrary to the will of God and may constitute a sacrilegious act.

The Khilji dynasty(1290-1320)

• Khaljis were of Turkish origin…had become Afghan in their customs n social traditions…regarded as Afghans in India

Jalal ud din Khilji (1290-1296)

• During his region…Mongols embraced Islam n settled down near delhi…converts came to be known as the ‘ New Muslims’

• Invasion of Devagiri in 1294 by his nephew n son-in-law Ali Gurshasp or Ala-ud-din Khalji

• 1st sultan of Delhi who put forward d view..state shud be based on d willing support of d governed…d state shud look aftr d welfare of its subjects

Ala-ud-din Khilji(1296-1316)

• Ulugh khan n Nusrat Khan: his generals..defeated the ruler Raja Karan..province of Gujrat..firstly he married the Raja’s wife ..kamla Devi…secondly Kafur …hindu slave who was captured…conqueror of decan for d sultan

• Conquered Ranthambhor, Chittor n Malwa • Conquest of Deccan: his able general Malik Kafur • Deal with Mongol..Qutlugh Khwaja n defeated him..• Great administrator..efficient spy system…heavy taxation..standing army recruited n paid by d state • Daag..practice of branding horses..• Market regulation: ..to provide essential commodities at reasonable rates to raise resources for

making cash payment to army..• Pvt hoarding of grain..was not allowed..• Check on market..2 officers … diwani –riyasat n shaha-i-mandi• Open market called the sarai adi• Set aside the supremacy of the Ulema • He was illiterate..patron of learning n art…Amir Khusrau n Mir Hasan Dehlvi enjoyed his patron..• Built new city called Siri..also buit the Jamait Khana Masjid at dargah of Nizam-ud-din Auliya..and Alai

Darwaza near the famous Qutb Minar

THE TUGHLAQ DYNASTY (1320-1412)

• Though 'Tughlaq' is a personal name (not referring to any tribe or family), it is customary to use the name 'Tughlaq' to denote an entire dynasty. The Tughlaqs provided three competent rulers-Ghiyas-ud-din, Muhammad-bin- Tughlaq and Firuz Shah Tughlaq.

GHIYAS-UD-DIN TUGHLAQ (1320-1325)

• restored order everywhere. • built a strong fort called Tughlaqabad near Delhi and

strengthened the defences of the northwestern frontier to guard against the recurring danger of Mongol inroads.

• conquered Warangal and put down a revolt in Bengal• By 1324, the Sultanate's power reached up to Madurai. • Ghiyas-ud-din died in 1325, after a fall from a high-raised

pavilion.• Historians opine that his death was due to sabotage

arranged by his son, Juna Khan.

MUHAMMAD-BIN- TUGHLAQ (1325-1351)

• Juna Khan, better known as Muhammad-bin-Tughlaq, ascended the throne on the death of his father, Ghiyas-ud-din. • tried to introduce many administrative reforms…failed due to his impatience and lack of judgment. to improve d revenue department (1326-1327). ordered the compilation of a register of revenue n expenditure of the provinces of his kingdom to increase taxation in the Doab with a view to augment his resources. This step was unpopular with the people and the famine which had occurred at that time added fuel to the fire. The

step had to be withdrawn in face of a revolt. agricultural improvement :Muhammad-bin-Tughlaq had advanced ideas about agricultural improvement and he

approached it in a scientific way. He created an agricultural department called diwan-i-kohi. Its main objective was to bring the uncultivated land under

cultivation by giving direct financial support from the state treasury. But it failed on account of the Sultan's faulty method of giving effect to it.

• Another important political measure which he undertook was the transfer of the capital from Delhi to Devagiri, which was renamed Daulatabad. This move caused a lot of human suffering. The reasons for the transfer were:

to have a centrally located capital; it was not near the north-west frontier which was constantly under Mongol attacks; to establish stability in the Deccan which was a recent conquest; to cement his relations with the people of the South which he found was a rich region.

MUHAMMAD-BIN- TUGHLAQ (1325-1351)

• Ibn Batutah says that Muhamrnad-bin-Tughlaq was disgusted with the population of Delhi and thus wanted to punish them. But most of the historians do not agree with Ibn Batutah.

• carried out several monetary experiments and has been called a 'Prince of Moneyers'. In 1329-30…ordered vast quantities of copper coins to be made with the same value as silver coins…idea failed as he had done nothing to curb its private and unauthorised issue and thus every house became a mint.

• He led expeditions to conquer Khorasan and Quarajal. But both of these proved a failure.

• was cruel but generous, religious but free from bigotry, proud but merciful..he is called a 'Mixture of Opposites'.

• A learned man, he knew both Arabic and Persian. ..at home with philosophy, astronomy, logic and math ematics..a good calligrapher.

• He built the fortress of Adilabad and the city of Jahanpanah. He main tained good relations with foreigners, and received an envoy from the Chinese ruler, Toghan TImur (1341), who carne to seek permission to rebuild Buddhist temples in the Himalayan region which were destroyed during the Quarajal expedition.

• He, in turn, sent Ibn Batutah to the Chinese emperor in 1347.• Ibn Batutah… a Moorish traveller. ..carne to India in 1333 and was

appointed chief qazi of Delhi by Muhamrnad bin-Tughlaq.• He has left an invaluable account of Muhammad-bin-Tughlaq's reign.

In his old age, Ibn Batutah recorded his adventures in a book called Safarnamah.

• In 1334, Madurai and then Warangal broke free of the Sultanate. In 1336, Vijayanagar and in 1347, the Bahmani kingdoms were founded.

Ibn Battuta… was a Muslim Moroccan explorer, known for his extensive travels, accounts of which were published in the Rihla Over a period of thirty years, he visited most of the known Islamic world as well as many non-Muslim lands; his journeys including trips to North Africa, the Horn of Africa, West Africa, Southern Europe and Eastern Europe in the West, and to the Middle East, South Asia,Central Asia, Southeast Asia and China in the East, a distance surpassing threefold his near-contemporary Marco Polo. Ibn Battuta is considered one of the greatest travelers of all time. He journeyed more than 75,000 miles (121,000 km), a figure unsurpassed by any individual explorer until the coming of the Steam Age some 450 years later.

FIRUZ SHAH TUGHLAQ (1351-1388)

• was born in 1309….was Muhammad's cousin…was at Thatta when Muhammad-bin-Tughlaq breathed his last in 1351. He was chosen the Sultan by the nobles.

• was of a merciful and pious disposition, and he preferred peace to the glories of conquest. He was a true friend of the peasants and he cancelled the loans which had been advanced by his predecessor.

• He reduced taxation to the limits prescribed by the Quran.• Agriculture was developed by the reclamation of waste lands and by providing

irrigation facilities. • Firuz mitigated the severity of the criminal law by abolishing torture and

mutilation as forms of punishment. • other measures included d establishment of a charitable department in Delhi

(diwan-i-khairat). • Firuz reintroduced the system of jagirs or grant of land with its revenue to his

military officers in lieu of cash salaries. He decreed hereditary succession to iqta.

FIRUZ SHAH TUGHLAQ (1351-1388)

• was an enthusiastic builder and is famous for his enlightened public works. .built a new capital at Delhi and named it Firuzabad.

• Its ruins are the Kotla Firuz Shah.• founded the cities of Hissar, Fatehabad, Firuzpur and Jaunpur. • constructed the Yamuna canal to supply water to the cities of Firuzpur and Hissar. …built the Kali Masjid and Lal

Gumbad. • He had two of Asoka's pillars brought to Delhi; one from Khizrabad and the other from Meerut. • Barani and Asif wrote noteworthy historical works in his reign. • Firuz Shah himself authored the Fatuhat-i-Firuz Shahi. • He got several Sanskrit works translated into Persian.• Firuz is also credited with organising the institution of slavery into a system. He took special care to maintain and

educate the slaves, and utilise their services as soldiers, bodyguards and artisans• Firuz declared his principle of levying taxes strictly according to the Shariat. As such, he insisted on the payment of

jaziya by all non-Muslims. • He was the first Muslim sultan to strictly impose jaziya on the brahmans who had so far been allowed to escape the tax. • Firuz was intolerant towards non Muslims especially in his later years; within the Muslim community, Firuz accepted

only the Sunnis not the Shias or Ismailis. He is reported to have demolished Hindu temples. He is also supposed to have publicly burnt a brahman for preaching to Muslims.

• He got the painted murals in his own palaces erased.• Firuz Tughlaq is largely held responsible for the down fall of the Tughlaq dynasty. • His revival of the jagir system and establishment of a slave system proved ruinous for the kingdom. • On top of this, his intolerant religious policy alienated the Hindus and Shias. His death was followed by succession wars

and only a small area around Delhi remained with the Tughlaqs.

THE SAYYID DYNASTY (1414-1450)

• After Mahmud Tughlaq, Delhi remained without a kin two years.

• Then Khizr Khan, the viceroy of Timur, assumed the throne in 1414. Khizr Khan was a Sayyid and dynasty is called the Sayyid dynasty.

• The four rulers dynasty neither assumed the title of sultan nor struck in their names.

• The last ruler Ala-ud-din Alam Shah gave up the kingdom to BahIol Lodi, the Afghan governor Punjab, in 1451. Thus began the rule of the Lodis.

THE LODI DYNASTY (1451-1526)

The Lodi dynasty was the first Afghan or Pathan by in India.

BAHLOL LODl (1451-1489)

• The founder of dynasty was an Afghan noble. • A good soldier and a of simple habits, he

reduced the turbulent chiefs of the provinces to submission and infused some vigour inl government.

• The most important event of his reign was, conquest of Jaunpur.

SIKANDAR LODI (1489-1517)

• On BahIol's deal second son, Nizam Khan, ascended the throne u/n title of Sikandar Shah Lodi.

• He conquered Bihar and Tirhut• He transferred the capital from Delhi to Agra, a city he founded. • Sikandar was the most capable monarch…His administration was strict and

impartial• He organised an efficient system of espionage. • In religion matters, however, he was a bigot and an uncompromising enemy

of Hinduism. He sacked the temples of Mathura, converted the buildings to Muslim uses.

• He demolish famous Jwalamukhi temple at Nagarkot. He charged jaziya and pilgrim's tax from the Hindus with severity.

• he is also considered a patron of scholars and philosophers and he got many Sanskrit works translated into Persian

IBRAHIM LODI (1517-1526)

• On Sikandar's death… eldest son, Ibrahim, became the Sultan. • He asserted absolute power of the sultan and often insulted

the nobles. Some of these nobles turned against him. • There many revolts during his reign. At last Daulat Khan Lodi

the governor of Punjab, invited Babur, the king of Kabul to overthrow Ibrahim.

• Babur seized the opportunity n inflicted a crushing defeat on Ibrahim Lodi in d Battle of Panipat in 1526.

• Ibrahim was killed in the and with him the Delhi Sultanate came to an end

DISINTEGRATION OF THE SULTANATE:

• The Delhi Sultanate lasted for 320 years. The causes decline of the Sultanate were:

the inherent weakness of the system of government; a rule depending upon thE of the sword was bound to disintegrate under the weak rulers;

the actions of Muhammad-bin-Tughl later the appeasement acts of Firuz Shah hasten catastrophe;

the invasion of Timur dealt a terri blow to the stability of the empire;

Ibrahim Lodi proved be a foolish, vainglorious prince whose rule became intolerable even to his own kinsmen;

the general character of the nobility had degenerated, for wealth and brought on the attendant evils of debauchery and corruption;

the lack of a clear-cut succession policy created problems.

TIMUR'S INVASION (1398-99) Amir Timur or Timurlane was a mighty conqueror of Central Asia. His capital was at Samarqand. He invaded India in 1398 during the reign of Mahmud Tughlaq. He occupied Delhi on December 18, 1398 and remained there for 15 days.Delhi was sacked and plundered.The Tughlaq empire could never recover from such a terrible blow and came to an end in 1412.

ADMINISTRATION UNDER THE SULTANATE

• IQTA SYSTEM : iqtadari..unique type of land distribution and administrative system evolved during the Sultanate period… the whole empire was divided into several large and small tracts of land, called the iqtas, which were assigned to nobles,

officers and soldiers for the purpose of administration and revenue collection. The iqtas were transferable, i.e., the holders of iqtas-iqtadars-were transferred from one region to an other every three to

four years. It means that the grant of iqta did not imply a right to the land. It was just an administrative unit. The iqtas could be big (whole province) or small. The assignees of bigger iqtas-known as muqti or wali-had dual obligation, tax collection and administration. They

collected revenue from their iqta, defrayed their own expenses, paid the troops maintained by them and sent the bawazil (sur plus) to the Centre. Their accounts were checked by the royal auditors of the dilwan-i-lOizarat.

The holders of small iqtas were individual troopers. They had no administrative responsibilities. They appropriated, for their personal use, the land revenue collected by them. In return, when the central government called them for service or inspection, they had to be present with horses and arms.

Muhammad of Ghur was the first to introduce the iqta system in India, but it was lltutmish who gave it an institutional form.

The iqtadari system witnessed numerous changes during the Sultanate period. Initially, iqta was a revenue-yielding piece of land which was assigned in lieu of salary. However, during Firuz Shah Tughlaq's reign, it became hereditary.

The government of the Delhi sultans was a theocracy in the sense that the ruler was subject to the Shariat, the Islamic law. The sultans were head of state, not religion, but their duty was to observe the Shariat in matters of state. The Sultan was an autocrat and his will was law, though he considered himself the deputy of the Khalifa.

The Sultans of Delhi did not follow any law of succession. The choice of the sultan depended largely on the decisions of nobles. The organization of the government was feudal in character. The provinces were mostly military fiefs entrusted to the charge of nobles. sultan …the chief law-giver and the final court of appeal n commander-in-chief of the military forces…had a council of trusted advisers, called majlis-i-khaiwat which he consulted on important occasions but he was not bound to accept its decision. The business of the government was organised in several departments.

ADMINISTRATION UNDER THE SULTANATE

• The wazir was the chief minister of the state. He was in charge of revenue and finance, and controlled the other departments. His office was known as the dilwan-i-wazarat.

• The next important department was diwan-i-arz headed by ariz-i-mumalik, who was responsible for the recruitment, payment and inspection of troops.

• The diwan-i-insha headed by dahir-i-mumalik managed the royal correspondence. • Religious matters and endowments were dealt with by the diwan-i-rasalat headed by sadr-us sudur • The sadr-us-sudur enforced the Islamic rules and regulations, and supervised charity and pious foundations.• In the 13th century, the Delhi Sultanate was divided into a number of military regions, called iqtas. The provinces were

also called iqtas. Each province was under a mukti or wali. During the reign of Ala-ud-din Khalji, three types of provinces existed. Muktis or walis were responsible for law and order and collection of taxes in their iqtas or provinces. They were also responsible for implementing the decision of the courts, providing encouragement to trade and commerce,and managing judicial administration.

• During the Sultanate period, many officials were recruited in the provinces for collecting revenue. These officials included nazir and lOakuf. Besides, sahib-i-diwan or khlwaja maintained accounts of the provinces and sent them to the central administration.

• Each province was divided into a number of shiqs which were under the officials called shiqdars. The shiqdar was responsible for maintaining law and order in their areas. There was also an official called kotwal at the shiq level. The demarcation of duties between shiqdars and katwais isonot very clear.

• Each shiq was divided into a number of parganas, groups of hundred villages. The chaudhari was the head of a pargana. A mushrif was in charge of accounts and revenue at the pargana level.

• The village was the smallest unit of administration. The functioning and administration remained basically the same as it had existed during the pre-Turkish phase. Khat, muqaddam and patwari were the main village functionaries.

LAW AND ORDER

• The head of the judicial department was the chief qazi, who was styled as qazi-ul-qazat.

• He was responsible for the enforcement of Islamic law. • He was aided by muftis who expounded the Quranic law.• Every town had a qazi who was appointed by the Central

government in consultation with the qazi-ul-qazat. • The task of maintaining peace and order rested with the official

known as the kotwal aided by the muhatsib who was a censor of public morals.

• Amir-i-dad ws responsible for apprehending criminals. • However, at village level, the panchayats

- settled disputes and arranged for policing their areas through local watchmen known as chaukidars.

REVENUE POLICY

• In their fiscal policy, the sultans were guided by the Hanafi school of Sunni jurists. The revenue of the state was derived mainly from:

the zakat or religious tax levied upon well-to-do Muslims only; kharaj or tax on gross produce of lands of the non-Muslims; kham or the state's share of one-fifth of the spoils of the war; the ushraf or tax on gross produce of lands held by Muslims; and jaziya or poll-tax imposed upon adult non-Muslim males.• There were other taxes also like house tax, grazing tax, and octroi duties on

income from mines, forests, etc.• The land revenue was the most important source of revenue. It was derived

from the khalisa or crown lands and iqtas or territories granted to officers. • The rate of assessment was unscientific and arbitrary• During Ala-ud-din Khalji's time it was fixed at 50 per cent of the gross produce. • The bulk of the revenue was spent on the expenditure of the army and the

royal household.

THE ARMY

• The Delhi sultans maintained a strong army consisting of cavalry, infantry and elephants. There were four classes of army in the Sultanate era:

Royal army It was the standing army of the Sultan.The Royal army was a heterogeneous body consisting of Turks of various types such as the Tajiks, Persians, Mongols, Afghans, Abyssinians, Indian Muslims and the Hindus. The Royal army was called hashm-i-qalha, and was appointed by the central government.

Provincial governments' army The provincial governors and nobles had to maintain their own army. When needed, the provincial soldiers were handed over to the diwan-i-arij or the central army department.

Holy War army It consisted of Muslim soldiers who joined the army as volunteers to fight wars against the Hindus. These soldiers did not get any regular pay, but were given a share out of the booty captured during war.

War time army It consisted of the soldiers recruited on a temporary 'basis in times of war. • Cavalry was the backbone of the Sultanate's military strength. The army was organised

on the decimal pattern.

SOCIAL CONDITIONS

• The Muslim divines called ulemas were the authorit exponents of Islamic theology. They were a highly i ential body. Ala-ud-din Khalji was the first Sultan checked their pretensions and disregarded their ad Another such sultan was Muhammad-bin-Tughlaq earned the wrath of the ulemas. The office of the ulema not hereditary in nature or confined to anyone rac country.

• The lower classes of the Muslim society consisted soldiers, clerks and men employed in trade and Hindu did not enjoy luxurious living though they had all privileges of being citizens of the land. They could ris the highest position by way of merit or even through royal preference.

• Slavery was a popular institution. Slaves were} both by the Sultan and the nobles. However, the Sultan could grant manumission to any slave, so that he cea sed to be a slave from then on. Sultans such as Qutb-ud -Aibak, lltutrnish and Balban were slaves at the beginn of their careers.

• The Hindus formed the vast majority of the populati Their society was caste-ridden. Owing to the Turkish tendency of seeking beautiful Hindu girls for wives, child marriage became common as a form of protection difference in the standards of living between the wealt few and the many poor was very wide. The extortion demands of rulers like Ala-ud-din Khalji and Muhamma bin- Tughlaq reduced the peasants to abject misery.

Amir Khusrau aptly observed, "Every pearl in the royal cro" is but the crystallised drop of blood fallen from the tearl eyes of the poor peasant.“

• Seclusion of women became a general practice and marriage of widows was unthinkable. Sati and jauhar we also prevalent during this period.

• Ibn Batutah was amaze to see Hindus drowning themselves in the Ganga to attai a holy jal samadlzi. The Hindus were also becoming ver superstitious.

•During the rule of the Delhi Sultans, the Muslim nobility was a powerful political force. Under weak rulers power and ambitions rose high and even threatened stability of the government. The Muslim nobility period was not homogeneous in character, but composed of various nationalities such as Turk, Afghan, Abyssl Egyptian and Arab. As such it lacked effective solidarity to stand against the despotism of the sultan. A hereditary aristocracy is a stabilising force, but the Muslim no was a disruptive force which very, often menaced integrity of the state.

ECONOMIC CONDITIONS

• The chief sources of India's wealth were agriculture, trade and commerce.

• The sultans were alive to the importana of agriculture and most of them promoted it by providing facilities such as irrigation.

• The agricultural production was surplus which made the necessities of life cheap.

• There Was widespread commerce, both internal and external. Bengal was the main centre for trade with China and South-easi Asia.

• The Sultans also encouraged various industries such as silk-weaving and manufacture of golden tissues.

• India's imports were horses and luxury items. • The balance of trade was always in India's favour. India now had contact

with Europe also. Ports along the east coast of Africa provided an additional market.

ARCHITECTURE

• 1206 to 1550 …referred to as the Pathan phase of Indo-Islamic architecture.

• assimilation of different styles and elements to create a new one is well represented by the architecture of the Sultanate period.

• Many of the characteristics of Hindu architecture are obvious in the buildings of the Muslim rulers, for though designed by Muslim architects to suit the requirements of their religious ideas, Hindu craftsmen actually built them.

• The new features brought by the Turkish conquerors were: (i) the dome; (ii) lofty towers; (iii) the true arch unsupported by beam; and (iv) the vault.

• These showed advanced mathematical knowledge and engineering skill. They also brought with them an expert knowledge of the use of concrete and mortar, which had hitherto been little used in India.

• The sultans of Delhi were liberal patrons of architecture and they erected numerous splendid edifices.

• The best examples of the architecture of the Ilbari Turk dynasty (the Slave dynasty) are the Quwwatul-Islam mosque built by Qutb-ud-din in Delhi during 1191-98 and the Qutb Minar (1206-36) near the mosque which was founded by Qutb-ud-din and completed by Iltutmish.

• The Qutb Minar is striking for its symmetry and ornament. The Arhai-Din ka Jhonpra at Ajmer, started by Qutb-ud-din, has a beautiful prayer hall, an exquisitely carved mihrab of white marble and a decorative arch screen. The first example of true or voussoired arch is said to be the tomb of Ghiyas-ud-din Balban in Mehrauli

ARCHITECTURE

• In the Khalji period…the usage of voussoired arch and dome was established• The monuments show a rich decorative character. Famous examples are the

tomb of Hazrat Nizamuddin Aulia at Delhi, whose style of beam-on-brackets under the entrance arch of the central chamber came to be almost regularly employed in subsequent pre-Mughal buildings, and the Alai Darwaza built by Ala-ud-din Khalji in Delhi.

• The Tughlaq buildings show stark simplicity and sobriety-probably indicating less financial resources as well as a puritanical taste.

• The buildings are characterised by sloping walls and a dark appearance. • Typical of the Tuglaq style is the thick and battered or sloping walls, squinch

arches for supporting domes, multi-domed roofs and taper ing minaret-like buttresses or supports at the external angles of buildings.

• The trabeate and arcuate are combined. Some notable Tughlaq monuments are the fort at Tughlaqabad, the tomb of Ghiyas-ud-din Tughlaq which marked a new phase in Indo-Islamic architecture by serving as a model for later tombs, the fort of Adilabad, Firuz Shah's capital at Delhi, now known as Kotla Firuz Shahi, and a group of buildings at Hauz Khas in Delhi with Firuz Shah's tomb.

• The Sayyid period was too short to allow construction of elaborate buildings. But the tombs of this period display some characteristics such as use of blue-enamelled tiles, the lotus-motif covering the dome and free use of guldastas. These features had much influence on the architectural style of the subsequent period.

• The resources available to the Lodis were limited, and this is clearly indicated by the hard and bare tombs they erected. But some of their buildings show an elegance, with the use of enamelled tiles-a technique introduced from Persia. A certain amount of imagination and a bold diversity of design is also displayed in the Lodi architecture. Another characteristic was the use of double domes.

• One building of note is the Moth Ki Masjid, erected by the prime minister of Sikandar Lodi.

PAINTING

• The Sultanate painting shows an attempt to arrive at a fusion of the newly-introduced Persian and Indian traditional styles.

• The illustrated manuscript of Ni'mat Namat of the early 16th century, for instance, shows the fusion of Persian and Jaina styles.

• Many of the illus trated manuscripts show the influence of Jain and Rajasthani painting styles.

• Out of the Sultanate painting tradition emerged three major sub-styles-Mughal, Rajasthani and Deccani schools, all of which displayed an individuality while bearing some common elements.

MUSIC

• When the Turks came to India, they brought with them a number of new musical instruments, such as the rabab and sarangi, and new musical modes and regulations.

• Most of the Sultanate rulers also patronised music. • Balban encouraged the setting up of a society of dancers and musicians. • Ala-ud-din Khalji patronised musicians such as Gopal Nayak and Amir

Khusrau, who were conferred the title of nayak, or master. Khusrau introduced many Perso-Arabic ragas such as aiman, ghora, sanam, iman, zilb and sazagiri. He is also credited with having invented the sitar.

• Though music was banned in Ghiyas-ud-din's time, it was encouraged by Muhammad Tughlaq.

• Firuz Shah TugWaq is said to have been very fond of music.• He got the Indian classical work Ragadarpan translated into Persian.

LITERATURE

• Though primarily a military people, the Turko-Afghan rulers patronised learning. • Amir Khusrau, the first Muslim writer to make use of Hindi words and adopt Indian

themes, enjoyed the patronage of Balban, Ala ud-din Khalji and Ghiyas-ud-din Tughlaq. • His famous works are Khazain-ul-Futuh, Miftah-ul-Futuh, Tughlaqnama, Tarikh-i-Alai, Laila

Majnu, Aina-Sikandari, Nuh-Siphir, and Hasht Bihist.• Among the writers of historical works, the most important are Amir Hasan Dehlvi, Minhaj-us-Siraj, the author of Tabaqat-i-Nasiri, Zia-ud-din Barani, the author of Tabaqat-i-Firuz Shahi, and Shams-i-siraj Afif who wrote Tarikh-i-Firuz Shahi.• Vernacular literature got an impetus with the Bhakti movement. • Ramananda and Kabir wrote poems in Hindi. • Mira Bai composed her songs in Brajabhasa. • The verses of Guru Nanak enriched the Punjabi language.• A good example of the union of Hindu and Islamic cultures was the evolution of the Urdu

language (originally called zaban-i-hindavi). • Amir Khusrau is considered the first Muslim to have used this language for the expression

of his poetic ideas.

RELIGIOUS MOVEMENTS

The Sufi Movement:• Mystics, later called Sufis,had risen in Islam at a very early stage. • The Sufis propounded the idea of union with God through love and not prayer, ritual, and fasts. • The Sufis had 12 orders or silsilahs, generally led by prominent mystics who lived in a khanqah. • The link between the teacher or pir or shaikh and his disciples or murids was a vital part of the Sufi system. • The Sufi orders were divided into two: Ba-shara, or those who followed the Islamic law such as the Chishti and Suhrawardi; and Be-shara, or those who were not bound by Islamic law.• The Chishti order was established in India by Khwaja Muin-ud-din Chishti. • The Chishti order was popular in and around Delhi and the Doab. • The most famous Chishti saints were Nizamuddin Auliya and Nasiruddin Chiragh-i-Dehlvi.• Of the Suhrawardi saints, Shaikh Shihabuddin Suhrawardi and Hamid-ud-din Nagori are the most famous. • Like the Chishtis, the Suhrawardis did not believe in leading a life of poverty. • The Suhrawardis were popular in Sindh. T• he Firdausi order was popular in Bihar. • The Sufis made themselves popular by adopting musical recitations called sama. • Qawwali was another form of singing at gatherings.

RELIGIOUS MOVEMENTS

The Bhakti Movement:• Among the Hindus, the Bhakti movement preached religion which was non-ritual istic and open to all without any

distinction of caste or creed.• Its cardinal principle was bhakti or unflinching devotion to a personal God whose Grace was the only means of attaining

salvation. • The real development of Bhakti took place in South India between the seventh and the twelfth centuries.• The Saiva nayanars and Vaishnavite alvars were its first propagators. • Among the Bhakti saints were the Maharashtrians Namadeva and Ramananda, who were followers of Ramanuja.

Ramananda's disciples included Ravidas, who was a cobbler; Kabir, who was a weaver; Sena, a barber; and Sadhana who was a butcher.

• In the period under consideration, the Sufis influenced the Bhakti movement in ideas of love and brotherhood.• Among those who were most critical of the existing social order and made a strong plea for Hindu-Muslim unity were

Kabir (1440-1518) and Nanak (1469-1539). • Kabir emphasised the unity of God and expressed his ideas in dohas or couplets. His followers were called Kabirpanthis. • Guru Nanak laid great emphasis on the purity of character and conduct as the first condition of approaching God and

the need of a guru for guidance.• He advocated a middle path in which spiritual life could be combined with the duties of the householder. I• n course of time, the ideas of Nanak gave birth to a new creed called Sikhism“• There also developed, in North India, the worship of Rama and Krishna, incarnations of God Vishnu. • The greatest apostle of Krishna was Chaitanya in the east. • He popularised musical gatherings or kirtans as a special form of mystic experience in which the outside world

disappeared by dwelling on God's name. • He is regarded as an incarnation of Sri Krishna.