Marine Policy 43 (2014) 164–173

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Marine Policy

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Defining and quantifying China's ocean economy

Rui Zhao a,b,n, Stephen Hynes c, Guang Shun He a

a National Marine Data and Information Service, Tianjin, Chinab Ocean University of China, Qingdao, Chinac Socio-Economic Marine Research Unit, J.E. Cairnes School of Business and Economics, National University of Ireland, Galway, Ireland

a r t i c l e i n f o

Article history:Received 11 January 2013Received in revised form20 May 2013Accepted 20 May 2013Available online 21 June 2013

Keywords:Chinese ocean economyMarine industriesChinese ocean economy accounting system

7X/$ - see front matter & 2013 Elsevier Ltd. Ax.doi.org/10.1016/j.marpol.2013.05.008

esponding author at: Chinese National Ma93 Liuwei Road, Hedong District, Tianjin, C22 24011262.ail address: jorryphp@gmail.com (R. Zhao).

a b s t r a c t

In recent years, the Chinese government has been increasingly supportive of the development of theocean economy, implementing several national ocean-related strategies. For the first time, China's 12thfive-year Plan for National and Social Development (2011—2015) includes “developing the oceaneconomy” as a key national development strategy for the country. Because of this, the demand forocean economic statistics and indicators is growing rapidly. The aim of this paper is to define andquantify the value of the major ocean industries in China and to examine the growth in the majorChinese ocean industries in the period 2001 to 2010. The paper also outlines a methodology thatprovides a robust quantification of the marine sector over time. It finds that in 2010 the major oceanindustries in China contributed $239.09 billion to the national economy and employed over 9 millionindividuals.

& 2013 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

1. Introduction

A nation's economy has been described as a mechanical enginecomprised of interconnected, moving parts [1]. In China, the oceaneconomy is now seen as a critical component of that engine.Following the reform of economic trade policy, especially in theperiod 2001—2010, China's ocean economy has been growingrapidly, in line with national GDP. Also, as the second largesteconomy in the world, China is paying more attention to thesustainable development of its ocean economy. One importantreason for this is that since joining the World Trade Organization(WTO), Chinese trade with other nations has steadily expanded asa proportion of national economic activity, to the point where itaffects approximately 70% of China's economy [2]. China also hasaccess to a significant marine resource base with a coastline ofmore than 32,000 km [3] and more than 7300 islands [4] in itsterritorial waters. Coupled with this, China has sovereign jurisdic-tion over a vast area of continental shelves and exclusive economiczones (EEZs) (as defined by the UN Convention on the Law of theSea) equal to approximately 3 million km2 of offshore waters.China also has marine oil reserves of an estimated 24 billion tonsand natural gas reserves of over 1.6 billion cubic meters [5].

Seaborne commerce is one of the most essential elements ofinternational trade in China. According to Cheng [6], “without

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trade, China could not sustain its economy, let alone maintain thegrowth rates necessary to maintain high employment figures”.Ocean commerce in 2008 alone represented approximately 10% ofChina's gross domestic product (GDP), with a value of approxi-mately $456 billion. Moreover, some 85% of its international trademoves by the sea lanes [2]. China's increasing reliance on oilimports to sustain its rapid economic expansion is a key elementof this marine commerce. China imported over half of the oil itconsumed in 2009, the majority of which was transported bytankers [7].

Since the productive land resources in China, as well as othercountries around the world, are increasingly reaching the limits ofeconomic and ecological exploitation, the value of the oceans as aresource for economic development has become increasingly moreprominent. A number of coastal countries have launched programsexplicitly aimed at strategic initiatives for the development of theirocean resources [2]. For example, in 2002 the Canadian Departmentof Fisheries and Oceans launched Canada's Oceans Strategy whichprovides an overall strategic approach to oceans management in thatcountry [8]. In July 2010, U.S. President Obama signed ExecutiveOrder #13547 establishing a National Policy for the Stewardship ofthe Ocean, Coasts, and the Great Lakes which aims to significantlyimprove the management of the U.S.'s marine resources [9]. Else-where, in 2011, the Irish prime minister launched Ireland's firstnational integrated marine plan entitled “Harvesting our OceanWealth—An Integrated Marine Plan for Ireland” [10]. The Plan setsout actions and an implementation model which includes a numberof integrated Government delivery mechanisms aimed at supportingan integrated system of policy and program planning for Irish marine

R. Zhao et al. / Marine Policy 43 (2014) 164–173 165

affairs. Similar to these other nations, China has also been planningfor the strategic development of the oceans as a resource foreconomic development. In 1996 the Chinese government unveiledthe China Ocean Agenda 21 which put forward a sustainabledevelopment strategy for China's marine resources. The main aimsof this strategy were to effectively safeguard the state's marine rightsand interests internationally, provide protection for delicate marineecosystems and realize the sustainable development of China's oceaneconomy [11].

With the aim of furnishing marine policy makers in China withmarine activity statistics, the Ocean Economy Accounting System(OEAS） of China was established in 2006 [12]. The purpose of thesystem was to develop the required range and quality of oceaneconomy data at regional and national level. This paper provides acritique of this system and also uses it to define and quantify theocean economy in China. While Song et al. [13] have previouslyexamined the developments in the Chinese marine economicstatistical system over the past 20 years this paper add to theliterature by examining how the industries within the Chinesemarine economy has changed in both value and in terms of thenumbers employed over the period 2001 to 2010. This paper alsocompares the Chinese OEAS to the marine economic accountingsystem used in the US and examines how closely the Chineseocean economy follows the general movement in Chinese GDP.

In what follows, this paper first reviews Chinese marine policythat resulted in the increased need for reliable and standardizedocean economy statistics. The development of the OEAS is thendescribed along with the accounts that the system is comprised of.The definition and value of the ocean industries in China and theirrelevant importance to the overall Chinese economy are thencompared to the definition for ocean economy industries in the USand Europe.

1 This is a larger estimate of the value of the ocean economy than presented inthis paper for 2008 as this paper has examined only the data on the 12 major oceanindustries in China whereas the figure of 9.87 includes ocean related industries(those enterprises that form a technical and economic link with the major marineindustries) as well.

2. Marine policy in China

Availability and easy access to a wide range of natural andeconomic data on a country's oceans and coastal regions is thebasis for strategic decision-making on coastal and maritime policy[14]. In March 2011, China's 12th 5-year Plan for National and SocialDevelopment (2011—2015) was released by central governmentand is currently being implemented. This is the first time thatChina has adopted a “five-year-plan” for economic developmentwhere “developing the ocean economy” has been identified as akey national development strategy.

According to the 12th Five-Year Plan (2011—2015), China'smajor objective in developing the ocean economy during the2011—2015 period is to optimize the structure of the marinesector through the development of marine industries using scien-tific planning. The plan also has the aim of ensuring that marineresources are sustainably and reasonably utilized, that mechan-isms of integrated marine management should be improved; thatmarine environmental protection and land-based pollution controlshould be coordinated; that the trend of excessive development ofoffshore resources will be controlled; that the management of anymarine reclamation activities will be strengthened and that theprotection and restoration of marine ecosystems should bepromoted.

The first measure above related to the optimization of thestructure of the marine sector is of particular relevance to theresearch presented in this paper as the availability of a wide rangeof accessible data on ocean economic activities is necessary forachieving the efficient management of the marine economy.Sustainable ocean and coastal management in China requiresinformation on ocean industrial activities and socio-economic

trends and on the environmental and coastal impacts of policiesand financial instruments directed towards marine industries.

The first real indication of China's interest in focusing on theocean and coast, rather than on its hinterland, for potentialeconomic growth, occurred in 2003 when the first guidelinedocument for the development of its national marine economywas published by the State Council. This document entitled “AnOutline of the Planning of National Marine Economy Develop-ment” targeted a Gross Value Added figure for the Chinese oceaneconomy of 4% of GDP in 2005 and approximately 5% in 2010. Inthe decade since this guidance document was published, and ascan be seen in the results section of this paper, China's marineeconomy has been steadily approaching these targets. Indeed,according to one of the few papers that profiled China's MarineEconomy, the value of marine activity in 2008 was estimated at9.87% of GDP [15],1 .

At the coastal provincial level, five ocean economic zonedevelopment pilot plans have also been approved by China'scentral government for Guangdong, Shandong, Zhejiang, Fujianand Tianjin [16]. The purpose of these pilot zones is to establish anew sustainable development pattern for China's coastal regionsthat are heavily involved in marine economic activities [17].Compared with the commercial development of land, there is arelative lack of experience in relation to ocean development inChina. There are many aspects of this ocean zonal approach thatneeds to be explored, not least the need to balance increasing theeconomic opportunities from China's vast marine resources withthe need to protect the marine environment. Given this need, theChinese State Department decided to choose some provinces aspilot marine economic development test sites. Now within the topstrategic plan for the country, the development plans for 11 oceaneconomic development zones have become national strategies inChina [18].

In order to promote the development of what is seen as twostrategically important marine industries; two national plans havealso been released to boost the emerging ocean industries ofseawater desalination and marine bio-medicine. In December2012, the National Development and Reform Commission issuedthe 12th Five-Year Plan for Seawater Desalination; this is the firstspecific ocean industry five-year plan, which targets China'sdesalination where output is forecast to reach more than 2.2 mil-lion cubic meters/day by 2015. In order to accelerate the develop-ment of the ‘bio-industry', at the very beginning of 2013, theChinese State Council issued the 12th Five-Year Plan for Bio-industrial Development, in which marine bio-medicine was identi-fied as one of the key development areas.

The most important part of these plans is that the centralgovernment will make available more opening financial, invest-ment policies on ocean economy development. It can be predictedthat with these five year plans in place these industries, andindeed all industries in the Chinese ocean economy, will be givenappropriate policy support that has not been available to the samedegree up to this point. The policy makers in these industries andin the pilot marine economic zones will obviously require betterquality baseline information related to the ocean economy thanhas been available previously. Given the series of national strate-gies related to the development of the ocean economy reviewedabove, it becomes very important to provide all marine policymakers, planners and decision makers with accessible and reliableinformation regarding the role of the ocean industries in local and

R. Zhao et al. / Marine Policy 43 (2014) 164–173166

national economies which ultimately should allow for bettermanagement and conservation of China' abundant marineresources.

3. Methodology

The methodology followed by the Chinese National MarineData and Information Service to quantify the size and compositionof the ocean economy is very similar to the methodologyemployed by the US National Oceans Economic Program (NOEP)as well as methodologies followed by other coastal countries thathave analyzed their respective ocean economies, such as Canada,Australia and Ireland [19—22]. The Chinese methodology isreviewed here but for a more in-depth discussion in relation tothe developments in the Chinese marine economic statisticalsystem over the past 20 years the interested reader should seeSong et al. [13]. In that paper the authors argue that marineeconomic data gathering has gone from dispersed efforts to aconcentrated approach, increasing from partial coverage of indus-try categories to comprehensive statistics and transitioning tomore institutionalized management of marine economic statistics.They suggest that the practical significance of these developmentsis an improved national data set for the marine economy andpolicy makers that will continue to develop in the future.

Similar to the issues faced by the other countries that prepareocean economy statistics, estimates of the value of the oceanindustries in China are limited due to the definitional and datalimitations. Nevertheless, with the growing realization of the impor-tance of marine economic activity to the wider Chinese economy,China's OEAS was established exclusively for ocean economy datacollection in 2006 to meet the practical needs of ocean economicmanagement. The system was developed and is operated by theChinese National Marine Data and Information Service within China'sState Oceanic Administration.

The OEAS includes four basic parts, which are the PrincipalAccount, the Elementary Account, the Natural Capital Account andthe Green Ocean Account. The Principal Account, which is alsocalled the Gross Ocean Product (GOP) Account, is the most highlydeveloped component within the system and is concerned with theidentification and quantification of ocean economic activity. TheElementary Account is concerned with the development of an

Framework ofOcean Economy

AccountingSystem

PrincipalAccount

ElementaryAccounts

Natural CapitalAccounts

Ocean

Oce

Ocean

Ocean

Ocean R

Gross

Fig. 1. Framework of ocean econom

input—output matrix that disaggregates the major ocean industriesfrom the standard industry classifications in the nationalinput—output tables. This account also analyses the quantity andvalue of exports and imports through Chinese sea ports andestimates the value of marine related capital. The third majoraccount within the system is concerned with the assessment ofthe non-market values associated with China's marine resources.The Green Ocean Account combines the market and non-marketanalysis from the Principal and the Natural Capital accounts in orderto provide policymakers with a holistic view of the overall value ofChina's ocean economy. The Elementary Account, the NaturalCapital Account and the Green Ocean Account are still at an earlystage of development. Fig. 1 presents the framework of China's OEAS.

Based on the OEAS, this paper focuses on the Principal Accountwhere the major ocean industries in China are defined andquantified. The basic goal of defining and quantifying major oceanindustries within the elementary account of the OEAS is to permitconsistent measurement of the contribution of the ocean to theChina economy across time and regions. Similar to many otherocean economy reporting exercises [19—22], five basic steps arefollowed to quantify the Chinese ocean economy:

1.

Ec

an

Int

N

esoA

Oc

y a

Source the data.In this step, the ocean economy activities are identified viagovernment collected data within national accounts. Thesesources in China's case are outlined in Section 4.

2.

Estimate the ocean proportion within a sector.This involves estimating the proportion of total economicactivity within a particular sector that is ocean-related. Forexample, within the pharmaceutical sector a number of com-panies produce marine based bio-products. Distinguishingbetween marine and non-marine businesses within such asector requires a more disaggregated look at the profile of thecompanies within this sector.

3.

Compile the data.This involves recording the levels of value-added, employmentand new measures for each industry that is identified withinthe marine sector.

4.

Identify gaps.Certain ocean sectors are clearly identifiable within nationalaccount (for example marine transport and fishing) but forsome other industries, in particular emerging ocean industries,

Green OceanAccount

onomy Input-output Analysis

Capital Assets Accounting

ernational Trade Accounting

atural Resources Accounting

urces Environment and Socialctivities Accounting

ean Product (GOP) Account

ccounting system in China.

R. Zhao et al. / Marine Policy 43 (2014) 164–173 167

it is more difficult to quantify the size and composition of thesectors. These industries and the data deficiencies need to behighlighted.

5.

Ocean economy as a percentage of GDP.Estimate the value of the ocean economy relative to totaleconomic activity in the wider economy.

These five steps were applied to estimate China's oceanindustries. As previously noted, identifying the marine activity innational accounts can be difficult and often requires additionalnational accounts manipulation [23]. Examples of difficulties thatcan occur when trying to complete marine economic accountsinclude incomplete data on marine sectors, marine activities beingpart of statistical classes which also include non-marine busi-nesses, indicators of marine activity being available at countrylevel but not at local level and the issues surrounding theconfidentiality of certain marine activities either for reasons ofnational security (in the case of defense) or for various otherreasons, such as commercially sensitive activities or in cases whereone business makes up too high a percentage of the total turnoverof a given statistical class and can thus be too easily identified.These issues aside, Colgan [24] proposes four principles fordeveloping a robust profile of ocean industries:

1.

Comparability across industries and space.For example, the definition of a unit of employment should bethe same across all locations and industries.

2.

Comparability across time.Industry data should be observed and measured in a consistentmanner over successive time periods in order to allow for trendanalysis.

3.

Theoretical and accounting consistency.The data should reflect standard economic theory describingthe measurement of economic activity.

4.

Replicability.The data should be replicable over time and form the basis of afuture data series.

In addition to the above, where possible the sectors identifiedand the method of quantification should be defined in such amanner so as to allow the data to be compared internationally.Also the release of information on the state of the ocean economyshould be timely. That is to say, the length of time between themarine economic activity or event taking place and the availabilityof statistical outputs related to that activity should be as short aspossible to be of the most relevance to policymakers. This laterprinciple is often not in the control of those attempting toassemble ocean economy accounts but depends on the time lagsinvolved between the collection and dissemination of nationalaccounts by central statistical agencies.

As outlined above, defining the ocean industries in the Chineseocean economy is the first step towards quantifying the value ofthe ocean economy. In order to standardize the ocean economydata collected across the whole country, China's State OceanicAdministration released a document in 2006 defining the statis-tical standard for Industrial Classification for Ocean Industries andTheir Related Activities (GB/T 20794-2006). This document soughtto establish a statistical standard for ocean economy data collect-ing across all regions in China. The ocean industrial classificationswithin this document divided the marine sector into two parts;ocean industries and ocean related industries.

−

2 In what follows when the value of the ‘ocean economy' in China is mentionedit refers to the value of the 12 major ocean industries identified in Table 1.

Ocean industries refers to industries involved in the productionor supply of service for developing, utilizing and/or protectingthe ocean. This part of the ocean economy includes 12 majormarine industries such as offshore oil and gas, marine mining,

marine salt manufacturing, the marine chemical industry,marine biomedicine, marine electric power generation, sea-water utilization, marine shipbuilding, marine engineering andconstruction, marine communications and transportation,coastal tourism, marine scientific research, and education.

−

Ocean-related industries refer to the enterprises that form atechnical and economic link with the major marine industries.These industries are defined as suppliers and customers of theocean industries; they produce inputs for the latter or useoutputs from the latter in the production process. Some ofthese activities are not necessarily performed at sea or even inthe coastal zones. These industries include agriculture andmangrove forestry (that for example provide feed for marineuse and that in turn use sea water to irrigate certain species ofplants cultivated on Chinese wetlands), marine equipmentmanufacturing, ocean-related building and installation, marinewholesale and retail services, etc.

The ocean economy therefore, as defined by China's StateOceanic Administration's Industrial Classification for Ocean Indus-tries and Their Related Activities, is the summation of both oceanand ocean related industrial activities that are aimed at develop-ing, utilizing and protecting the ocean.

Fig. 2 provides the relationship between the different layersthat make up the Chinese ocean economy in China. China's oceaneconomy includes three layers of content. The core layer repre-sents 12 major ocean industries which are outlined in Table 1.They are the major ocean activities that use ocean resources as keyinputs or which provide goods and services that are directly usedin the marine environment. The support layer represents thescientific, research, education and ocean management servicesectors that provide key information to the core layer industries.The activities of the support layer provide the platform for thesustainable development of the major ocean industries. The outerlayer represents the ocean-related enterprises which have atechnical and economic link with the major marine industries(the indirect and induced economic impacts of the core layer).

In China's case, all relevant ocean industries cannot be directlyidentified within national statistical databases. Measuring totalocean economic activity is therefore a complicated issue, espe-cially when it is difficult to obtain sufficient base data for allpossible ocean industries as is the case in China. This papertherefore focuses on the major ocean industries in China for whichdata is available. While some small and emerging sectors areexcluded from the analysis presented in this paper, the industriesanalyzed still represent a high proportion of the total value of themarket based ocean economy in China. The major ocean industriesclassified are marine fishery, offshore oil and gas, ocean mining,marine salt, shipbuilding, the marine chemical industry, marinebiomedicine, marine engineering, marine electric power, the sea-water utilization industry, marine communications and transpor-tation and coastal tourism. The definitions of these industries inChina are presented in Table 1,2 .

4. Marine economic data sources in China

Once the Chinese ocean industries are defined, the datacollection and quantifying phase begins. Generally, the majorocean sectors and industries in China were defined based on thestatistical classification of CCSNEI (Classification and CodeStandard of National Economy Industry), which is quite similar

CoreLayer

SupportLayer

Outer Layer

Major Ocean industry

Ocean Scientific Research, Education, Management Services

OceanIndustry

OceanEconomy

Ocean–Related industry

Fig. 2. Relationship between the different layers of the Chinese ocean economy.

Table 1Classification and definition of major ocean industries.

Ocean sector Definition

Marine fishery Includes mariculture, marine fishing, marine fishery service industry and marine aquatic processing, etc.Offshore oil and gas industry Refers to production activities of exploring, exploiting, transporting and processing raw oil and natural gas in the oceanOcean mining industry Includes the activities of extracting and dressing beach placers, beach soil chloride and sand, submarine geothermal energy, and coal

mining and deep-sea mining, etc.Marine salt industry Refers to the activity of producing salt products with the sodium chloride as the main component by utilizing seawater, including salt

extracting and processingShipbuilding industry Refers to the activity of building ocean vessels, offshore fixed and floating equipment with metals or non-metals as main materials as

well as repairing and dismantling ocean vesselsMarine chemical industry Includes the production activities of chemical products of sea salt, seawater, sea algal and marine petroleum chemical industriesMarine biomedicine Refers to the production, processing and manufacturing activities of marine based medicines and marine health care products by

using organisms as raw materials (or by extracting these organism's useful components)Marine engineering and buildingindustry

Refers to the architectural projects construction and its preparations in the sea, at the sea bottom and seacoast for such uses asmarine production, transportation, recreation, protection, etc., including constructions of seaports, coastal power stations, coastaldykes, marine tunnels and bridges, land terminals of offshore oil and gas fields as well as building of processing facilities, andinstallation of submarine pipelines and equipment, but not the projects of house building and renovation

Marine electric power Refers to the activities of generating electric power in the coastal region by making use of ocean energies and ocean wind energy. Itdoes not include the thermal and nuclear power generation in the coastal area

Seawater utilization Refers to the activities of the direct use of sea water and the seawater desalination, including those of carrying out the production ofdesalination and applying the seawater as water for industrial cooling, urban domestic water, water for fire fighting etc., but not theactivity of the multipurpose use of seawater chemical resources

Marine communications andtransportation

Refers to the activities of carrying out and serving the sea transportations with vessels as main vehicles, including ocean-goingpassenger transportation, auxiliary activities of water transportation, pipeline transportation, loading, unloading and transport aswell as other transportation and service activities

Coastal tourism Refers to the tourist related activities that take place in the coastal zone, on sea islands as well as recreational activities that use theocean; including water based sports, marine mammal and bird watching, etc.

R. Zhao et al. / Marine Policy 43 (2014) 164–173168

to the NAICS (North American Industrial Classification System).The US National Ocean Economic Program (NOEP) which compilesmarine economic data in the US extracts their ocean economy databased on the NAICS. Similarly, in Europe, the relevant institutes inFrance, Britain and Ireland collect ocean economic statistics basedon the NACE (Classification of Economic Activities of the EuropeanCommunities) coding system3 . All government statistics programsin China are compiled on the basis of CCSNEI.

Table 2 provides a comparison of definitions and codes for eachof the ocean sectors reported in China and America (in the latercase reported by the NOEP). In China's case, 12 industries aredefined based on the 4-digit codes of CCSNEI, while six oceanindustries are defined by the US NOEP based on the 6-digit codes

3 An EU INTERREG funded project is currently underway along the Atlanticperiphery of Europe (MARNET) that is attempting to map the value of the Atlanticmarine economy through the development of reliable and comparable socioeconomic data across the coastal member states of Portugal, Spain, France, Britainand Ireland (see http://www.marnetproject.eu/ for further information).

of NAICS. Seven of China's defined ocean industries have corre-sponding classification in the USA ocean economy accountingsystem. However the corresponding classification in the US systemis often at a higher level of aggregation. For example while theChinese system has separate categories for offshore oil and gas andoffshore mining, in the US system these industries are groupedtogether under the heading of “Minerals—Offshore”. The types ofactivities under the headings of offshore mining, shipbuilding andmarine construction is also much broader in the Chinese classifi-cation compared to the US one.

As Table 2 demonstrates, certain ocean industries are clearlyidentifiable within the Chinese national accounts. Indeedmany of themajor ocean industries have their own 4-digit CCSNEI code (see forexample marine fishing, seawater salt industry and submarine pipe-line transportation). However, as mentioned in Section 3, data onsome ocean based activities is very difficult to obtain; for example,one cannot isolate marine chemical industries data from generalchemical industry classification employed by the National Bureau ofStatistics of China (NBSC). Therefore, certain sub-sectors especially

Table 2Comparison of the definitions and codes of ocean sectors between China and America.

Ocean sectors (title of comparableUSA sector in brackets)

Ocean industries of China (relevant CCSNEI code in brackets) Ocean industries of USA (relevant NAICScode in brackets)

Marine fishery Mariculture (0411) Fish hatcheries & aquaculture (112,511,112,512)

(living resources-marine) Marine fishing (0412) Fishing (114,111, 114,112)Fishery service industry (0540) Seafood markets (445,220)Seafood rocessing (1361, 1362, 1363, 1364, 1452, 1369) Seafood processing (31,171, 31,172)

Offshore oil and gas industry Offshore oil and gas exploration and production (0710) Oil & gas exploration and production(Minerals—offshore) Support activities for oil and gas (0790) （211,111, 213,111, 213,112，541,360）Ocean mining industry Sea beach placer mining and quarrying (0810, 0911, 0912, 0913, 0914, 0917,

0919, 0921, 0922, 0929, 0932, 1093, 1099)Limestone, sand & gravel (212,321, 212,322)

(Minerals—offshore) Sand & stone mining and quarrying (1011, 1012, 1013, 1019)Submarine geothermal power and coal mining (1100, 0610, 0620, 0690)Deep sea mining (0890, 1020)

Marine salt industry Seawater salt industry (1030)Salt processing (1493)

Shipbuilding industry Ship & boat building and repairing (3751, 3752, 3753, 3755) Boat building & repair (336,612)(Ship & boat building and repair) Offshore fixed and floating devices manufacturing (3759, 3755) Ship building & repair (336,611)Marine chemical industry Sea salt chemical industry (2611, 2612, 2613,)

Seaweed chemical industry (2710)Sea water chemical industry (2619)Offshore oil & gas chemical industry (2614)

Marine biomedicine industry Marine medicine producing (2760, 2720, 2730, 2740)Ocean health products (1364, 1491)

Marine engineering and constructionindustry

Ocean engineering building (4723, 4710, 4722, 4723, 5010) Marine related construction (237,120,237,990)

Submarine engineering building (4721, 4724, 4710)(Construction—marine) Offshore engineering building (4722, 4729, 4723)Marine electric power industry Oceanic energy (4419)

Offshore wind (4419)Seawater utilization industry Seawater desalination (4690)

Direct seawater utilization (4690)Other seawater utilization (4690)

Marine communications andtransportation industry

Marine passenger transportation (5421, 5422) Marine passenger transportation (483,112,483,114)

(Transportation—marine) Marine cargo transportation (5411, 5422) Deep sea freight (483,111, 483,113)Sea ports (5431, 5432, 5710, 5890, 7220) Warehousing (493,110, 493,120, 493,130)Submarine pipeline transportation (5600) Search and navigation equipment (334,511)Marine transportation service (5439, 5720, 5439, 5232) Marine transportation services (488,310,

488,320, 488,330, 488,390)Hotels & lodging places (721,110, 721,191)Eating & drinking

Hotels and lodging places (6610, 6620, 6690) Places (722,110, 722,211, 722,212, 722,213)Coastal tourism Coastal tourism services (7480) Boat dealers (441,222)(tourism & recreation—coastal) Amusement and recreation (8132, 8131, 8139, 9290, 9220, 9230, 8012) Marinas (713,930)

Coastal tourism and cultural services (9040, 9050, 9060) Recreational vehicle parks & campsites(721,211)Scenic water tours (487,210)Sporting goods (339,920)Amusement & recreation services (487,990,611,620, 532,292, 713,990)Zoos, aquaria (712130,712190)

R. Zhao et al. / Marine Policy 43 (2014) 164–173 169

the emerging ocean industries (marine biomedicine industries, sea-water utilization industries, etc.) require additional survey activity toensure that all ocean industries are represented. This additionalsurvey work is carried out by the NBSC on behalf of the Chinese StateOceanic Administration. Using this information the NBSC providesdata on gross value added and employment for each of the ocean andocean related sectors within China's national economy. The NBSCcensuses and surveys used for the collation of the ocean economydata include:

�

The First National Economic Census, 2004. � The Second National Economic Census, 2008. �

4 Gross Value Added (GVA) refers to a sectors turnover (output) minusintermediate consumption (the inputs into the process of production). It ismeasured at market prices.

5 The 2010 exchange rate between Chinese Yuan and US Dollar used in thisarticle is 6.7705 which is the average rate of 2010 calculated based on the website:http://www.x-rates.com/average/?from=USD&to=CNY&amount=1&year=2010.

National Accounts Comprehensive Statistical Reporting System(quarterly, biennial and yearly reported statistics).

In what follows the data extracted from these censuses andnational accounts to quantify the size and composition of China'socean economy is reported.

5. Results

In 2010 the major ocean industries had a combined value(in terms of Gross Value Added (GVA)4 ) of US$239.09 billion5;accounting for 4.03% of China's overall GDP. China's major oceanindustries employed approximately 9.25 million individuals.Table 3 presents the value added and employment for each majorocean industry within the China's ocean economy. In terms of GVA,coastal tourism is the largest contributor to the overall value of theocean economy with US$78.33 billion of value added. The marinecommunications and transportation industry is the next largest

Table 3Value added and employment by major ocean industry category 2010.

Ocean sectors Gross valueadded

Employment

(US $ billions) (10,000persons)

Marine fishery 42.12 553.2Offshore oil and gas industry 19.23 19.7Ocean mining industry 0.67 1.6Marine salt industry 0.97 23.8Shipbuilding industry 17.95 32.7Marine chemical industry 9.07 25.6Marine biomedicine industry 1.24 1Marine engineering building industry 12.91 61.5Marine electric power industry 0.56 1.1Seawater utilization industry 0.13Marine communications and transportationindustry

55.92 80.7

Coastal tourism 78.33 124.4Total 239.09 925.3

Fig. 3. Growth rate of major ocean industries (GVA) compared to national GDP.

R. Zhao et al. / Marine Policy 43 (2014) 164–173170

category producing US$55.92 billion. When it comes to employ-ment, the marine fishery industry is the biggest contributor,employing 5.53 million individuals, followed by Coastal tourismat 1.24 million and the marine communications and transportationindustry at 0.81 million. In China's case, the coastal tourism, themarine communications and transportation industry and themarine fisheries industry dominate the ocean economy. Theseare categories that have also been found to dominate other oceaneconomies internationally [19—22]. It would appear however thatthe high numbers employed in the fisheries sector relative to theother two dominant sectors is somewhat unique to China's oceaneconomy.

Since the data sources employed to quantify the ocean economyare also a historical record of the economic activities it is possible toanalyze the growth (or otherwise) of the major ocean industries overtime. Fig. 3 examines the growth rate of the Chinese ocean economyfrom 2002 to 2010. In this figure one can see that the aggregateactivity of the major industries in China's ocean economy follows avery similar pattern to the general movement of total GDP in Chinaover the same period. In this decade of rapid development for all themajor ocean industries, 2003 and 2007 are worthy of note. Theannual year on year growth rate of the major ocean industries in thisdecade averaged approximately 20%, except in 2003 (1.28%) and in2009 (7.33%).

The reduced growth rates in these two years reflect the factthat the major ocean industries are vulnerable to unexpectedshocks to the economy. In 2003, the SARS (severe acute respiratorysyndrome) virus broke out in China. SARS was the first severe andreadily transmissible new disease to emerge in the 21st century[25]. This hit the Chinese economy heavily, especially the indus-tries involved in international trade. Due to their export-orientedcharacteristics, the ocean industries were greatly affected. The fallin the growth rate of the ocean economy in 2009 was due to thefinancial crisis of 2007/2008, which is considered by manyeconomists to be the worst financial crisis since the GreatDepression of the 1930s [26]. A massive stimulus package fromthe Chinese government saw the economy through the worst ofthe financial crisis but still the growth rates of national GDP wentdown significantly, especially for the ocean related industries. Itwould therefore appear that the major ocean industries are morevulnerable to the impact of unexpected events (e.g. the SARSoutbreak in 2003 and global recession in 2007) than the generaleconomy. Also any events impacting on international trade have ahigher impact on the ocean economy. This is not surprising given,as mentioned in Section 1, that seaborne commerce is an essentialpart of Chinese trade; alone represented 10% of China's grossdomestic product in 2008 [2].

Fig. 4 provide a more in-depth breakdown of the changing trendsof the major ocean industries from 2001 to 2010. Coastal tourismwasthe largest contributor to China's ocean economy from 2006 to 2010.Coastal tourism includes hotels and lodging places, coastal tourismservices, amusements and recreation, and coastal tourism andcultural services. The coastal tourism sector had been achievinggrowth rates of over 20% almost every year throughout the decade,greatly boosting the development of China's marine economy. ForChina's coastal tourism, 2003 was a significant year due to theoutbreak of the SARS virus. Total tourism output had decreaseddramatically in the first half of the year, and in the whole of 2003, theadded value created by coastal tourism was $13.37 billion, down27.39% compared to 2002. By the time that the World HealthOrganization lifted its two-month advisory warning against non-essential travel to China in late June 2003 the outbreak had costChina's travel and tourism industry sectors an estimated US$20.4billion [27]. The tourism sector bounced back strongly in 2004 due inpart to a rescue package from the government that included taxrebates, employment and training measures and financial aid. Alsodomestic and pan-Asian tourism boards put in place action plans torevitalize the stricken sector.

As mentioned above, when it came to the global financial crisis,the major Chinese ocean industries also suffered severely in 2009,resulting in the decline of two important major ocean industries; themarine communication and transportation industry and the offshoreoil and gas industry. The value of these sectors decreased by 8.51%and 39%, respectively, in 2009. The marine communication andtransportation industry has long been the dominant support ofChina's international trade and continues to integrate marketsbetween China and other countries. In the decade of 2001—2010,the marine communication and transportation industry had beengrowing rapidly due to the fast development of China's internationaltrade. The only year that saw a decrease in the rate of growth of thissector was 2009. The offshore oil and gas industry is also a veryimportant component of the ocean economy in China. In 2010,marine oil and gas output exceeded 50 million tons of oil equivalent,which makes China one of the world's major marine oil and gasproducers. China's offshore exploration platforms are distributedboth on coastal waters and in its deepwater territorial seas whichincreases the risk of ocean environmental pollution of the coastalarea. The sharp drop in the value of the offshore oil and gas industryin 2009 was in line with global trends and was mainly due to thedecline in international oil prices caused by the financial crisis.

Fig. 4. Trends of major ocean industries from 2001 to 2010.

Fig. 5. Volume of cargo handled by China's coastal seaports.

Fig. 6. Volume of containers traffic handled by China's coastal seaports.

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The marine communication and transportation sector was thesecond largest industry within the Chinese economy in 2010. TheChinese marine communications and transportation industry canbe divided into five categories; marine passenger transportation,marine cargo transportation, sea ports, submarine pipeline trans-portation, and marine transportation service. With the center ofworld trade shifting to Asia and rapid growth of the China'seconomy, marine shipping has become the main mode of trans-port in terms of international trade with China.

Fig. 5 provides the volume of cargo handled at China's Coastalseaports from 2006 to 2010. In 2010, the volume of cargo handledwas 5640 million tons, representing an increase of 15.8% comparedto 2009. The sector achieved an average annual growth rate of13.4% in the “11th Five-Year Plan” period of 2006—2010. In 2010,the majority of shipping activity occurred in 16 coastal ports whichbetween them handled more than 100 million tons of cargo(Ningbo-Zhoushan (633 million tons), Shanghai (563 million tons),Tianjin (413 million tons), Qingdao (350 million tons), Dalian(314 million tons), Qinhuangdao (263 million tons), Tangshan(246 million tons), Rizhao (226 million tons), Yingkou (226 milliontons)，Shenzhen (221 million tons), Yantai (150 million tons),Zhanjiang (136 million tons), Lianyungang (127 million tons) andXiamen (127 million tons), Beibuwan (119 million tons).

Fig. 6 presents the volume of container traffic handled byChina's seaports from 2006—2010. In 2010 container throughputexceeded the pre-crisis level. In 2010, coastal ports handled 131million TEUs (20 ft equivalent units), representing a growth rate of25.5% compared with the peak years of 2007.

The marine fishery sector is also a vital component of China'socean economy. It provides a high proportion of the protein intakefor Chinese people. It also provides employment for the highestnumber of persons working in the Chinese ocean economy, oftenin rural locations where few other employment opportunitiesexist. In 2010, marine fishery production in the coastal region ofChina was falling, perhaps reflecting a resource that was alreadybeen exploited at near maximum capacity. The output of living searesources amounted to 27.97 million tons in 2010 which was adecrease of 2.9% compared with that of the previous year. Theproduction of mariculture amounted to 14.82 million tons in 2010,3.5% down from the previous year. The yield from near-shorefishing in 2010 was 12.07 million tons, 10.5% down from the

previous year with a further 0.89 million tons from the deep-seafishing fleet, 8.5% up from the previous year.

Table 4 provides a comparison of the Chinese ocean economyvalue (as a percentage of GDP) and employment figures to otherocean economies internationally. Such comparisons, while interest-ing, can be misleading as the “marine/ocean” sector does not formallyexist in most national accounts and as pointed out by SEMRU [28]figures made available by national marine agencies are often based

Table 4International comparisons.

Country Year Value added of ocean sector(billion US $)

(%)NationalGDP

Indicativeemployment

China 2010 239.09 4.03 9,253,000USA [19] 2010 266.72 1.82 2,770,000Canada[20]

2006 17.69 1.20 171,365

Australia[21]

2003 19.8 3.60 —

UK [29] 2006 88.44 4.20 548,674France[30]

2009 28.19 1.50 459,358a

Ireland[28]

2007 1.9 1 17,000

NewZealand[31]

2002 2.64 2.90 —

a Employment numbers for France do not include port authorities, handling,pilotage or towage. A dash indicates data not available.

6 For a discussion of the relevant literature involved in the defining andcharacterisation of the ‘Coastal Region' and ‘Coastal Economy' the interested readershould see Hynes and Farrelly [14].

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on different underlying definitions of the sector and differentmethods of collection of data and classification of activities intodifferent categories. Indeed, it is worth noting that all of the marineeconomic reports reviewed in Table 4 recognize the limitations ofofficial statistics-gathering procedures in capturing the importance ofmarine activities in their national economies.

In general, the value added by ocean based activity to a country'snational income is less than 5% of GDP. In France, Ireland, the US andCanada it is less than 2% of GDP. It should also be noted that thefigures for France, the UK and Canada include public sector marinerelated output such as defense, education and research. France hasthe longest running track record for publishing national marineeconomic accounts. IFREMER publishes the marine economicsassessment every two years for France. The 2011 version reportedon in Table 4 includes separate categories for the private and publicsectors of the economy and estimates a total value for its oceaneconomy of $28.19 billion, representing 1.2% of GDP.

The only country with a marginally higher share of marineactivity in national GDP than China is Britain at 4.2%. The onemajor difference between the marine economies in both countriesdriving this statistic is the relative importance of offshore oil andgas. In Britain, offshore extraction of oil and gas is a substantialindustry that makes a very important contribution to the UKeconomy. Pugh [29] reports a gross value added (at current basicprices) for the offshore oil and gas sector in Britain of £19,845million. This figure represents 43% of the entire value of the oceaneconomy in Britain whereas in China the offshore oil and gassector represents only 8% of the total value of the ocean economyalthough activity in this particular field in China is likely toincrease with a number of new exploratory offshore licenses beingissued in recent years and proven substantial marine oil and gasreserves [5].

The comparison of China's ocean economy and the US oceaneconomy is worthy of further examination, given the comparativeeconomic value and influence these two countries share. In 2010,the value added by ocean based sectors in these two countries arealmost at the same level. In the USA it was reported as $266.72billion while in China it was $239.09 billion. However, the share ofthe ocean based income in overall GDP is quite different, in Chinait is 4.03% (and this includes only the 12 major ocean industriesclassified in Table 1) while in the US it is only 1.82% (based on thefact that the national GDP of the USA is almost twice that ofChina). It would also appear that the indicative employment inChina's ocean economy is much larger than that of America. Thediscrepancy between the shares of employment in the sector and

the share of ocean based activity in the countries respective GDPwould appear to indicate that labor productivity might be rela-tively lower in the Chinese ocean economy compared to the USocean economy. However the real explanation is more likely to bereflected in the fact that in China 553,000 individuals areemployed in the labor intensives primary production activity thatis the marine fishery industry. In comparison, more persons areemployed in higher value added industries in the US oceaneconomy. While shifting up this value added chain is an importantobjective for the Chinese ocean economy sector (as can be seen inthe government's support for emerging industries such as marineenergy, marine bio-medicine and marine technology and the factthat industries using marine high technologies have been growingrapidly at an average annual rate of more than 20% in the lastdecade), the importance of the primary fisheries jobs to ruralChina in particular should not be underestimated.

6. Conclusion

This paper builds on the work carried out by OEAS in China,which established the framework of ocean economy accounting inChina. It also demonstrates how it is possible to compile oceaneconomy data, from the existing government databases in China.The Chinese ocean economy was divided into two separate partsfor the purpose of the analysis presented; the ocean industry andocean-related industry. Data was collected for 12 major oceanindustries. Using a similar methodology to that developed inprevious international studies, it was found that the major oceanindustries produced US$239.09 billion in value added output in2010 and accounted for 4.03% of China's national GDP. The majorocean industries were found to employ 9,253,000 individuals. Thisanalysis also found that coastal tourism, marine communicationand transportation industry and the marine fishing industrydominate in China's ocean economy. A time series analysis forthe period 2001 to 2010 found that the Chinese ocean economyfollows a very similar growth path to that of the national economy.It would appear from the analysis however that given the inter-national nature of the activities in the ocean economy, the majorocean industries demonstrate a higher level of vulnerability interms of the impact of unexpected shocks to the economy.

While this paper has undertaken an analysis of the Chinese oceaneconomy, defining and quantifying the Coastal economy in China isan area worthy of further research. In this case the Chinese coastaleconomy could be defined as all activity which takes place in apredefined coastal area and would include all economic activity inthe coastal region; however those areas and regions are defined.6

This task is all the more relevant given the five ocean economic zonesthat have already been established in a number of China's coastalprovinces, with more in the development pipeline. Along with theocean economy information described in this paper such coastaleconomy statistics would allow policy makers, planners and govern-ment to make more informed coastal planning and marine environ-ment management decisions.

Due to the rapid development of marine science and technol-ogy in recent years, all kinds of new marine industries areemerging and thereby expanding the scope of the marine econ-omy. Therefore, further research is required in order to establishan appropriate methodology for the classification and collection ofeconomic data for these emerging ocean industries—data that isvery difficult to extract from national economic accounts. AsColgan [24] points out “knowledge of the marine economy is very

R. Zhao et al. / Marine Policy 43 (2014) 164–173 173

imprecise because little has been invested in developing theneeded data, especially in comparison with the investment inthe understanding of other natural resources”.

The adoption of the “Developing the Ocean Economy” strategyand the establishment of five ocean economy pilot test sites by theChinese government were in recognition of the importance ofmarine activity to the economy in China. This increased focus onthe ocean economy means policy-makers require accessible andreliable information regarding the role of the ocean industries in thewider economy [2]. With the implementation of the ocean-relatedplans, the goal of “developing the ocean economy” is occurring at arapid pace. This rapid development however requires detailedinformation on the marine activities that policy makers can use toensure that the development is sustainable and does not jeopardizeother marine policy goals especially in relation to the marineenvironment and the conservation of marine species.

In the past China's traditional model of development wascharacterised by the extensive exploitation of marine resourcesand spaces particularly in regards to the extraction of marine lifefor human consumption. Intense competition among coastalprovinces in relation to the developing of traditional marineindustries such as fishing, aquaculture and port activity wasanother feature of Chinese marine development in the past.Indeed it could be argued that the establishment of containerterminals in all provinces has not been an efficient use of valuablecoastal resources in China. The new model of marine developmentin China places a higher value on the management and conserva-tion of marine resources and ecosystem functions and recognisesthe importance of these resources to the new emerging marineindustries and to coastal tourism in particular.

The collection, compilation and management of socio-economicdata for the various marine sectors is an important element of theinformation system required for promoting this more sustainableapproach to marine policy. Work has also been done internationallyin establishing the value of the non-market ecosystem services frommarine resources (and/or ecosystem functions) so that they may beaccounted for in marine policy decision making. This however hasnot generally been the case in China. If the country truly wishes tounderpin the value of the marine economic activity and the manybiotechnology and other opportunities associated with it, with thequality of the country's marine environment then significantinvestment will be required in research aimed at establishing thenon-market or public good element of the total economic value ofmarine resources in China.

Acknowledgements

This research was supported through the Chinese OceanEconomy Accounting System Project which was started by theChinese National Marine Data & Information Service in 2006. RuiZhao and Stephen Hynes were based at the Center of the BlueEconomy in the Monterey Institute of International Studies inMonterey, California during the writing up of this paper. Dr. Hyneswas on placement at the Center as a Fulbright Scholar. The authorswould also like to thank Judy Kildow and Jason Scorse for theirassistance.

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