deficient and excess minerals in forage in the …

DEFICIENT AND EXCESS MINERALS IN FORAGE IN THE UNITED STATES

by A. M. Hartman ^

I n various articles in this Yearbook the reader will find references to

areas in which there are deficiencies or excesses of certain minerals severe

enough to cause trouble with livestock. Where are these areas? A

questionnaire was sent to all States to get together whatever definite information there was on this problem, which is a comparatively new one

in animal nutrition. Here are the results of the questionnaire. They deal with phosphorus, calcium, iodine, cobalt, copper, iron, fluorine, selenium, and cyanides. Undoubtedly the information is far from

complete, but no comprehensive survey of this kind has previously been

made.

IN MANY PARTS of the world, symptoms of malnutrition or disease in livestock on certain areas have been traced to deficiencies of nutritionally essential mineral elements in the available forage. In some of these areas, before the causes of the difficulties were discovered and remedial measures taken, there were serious economic losses as the result of impaired productive capacity and death of animals.

Such deficient areas have been known for some years to exist in the United States, and the question of mineral deficiencies in forages has at one time or another been investigated by many of the State experiment stations. As a result of the cooperative w^ork of several bureaus of this Department and some of the experiment stations, a toxic condition that is sometimes fatal to livestock in certain of the Great Plains and w^estern mountain States has been found to be caused by consumption of native forage (and also grain) containing excessive quantities of selenium.

In order to assemble for the Yearbook information on areas in each State where mineral deficiencies or excesses in the forage have been found to produce symptoms of malnutrition in livestock, a form letter requesting information bearing on this problem was sent to

i A. M. Hartman is Associate Chemist, Division of Nutrition and Physiology, Bureau of Dairy Industry.

1027

1028 YEARBOOK OF AGRICULTURE, 1939

each of the State experiment stations in October 1938. A map of the State was included for indicating affected areas. Rephes to these inquiries were received from every State. A number of the States indicated either that no such deficiencies or excesses were known or that no investigations of the question had been made. In addition, there were States in which the reporters intimated that there might be a mineral deficiency of one element or another in relation to animal requirements in the State, either generally or in certain portions. This is true particularly in regard to phosphorus—for example, m a number of States of the Atlantic and Gulf Coastal Plains other than those listed as containing phosphorus-deficient areas. In none of these cases, however, were deficiency symptoms in animals reported. Statements would indicate that surveys of these States should be made before definite conclusions are drawn.

In fact, there is sufficient evidence in the replies from many States to warrant much more thorough surveys than have yet been made of conditions with regard to various mineral elements. As suggested in the article What Do We Need to Know in Livestock Nutrition? (p. 1045), there is evidently great need for more data and for the compilation, interpretation, and correlation of all data on (1) soil and climatic conditions, (2) mineral content of forage, and (3) animal observations, to determine whether or not optimum conditions for mineral nutrition in the raising of livestock prevail in many range and pasture areas in the United States.

Although it was not specifically requested in the letter, several States reported toxic efi'ects on livestock of mineral matter in drinking water. Only in the case of fluorine have reports of such effects been included in the compilation.

Careful consideration has been given to the information in the replies and on the maps, including publications of the State that were sent with, or cited in, the replies, and in some cases publications of the State that were referred to in those sent or cited. This information served, in the foliov\dng compilations, as the only source in pre- paring the abstracts of the listed States; and the only references cited under each State are those mentioned above. In the compilation only those States have been included in which the material indicated that deleterious effects on livestock due to deficiency or excess of a given mineral had been observed. The reporters' own interpreta- tions of conditions in their States have been taken, although in some instances the writer would not agree with them; this is particularly true in regard to calcium deficiencies. \Yhere bone chewing in cattle has been reported, it has been taken as evidence of phosphorus deficiency. Care has been taken not to generalize from too few observations or from observations that may have resulted from purely local farm conditions.

In the abstracts, an attempt has been made to conform to the es- sentials of the pictures presented in the replies; in some instances material from the publications cited has been added. Where it ap- peared convenient or expedient to do so, statements in the replies have been quoted verbatim. The maps showing phosphorus and iodine deficiencies (figs. 1 and 2) are based on the maps or the replies from the States.

1 ACTUAL AREAS WITHIN WHICH PHOSPHORUS 'DEFICIENCY HAS BEEN REPORTED

BEEN REPORTED; SECTIONS NOT CLEARLY DEFINED

Figure 1,—Reported phosphorus deficiency in the United States. Stales or areas within which phosphorus-deficiency symptoms in livestock have been reported on maps or in reports submitted by the States. See text for further explanation

and for descriptions of conditions in each State. O lO

J5^^55?í ACTUAL AREAS WITHIN WHICH IODINE WM DEFICIENCY HAS BEEN REPORTED

_ GENERAL LOCATIONS WHERE IODINE DEFICIENCY ▼ HAS BEEN REPORTED BUT AREAS NOT OUTLINED

r\ STATES IN WHICH IODINE DEFICIENCY HAS BEEN ^ REPORTED; LOCATIONS NOT GIVEN

Figure 2.—Reported iodine deficiency in the United States. Stales, localities, and areas within which symptoms of iodine deficiency in Uvestock have been reported on maps or in reports submitted by the States. The reports from Iowa and Oregon indicate that there are in those States localities (undesignated), other than those shown, where

there is iodine deficiency. See text for further explanation and for descriptions of conditions in each State.

> TO U3 O O

o -n

> G) Z° n cz r- a

MINERALS IN FORAGE 1031

The writer takes this occasion to thank the reporters in every State for their repUes.

(Elsewhere in this volume mineral nutrition of various farm animals has been discussed. A review and discussion of excess minerals is contained in the monograph of Mitchell and McClure {803)} The monograph of Orr and Scherbatofï {879) deals with minerals in pastures.)

DEFICIENCIES OF NUTRITIONALLY ESSENTIAL MINERAL ELEMENTS

PHOSPHORUS

Arizona

"We have been working on this problem somewhat over a year and liave some analyses of forage and soils from some of the areas where deficiencies have been noted, particularly of phosphorus. * * * While the forages show phosphorus deficiency we have not as yet found blood phosphorus correspondingly low, though in some cases the cattle had showii signs of deficiency some years."

The average phosphorus content of samples of plants from each of several localities ranged from 0.034 to 0.109 percent (basis not stated); one to seven different kinds of plants were represented from each locality. (A.)^

Arkansas There is no region in Arkansas where mineral deficiencies of the forage have

actually been demonstrated. However, in a section known as the grand prairie area cattle have been observed eating bones. This area is in the east central part of the State and includes considerable parts of Lonoke, Prairie, and Arkansas Counties, a minor part of White County, and a very small part of Monroe County. Phosphorus deficiencies of the forage are suspected throughout other areas of the State. (B.)

California ''There is a deficiency of certain minerals, particularly phosphorus at certain

seasons of the year on our dry foothill ranges due to the fact that the feed dries up and the seeds shatter" (C). ^ This is discussed in California Bulletin 543 (4^7),

In an earlier publication (49S), Hart and Guilbert reported that mild bone eating had been observed in range herds in several counties of the State.

Florida "Surveys are not complete but indications based on observation of cattle in-

dicate" at present phosphorus-deficient areas in west and in south central Florida. ''Phosphorus deficient areas in west Florida are high-iron soils. In south

central Florida the areas are fine sands. The areas are nearly continuous." (E.)

Kansas "There has been no survey of this State to find the sections in which there may be

a phosphorus deficiency. I know that there is a phosphorus deficiency in Allen County. =íí * * I am quite sure that there is a large section in that part of the State where the forage crops during a good portion of the season are deficient in phosphorus content." (H.)

Louisiana Lush (I) apparently feels that there are phosphorus deficiencies in portions of

Louisiana, He submits average values of analyses (air-dried basis) for this element in forage from various areas in the State. The lowest phosphorus figure is 0.097 percent of phosphorus ( = 0.223 percent of P2O5, or phosphorus pentoxide), indicated on a map as being in Allen Parish. Low phosphorus figures also occurred in several other parishes. No statement is made regarding definite

^ Italic numbers in parentheses refer to Literature Cited, p. 1075. 3 Capital letters in parentheses refer to the individuals in the States, listed at the end of this article (p,

1042), who made the replies. Quoted material is from these replies unless indicated otherwise by reference to I/iterature Cited.


phosphorus-deficiency symptoms in livestock in Louisiana, although Lush has written {700) of having observed abnormal bone formation in cattle on pasture where the phosphorus in some samples of the forage was rather low.

Lush states in regard to areas which he indicates on his map as being deficient in both calcium and phosphorus:

''We have not determined by feeding experiments or blood analysis that all of these areas are deficient, assuming them to be so because the forage samples were from the better than average farms in the same soil area." (L)

Literature references sent with or cited in the reply are {2iô), (700), and {701).

Michigan ''Reports from farmers indicate a rather widespread, though not general, phos-

phorus deficiency in dairy rations, particularly when the rations consist almost entirely of home-grown feeds. In a few cases, these reports have been investigated and a phosphorus deficiency established. No survey of the State has V^een made, however, to determine phosphorus deficiency symptoms in dairy herds, hence no areas can be set aside as definitely phosphorus deficient." (K.)

Results of investigations of phosphorus deficiency iîi dairy cattle in Michigan under field {553) and experimental conditions {552) have beeii reported by Huff- man and his associates,

IVIinnesota The phosphorus deficiency in the native forage in Minnesota and its effect upon

cattle have been comprehensively investigated in field and experimental studies. A number of reports dealing with various aspects of the results have been pubhshed by Eckles and Palmer and their associates. Reference is made particularly to Minnesota Bulletin 229 {295) and Technical Bulletin 91 {298). The latter sum- marizes the results and refers to a number of other papers on the subject by these workers. Further work on the effects of phosphorus deficiency on estrus and reproduction has been reported {299).

In 1932 Eckles and his coworkers {298) stated that reports indicated that trouble from phosphorus deficiency was more or less prevalent in 30 counties in Minnesota, and in 1938 Clark (L), in his reply to the letter of inquiry, wrote as follows:

"Experimental studies of phosphorus deficient native forage have been under way at the Minnesota Experiment Station for the past 15 years * * *. Xhe location of the phosphorus deficiency in Minnesota is roughly that of the prairie region of the State * * *. All of the prairie is more or less highly calciferous and the available phosphorus in this soil is often quite low. In Traverse and lower Wilkin Counties the till is, in general, lake washed, having been the last bed of old glacier Lake Agassiz which covered the northwest prairie as well as the other northwest counties of the State. The present remainder of this old lake is the Red River, which forms the border of the State from Traverse County north to Canada. It is probable that some of this soil is actually lower than normal in total phosphorus as well as in available phosphorus. Undoubtedly, similar conditions exist on the western side of the Red River, which also forms a part of the old lake.

"Not all of the prairie region of Minnesota has been studied for phosphorus deficiency symptoms in the livestock. The local conditions of feeding are, of course, important contributing factors. Special surveys were conducted in Norman County and in the western prairie section of Mahnomen and Becker Counties in the central northwestern part of the State. Phosphorus deficient cattle were found there. Like conditions were found on farms in Traverse and Big Stone Counties on the central western border and in Renville and Redwood Counties in the central southwestern part of the State. The condition was also identified in the southeastern prairie region of the State. These facts support the conclusion that the basic condition prevails rather generally throughout the prairie region.

"The studies made at the Minnesota station indicate that we are dealing with a permanent natural condition. As evidence may be cited the fact that phosphorus deficient prairie hay which has been purchased for the experimental work at the Central Station has come for many vears from the same farm in Mahnomen County."

The average phosphorus content of 51 samples of prairie hay (air-dry basis) growm on the low-phosphorus soils in Minnesota, where phosphorus deficiency occurs among cattle, was 0.106 percent; each sample represented a different farm. Similarly, 5 samples of timothy hay averaged 0.112 percent


Montana "The entire area east of the divide may be considered deficient in phosphorus.

In nearly every part of this district, in extremely dry seasons, cattle show the classic symptoms of phosphorus deficiency/'

In wet years, with ample green forage, bone chewing and other symptoms are noticeable here in only a few separate sections whose combined area constitutes a minor proportion of the total.

''Throughout the areas of greatest phosphorus deficiency, the use of bonemeai and other phosphatic supplements has been a necessary adjunct to successful stock growing." (M.)

In several publications phosphorus deficiency in livestock {1203) and phosphorus analyses of forage crops {172, 4^6, 4^7, 863, 1018) in Montana are discussed. (M, M-1.)

Nebraska In at least most of that area of Nebraska commonly called the sand hills section^

the forage is considered deficient enough in phosphorus to affect economy of production and to cause symptoms of malnutrition in livestock when the latter are on unsupplemented winter feed or on range, at any rate in dry seasons. The deficiency is stated to be common enough so that most range men are now feeding a high-phosphorus mineral supplement, with beneficial results.

Phosphorus deficiencies are strongly indicated or suspected in a number of other areas in the State. (N to N-4, inclusive. N--6 to N-9, inclusive,)

Nevada Based on observation of the situation in regard to mineral deficiencies over a

period of approximately 25 years, the following opinion is reported with respect to phosphorus in Nevada:

In a small area, which constitutes a minor portion of Douglas County and borders on the southwest boundary of this county, there has been definite and more or less continuous evidence of phosphorus deficiency, in spite of an abundant food supply in the form of mixed pastures and hay.

"So far as the rest of the State is concerned, we are of the opinion that it is also very much on the border line of phosphorus deficiency and that the feeding of phosphorus supplements is probably warranted on economic grounds—this in spite of the fact that there is only occasionally gross evidence of phosphorus deficiency." (O.)

New Mexico Phosphorus deficiency in the forage is considered to be the deficiency of greatest

concern in New Mexico. Typical symptoms of phosphorus deficiency have been observed in cattle at times.

A phosphorus and calcium survey has been made of the range forages and grasses of the State (1186). The first survey was conducted in 1932, a year of normal rainfall, during September and October when the plants were at maturity; on the dry-matter basis the values in a number of areas in widely distributed portions of the State were below 0.113 percent, the approximate danger line for range cattle estimated by Watkins of the State experiment station {1185^ 1186). "In many of these low calcium and phosphorus areas that we have located^' ranchers have reported inability to raise livestock profitably unless they supply mineral supplements.

"It has been a practice with many successful ranchmen in New Mexico for many years to feed bonemeai to prevent creeps and other troubles originating from lack of calcium and phosphorus in the forage.'' (P.)

North Dakota Evidence of phosphorus deficiency in livestock, as judged from chewing of

bones and run-down condition, was indicated for a number of counties in North Dakota in replies of county agents to questionnaires, particularly for McHenry, Benson, Hettinger, and Cass Counties. Replies were not received from all counties. Craving of cows for bones, sticks, etc., were recounted in letters received from farmers. "The experience of a number of our stockmen that the feeding of bonemeai has improved the health, reproduction, and milk production of their cows is further evidence indicating a phosphorus deficiency in certain cases. In


one of these areas where the feeding of bonemeal proved decidedly beneficial, the prairie hay contained 0.076 percent of P2O5 compared to 0.229 percent or more in normal prairie hay."

''On the basis of analyses feed crops may be somewhat deficient in phosphorus. Analyses of alfalfa hay samples from 15 trial plots in the Red River Valley (1929- 30) ranged from 0.238 to 0.453 percent of phosphoric acid (P2O5), and averaged 0.338 percent {5Ji.O), With the exception of three instances in the first cutting of 1929, application of phosphatic fertilizer caused a material increase in the phosphoric acid content of the hay. This may have been a result of increased leafiness. These percentages, however, tend to range below the generally accepted average of about 0.50 percent for good alfalfa hay." (Q.)

Oregon "While we do not have enough information to draw accurate regional phos-

phorus deficiency maps, we do know that we have sections in which phosphorus deficiency symptoms show up in certain years. Wild and grass hays with phosphorus contents around 0.10-0.13 percent are not especially uncommon. We do not, however, have such striking regional deficiencies as, for example, the phosphorus deficient area in western Minnesota.

''We have a considerable amount of analytical information on alfalfa hay. Perhaps one-third of our phosphorus analyses fall under 0.20 percent P. With very few exceptions, cows fed on alfalfa hay show low inorganic blood phosphorus, but we are inclined to attribute this not so much to the low phosphorus content of the hay as to the high Ca/P ratio [ratio of calcium to phosphorus]." (R.)

Tennessee A continuous area of about 5,000 square miles in one section of Tennessee (the

Cumberland Plateau) is designated as producing crops deficient in minerals. "Animals in that area frequently exhibit the well-known symptoms of mineral deficiency such as chewing of wood, bones, and pasteboard boxes. Lespedeza crops grown there are found to carry only one-third to one-half as much P2O5 as a similar crop grown in other parts of the State w^hich are well supplied with phosphate. There may be other areas, but we do not have information in regard to them." (T.)

Texas "We are conducting extensive investigation upon the relation of forage to the

composition of the soils in this State. The only deficiency that we have found so far is for phosphorus. This has been demonstrated to occur in Harris County as shown in Texas Bulletin No. 344" (U).

In this bulletin {1015) it is reported that bone chewing w^as observed in about three-fourths of a sizable group of experimental range cattle. Feeding of bonemeal to part of the group cured this habit, prevented "creeps," and enabled cows to rear better calves. It is stated that "creeps" is met with frequently in the Gulf Coast region of Texas and on the more sandy soils in other parts of this State and adjoining States.

"Analysis of forages has shown probability of widespread phosphorus deficiency." From a study of the chemical composition of forage grasses of the East Texas Timber Country, an area of about 26,000,000 acres in the northeastern part of Texas, Fraps and Fudge {S87) conclude,

"The work indicates a widespread deficiency of phosphoric acid and a possible deficiency of protein in the forage consumed by range animals in the East Texas Timber Country."

It is thought by Fraps (U) that the phosphorus deficiency in forages is probably of extensive occurrence on upland surface soils that contain 0 to 30 parts per million of active phosphoric acid, and that deficiencies probably occur on some soils in areas where the prevailing soils contain 31 to 100 parts per million. (See (386), p. 76, for map of active phosphoric acid in soils.)

Virginia Bone chewing by cattle was reported in a few localities in Virginia (Washington

and Madison Counties) in replies to a questionnaire on indication of phosphorus deficiency sent out by the Department of Dairy Husbandry of the Virginia


Agricultural Experiment Station to all county agents and veterinarians in the State. Replies were received from 27 counties (V). Holdaway sums up these replies as follows:

"I do not think that we can consider that any section of the State is seriously affected. It appears that there is some deficiency through the Piedmont region and in the counties immediately east of this region, A few isolated cases in the uplands of southwest Virginia are noted, and one or two of the counties also directly adjacent to Tidewater.'^

Wisconsin

'*We have definite knowledge that phosphorus is deficient in Door County, and there may be other areas in the State where there is a deficiency great enough to cause symptoms of malnutrition in cattle, but we do not have the specific information, except in the case of Door County.

''We appreciate that seasonal conditions have a bearing on any phenomenon such as the mineral deficiency of forages * * *.*' (Y.)

Results of investigations of phosphorus deficiency disease in parts of this State have been published by Hart and his associates hi Wisconsin Bulletin 389 {48Ô). Samples of sweetclover hay from the affected area ranged from 0.200 to 0.267 percent in P2O5 content; the single value for alfalfa hay was 0.328 percent.

CALCIUM

Florida

Surveys of Florida are not complete. "Dairy cattle grazed on the cobalt-deficient areas without the use of a calcium

supplement suffer from calcium deficiency" (E). (See Florida under Cobalt.)

Louisiana Lush (I) apparently feels that there is calcium deficiency in portions of Louisi-

ana. He submits and refers to average values of analyses for this element in forage from various areas in the State. However, the forage appears from the average figures given to be higher in calcium than has been found in numerous instances to be adequate. The lowest figure given is apparently 0.202 percent of calcium (=0.283 percent of calcium oxide) in air-dried material. On the map submitted by Lush this is shown as being in Livingston Parish. The figures submitted for the rest of the State were much above this value. (See this State under Phosphorus.)

Nebraska

It is reported that calcium deficiencies occur on quite a number of farms in some areas in Nebraska and are manifested by depraved appetites in cattle, horses, and sheep. It is stated that this condition seems to be corrected by feeding a calcium supplement. (N-7.)

Virginia

It is reported (V) that incidental to his reply to the phosphorus-deficiency questionnaire (see Virginia under Phosphorus), the agent of Lunenburg County, Va.; reported some trouble with dairy cattle and hogs that was diagnosed by veterinarians as calcium deficiency.

West Virginia «* * * ^^e have in recent years had called to our attention, in a few sec-

tions [of West Virginia], conditions of young horses which were apparently due to a lack of calcium in that particular region. Upon changing the roughage used to a good alfalfa hay and in a few cases recommending feeding of minerals, these colts have, over a long period, improved, which would lead us to believe that our diagnosis of the trouble was correct," (X.)


IODINE

California Hart (C) reports on the situation in California as follows: ^*In California we have a definite iodine deficiency in all forms of livestock

along Hat Creek in Shasta County up to the point where it becomes confluent with Rising River. There is no iodine deficiency along Rising River or below where it joins Hat Creek.

"This area is the most definitely iodine deficient area that we have found. How^- ever, there have been isolated cases of dead young animals with swollen throats reported in the lava bed areas in Modoc and Lassen Counties, but we have not followed them up.

"The fact that Rising River showed no cases while Hat Creek has such a serious deficiency until it becomes confluent with Rising River was very interesting. Since we have the livestock men educated to the proper use of iodine along Hat Creek no difficulty has been experienced."

Colorado It is reported that while there are indications of iodine deficiency in Colorado,

"they are not sufiiciently great nor sufliciently localized to iôint to any locations of aggravated deficiency.-' (D.)

Idaho The entire State of Idaho is stated to be on the border line of being iodine

deficient. Counties in which iodine deficiency among livestock has occurred have been indicated as Franklin, Gooding, Lincoln, Custer, Lemhi, Latah, and Bonner.

í<* * * I believe that iodine is about the only mineral in Idaho that is deficient in the natural feeds produced. We have an area around Salmon and Challis, Idaho, where we have had considerable trouble with hairlessness in pigs and big neck in calves. The feeding of iodine supplements has in all cases cured this nutritional deficiency, which points definitely to the lack of iodine." (F.)

Iowa <i* * * {-^ }âs been noted that goitre conditions are more prevalent in

lambs and calves in northeastern Iowa than in other sections of the State. "No data are available that make it possible to fix the limits of this area." Good results from feeding iodine in some experiments at the Iowa station

(SSê, 3Ô4) "might be interpreted as suggesting an iodine deficiency in Iowa rations or water." (G.)

IVIichigan

"A deficiency of iodine as indicated by a prevalence of goiter is also rather widespread in Michigan. The situation jg * * * iôt general, as the disease may be found in the cattle on one farm but not on an adjoining farm. Undoubt- edly, feeding practices are a determining factor in iodine deficiency on Michigan farms.

"Dr. Kimball (627) made a study of the iodine content of Michigan waters and reports as follows: No iodine found in samples from northern counties; 0.5 p. p. b. [parts per billion] of iodii;ie in samples from central counties; 7.3 p. p. b. of iodine in waters from south central counties; 8.7 p. p. b. of iodine in samples of water from southern counties." (K.)

Minnesota "Mention should be made of the fact that iodine deficiency is undoubtedly

prevalent in many spots in the State of Minnesota. Whether forage, grain, or water supplies are chiefly responsible has not been determined. No survey of the incidence of iodine deficiency in the State has been made and wê have, as yet, made no chemical studies of the iodine content of the crops grown in various sections of the State." (L.)


Montana As determined by the presence of goiter, roughly one-third to one-half of the area

of Montana is indicated as iodine deficient. This area is nearly continuous and is situated principally in the eastern, southeastern, and central-southern parts of the State. There are a few very small scattered areas west of the Divide.

"Throughout these areas, and especially in central-eastern Montana, newborn livestock of all types are likely to be affected with goiter. The use of iodized stock salt has completely controlled losses from this source. Areas of iodine deficiency can be much more sharply defined than those of phosphorus deficiency as climatic conditions seem to have no relation to goiter occurrence." (M.)

Several Montana publications (IWly 1202, 1204) are referred to as dealing with iodine deficiency in farm animals.

Nebraska It is reported that there is occasional evidence of goiter in dairy calves in Ne-

braska. (N-4.) Nevada

Based on observation for approximately 25 years of the situation in Nevada in regard to mineral deficiencies, the following opinion is reported with regard to iodine:

There is definite evidence of iodine deficiency as manifested by occasional goitrous calves in two very small areas—one in the southern part of Washoe County and one in the western part of Ormsby County.

"This manifestation of iodine deficiency has, however, been periodic rather than continuous, and it has not been a problem of much practical importance. It is our opinion, though based largely on geologic observations and analogy, that all of this State is probably a border-line iodine deficiency area. The fact that our livestock have not shown more gross evidence of this may well be due to the widespread use of iodized salt for stock salting purposes." (O.)

North Dakota Reports from various parts of North Dakota indicate that the occurrence of

hairlessness in pigs and goiter in farm animals is sufficiently widespread to justify the feeding of iodine as a general practice. (Q) (206).

"In North Dakota the birth of hairless pigs is more common than the birth of calves or lambs with 'big neck,' or the birth of weak, goitered foals. In general, the frequency and severity of the occurrence in the State increases from east to west. In the eastern part of the State hairless litters may occur only once in 4 or 5 years; whereas, in the western part, hairless litters occur every year, and the goiter in other farm animals is also more prevalent. Goiter appears to be more prevalent after long, cold winters" (206).

Iodine deficiency in farm animals in North Dakota is discussed in publications (206) and (IO4O). The latter contains a map showing the occurrence of litters of hairless pigs in various years, as reported by county agents: some counties did not, however, have agents. The information on this map was presented on the map submitted with the reply from North Dakota and has been incorporated into the United States map showing iodine deficiency in livestock (fig. 2, p. 1030).

Oregon Regarding the incidence in Oregon of goiter in livestock, it is stated, "While

goiter is found over widely scattered areas, there are, however, a number of approximately defined regions in which goiter occurs much more frequently." The center of most severe goiter occurrence is indicated as an area consisting roughly of the northw^est half of Deschutes County and the adjoining southwest one-third to one-half of Jefferson County, and is bordered by areas of less severe occurrence. "Parts of the upper Deschutes basin can undoubtedly be classed as severely goitrous." There is a considerable area, not sharply defined or thickly settled, in Wallowa County, chiefly in the southwest half. A third area, varying from border-line to moderately severe, is indicated in the western part of the State; it is composed roughly of the western halves of Multnomah, Clackamas, Marion, and Linn Counties, the central third of Lane County, practically all of Benton County, and the eastern halves of Polk and Yamhill Counties.


In the goitrous sections, the use of iodine medication has greatly reduced the losses from this deficiency.

The following iodine analyses and comments on livestock relative to them are given :

"Drinking water of glacial origin (Mount Hood) contains 0.1 p, p. b. or less of iodine. Corvallis city water (mountain springs and small streams) contains some 0.3 p. p. b. of iodine. Local valley streams (ground water) contain some 1.5 p. p. b. of iodine. Local hays (slightly goitrous area) contain some 75 to 100 p. p. b. of iodine. A sample of alfalfa hay from a very goitrous area contained 45 p. p. b. Local barley contains 3 p. p. b. or less of iodine. Barn-fed animals on local feedstuffs and CorvalHs city water are goitrous. Animals on local pastures and local valley streams are borderline with respect to goiter.

"On the college farm, using Corvallis city water, goiter in barn-fed animals is sufficiently severe so that when the use of iodine is discontinued for some 3 to 6 months, goiter is observed in the newborn. This is especially true of horses." (R.)

Texas No extensive study has been made of the iodine problem in Texas; however,

there are as yet no indications of any serious deficiency of this element (U). Schmidt {ÎOÏÔ) states that in Texas as a rule the animal finds enough iodine available in the food it consumes, though some regions are known where this is not the case.

Washington "Sufficient work has been done in the field of investigating iodine deficiency

that we know definitely that this exists in the State of Washington. Our so-called goitrous belt, although it has not been carefully charted, is confined largely to the eastern slope of the Cascade Mountains along the valleys of the Columbia River and its tributaries, and the condition is evident by simple goiter occurring in newborn domestic animals, particularly goats, sheep, hogs, cattle, and horses * * * . There is also evident a lesser degree of iodine deficiency on the western slope of the Cascade Mountains. Since the almost universal use of iodine, or its salts, in the treatment of pregnant females in domestic animals, very little simple goiter is observable in these goitrous areas." (W.)

This subject has been discussed bv Kalkus in Washington Agricultural Experi- ment Station Bulletin 156 (605) (W-1).

Wisconsin Wisconsin reports "iodine deficiency at times experienced in various parts of

Wisconsin." "We have noted at times that a long, hard winter has accentuated trouble from the iodine deficiencies in livestock." (Y.)

Iodine deficiencies have been reported bv Hart and Steeiibock in Wisconsin Bulletin 297 (4<9i),

Wyoming There is a reported iodine deficiency in certain areas in northern Wyoming,

particularly in the northeast region of Park County, in the northw^est region of Big Horn County, and in the northern part of Sheridan County. No research has been done to establish the boundaries of this area. The general picture is formed merely from reports of goiter in lambs and a few hairless pigs, conditions which seem to be eliminated by feeding iodized mineral. (Z.)

COBALT

Florida "Surveys are not complete but indications based on observation of cattle

indicate" at the present time a considerable cobalt-deficient area in Florida, more or less continuous in extent, encompassing roughly the northern, central, and south-central parts of the State and restricted areas along the northern Gulf coast.

In commenting upon this, it is stated: "Cobalt deficient soils include the lighter sandy soils, very few of which are low^-lying. The proportion of definitely affected land will vary from 10 to 75 percent" in the area. "Adjacent ranges may be deficient or healthy." (E.)


Massachusetts (See under Iron.)

COPPER

Florida "Surveys are not complete but indications based on observation of cattle indi-

cate" at present a few restricted copper-deficient areas in north and south central Florida. In regard to this, it is stated, ''Copper deficient soils include many of those high in organic matter, and in addition certain other sandy soils." (E.)

IRON

Massachusetts **There is only one region of rather limited area in our vState [Massachusetts]

where a specific mineral deficiency has been demonstrated. As indicated roughly * * * this area is confined to the coastal region around Buzzards Bay, Vine- yard Sound, and portions of Cape Cod Bay." While this area represents sections where cases of this mineral deficiency in cattle have actually been located, it is thought probable that the deficiency occurs through the whole coastal region in the southeastern section of the State.

''This deficiency, we believe to be of iron but some more recent work at the Wisconsin station and in Australia and New Zealand suggests it mav possibly be cobalt." (J.)

Results of investigation of this deficiency in cattle have been reported by Archi- bald and his associates (29).

EXCESS MINERALS

FLUORINE

Arkansas A small continuous area in the central part of Arkansas is indicated as a bauxite-

producing section. (This area encompasses small portions each of Pulaski, Saline, and Grant Counties, located respectively in the southwestern, southeastern, and northeastern parts of these counties.)

"We have considerable evidence which leads us to believe that there is an excess of fluorine in feeds produced in this area." (B.)

California Although drinking water was not mentioned in the form letter of inquiry sent

to the States, California reported as follows: "We * * * have found small quantities of fluorine in certain warm springs

in Modoc County which has been present in sufficient quantities to cause trouble with the teeth of cattle." (C.)

Other Reports A very few other States reported that while in some localities there were quanti-

ties of fluorine in the drinking water sufficient to cause mottled teeth among the human population, no injurious effects on livestock from this element were known in these localities. (See the section on Fluorine in the article Mineral Needs of Man, p. 187.)

SELENIUM

Nebraska *'So far as I am aware, the only areas of Nebraska in which selenium is sufficiently

abundant to be toxic to animals (fig. 3) include some of the soils developing from Cretaceous formations—Pierre shale and Niobrara chalk—in Boyd, Keyapaha, and Knox Counties. The most troublesome area is in the vicinitv of Lvnch, Nebr." (N-5.) ...


South Dakota The situation in South Dakota is indicated by the map (fig, 4) and the state-

ment accompanying it, both, of which were submitted by I. B, Johnson (S).

Wyoming Survey of Wyoming to determine the location of selenium in quantities large

enough to cause damage to livestock has not been completed. The places indicated on the map (fig. 5) represent "various localities and

counties where selenium has been found in forage, and where there seems to be definite injury to animals caused by it." (Z.)

Occurrence of selenium and seleniferous vegetation in the State are discussed in Wyoming Bulletin 221 {74, 639).

Statement on Effects on Livestock of Selenium in Forage

In addition, several States referred to H. G. Byors and his associates in the Bureau of Plant Industry of this Department and to their extensive work on

Figure 3,—Reported occurrence of seleiihim poisoning in Nebraska. Within the shaded counties (Keyapha, Boyd, and Knox) localities are reported in which selenium is sufficiently abundant to be toxic to animals. See text for further explanation.

(Map prepared fron] data submitted by F. A. Hayes (N-5).)

surveys of selenium in soils and related topics {181, 182, 183, 1226) for information concerning the relation of selenium in forage to harmful effects on livestock. Dr. Byers was therefore requested to make a general statement concerning the relation of selenium in soils and plants to resulting animal injury. This he kindly consented, to do. His statement follows:

*'It has been abundantly demonstrated that there are nun:ierous areas m certain of the Great Plains and Mountain States which produce seleniferous vegetation. Tlie term 'seleniferous vegetation' is to be understood as referring to plants containing sufficient selenium so that if eaten in adequate cpiantities by animals definite physiological disturbance follows.

''For the most part highly seleniferous vegetation consists of plant species not normally consumed by animals. When normal forage or food crops are toxic by reason of selenium, there is a wide variatioii in toxicity between different plant species grown under essentially identical conditions and between difi'erent samples of the same materials grown at different points within limited areas. Even in the areas most severely affected it appears that by no means all the vegetation is poisonous. The concentration of selenium in a given plant also varies seasonally,

''Because of variables of the type mentioned, and because animals native to a region learn to avoid highly toxic vegetation except when driven by hunger, animal injury is of variable intensity even in narrovvdy restricted areas. The


field workers on the occurrence and distribution of selenium have observed many cases of 'alkah disease^ (selenium poisoning), but only in a few cases have competent post mortem, or other examinations definitely established the cause of the injury. No real effort has as yet been made to evaluate the extent of animal injury due to selenium. It does not appear possible to definitely delimit on maps those areas in w^hich selenium poisoning is a serious problem. Selenium appears to be present to some extent in all plants and is therefore, of necessity, a factor in the animal diet. It is definitely injurious to animals when ingested in sufficient quantity. Whether in. sufficiently minute quantities it may be considered as an essential element in either plant or animal nutrition is not known/^

Figure 4.—Reported occurrence of selenium poisoning in South Dakota. The black area is, generally speaking, the most seleniferous part of South Dakota. Within this area are included the majority of the farms or ranches where selenium poisoning is a major problem. Because the map is generalized, it may give the impression that all of the black area is seleniferous and that all farmers or ranchers within the area suffer losses from selenium poisoning. Such is not the case. Much of the land included in this area does not produce seleniferous vegetation, and many of the farmers have suffered no losses from the disease. However, within this area, selenium poisoning constitutes a greater problem than it does in any other similar area in the Stale. Cases of selenium poisoning may be found in the western part of the State outside of this area. However, these cases are scattered and usually less severe, and losses constitute less of a problem tiian they do in the black area. The boundaries of the black area were made on the basis of geological, soil, and plant data, and the actual occurrence of the disease, as reported since the beginning of the project. In some parts they may indicate an exact boundary between seleniferous and nonseleniferous land, but for the most part they indicate a transition zone. (Map and legend submitted

by I. B. Johnson (S).)

CYANIDES *

Colorado In the reply from Colorado, the following statement was included: "Toxic alkaloids, glycosides, and cyanides in range plants account each year

for appreciable losses of livestock in this State." (D.)

^ The writer in classing cyanides as minerals realizes that the classification is questionable in this case.

141394°—39 67


W Y 0 M I N

Figure 5.—Reported occurrence of selenium poisoning in Wyoming. "S" indicates general localities where selenium injurv to livestock has been reported. (Map

submitted by J. A. Hill (Z).)

KEY LIST OF INDIVIDUALS REPLYING TO LETTER OF INQUIRY

(A) Arizona. A. H. Walker, assistant animal husbandman. Agricultural Experiment

Station, Tucson. (B) Arkansas,

W. R. Horlaclier, head of animal industry department, Agricultural Exj)er- iment Station, Fayetteville.

(C) California. George H. Hart, head of animal industry division, Agricultural Experi-

ment Station, Davis. (D) Colorado.

J. W. Tobiska, head of chemistry research department, Agricultural Experiment Station, Fort Collins.

(E) Florida. Wilmon Newell, director, Agricultural Experiment Station, Gainesville.

(Conference held with members of staff.) (F) Idaho.

W. M. Beeson, associate professor of animal husbandry, College of Agri- culture, University of Idaho, Moscow.

(G) Iowa. W. H. Stevenson, vice director. Agricultural Experiment Station, Ames.

(Transmitted report of a station committee, members not named.) (H) Kansas.

J. S. Hughes, professor of chemistry, and animal Tuitritionist, Agricultural Experiment Station, Manhattan.

(I) Louisiana. R. H. Lush, dairy husbandman in charge of dairy research, Agricultural

Experiment Station, University.


(J) Massachusetts. J. G. Archibald, research professor of animal husbandry.. Agricultural

Experiment Station, Amhcrst, (K) Michigan.

C. E. Millar, head of soils department, Agricultural Experiment Station, East Lansing. (Conferred with C. F. Huffman, research associate in dairj^ husbandry.)

(L) Minnesota. W. C. Coiîey, director, Agricultural Experiment Station, University

Farm, St. Paul. (M) Montana.

H. Welch, research veterinarian, Agricultural Experiment Station, Bozeman.

(M-1) Edmund Burke, head of chemistry department. Agricultural Experiment Station, Bozeman.

(N) Nebraska. Wm. J. Loeffel, acting chairman, animal husbandry department, Agricul-

tural Experiment Station, Lincoln. Professor Loeffel conferred with the members of the staff and quoted statements from the following in his reply:

(N-1) C. W. Ackerson, associate professor and assistant agricultural chemist;

(N-2) M. L. Baker, animal husbandman. North Platte substation; (N-3) E. M. Brouse, superintendent, Valentine substation; (N-4) H. P. Davis, professor and chairman of dairy husbandry

department ; (N-o) F. A. Hayes, professor of soil science, cooperating with the

United States Department of Agriculture; (N-6) F. E. Mussehl, professor and chairman of poultry husbandry

department ; (N-7) R. R. Thalman, associate professor, in charge beef cattle

investigations; (N-8) L. Van Es, professor and chairman of animal pathology and

hygiene department; (N-9) M. D. Weldon, associate professor, in charge soils research.

(O) Nevada. Edward Records, head of department of veterinary science, Agricultural

Experiment Station, Reno. (P) New Mexico.

W. E. Watkins, nutrition chemist and associate in animal husbandry, Agricultural Experiment Station, State College.

(Q) North Dakota. F. W. Christensen, professor and chairman of department of animal and

human nutrition. Agricultural Experiment Station, State College Sta- tion, Fargo. (Transmitted a typewTitten report, ''The Phosphate Situation in North Dakota," by T. H. Hopper, F. W. Christensen, and T. E. Stoa, all of the North Dakota station, from which quoted matter and some of the statements in the text w^ere taken.)

(R) Oregon. J. R. Haag, nutrition chemist, x\gricultural Experiment Station, Corvallis.

(S) South Dakota. I. B. Johnson, director, Agricultural Experiment Station, Brookings.

(T) Tennessee. C. A. Mooers, director, Agricultural Experiment Station, Knoxville.

(U) Texas. G. S. Fraps, chief of chemistry division and State chemist. Agricultural

Experiment Station, College Station. (V) Virginia.

C. W. Holdaway, head, department of dairy husbandry, Agricultural Experiment Station, Blacksburg.

(W) Washington. J. W. Kalkus, superintendent. Western Washington Agricultural Experi-

ment Station, Puyallup. (W-1) J. C^ Knott, associate professor, department of dairy hus-

bandry, State College of Washington, Pullman.


(X) West Virginia. E. A. Livesay, head of animal husbandry department, Agricultural Exper-

iment Station, Morgantown. (Y) Wisconsin.

Noble Clark, associate director, Agricultural Experiment Station, Mad- ison.

(Z) Wyoming. J. A. Hill, director, Agricultural Experiment Station, Laramie.

deficient and excess minerals in forage in the …

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