degradated land reclamation using shelter belts in texa1

8/4/2019 Degradated Land Reclamation Using Shelter Belts in Texa1

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Author John M Jeapes Confidential Page 1 02/10/2011

Mitigating the effects of Drought using Pongamia shelterbelts in Texas

Drought is a special type of disaster because its occurrence does notrequire evacuation of an area, nor does it constitute an immediate threat tolife or property. People are not suddenly rendered homeless or without foodand clothing. The basic effect of a drought is economic hardship, but it does,in the end, resemble other types of disasters in that victims can be deprived

of their livelihoods and communities can suffer economic decline.Ranchers in some parts of Texas are selling off their herds, because the

once-fertile grasslands that feed them are gone. Three-quarters of Texas isin extreme or exceptional drought. Lubbock has had less than an inch of rainthis year. Houston has had just over an inch-and-a-half in three months,about the same as the Sahara desert. Wildfires are ravaging the tinder drylandscape, scorching more than two million acres since January, and to makematters worse, this is typically the Texas rainy season. "We should be seeingrainfall, so if we don't get rainfall in the next several months, the impact isgoing to be devastating," said Victor Murphy, meteorologist at the NationalWeather Service.

For thousands of ranchers across Texas, the only choice is to sell theirherds or go broke trying to feed them although the drought in cattle countrycould actually bring a short-term benefit to consumers. Beef prices havebeen running at near record highs, but with so many ranchers now forced tosell off their herds, the price of beef is expected to drop.

This document contains information confidential about John Jeapes and Abundant Biofuels Corporation . It is providedfor the sole purpose of allowing the reader to evaluate the material here within. In consideration, on the receipt of thisdocument, the recipient agrees to maintain such information in the strictest confidence. The recipient agrees not toreproduce or otherwise disclose the information to any person outside the group directly responsible for evaluation of itscontents unless the information is publicly known through no fault of either party. All references to forecasts are estimatesonly and cannot be guaranteed


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Already auction prices in Texas have fallen 15 cents from 80 to 65 centsper pound and could continue down through summer. But with the U.S. cattlepopulation already at a 50-year low, lower prices won't last. Preliminaryestimates of Texas drought losses have reached $1.2 billion and are expectedto escalate higher this year as livestock producers continue to sell off herdsand crop conditions deteriorate, according to economists with the TexasAgriLife Extension Service.

Victor Murphy, who manages the National Weather Service's SouthernRegion Climate Services Program, said that last month marked the driestMarch recorded in Texas since record-keeping began 117 years ago, and itwas the third-driest March on record in New Mexico, and the 10th-driest seenin Oklahoma.

The wildfires now scorching Texas may be the most visible side-effect of the drought. As of yesterday, the state's Forest Service was struggling tocontain four major fires that covered more than half a million acres. ButMurphy said stream flow, soil moisture and groundwater supplies are alsobelow normal in several Southern states, including Texas, despite a generallywet summer in 2010.

Economists disagree about the precise figures, with the estimates varyingby billions, but most agree that the ongoing Texas drought, which began inNovember and has caused more than 10,000 wildfires across the state, willcost between $1.5 billion and $3 billion in crop and cattle losses alone.

Drought is a complex physical and social process of widespreadsignificance. Although drought sometimes affects the entire State, due to thevarying climatic conditions within the State, it frequently is just a regionalproblem. Despite the frequency and economic damage caused by drought,

the term drought remains difficult to define, and there are no universallyaccepted parameters because Drought, unlike floods, is not a distinct event,in that it has no clearly defined beginning or end, thereby complicatingattempts to define it.

The definition of drought varies with its impact on individuals, thusinfluencing the perception of drought depends upon whom it affects, and howthey are affected. While the effects of drought on the environment cannot beavoided, in many cases the adverse effects caused by human intervention indrought prone areas, can be reversed.

The impacts of drought on the State of Texas are many and varied, anddrought can affect a wide range of economic, environmental, and socialconcerns. The relative vulnerability, or risk exposure, of these activities tothe effects of drought, usually depends on the types of water demands.

How these demands are met, and the corresponding water suppliesThis document contains information confidential about John Jeapes and Abundant Biofuels Corporation . It is provided

for the sole purpose of allowing the reader to evaluate the material here within. In consideration, on the receipt of thisdocument, the recipient agrees to maintain such information in the strictest confidence. The recipient agrees not toreproduce or otherwise disclose the information to any person outside the group directly responsible for evaluation of itscontents unless the information is publicly known through no fault of either party. All references to forecasts are estimatesonly and cannot be guaranteed


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available to meet future demands, requires action today. Tomorrow may betoo late because those human, and natural resource activities which dependsolely on rainfall and soil moisture, such as dry-land farming, ranching, andsome environmental water uses, are most at risk from drought.Unfortunately these activities can suffer discernible effects, even withdroughts of short duration.

Also at relatively high risk, but somewhat less exposed, are the systemsthat depend upon stream flows, such as run-of-the-river irrigation, aquatic,wetland, riparian environmental communities and recreational water uses.

This document is an initiative by The Abundant Biofuels Corporation todevelop and promote the growing of Pongamia to assist in the restorationand reclamation of drought affected habitats on both private and public landin Texas.

Our goal is:

1. To conduct and facilitate research to improve land management,to reduce the impact of extreme events such as drought, and

2. To meet the needs of adapting to short-term, or long-termmeasures to combat climate changes and weather variations.

We propose to do this by providing an economically viable source of Pongamia plants, and seeds, to both the private and public sector for theestablishment of Shelterbelt Enclosures. Once established, these enclosureswill assist the restoration of native plant communities, and provide increasedyield, by restoring fertility to degraded land.

Productivity and income in agriculture is heavily influenced by climatic

conditions. So any changes in temperature, precipitation, water flows andatmospheric content has a mixture of both positive and negative implicationsfor plant growth, livestock performance and water supply, as well as for soilcharacteristics, pests and diseases.

Thus, given the possible incidence of global climate change, theagricultural industry in Texas is likely to face changing conditions, and maybe at risk for many years ahead.

Any estimation of the effects of climatic change on agriculture is difficultto assess. Agricultural production is influenced in numerous ways by theforces which cause climate change, as well as by the altered climateattributes. Habitat deterioration however, is generally caused by humanand/or animal activity, but it can be augmented by external stresses such asdroughts and the disruption of natural fire patterns.

For example, altered water cycles have resulted in major ecosystemThis document contains information confidential about John Jeapes and Abundant Biofuels Corporation . It is provided



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dysfunctions on some parts of the semi-arid Texas rangelands andovergrazing during the past 250 years, combined with a reduction innaturally occurring fires and frequent droughts, have disrupted the ecologicalprocesses of nutrient cycling, energy flow, plant community dynamics, and inparticular, hydrologic processes. Changes in soil fertility, increased erosionand compaction, have all contribute to decreased water infiltration andincreased run-off, resulting in lower vegetation diversity, reduced surfacecoverage, and lower productivity.

Over time, plant species may lose vigour and die, and as herbaceousbiomass decreases, the bare ground increases and the ecological processesof water, nutrient, and energy cycling are disrupted. This results in lostcapacity and the plant community is unable to maintain itself, so furtherdeterioration occurs.

Once the original native plant communities have been severelydisturbed, and the stable processes have been upset, invader plants soonbecome established. Consequently, the plant community cannot easily, oreconomically, be restored to its original state.

The drivers that lead to these effects on agriculture can be grouped intofive categories:

Temperature - Which affects plants, animals, pests and water supplies. Forexample, temperature alterations directly affect crop growth rates, livestockperformance and appetite, pest incidence and water supplies in soil andreservoirs among other influences.Precipitation - Which alters:

a. The water directly available to crops, b. The stress crops are placed under in drought conditions,

c. The supply of forage for animals, animal production conditions,d. The irrigation water supplies, ande. River flows supporting barge transport, among other items.

Changes in atmospheric CO2, influences:f. The growth of plants by altering the basic fuel for photosynthesis,

as well as,g. The water that plants need as they grow, along with the growth

rates of weeds.

Extreme events influence production conditions such as water supplies,waterborne transport, and ports.

Sea level rise influences ports and waterborne transport but it can alsoinundate productive land.

For more than 20 years, Texas has been actively involved in efforts to



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combat dry-land degradation. State-wide its a pretty grim picture, saidTravis Miller, AgriLife Extension program leader, and its not just Texas; itsNew Mexico, Oklahoma, Louisiana, and parts of Arkansas. Its an exceptionaldrought across a big area. Corn along the Gulf Coast is stunted and tasselling early, Miller said. Its in alot trouble. Were seeing leaves twisting from heat/moisture stress bymidday, and much of the Texas wheat crop has failed as well. Probably in theorder of 50 to 60 percent of the wheat crop wont be harvested, but from anational standpoint, Texas is a minor player in feed grains. But Texastypically plants about half the cotton acreage in the U.S., so a large-scalecrop failure there could have an impact on prices. Cotton is typically plantedlater than corn, and cotton growers ran into dry soil conditions as theplanting window opened. As a result, Miller said, a very small percentage of the total cotton crop, under 20 percent, has been planted to date.

The High Plains is right in the middle of their planting season, they normallyplant up to the first week of June. The dry-land farmers are waiting for rain.The irrigated farmers have spent a lot of money and pumped a lot of water,

and were seeing some planting in irrigated conditions.

But the process of assisting the recovery of the Texas ecosystem, once it hasbeen degraded, damaged, or destroyed, is a holistic process. This not onlyinvolves revegetation, but may also entail the removal of non-native species,the reintroduction of soil biota, (such as invertebrates, insects, and fungi),and the implementation of management strategies that will help the systemfunction in a healthy manner. There can be little doubt that species-rich plantcommunities are more resistant to drought than species-poor plantcommunities, an important attribute in semi-arid habitats. Resilience, or therate of return to pre-drought conditions, is also greater in species-rich

communities because species-rich communities are commonly morebiologically productive than species-poor communities. Increasing stability and water infiltration in the soil surface, initiates repairand maintenance of the damaged processes that enhance plant production,and also protects the soil surface with plants, grass or living vegetation, butdrought remains the biggest environmental problem impeding dry-landdevelopment.

Although there have been many projects and community-based initiatives,that have successfully addressed the problem. Policymakers, administrators,staff, and beneficiaries of programmes to combat or prevent landdegradation, need to draw lessons and learn from successful interventionprogrammes. Either from within their own territories, or from elsewhere, inorder to replicate or transfer them, taking into consideration of course theirnational, local and cultural settings, in order to ensure that they will remainsuccessful.



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National, local and cultural differences, as well as changing circumstancesamong stakeholders, may make it difficult to replicate, or directly transfer,successful intervention programmes into new settings, without properadjustments.

Climate projection is inherently more difficult for a small sub-area of theglobe, than for the globe as a whole. This is particularly true for Texas, thenature of whose climate changes throughout the year. Much of Texas can bedescribed as arid land, occasionally punctuated by floods caused byhurricanes or Gulf Coast moisture but rainfall patterns are unpredictable, anddrought cycles can last for several years, with rainfall averages as low asseveral inches per year.

Under most normal circumstances, Texas can expect two rainfall peaks,which generally occur during May/June and September/October. But planningfor water needs, under the current drought conditions, is anything but easy.Water demands by municipalities, industries, and agricultural irrigatorscontinue to escalate as the population increases.

The amount of water needed in rivers, streams, and coastal bays to supportfish and wildlife habitat is also an important issue. Many local economiesdepend on these flows to provide income through fishing, hunting, andtourism. The wide range of weather conditions that have already hadsignificant impacts on Texas further complicates matters. Partially, becauseof this complexity, climate variations over the past century in Texas do notcorrespond to the climate change expected from global warming, accordingto present day climate change models. Local temperature changes dueentirely to global warming, may, by the middle of this century, becomestrong enough to overwhelm the natural variability. This may lead to averagetemperatures of 4F warmer than those recorded in recent decades.

In the case of precipitation, observed variations over the past century arealready larger than most climate change projections forecast for precipitationchange by mid-century, and this is also unexplained. Thus, it cannot be saidwith any certainty that future precipitation will be more, or less, than thepresent-day precipitation in Texas.

Rangeland degradation may be defined as the loss of utility or potentialutility or the reduction, loss, or change of features of rangeland ecosystem,which cannot be replaced. In general, Texas rangeland degradation implies areduction in the value of the land or its agricultural status.

Rangeland degradation includes a loss of top-soil, a change to a simplefloral/fauna composition, or a transition from one organic form to a lowerorganic form, and a continuous reduction of productivity/biomass of theecosystem. Generally speaking, lower biological diversity exists today indegraded Texas rangeland, but there is still much research work to be doneon this issue.



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Looking at just the ecology, degradation can be treated as a retrogression of an ecosystem, and the recovery of degraded rangeland as secondarysuccession. The difference between degradation and fluctuation can be foundin their temporal scales and resilience, but once rangeland has started todegrade, it is possible to rehabilitate most of it, and thus restore it to a levelof utility if one acts fast enough. Possibly not as good as its original state,but better than it was in its damaged state. However, being able to run morecattle per acre is just one benefit.

By actively planning and managing the grazing, and the recovery of theplants, as opposed to allowing continuous grazing, ruminants become part of the solution rather than a burden to the land.

The dynamic is as follows: the animal chews the grass which stimulatesplant and root growth, and allows sunlight to get through to the growthpoints. Then move the herd on, (in a leisurely way), to find fresher grass, or(with a pounding of hooves) to elude a predator. When domestic livestockare managed to replicate this behaviour on degraded lands, the grassescome back: the deep-rooted plants enrich and aerate the soil and the hoof movements chip away at hardened earth so that seeds can germinate andgrow and water can penetrate.

Rich, aerated soil is productive, it retains water, and, highly significant inenvironmental terms, is a carbon sink. Healthy grasslands represent theecosystem with the highest potential for carbon sequestration of any on theplanet, and grasslands cover more than 45% of the U.S. This has importantimplications for reducing atmospheric CO2. Plus, soil carbon plays a vital rolein sustaining water supplies, which are perilously threatened in much of theWest. Every one percent increase in soil carbon holds an additional 60,000gallons of water per acre, water which infiltrates the ground and replenishesgroundwater sources and springs reappear.

This paper seeks to raise awareness that land degradation in Texas, as aresult of drought, can be prevented, and in some cases reversed.

The author has documented, evaluated, and disseminated information onprojects that have succeeded in the global battle against land degradation,and desertification. This Texas initiative reiterates the recommendation of sustainable development through community participation, exploitation of knowledge, capacity building, awareness raising and replication of thepractices that have been judged best for achieving these goals.

This initiative also aims to foster the communities confidence in theirown abilities to solve land-management problems, and to encourage them totake responsibility for the local environment. But to be considered as asuccess story, any project must be judged on its ability to contribute directlyand substantially to the prevention of land degradation, or to therehabilitation of degraded land.



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It should also address both biophysical and socio-culturaleconomic issues,involve local communities at all stages, have the potential for replicabilityunder similar environmental and socio-economic conditions, and besustainable in the long term.

EXECUTIVE SUMMARY

Today, the worst Texas drought in 44 years is not only damaging thestates wheat crop, it is forcing ranchers to reduce cattle herds, creatingrising demands for U.S. food, and sending grain and meat prices higher.

Texas, the biggest U.S. cattle producer, and second-largest winter-wheatgrower, got just 4.7 inches of rain on average in the five months throughFebruary, the least for the period since 1967. State Climatologist JohnNielsen- Gammon said that more than half the wheat fields and pastureswere rated as poor or very poor condition when assessed on March 20 thisyear.

Dry conditions, extending to Oklahoma, Kansas and Colorado, may cut

crop yields in the U.S., the worlds largest exporter, just as much as toomuch moisture threatens the fields in North Dakota and in Canada. This,after drought in Russia, and floods in Australia, will hurt output, and sentglobal food prices surging. Wheat futures in Chicago are up 50 percent in thepast year, wholesale beef reached a record this week, and the U.S. cattleherd in January was the smallest since 1958.

Were probably already seeing some damage, but in the next couple of weeks, well surely go downhill major if we dont get some rain, said DavidCleavinger, who is irrigating 75 percent of his 1,000 acres (405 hectares) of wheat in Wildorado, Texas. With the prices were seeing, were trying to hold

on, but theres nothing that takes the place of a rainstorm. Cleavinger, 53,has a 3,500-acre farm that includes corn and cotton.

Drought is one of most serious environmental and social-economicproblems in Texas, which has been suffering for a long time. As a result ithas brought about environmental deterioration, and land degradation, whichhave resulted in heavy losses to much of the farming economy.

Things are so serious that surely, now must be the right time to considerprojects which may combat the effects of drought.

According to research into farming practices over the last 20 years, landdegradation is the result of interaction between excessive human activities,and a vulnerable environment. Of course the causes leading to landdegradation and varied, but there are two important factors which can berecognized. What we call the natural factor and human factor.



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The combination of these two factors is one of the major causes of landdegradation, but the human factor is more important than the natural one. Itis possible to combat land degradation in Texas, but only if we can managethe human impacts in the process, because we can do very little to changethe natural impacts.

During the last five decades, the amount of degradated land in Texas hasexpanded. But the methods used to combat land degradation have improvedover time, and some degradated land has been recovered, and it can now beused once again for farming, or as grassland.

However, despite these measures, the amount of degradated land hasactually increased, although the increased amount is rather low whencompared with the expanded areas.

Only in about 10% of degraded land have the current measuresillustrated that land degradation can be controlled. What Texas needs is theconfidence to seek out new ideas and methods, and then take theappropriate action.

Based on personal research, and on the established practice of combatingland degradation, the information to hand suggests that the overall strategicmethod for sustainable development should follow the guiding principle of,

taking prevention first.

Attention should be paid, not only to the recovery of the existingdegradated land, but even more importantly, to the prevention of even moreland degradation. So adopting preventative actions to protect degradedpastureland, and light soil eroded land, means voluntarily enforcingsupervision and monitoring activities, to minimize land degradation resulting

from irrational human activities.Using key affected areas as a basis to promote work in the entire area,

such as undertaking comprehensive management, and promoting recoverywork from the nursery unit to large areas. For combating wind erosion andinduced land degradation, steps should be taken to promote theestablishment of shelterbelts in different locations, and, step by step,increase the area involved.

Combating land degradation should be closely combined with economicdevelopment, and development should be used to promote combating landdegradation. For instance, according to the local eco-environmental featuresfavourable, either for combating land degradation, or favourable foreconomic development, the principle of "protective tree planting, commercialanimal husbandry and self-sufficient farming" should be suggested for thefarming areas experiencing the worst drought.



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Harmonized ecological benefits with social and economic benefits .

When the three benefits are in inconsistency, the need of ecologicalbenefits should be satisfied first, because it concerns not only the overalllong-term benefits, but also the sustainable development of the degradatedarea. The immediate economic benefits should not be taken into account atthe expense of long term environmental benefits.

During the process of large-scale afforestation, and of the reclamation of degraded areas for food production, attention should be paid to the methodsused to prevent the environmental deterioration of the ground water table. InTexas, unpredictable rainfall is a serious challenge, and while some variabilityis easy to work around, long-term droughts seriously impact restorationefforts by killing newly planted seedlings, or transplanted plants.

Keeping in mind that rainfall varies, even within the region, andrestoration techniques that work well along the Gulf Coast may not produceresults further inland, realistically, even the best restoration projects will notduplicate the diversity and plant species composition of the original native

plant communities. Most of these communities will require hundreds, if notthousands, of years to reach their present composition and structure.However, once damaged, their restoration will require some time before theycan function independently. For these reasons, it is important to protect anyremaining trees in Texas.

Although this project suggests that farmers and landowners in Texasshould consider using Pongamia shelterbelts to protect, and help to convertthe land back into productive agricultural land, so enhancing the Statesfood-production capacity, and the creation of new employment opportunities.It has been tried before. In response to the devastating droughts of the

1930s, on July 21, 1934, Pres. Franklin D. Roosevelt instructed the U.S.Forest Service to initiate the Prairie States Forestry Project.

The project's mandate was to plant shelterbelts in six Great Plains statesto protect crops and wildlife from wind, intercept blowing snow and sand, andprovide wood products. Roosevelt secured the funds by executive orderthrough the Works Progress Administration (WPA).

The Forest Service located the project headquarters in Lincoln, Nebraska,and Oklahoma City was the project headquarters for Oklahoma, with districtoffices in Elk City, El Reno, Mangum, and Enid. The original project countieswere Beckham, Custer, Dewey, Ellis, Greer, Harmon, Harper, Jackson, Major,Roger Mills, Washita, Woods, and Woodward, but by 1939 the project addedBeaver, Blaine, Caddo, Canadian, Comanche, Garfield, Kay, Kingfisher, andNoble. On March 18, 1935, the program's first shelterbelt was planted on theH. E. Curtis farm near Mangum.



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Each project was a cooperative venture between the farmer, and thefederal government. Farmers desiring a shelterbelt made application, afterwhich sites were evaluated for suitability. If admitted to the program, thecooperating farmer agreed to furnish land and fencing material, prepare thesite for planting, cultivate the trees, and control rodents. Cultivation reducedcompetition from weeds and grasses, until the trees were able to shade themout. The federal government used WPA crews to build fences, plant trees,and provide technical advice and materials for rodent control.

The shelterbelts varied in length, ranged from 100 to 165 feet wide. Rowswere planted ten feet apart, with tall trees in the centre, flanked by rows of short trees along the sides, and shrubs in the outside rows. Black locust,catalpa, Chinese elm, cottonwood, green ash, hackberry, honey locust,mulberry, Osage orange, pecan, plum, Russian olive, red cedar, and walnutwere planted. But the maximum protection was afforded by the trees whichreached twelve to twenty feet in height.

Some shelterbelts failed, and the land was subsequently ploughed up byfarmers. Failure resulted from drought, grasshopper infestations, and

improper cultivation.

In 1935 the tree survival was 71.5 percent and in 1936, 73.5 percent, butwhen the maintenance was turned over to the farmers in 1937, survival ratesdropped to 62 percent and to 61.3 percent in the following year. However,despite this, when the project closed on June 30, 1942, 145 million trees hadbeen planted in 18,600 miles of shelterbelts in a one-hundred-mile-wide zonefrom Canada to the Brazos River.

I believe we should now encourage farmers and landowners in Texas toonce again establish shelterbelt enclosures on their land using the Pongamia

tree, but with minimum input by the government.Government support should be limited to technical advice through an

extension programme, and the supply of planting materials.

Why Pongamia?

Scientists studying global climate change recognize the importance of vegetation in removing carbon dioxide from the atmosphere, and in localcooling through transpiration, but they have always assumed that plants andtrees first suck the water out of the soil before spewing water vapour backinto the atmosphere. A new study by Todd Dawson, professor of integrativebiology at UC Berkeley, shows that Pongamia trees use water in a muchmore complex way. Their long tap roots transfer rainwater from the surfaceto reservoirs deep underground, and later they redistribute the waterupwards after the rains, to keep the top soil layers moist, therebyaccentuating both carbon uptake and localized atmospheric cooling duringdry periods.



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This effect, which is called transpiration, increases photosynthesis and theevaporation of water from plants by 40 percent in the dry season whenphotosynthesis would otherwise be limited.

This shifting of water by roots has a physiological effect on the plants,letting them pull more carbon dioxide from the atmosphere as they conductmore photosynthesis," said professor Dawson. "Evapotranspiration stayshigher than previously expected during the prolonged dry season, because of the underground reserve of water banked during the wet season by the taproots, just as perspiration cools us off. Increased transpiration by trees inJune and July probably explains why temperatures drop in the Amazon."

This effect changes the way the atmosphere heats and cools, and it will,over time, change the way rain is distributed, professor Dawson noted.

Depending on the extent to which trees redistribute water in the soil, theimpact on global climate could be significant. Trees have long been known tolift water from the soil to great heights, using a principle called hydraulic lift,with energy supplied by the evaporation of water from leaf openings called

stomata.

However, twenty years ago, some small plants were found to do morethan lift water from the soil to the leaves - they also lifted water from deepunderground using their tap roots and deposited it in shallow soil for use at alater time. They reversed the process during the rainy season by pushingwater into storage, deep underground. In 1990, Dawson discovered thatPongamia trees do this most efficiently using their 13m long tap roots, and todate, this so-called hydraulic redistribution has been found in more than 60separate deep rooted plant species.

Earlier this year, Dawson discovered that Pongamia trees, amongstothers, use hydraulic redistribution to maintain the moisture around theirshallow roots during long dry seasons. During the wet season, these plantscan store as much as 10 percent of the annual precipitation as deep as 13meters (43 feet) underground, to be tapped during the dry months. "Thesetrees are using their root system to redistribute water into different soilcompartments," Dawson said. "This allows the trees to sustain water usethroughout the dry season."

The process is a passive one, he noted, driven by chemical potentialgradients, with deep tree roots acting like pipes to allow water to shift aroundmuch faster than it could otherwise percolate through the soil. In manyplants that exhibit hydraulic redistribution, the tap roots are like the part of an iceberg below water. In some cases these roots can reach down morethan 100 times the height of the plant above ground. Such deep roots onlymake sense if their purpose is to redistribute water during the dry season foruse by the plant's shallow roots.



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Dawson suspects that the real reason for keeping the surface soil moist isto make it easier for the plant to take in nutrients. The increased moisture inthe soil created by hydraulic redistribution during the dry season, allows thePongamia to carry on photosynthesis at a higher rate, leading to greatercarbon uptake. This also leads to greater evaporation of water from theleaves, which takes heat with it. Thus, the summer dry-season temperaturesin a Pongamia plantation are cooler than would otherwise be expected.

Drought is one of most serious environmental and social-economicproblems in Texas, which has been suffering for a long time. But any climaticchange from shelterbelt protection would of course be local, rather thanregional. Whilst it is true that no one has yet proven that tree planting andcultivation increases precipitation, and that the theory is at best"problematical," trees do help to control the environment. They do this bymodifying the extremes of heat and cold, and by preventing the evaporationof moisture from the soil.

The effect of growing Pongamia species on arid zone soils

Introduction

Millettia Pinnata is a species of tree in the pea family Fabaceae . Native totropical and temperate Asia, including parts of India, China, Japan, Malaysia,Australia and Pacific islands, it is often known by the synonym Pongamia, butit was moved to the genus Millettia only recently.

The pea family Fabaceae contains around 45 species of trees and shrubsfound in subtropical and tropical regions of the Americas, Africa, WesternAsia, and South Asia.

Not only do they thrive in arid soil but they are also resistant to drought,some developing extremely deep root systems. Their wood is usually hard,dense and durable. Their fruits are pods which may contain large amounts of oil or sugar.

Pongamia tree vegetation, during the course of its establishment, initiatesa series of changes in ecological and soil physico-chemical characteristics.These changes are dependent upon the type of vegetation, the rootingpattern, canopy architecture, type and quantity of litter fall. Also, thenitrogen fixing ability of arboreal vegetation has a great influence on thefertility and moisture status of the soil.

Nair (1984, 1987) documented the effects of trees on soils in differentparts of the world, and he showed that different mechanisms operate inassessing the role of trees in soil productivity. The magnitude of thebeneficial, or the adverse, effects that could be experienced will depend upona number of site specific factors. Moreover, many of the attributes of trees,as compared with annual crops, can only be realised over long periods of time.



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This paper summarises the possible beneficial effects of Pongamia specieson soil productivity parameters in the arid ecosystems of Southern Texas.

Amelioration of soil fertility

One of the advantages commonly attributed to shelterbelts in agro

forestry is the potential for soil fertility improvement through more efficientcycling of nutrients, a better soil moisture regime and a higher activity of soilmicro-organisms. In general, in arid and semi-arid lands, improvement ininherent soil fertility is a slow process. Aggarwal et al . (1976) studied soilfertility changes under a 15 year old stand of Pongamia .

The results showed the highest levels of organic matter and macro andmicro nutrients under P. Millettia , with only levels of iron reduced. This couldbe related to the correlation with higher populations of micro-organismsunder this species rather than in the open field situation. Soils from belowthe leaf litter of the species did not differ in nutritional status.

Singh and Lal (1969) also reported a significant improvement in thefertility status of soils under P. Millettia in arid regions, and attributed thiseffect to variations in litter fall, ground flora and the root systems of this treespecies.

Aggarwal and Kumar (1990) studied the relative availability of nutrientsfrom soil beneath P. Millettia over open field conditions and showed that therelative yield of pearl millet was 2-3 times higher than in the open field soil.The efficiency of applied nitrogen increased from 27% in the open field to46% in soil under P. Millettia . The gradual accumulation of mineral nutrientsby this tree, and the incorporation of these into an enlarged plant-litter-soilnutrient cycle, seems to be the mechanism responsible for this soilenrichment.

The higher content of nitrogen, in relation to organic carbon, seems duepartly to the nitrogen fixed by P. Millettia during the course of its growth(Virginia, 1986) and also due to the higher content of nitrogen in P. Millettialeaf litter. Reviewing the role of nitrogen fixation in MPTS, Dommergues(1987) concluded that the potential direct and ancillary benefits fromnitrogen fixing trees vary greatly, depending on the species, climate, soil andmanagement practices, and suggested selection of tree species which havehigh nitrogen fixing potential which are also adapted to the site conditions.

The review of Juo and Lal (1977) compared the effects of a P. Millettiafallow versus a bush fallow, on selected soil chemical properties on alfisols inwestern Nigeria, and found a significant increase in the cation exchangecapacity and levels of exchangeable calcium and potassium under Fabaceae .Cation-exchange capacity is defined as the degree to which a soil can adsorband exchange cations.



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Cation-a positively charged ion (NH4+, K+, Ca2+, Fe2+, etc...) Anion-anegatively charged ion (NO3-, PO42-, SO42-, etc...)

Soil particles and organic matter have negative charges on theirsurfaces. Mineral cations can adsorb to the negative surface charges or theinorganic and organic soil particles and once adsorbed, these minerals are

not easily lost when the soil is leached by water, and they also provide anutrient reserve available to plant roots. These minerals can then bereplaced, or exchanged by other cations, (i.e., cation exchange), whichsuggests that some tree and shrub species can selectively accumulate certainnutrients, even in soils containing very low amounts of these nutrients, andtherefore such species have an important role to play in agro forestrysystems.

Table 1. Soil fertility under mature stands of P. Millettia and P. Juliflora, andin adjacent open fields on an arid sandy soil.

Species Organicmatter

Nitrogen Macro-nutrients(kg/ha)

Micro-nutrients (ppm)

% N P K Zn Mn Cu Fe

P.Millettia

0.57 0.042 250 22.4 633 0.6 10.0 0.5 0.3

P. Juliflora

0.39 0.033 212 10.3 409 0.5 7.5 0.5 2.6

Open field 0.37 0.020 203 7.7 370 0.2 6.9 0.3 3.0

Table 2. Microbial population (total numbers per g dry surface soil) under 2Pongamia species in an arid sandy soil.

Species Bacteria(x10 5 /g)

Fungi(x10 3 /g)

Actinomycetes(x10 5 /g)

Nitrifying bacteria(MPN/g)

P. Millettia 32 29 16 1.430

P.Juliflora 20 16 10 1.030

Open field 15 10 7 0.450



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Improvement in soil physical conditions

Over time, the growth of MPTS (Multipurpose Tree Species), can also leadto improvements in physical attributes of soil such as infiltration rate, waterholding capacity, and moisture availability through the indirect effects of litter fall, understory growth and root distribution, depending on the speciesand site conditions. Aggarwal et al . (1976) and Gupta and Saxena (1978),studied the effects of trees on soil physical characteristics after 15 yearsgrowth and observed higher moisture content in soils under the canopy of P.Millettia than under P. Juliflora .

This was attributed to relatively higher organic matter content, litter fall,and a deeper root distribution, confirmed by a higher depletion of moisturefrom deeper layers under P. Millettia , compared to the surface spread of lateral roots of P. Juliflora which depleted moisture from shallow soil layers.

Hazra (1989) also reported an increase in field capacity from 14.1% to16.2% and a decrease in bulk density from 1.58 to 1.37 g/cm 3 in soil underthe canopy of P. Millettia as compared to the open field.

Soil conservation

Along with the improvement in soil fertility, soil physical and micro-climatic conditions, the trees play an important role in soil binding processesand the reduction in the eroding action of both water and wind. Gupta et al .(1984) observed a 36% reduction in the magnitude of wind erosion behind aP. Millettia shelterbelt in western Rajasthan. In a 3 month period from Aprilto June, mean soil loss over a 2 year period (1979-80) was 351.2 kg/ha onleeward of the shelterbelt and 546.8 kg/ha in adjacent unprotected soil.

Conclusion

P. Millettia , with its long taproot system, has the potential to improve soilfertility in Texas. Native trees have a lower potential for improving soilconditions because they have a spreading lateral root system, which wouldbe more suitable for the revegetation of wastelands and sand dunes, and notfor use in shelterbelts, nor especially, for arresting sand and soil movement.

In addition to soil improvement, the principal effect of planting Pongamiatrees in Texas is expected to be an increase in the water table.

Why should this be?

Because Pongamia Tap roots are deep seated, they not only store water,

they also mine water for their need, even from a depth of 33feet, withoutcompeting with other crops. Pongamia is also a drought resistant tree, andwhen established it will check the wind and lessen evaporation in theimmediate vicinity.

It also may also "ameliorate the dryness of the atmosphere," whichThis document contains information confidential about John Jeapes and Abundant Biofuels Corporation . It is provided



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suggests that the agricultural land in its vicinity may therefore receive agreater amount of precipitation.

There can be no doubt that drought has brought about environmentaldeterioration and land degradation in Texas, which has caused heavy lossesto the farming economy. Perhaps it is the right time to re-examine the valueof shelterbelt projects using Pongamia as a method of combating the effectsof drought.

Altered water cycles are major ecosystem dysfunctions on semi-aridSouth Texas rangelands. Overgrazing during the past 250 years, combinedwith a reduction in naturally occurring fires and frequent droughts, disruptedthe ecological processes of nutrient cycling, energy flow, plant communitydynamics, and in particular, hydrologic processes.

Changes in soil fertility, increased erosion, and compaction contribute todecreased water infiltration and increased runoff, resulting in lowervegetation diversity, reduced surface coverage, increases in brush, and lowerproductivity.

Over time, plant species may lose vigor and die. As herbaceous biomassdecreases and bare ground increases, ecological processes of water, nutrient,and energy cycling are disrupted. This results in lost capacity for the plantcommunity to maintain itself and further deterioration occurs. After originalplant communities have been severely disturbed, stable processes have beenupset, and invader plants have become established, the plant communitycannot easily or economically be restored to simulate its original state.

According to research into farming practices over the last 100 years, landdegradation mainly results from interaction between excessive human

activities and a vulnerable environment. Thousands of acres of rangeland inSouth Texas have been manipulated with numerous mechanical methods thathave over time negatively impacted soil properties. Root plowing, forexample, is commonly used for brush removal.

In some areas of South Texas where the layer of topsoil is thin, rootploughing can rearrange the soil profile that contains the greatest percentageof the seed bank. This brings clay to the surface which often produces ahard, compacted surface or hard pan, making it difficult for water topenetrate. Because mechanical treatments alter soil properties, historicalmechanical alteration of the habitat should be taken into consideration beforeimplementing restoration efforts.

Overgrazing has also affected South Texas soils. Continuous overuse of rangeland vegetation by too many grazing and browsing animals has led toloss of organic matter, increased soil compaction, and the loss of fertility intoo many areas.

The long-term absence of vegetation caused by this heavy grazingThis document contains information confidential about John Jeapes and Abundant Biofuels Corporation . It is provided



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coupled with drought, has also led to erosion problems in some areas of South Texas. Areas that have undergone extensive erosion have lost viabletopsoil, and they may now require significant soil rebuilding efforts in orderto implement restoration strategies.

A land degradation reversion process can only be realized by a series of land use readjusting measures, and new patterns of pasturage-agricultureinterlacing models. The maintenance of plant health and vigor is critical inthe first two years of any restoration project. So careful management of stocking rates and grazing durations are important considerations, and as ageneral rule, recently reseeded or restored rangeland with the shelterbeltenclosure should not be grazed for a minimum of 2 years. As with allrangeland practices, this period will vary from region to region based onclimatic factors such as annual rainfall and soil type and in some cases, somenewly restored areas may need to be rested as much as 4 years.

Perennial grasses, forbs, and shrubs may need several years to establishroot systems and have enough growth above ground level to withstandremoval by grazing.

Following 2 years of total rest within the shelterbelt enclosure, if the plantcommunity has become established, the area can be grazed, based on asound grazing plan. Stocking rates should be based on the objectives of eachrestoration project.

In this rangeland/farmland interlaced belt, there are generally threemajor types of severely degradated land. Each different type has its owncause of desertification and characteristic fragilities, and needs a specificmodel for transformation.

The emphasis of this document is to provide a basic understanding of thepurpose and processes involved in establishing Pongamia shelterbeltenclosures in Texas. It does not contain suggestions for every property, forevery possible revegetation scenario or plant species native to Texas, nordoes it describe in detail the potential harvest and biodiesel benefits of thePongamia seed. Knowledge regarding the potential of, and the benefits of using Pongamia, will continue to increase over time through theimplementation of restoration strategies and continued experimentation.

I hope this guide serves as a good place to begin.

Status and process of land degradation

Land degradation is recognized as an environmental and social-economicissue, and it attracts attention from all over the world.

Most of the area subject to degradation suffers from high pressureThis document contains information confidential about John Jeapes and Abundant Biofuels Corporation . It is provided



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intensive human impacts.

Viewing the current situation as a whole, the degree of degraded land hasbecome more serious as a direct results of drought which continues toexpand in Texas, stunting crop growth, delaying planting and puttingadditional stress on livestock producers. According to Texas AgriLifeExtension Service personnel, as of March 22 2011, the U.S. Drought Monitorranked 29 percent of Texas as being under an extreme drought, and morethan another 30 percent as being under severe drought. Overall, according tothe monitor, 98 percent of the state is abnormally dry.

According to the statistics of areas with different land use purposes,human impact, the limited rainfall, and dynamic wind have all played a keyrole during periods of drought. The challenges are still great, but they differin nature in the various communities. Measures to combat and prevent landdegradation have been used for years, but new challenges, such as theincreasing water scarcity and aridity, and the loss of the vegetative cover arestill emerging.

The semi-arid areas of Texas, characterized by low and high variablerainfall, high evapotranspiration, strong wind and low humidity, are becomingmore and more hostile environments for the survival of people, animals andplants. A great deal of the productive land in the region has now becomemarginal pasture, which is at risk of becoming irreversibly degraded if brought into cultivation. There can be no doubt that the region is faced withserious environmental challenges, and these could easily translate into moredegradation and desertification, if timely action is not initiated.

The available evidence shows that the design and implementation of newand successful programmes is possible, and they can provide wide-ranging

benefits. However, this does not imply that these programmes are cost-effective, are easily replicable, or can simply be adapted to fit successfully innew settings. Nonetheless, the most successful programmes have threemajor elements in common that are worthy of replication, and each cancontribute to the success of other intervention programmes:

(a) They have all relied on, and encouraged the use of, local inputsand resources, including staff and technologies which have been active for along time and have provided regular benefits to their stakeholders (expertise,trust, stability and entitlements);

(b) They have all encouraged coordinated action by groups andconcerned communities at the local level; by fully involving them in thedecision-making and implementation process (collective action andparticipatory approach);

(c) They have all relied on the strong, well-planned and well-targetedThis document contains information confidential about John Jeapes and Abundant Biofuels Corporation . It is provided



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support of public institutions, which have worked in partnership withconcerned stakeholders or beneficiaries (aspects easily replicable).

THE OBJECTIVES OF THE PONGAMIA SHELTERBELT PROJECT

This project suggests using shelterbelts of Pongamia for the protection of arable lands against drought, winds, and hard pan, the provision of water forirrigation, improvement of rangeland, and the enhancement of livingstandards for the communities living in the area.

BACKGROUND TO THE PROJECT

The project area is where the most serious drought covers parts of Texas,including all of the Colorado River basin, where the month of March ended asone of the driest on record, and most locations recorded less than a quarterinch of rain.

In Austin, March rainfall was less than a tenth of an inch. This ranked asthe 4th driest March since 1856. In addition, rainfall between October 1st

and mid-April has generally been less than one-third of normal.

With very little rain and frequent periods of strong winds, droughtconditions continue to strengthen. According to the National Drought Monitor,on April 21 almost all of the Colorado River basin was in extreme drought.Much of Bastrop, Lee and Fayette Counties are in exceptional drought, themost severe drought category. This is the largest and most severeclassification of drought across the Colorado basin since September 2009.

Along with the lack of rain, the temperatures this spring have been muchwarmer than normal. As a result, soil moisture is very low, stock pond levels

are dropping fast, and evaporation rates are high. This extended period of very dry weather has also seriously impacted

inflows to the Highland Lakes. Over the last six months, inflows have beenlower than the average monthly inflows for a six-month period during theworst drought on record, which occurred between 1947 and 1957. While incompany with lakes Travis and Buchanan, the regions water supplyreservoirs, are below average for this time of year, although they are stillhigher than they were at the start of summer in the most recent extremedrought year of 2009.

Long-range weather forecasts indicate rainfall will likely remain belownormal through spring and early summer as the storm track generally staysto the north of Texas. With little rain in the forecast, drought conditions willlikely grow worse in the coming weeks.

Habitat deterioration is generally caused by human and/or animalThis document contains information confidential about John Jeapes and Abundant Biofuels Corporation . It is provided



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activity, and can be augmented by external stresses such as droughts ordisruption of natural fire patterns by human activities. Altered water cyclesare major ecosystem dysfunctions on semi-arid Texas rangelands.

Overgrazing during the past 100 years, combined with a reduction innaturally occurring fires and frequent droughts, disrupted the ecologicalprocesses of nutrient cycling, energy flow, plant community dynamics, and inparticular, hydrologic processes. Changes in soil fertility, increased erosion,and compaction contribute to decreased water infiltration and increasedrunoff, resulting in lower vegetation diversity, reduced surface coverage,increases in brush and lower productivity.

Over time, plant species may lose vigor and die. As herbaceous biomassdecreases and bare ground increases, ecological processes of water, nutrient,and energy cycling are disrupted. This results in lost capacity for the plantcommunity to maintain itself and further deterioration occurs.

After original plant communities have been severely disturbed, stableprocesses have been upset, and invader plants have become established, the

plant community cannot easily or economically be restored to simulate itsoriginal state. The Society for Ecological Restoration defines restoration as

the process of assisting the recovery of an ecosystem that has beendegraded, damaged, or destroyed. Restoration is a holistic process whichnot only involves revegetation, but also entails the removal of non-nativespecies, the reintroduction of soil biota (such as invertebrates, insects, andfungi), and the implementation of management strategies that will help thesystem function in a healthy manner.

Increasing stability and water infiltration in the soil surface initiates repairand maintenance of damaged processes that enhance plant production and

protect the soil surface with plant litter or living vegetation.It is evident from the above analyses that land degradation in Texas has

led to a loss of productive land, which is affecting sustainable economicdevelopment in farming-pastoral, pastoral, dry farming areas. Things are notlooking pretty, and there seems to be no way of alleviating the alreadysevere drought gripping Central Texas.

Although the current dry spell is nowhere near as severe as it was twoyears ago, the weather expert with the Lower Colorado River Authority saysthings do not look good and he does not expect more rain soon in the Austinarea. If you look at the national drought position in March, it shows thatdrought persisted across much of the region, and will do so over the nextthree months," LCRA Meteorologist Bob Rose says. Looking ahead to nextsummer, we may have to look to the tropics once again to see the possibilityof some relief.

Early indications are that we will see some above-normal season of This document contains information confidential about John Jeapes and Abundant Biofuels Corporation . It is provided



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activity in the tropics, but mostly dry conditions will continue well into springbut temperatures averaging a little bit above normal. Pockets of Texas arealready in much worse condition. That includes parts of west Texas and anarea east of Giddings and near College Station.

The US Government attaches great importance to the various ways of combating land degradation and substantial work has already been done andcertain achievements and experience have been gained.

But the time has come to evaluate, not only the status of, but also theproblems that exist in combating land degradation in the USA. We also needto analyze examples, and summarize experiences currently found incombating land degradation in different types and forms and under differentconditions, so as to provide a scientific basis for the formulation of actionprograms.

To tackle land degradation problems in a comprehensive way, eco-environmental assessment of construction projects should be strengthened,and work on ecological demonstration plots aimed at sustainable

development in land degradation areas, should be carried out now.Generally, problems such as inadequate tree areas, grassland degradation,land desertification, etc. still exist in Texas. Therefore a further strengtheningof eco-environmental and biodiversity is still an important task confrontingthe government.

Concerns about conservation of tropical rainforests and other well-knownregions of the world are widely publicized, yet the conservation of a region of inestimable biological wealth lies relatively unrecognized on the backdoorstep of North America. This region lies south of a line from Port OConnorto Victoria, northwest to San Antonio and west to Del Rio. Known collectively

as South Texas this is one of the most biologically diverse regions in theworld. In fact, it is termed hyper-diverse by many ecologists, and isconsidered by some as one of the last great habitats remaining intact inNorth America.

The diversity of native South Texas habitats ranges from the fine sands of the Coastal Sand Plain to the caliche ridges of the Bordas Escarpment; andfrom the riparian woodlands of the Nueces River to the shrub lands of the RioGrande Plains.

This diversity supports a wide array of wildlife species, ranging frommigratory birds such as sandhill cranes and piping plovers, to morepermanent residents such as ocelots and white-tailed deer. Native plants areintrinsic to the overall resilience and stability of this unique region, and are acritical component of the numerous food and energy cycles that maintain thisbiological diversity.

About Invasive Species and Non-native PlantsThis document contains information confidential about John Jeapes and Abundant Biofuels Corporation . It is provided



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An invasive species is defined as a species that is:

1) Non-native (or alien) to the ecosystem under consideration and2) Whose introduction causes or is likely to cause economic or

environmental harm or harm to human health (definition from ExecutiveOrder 13112).

A plant may be invasive under certain soil and/or environmentalconditions, but not others.

Establishment and restoration effort using Pongamia in support of nativeSouth Texas plants will help maintain the regions important phytogeneticresources and the ecosystems that are part of South Texas biologicalheritage.

It is worth repeating that generally, species-rich plant communities aremore resistant to drought than species-poor plant communities, an importantattribute in semiarid habitats. Resilience, or rate of return to pre-droughtconditions, is also greater for more species-rich communities.

Species-rich communities are commonly more biologically productive thanspecies-poor communities.

Benefits of growing Pongamia in South Texas

With a calorific value of 4600 kcal per kg, Pongam is commonly used asfuel wood. Its wood is beautifully grained and medium to coarse textured.However, it is not durable because it is susceptible to insect attack, andtends to split when sawn. Thus the wood is not considered a quality timber.The wood is generally used for cabinet making, cart wheels, posts,

agricultural implements, tool handles and combs.The Pongamia tree is drought-resistant and insect-resistant, with a deep

tap root that grows down to more than 32.5 feet where water exists. Even indessert-like terrains, it flourishes in the most desolate places - but thats notall. The seeds that are produced by the trees can be pressed into oil that canbe used to fuel farm machinery and even cars and trucks.

Because the production of bio-fuels is a relatively new development, mostinformation is gathered by a literature study of academic papers, technicalreports and Internet websites, all of which contain what can best bedescribed as hype. But in most developed areas of the world, includingTexas, the primary source of energy is still fossil energy from oil and gas. Infact most farmers still use large amounts of fossil fuels to run their farmmachinery and irrigation systems. Some estimates suggest that about 17%of our fossil energy expenditure supports our food system.

Energy is also used to manufacture the fertilizers and pesticides neededThis document contains information confidential about John Jeapes and Abundant Biofuels Corporation . It is provided



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by farmers, as well as powering food processing and food transport systems.

But fossils fuels are a finite resource and once gone, their supplies cannotbe replenished. Numerous studies indicate that the mighty U.S. has onlyabout 20 years of oil reserves, and about 30 years of natural gas reservesleft, given current levels of use. But a steadily increasing population, such asthat currently being experienced in

Texas, places even greater demands on limited supplies, while requiringmore and more oil to be imported. According to the U.S. Department of Energy, about 60% of the current US oil supply is being imported, and nearly100% will be imported by 2015 and in our lifetime, and certainly in ourchildren's, we will witness the depletion of the worlds oil reserves.

As US domestic oil supplies grow increasingly scarce, the price of gasoline and associated products will inevitably rise. Then, both the high costand the limited availability of oil and other fossil fuels will restrict all humanactivities, including the expansion of intensive agriculture. Farmers will needto produce even more food to feed the growing population, but will lack the

energy resources to expand the agriculture systems.

A possible solution for these problems is of course to produce renewablealternatives for fossil fuels, such as bio-fuels. Finding non-edible oils,particularly from tree crops, which could relate more closely to the price of crude, is essential and having extensively researched the subject.

I am satisfied that Pongamia pinnata is not only the most viable andsustainable species, but it is also the one with the greatest potential andmost environmentally sound characteristics. In particular, being a legume, itcan contribute significant amounts of nitrogen to the soils on an ongoing

basis reducing the fertilizer ongoing costs. Not only that, the seedcakeremaining after the pressing process can be used as cattle feed, or as anorganic fertilizer for crops.

The thick yellow-orange to brown oil which can be extracted from theseeds can be used for biodiesel. Yields of 25% of volume are possible using amechanical expeller. However, crushers yield an average of 20%. The oil hasa bitter taste and a disagreeable aroma, thus it is not considered edible. InIndia the oil is used as a fuel for cooking and lamps. It can also be used as alubricant, water-paint binder, or as a pesticide, and it is used in soap makingand tanning industries. The oil is also known to have value in medicine forthe treatment of rheumatism and it can be used as well as a treatment forhuman and animal skin diseases. It is effective in enhancing thepigmentation of skin affected by leucoderma or scabies.

Fodder and feed.This document contains information confidential about John Jeapes and Abundant Biofuels Corporation . It is provided



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Opinions vary on the usefulness of Pongamia as fodder. Troup (GOI1983) reports that the leaves can be eaten by cattle and are readilyconsumed by goats. However, in many areas of India where Pongamia isgrown, the leaves are not commonly eaten by farm animals. Its fodder valueis greatest in arid regions. According to Singh (1982) the leaves contain 43%dry matter, 18% crude protein, 62% neutral detergent fiber, 40% aciddetergent fiber, and in vitro dry matter digestibility of 50%. The presscake,remaining when oil is extracted from the seeds can best be used as poultryfeed, but when it is applied to the soil, it has pesticidal value, particularlyagainst nematodes.

Other uses include the incorporation of leaves and the presscake intosoils to improve fertility. Dried leaves can also be used as an insect repellentin grain stores and string and rope can be made from the bark fiber.

In the Far East and India, Pongam is often planted in homesteads as ashade or ornamental tree, and it is used in Brisbane Australia in avenueplantings along roadsides and canals. When planted as a shade or

ornamental tree, branch pruning may be necessary to obtain a trunk of appropriate height. It is a preferred species for controlling soil erosion andbinding sand dunes because of its dense network of lateral roots.

Its root, bark, leaf, sap, and flower also have medicinal properties.

SilviculturePongam is best established by seeds being raised in nursery to become

seedlings which can be transplanted. Propagation by branch cuttings and rootsuckers is also possible, but not recommended. In peninsular India, theseeding season is April to June, and the seed yield per tree ranges from

about 10 kg to more than 50 kg. There are 1500-1700 seeds per kg. Seeds,which require no treatment before sowing, remain viable for about a yearwhen stored in air-tight containers. The seed germinates within two weeks of sowing and the seedlings attain a height of 25-30 cm in their first growingseason.

Transplanting to the field should occur at the beginning of the next rainyseason when the seedlings are 60 cm in height (GOI 1983).

Seedlings have large root systems so the soil should be retained aroundthe roots during transplanting. Seedling survival and growth benefit fromannual weed control for the first three years after transplanting.

The spacing suggested in shelterbelt enclosure plantings is about 8 mbetween plants, although in block plantings, the spacing can range from 2mx 2m to 5m x 5 m.

Pongam seedlings withstand shade very well and can be interplantedThis document contains information confidential about John Jeapes and Abundant Biofuels Corporation . It is provided



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within an existing tree stand. This species can be regenerated by coppicemanagement and because it tolerates moderate levels of salinity, Pongam isan ideal candidate for saline soil reclamation.

The extraordinary diversity of plants, wildlife, and habitats is partlydriven by an environment that is quite variable across the Texas landscape.But vegetation in Texas must be exceptionally resilient to survive extremeheat and low rainfall, and yet be able to make a noticeable comeback, evenafter experiencing years of severe drought. Across the region, the annualrainfall averages 24.5 inches, but fluctuations can be dramatic. Between theyears 1900 and 1983, the driest year was 1917, when the regional rainfallaverage was 9.5 inches.

The wettest year was only 2 years later in 1919, however, when theregional average was 40.8 inches. Overall, 36% were drought years and 34%were wet years.

The Texas climate is subtropical sub-humid-to-semi-arid, with hightemperatures, high evapotranspiration rates, but very few killing frosts. The

average annual air temperature in Texas exceeds 70F, which is comparableto southern Florida. July temperatures commonly exceed 98F, and theseextremely warm temperatures have a profound impact on the ecology of plants and animals. Pongamia is noted for its shade potential, and it can playa keystone role in the regions ecology by moderating the thermalenvironment beneath their canopies. This, in turn, will provide protectivecover for many plant and animal species in the region.

Trees alter the environment in which we live by moderating climate,improving air quality, conserving water, and harbouring wildlife. Climatecontrol is obtained by planting Pongamia which, when fully grown, will

moderate the effects of sun, wind, and rain. Radiant energy from the sun willbe absorbed, or deflected, by the leaves in the summer, and is filtered by thebranches of this deciduous tree in winter. The air is cooler in the shade of trees, and the ground is not exposed to direct sunlight.

Vegetation cover is an important factor to keep ecosystem in normalcondition. Normal vegetation cover can protect soil, moisture, and animalseffectively.

However, when vegetation cover is under pressure, and degradation isalready taking place, the loss of soil, moisture and animal populations is onlya matter of time. A degraded ecosystem quickly loses its many microhabitatsand their inhabitants, but regeneration of vegetation within a pongamiashelterbelt enclosure is comparatively easy, and once regenerated, newvegetation helps in the propagation of both the plants and animals alike.

Wind speed and direction can be affected by trees, and the moreThis document contains information confidential about John Jeapes and Abundant Biofuels Corporation . It is provided



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compact the foliage on an individual tree, or group of trees, the greater theinfluence of the windbreak. The downward fall of rain, sleet, and hail isinitially absorbed, or deflected by the trees, which nevertheless do providesome protection for native plants.

As has already been shown, trees intercept water and store some of itdeep underground; this reduces storm runoff and the possibility of flooding.Dew and frost are less common under trees, because less radiant energy isreleased from the soil in those areas at night.

The temperature in the vicinity of a Pongamia tree is noticeably coolerthan that away from the tree, so, the larger the Pongamia shelter belt is, thegreater the cooling effect. By using Pongamia we will be able to moderate theheat-island effect caused by the dry earth.

Air quality can be improved through the use of trees, shrubs, and turf.Leaves filter the air by removing dust and other particulates. Rain thenwashes the pollutants to the ground. The leaves absorb carbon dioxide fromthe air to form carbohydrates that are used later in the plants structure and

function. In this process, leaves also absorb other air pollutants, such asozone, carbon monoxide, and sulfur dioxideand give off oxygen.

Pongamia is a legume tree that grows to about 1525 meters (1580 ft)in height with a large canopy which spreads equally wide. It may bedeciduous for short periods. The leaves are a soft, shin

degradated land reclamation using shelter belts in texa1

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