Mid Term Review- The American Experience

Colonial American/ American Revolution:

Significance of Great Awakening (1739-1744): Puritanism had declined by the 1730s, and people were upset about the decline in religious piety. The Great Awakening was a sudden outbreak of religious fervor that swept through the colonies. John Peter Zenger Trial (1750): First freedom of Speech proceedings, Zenger gets off the hook for writing unflattering things about the royal governor, William Crosby.Common Sense: Thomas Paine published the pamphlet Common Sense in 1776, in which argued that the colonists should free themselves from British rule and establish an independent government based on Enlightenment ideals - one that would protect man's natural rights. Common Sense became so popular that many historians credit it with dissolving the final barriers to the fight for independence.Virtual Representation vs. Actual Representation: Virtual representation means that a representative is not elected by his constituents, but he resembles them in his political beliefs and goals. Actual representation means that a representative is elected by his constituents. The colonies only had virtual representation in the British government.Battle of Saratoga: After the British had captured Fort Ticonderoga in July 1777 his troops ran into trouble and became exhausted and supplies ran short. He then sent an expedition to Bennington to capture American supplies but a force of New England militia met them and defeated them. The Continental Army surrounded his men near Saratoga, where he surrendered. This battle was the turning point of the war and convinced France to aid the American cause.Declaration of Independence: made by the Second Continental Congress on July 4, 1776. It established the 13 colonies as independent states, free from the rule of Great Britain. Written mainly by Thomas Jefferson. It first stated that all men are created equal and God endows them with the rights to "life, liberty, and the pursuit of happiness".Causes of Mercantilism: Mercantilism was a theory of trade stressing that a nation's economic strength depended on exporting more than it imported. British mercantilism manifested itself in triangular trade and in laws passed between the mid-1600s and the mid-1700s, such as the Navigation Acts (1651-1673), aimed at fostering British economic dominance.French and Indian War (1756-1763): Part of the Seven Years' War in Europe. Britain and France fought for control of the Ohio Valley and Canada. The Algonquin’s, who feared British expansion into the Ohio Valley, allied with the French. The Mohawks also fought for the French while the rest of the Iroquois Nation allied with the British. The colonies fought under British commanders. Britain eventually won, and gained control of all of the remaining French possessions in Canada, as well as India. Spain, which had allied with France, ceded Florida to Britain, but received Louisiana in return.Proclamation of 1763: A proclamation from the British government that forbade British colonists from settling west of the Appalachian Mountains, and which required any settlers already living west of the mountains to move back east.Stamp Act: March 22, 1765 - British legislation passed as part of Prime Minister Grenville's revenue measures which required that all legal or official documents used in the colonies, such as wills, deeds and contracts, had to be written on special, stamped British paper. It was so unpopular in the colonies that it caused riots, and most of the stamped paper sent to the colonies from Britain was burned by angry mobs. Because of this opposition, and the decline in British imports caused by the non- importation movement, London merchants convinced Parliament to repeal the Stamp Act in 1766.

Townshend Acts: Another series of revenue measures, passed by Townshend as Chancellor of the Exchequer in 1767, they taxed quasi-luxury items imported into the colonies, including paper, lead, tea, and paint. The colonial reaction was outrage and they instituted another movement to stop importing British goods. First Continental Congress: (1774) Delegates form 12 Colonies sent representatives to Philadelphia to decide on action, if any, against Britain should be taken.

The Constitution/Early Republic:

Significance of Shay’s Rebellion: a rebellion by debtor farmers in western Massachusetts, led by Revolutionary War Captain Daniel Shays, against Boston creditors. It began in 1786 and lasted half a year, threatening the economic interests of the business elite and contributing to the demise of the Articles of Confederation. The Federalist’s Papers: This book was made up of 85 essays that were written by Alexander Hamilton, James Madison, and John Jay. They were passed out as essays to support the ratification of the Constitution.Constitution:Bill of Rights: Although the Anti-Federalists failed to block the ratification of the Constitution, they did ensure that the Bill of Rights would be created to protect individuals from government interference and possible tyranny. The Bill of Rights, drafted by a group led by James Madison, consisted of the first ten amendments to the Constitution, which guaranteed the civil rights of American citizens.Hamilton’s Economic Plan: It was created by Alexander Hamilton to stabilized the American economy. It consisted of federal assumption of all debts, including state and federal debts. Along with this, he proposed the chartering of the U.S. bank to help restore American credit.Assumption: Transfer of debt from one party to another; federal government assumed states' Revolutionary War debts in 1790crucial for Hamilton's plan to have wealthy Americans provide support for national administrationExcise Tax: Tax on goods produced domesticallyWhiskey Rebellion (1794): The small farmers of western Pennsylvania rose up in rebellion against an excise tax on whiskey. This tax fell heavily on western farmers who condensed their corn to whiskey. They reused to pay the tax, attacked tax collectors, and began a march to Pittsburgh. President Washington sent 13000 and the rebels' protest quickly ended.Jay’s Treaty: This was a treaty between Britain and America, which required Britain to withdraw her troops from the Northwest Posts in exchange for many more concession from America. The Treaty was so unfavorable for the U.S. that it barely was ratified by the StateLand Ordinances of 1785: Legislation passed by congress authorizing surveys and the division of public lands in the western region of the country, a law that divided much of the United States into a system of townships to facilitate the sale of land to settlers.Northwest Ordinance of 1787: Created the Northwest Territory (area north of the Ohio River and west of Pennsylvania), established conditions for self-government and statehood, included a Bill of Rights, and permanently prohibited slavery.Judiciary Act of 1789: It created effective federal courts in a hierarchical order. There were city, county, and state courts, along with circuit courts, and the Supreme Court. The Supreme Court was the highest court in the U.S. The act defined each court's jurisdiction and method of appeal.Washington’s Farewell Address:

XYZ Affair: During her war against other European nations, France began to seize goods from neutral American cargo ships. John Marshall, Elbridge Gerry, and C.C. Pinckney, U.S. representatives attempted to meet with French Foreign Minister Talleyrand to settle the dispute. However, anonymous French ministers X, Y, and Z required a loan of 32 million florins and $250,000 in cash to even consider negotiations. Americans demanded war after this incident.Alien Act: It increased the residence requirements to become a citizen from 5 years to 14 years. It empowered the president to deport dangerous (ant-Federalist) foreigners and authorized the imprisonment of aliens during war.Sedition Act: It stated that any opposition to the legal measures of the government or slander of the government could be punished by both a heavy fine and imprisonment.Virginia and Kentucky Resolutions: states were final arbiters of whether federal government overstepped its boundaries; could nullify/refuse to accept national legislation they deemed unconstitutionalCompact Theory of Government: supported by Jefferson and Madison. This meant the thirteen states, had entered into a contract about its jurisdiction, that the individual states were the final judges of the national government's actions. The theory was the basis for the Virginia and Kentucky Resolutions passed in 1798. It was used to try to stop the Federalist abuses like the Alien and Sedition Acts.Republican Motherhood: selfless devotion of a mother to her family was often cited as the very model of proper republican behavior; elevated women to a newly prestigious role as the special keepers of the nation's conscience.Judicial review: John Marshall of the Supreme Court, proposed judicial review, which gave the Supreme Court the power to decide if a law is or is not constitutional. Judicial review was accepted as a result of the famous case of Marbury vs. Madison, and John Marshall succeeded in giving increased power to the Supreme Court.Battle of New Orleans: January 1815 - A large British invasion force was repelled by Andrew Jackson's troops at New Orleans. The French pirate, Jean Laffite, had given Jackson the details of the British army’s battle plans. About 2500 British soldiers were killed or captured, while in the American army only 8 men were killed. Neither side knew that the Treaty of Ghent had ended the War of 1812 two weeks before the battle. This victory inspired American nationalismIdentify Great Compromise: this plan was a compromise between the Virginia and the New Jersey Plans. It formed a bicameral legislature that consisted of the House of Representatives (representation based on state population) and the Senate (which had two representatives from each state). It also made money bills start from the HouseVirginia Plan: This plan, written by James Madison and introduced by Edmund Randolph, called for the establishment of membership proportional to population, voting in the legislature by individuals, and a president and courts chosen by the legislature.New Jersey Plan: this plan was William Paterson's counterproposal to the Virginia Plan. It enlarged the powers of Congress to include the right to levy taxes, and regulate commerce. It defined congressional laws and treaties and the "supreme law of the land," and it had separate executive and judicial branchesThree-Fifths Compromise:Articles of Confederation:

Strengths: concluded revolutionary war with treaty of Paris in 1783, kept states together with common national citizenship, settled question of western land claimsWeaknesses: 9 states needed to ratify a bill before it became a law, all states needed to accept an amendment, little or no enforcement of laws, no foreign policy, states printed own currency, federal government couldn't tax, no federal army, no judicial system, no national compulsive power over states

9 th Amendment: The enumeration in the Constitution, of certain rights, shall not be construed to deny or disparage others retained by the people-Every citizen is protected by the rights not directly stated in the Constitution10 th Amendment: Powers not delegated to the US by the Constitution are reserved to the states or to the peopleNapoleon’s reasons for selling Louisiana: He had suffered misfortunes in Santo Domingo, he hoped that the territory would one day help America to thwart the ambitions of the British, he did not want to drive America into the arms of the British and yellow fever killed many of his soldiers. Embargo Act: The Embargo Act of 1807 was a law passed by Congress forbidding all exportation of goods from the United States. Britain and France had been continuously harassing the U.S. and seizing U.S. ship's and men. The U.S. was not prepared to fight in a war, so Pres. Jefferson hoped to weaken Britain and France by stopping trade. The Embargo Act ended up hurting our economy more than theirs. It was repealed in 1809. The Embargo Act helped to revive the Federalists. It caused New England's industry to grow. It eventually led to the War of 1812.War Hawks: Western settlers who advocated war with Britain because they hoped to acquire Britain's northwest posts (and also Florida or even Canada) and because they felt the British were aiding the Indians and encouraging them to attack the Americans on the frontier. In Congress, the War Hawks were Henry Clay and John C. Calhoun.Doves: advocated for peace and supported lack of military pressure to solve a conflict.

The Antebellum Period:

Significance of-Erie Canal: it was the gateway for migration to the west and a trade route for trappers to ship their pelts east; helped economy grow-Monroe Doctrine: an address from President James Monroe that stated that European Nations should not longer expect to colonize the Americas; it became a primary tenant of US foreign policy and established America's desire to be viewed as an international power-Missouri Compromise(1820): Involved the regulation of slavery in the territories of the west by the 36/30 degree line; became a precedent for settling subsequent North and South disagreements over slavery and duty issues-Clay's American System: consisted of a tariff to protect and promote the American industry, a national bank to foster commerce, and federal subsidies for roads, canals, and other "internal improvements" to develop profitable markets for agriculture; example of a government sponsored program to harmonize and balance the nation's agriculture, commerce, and industry-Corrupt Bargain: Marked the final collapse of the Republican-Federalist political framework; neither candidate won the majority of electoral votes so the House of Representatives had to choose between the top two (Jackson and Adams). Clay, the Speaker of the House, hated Jackson, so he picked Adams, even though Jackson was more popular with the people.-Jacksonian Democracy: the political movement towards greater democracy for the common man symbolized by the american politician Andrew Jackson; allowed the common man to have a say as well -Tariff of Abomination: A protective tariff passed by the Congress designed to protect industry in the northern U.S.; labeled the tariff of abominations because it had negative effects on the southern economy; the reaction in the south (particularly in South Carolina) led to the Nullification Crisis-Nullification: When the U.S. wanted to enforce tariffs but South Carolina nullified them because they so negatively affected their economy; important because it showed the differences between the North and the South; showed how taxes and politics and economy were quite different between the two;-Force Bill: refers to the legislation enacted by congress during the Nullification Crisis; passed by congress due to urging from President Jackson, the force bill consisted of eight sections expanding presidential power; designed to compel the state of South Carolina's compliance with the tariffs; the legislation;s significance is that it showed that executive power can override that of a states-Indian Removal Act: all natives were forcibly removed from their homes and relocated to reservations in Oklahoma by President Jackson; established U.S. policy towards Indians for the future; first major treaty violation by the U.S.; showed the Indians that the

white man and his government could not be trusted-John Marshall's Court Decisions: Established Judicial Review through the court case Marbury Vs. Madison ( Judicial Review is the power of a court to review the constitutionality of a statute or treaty, or the review an administrative regulation for consistency with either a statue, a treaty, or the Constitution itself-Second Great Awakening: Important because it revived the emotional side of religion and was a reaction against rationalism and the enlightenment; promoted reform movements like temperance

Identify-Transcendentalism: a literary and philosophical movement asserting the knowledge of an ideal spiritual reality that transcends the empirical and scientific and is knowable through intuition-Emerson: Major transcendentalist writer -Cooper: Major transcendentalist writer -Thoreou: Major transcendentalist writer -Irving: Major transcendentalist writer -Fuller: Major transcendentalist writer -Female Reformers: -Abolitionists:-Suffragettes: Susan B. Anthony, Elizabeth Cady Stanton, -Dorthea Dix: U.S. reformer who pioneered in the reform of prisons and in the treatment of the mentally ill-Temperance Movement: A movement in the U.S. that prohibited all alcoholic products on the grounds that they were sinful and had destructive effects on the drinker; laws were passed that prohibited alcohol but the laws were difficult to enforce and public support for the laws quickly faded -William Lloyd Garrison: Publisher of the anti slavery newspaper The Liberator and founder of the American Anti-Slavery Society; one of the most fiery and outspoken abolitionists of the Civil War period-Frederick Douglas: Former slave who wrote The Narrative of the Life of Frederick Douglas, an autobiography about his own life, and opened the eyes of many to the horrors and brutalities of slavery, playing a key role in the events leading up to the civil war-Nativism: A policy, especially seen in the U.S. during the 19th century, where the interests of established inhabitants are favored over those of immigrants-Manifest Destiny circa 1850: the mindset that Americans should territorially expand -Wilmot Proviso: 1846; an attempt by opponents of slavery to prevent its introduction in the territories bought from Mexico following the Mexican War; was named after its sponsor David Wilmot; it never did pass, but it did start an intense national debate over slavery that led to the creation of the antislavery Republican Party in 1854-Gadsden Purchase: An area in the southern part of New Mexico and Arizona, was purchased by the U.S. from Mexico in 1853 to ensure territorial rights for a practicable souther railroad route to the Pacific coast (basically made making a railroad a lot easier)-Compromise of 1850: A series of 5 bills that were intended to stave off sectional strife; its goal was to deal with the spread of slavery to territories in order to keep northern and southern interests in balance. (California entered as free sate, New Mexico and Utah allowed to use popular sovereignty to determine if free or slave state, Texas gave up land to New Mexico and paid off debt to Mexico, slave trade abolished in District of Columbia, Fugitive Slave Act put into play) *played a major role in delaying the start of the civil war until 1861-Popular Sovereignty: A doctrine in political theory that government is created by and subject to the will of the people; a pre-civil war doctrine asserting the right of the people living in a newly organized territory to decide by vote whether or not slavery would be permitted there-Bleeding Kansas:-John Brown: white american abolitionist who believed armed insurrection was the only way to overthrow the insitution of slavery in the U.S.; was quite violent and killed quite a few people-Dred Scott Decision: an 1857 Supreme Court case that ruled the already superseded Missouri Compromise was unconstitutional and that neither congress nor territorial legislatures could limit slavery in U.S. territories, and that slaves were not free nor considered citizens; a key contributor to the start of the civil war

Civil War/Reconstruction:

- Emancipation Proclamation: The proclamation represented a shift in the war objectives of the North—reuniting the nation was no

longer the only goal. It represented a major step toward the ultimate abolition of slavery in the United States and a "new birth of freedom"- Battle of Antietam: The Battle of Antietam forced the Confederate Army to retreat back across the Potomac River. President Abraham Lincoln saw the significance of this and issued the famous Emancipation Proclamation on September 22, 1862- Battle of Gettysburg: Robert E. Lee attempted and failed to invade the North in a move designed to take pressure off of Virginia and possibly earn a victory that could end the war. The failure of Pickett’s Charge meant that the South had lost. The loss for the South was demoralizing, and General Lee never again attempted to invade the North on this grand scale- Battle of Vicksburg: the Battle of Vicksburg was the turning point in the American Civil War. It was the first major loss of the Confederate armies, which ceded control of a very strategic point along a river that was used as a very important supply route for the Confederate Army, and once the supply route was cut off, it became very difficult for the Confederate Army to sustain the fight. It was also the site of a mass surrender of Confederate Army troops.- Compromise of 1877: The Compromise of 1877 settled the dispute of the 1876 Presidential election. The Compromise also ended Reconstruction in the South. Rutherford B. Hayes was named as President.- Advantages of the South: defending their homeland gave them a strong reason to fight, had skills that made them good soldiers, many of the best officers in the US were from the South- Advantages of the North: had almost 4 times as many free citizens, had many people to grow food and to work in factories making supplies, had more than 70% of the nation's rail lines, had a strong navy and a large fleet of private trading ships- Disadvantages of the South: Had few factories to produce weapons, railroad tracts, and other supplies, had few railroads to move troops and vital supplies, the South had a small population, about 9 million lived in the Confederacy and 22 million in the Union, more than 1/3rd of the population was enslaved; therefore they had fewer people that could be soldiers- Disadvantages of the North: Northern soldiers had to conquer a huge area to bring the South back into the Union, they were invading unfamiliar land- Lincoln Reconstruction Plan: A general amnesty would be granted to all who would take an oath of loyalty to the United States and pledge to obey all federal laws pertaining to slavery, high Confederate officials and military leaders were to be temporarily excluded from the process, when one tenth of the number of voters who had participated in the 1860 election had taken the oath within a particular state, then that state could launch a new government and elect representatives to Congress- Initial Congressional Plan: A state must have a majority within its borders take the oath of loyalty, a state must formally abolish slavery, no Confederate officials could participate in the new governments- Andrew Johnson Reconstruction Plan: Pardons would be granted to those taking a loyalty oath, no pardons would be available to high Confederate officials and persons owning property valued in excess of $20,000, a state needed to abolish slavery before being readmitted, a state was required to repeal its secession ordinance before being readmitted- Radical Republican Reconstruction Plan: On the political front, the Republicans wanted to maintain their wartime agenda, which included support for protective tariffs, pro-business national banking system, liberal land policies for settlers, federal aid for railroad development- Freedmen's Bureau: U.S. Bureau of Refugees, Freedmen, and Abandoned Lands, established by Congress to provide practical aid to 4,000,000 newly freed black Americans in their transition from slavery to freedom. Headed by Major General Oliver O. Howard, the Freedmen’s Bureau might be termed the first federal welfare agency. Despite handicaps of inadequate funds and poorly trained personnel, the bureau built hospitals for, and gave direct medical assistance to, more than 1,000,000 freedmen. More than 21,000,000 rations were distributed to impoverished blacks as well as whites- 13th Amendment: Abolished slavery- 14th Amendment: State and federal citizenship for all persons regardless of race both born or naturalized in the United States was reaffirmed, no state would be allowed to abridge the "privileges and immunities" of citizens, no person was allowed to be deprived of life, liberty,or property without "due process of law", no person could be denied "equal protection of the laws"- 15th Amendment: All citizens got the right to vote

Gilded Age: lol no

Keeton Schenck

Mid-Term Exam Review

Colonial America/American Revolution:

Significance of First Great Awakening, John Peter Zenger trial, Common Sense, virtual vs. actual representation, Battle of Saratoga, Declaration of Independence; Causes of mercantilism, French and Indian War, Proclamation of 1763, Stamp Act, Townshend Acts, First Continental Congress

Colonial society First Great Awakening: religious movement in 1730s and 1740s with fervent expressions of religious

feeling among masses of peopleo People

Jonathan Edwards – Sinners in the Hands of an Angry God; each individual who expressed deep penitence could be saved by God’s grace, but souls who paid no heed to God’s commandments would suffer eternal damnation

George Whitefield – preacher from England who traveled all over colonial America; taught that ordinary people with faith can understand Christian Gospels without ministers

o Emotionalism – sinners tearfully confessed guilt and exulted in salvationo Impact

Religious – Schism between New Lights and Old Lights

o Newer sects – more evangelical, included Baptists and Methodists, attracted large numbers

Greater religious diversity, competition between sects for followerso Degree of religious toleration in each colony

Political – Helped create unified American identity – was the first movement to affect every

social class in every region of America Democratization – changed perception of authority so that people could make their

own political decisions as well as religious ones Creation of colleges – Princeton, Columbia, etc. to promote doctrines of particular religious

sect John Peter Zenger trial: 1735 trial of NY editor and publisher John Peter Zenger for libelously criticizing

NY’s royal governor; Zenger’s lawyer Andrew Hamilton argued that Zenger had printed trutho Acc to English law at time, injuring governor’s reputation even with true accusation was illegalo Jury acquitted Zenger and ignored English law, on the grounds that truth could not be libelo I : did NOT guarantee complete freedom of press but encouraged newspapers to take greater risks

in criticizing colony’s govmt

Leading up to the revolution French and Indian War (correlated to Seven Years’ War) (1754-1763)

o Unique in other world wars in that fighting began in colonies, then spread to Europe o Causes:

Land conflict- French built Fort Duquesne (Pittsburgh) in Ohio River Valley to halt growth of British colonies; VA governor sent militia under George Washington to stop French from completing work and win control of the valley

French land-grabbing – land was key to the continent that French had to retain if they were to link their Canadian holdings with those of the lower Mississippi

British expansion westward Cutthroat fur trade competition – economic security, supremacy of way of life Lush lands of Ohio Valley

o Out of fear of betrayal, British began uprooting people from French-pop Acadia moved to

Louisiana, descendants became Cajuns o Showed colonial disunity - all people agreed on the need for union but their “weak noddles” were

“perfectly distracted” when they attempted to agree on details 1754: Albany Congress summoned by British government developed Albany Plan of Union

I. Short term goal: persuade Iroquois to stay loyal to BritishII. Long term goal: greater colonial unity to bolster defense against French

Franklin made proposal for premature scheme of colonial home rule adopted unanimously by delegates BUT individual colonies/British regime spurned

Resulted in a permanent cooperative organization of the colonies

I : *set precedent for more revolutionary congresses in 1770s “join or die” cartoon by Benjamin Franklin published in 1754 WHY?: Enormous distances, geographic barriers, conflicting religions, varied nationalities,

different colonial governments, boundary disputes, social resentmento Impact : Set stage for Am Rev

Britain acquired French Canada, Spanish FL – unchallenged supremacy in N America intolerant of dissent

Changed British and colonial perceptions of each other British view – thought Am militia was poorly trained and disorderly, colonists were

unwilling to defend frontiers because they had refused to contribute troops/money Colonial view – Confidence in military performance, thought British style was

unsuited to American terrain, shattered notion of British invincibility Sense of American political identity British were 140 mil euros in debt wanted colonists to help with debt fueled Am Rev

Short term causes: Changes in British policies King George III and Whigs tried to use colonial policy to solve Britain’s domestic financial problems

o Former salutary neglect turned to more forceful policies Pontiac’s Rebellion – 1763 ~ Chief Pontiac’s Native Americans in the Ohio Valley were

crushed by regular British troops instead of colonial forces Clarif – Except for few radicals, Americans generally accepted British policies

Acts that angered colonists Proclamation of 1763: prohibited colonists from settling west of the Appalachians Mountains

o Designed to prevent future hostilities between colonists and nativeso Effect: Angered colonists – wanted to access western lands after hard fought French and Indian War

Defied the act Sugar Act: duties on foreign sugar and certain luxuries; people accused of smuggling were to be tried in admiralty courts by crown-

appointed judges and without juries; Quartering Act: provide food and living quarters for British troops

Stamp Act: required revenue stamps be placed on most printed paper, inc legal docs, newspapers, pamphlets, etc. - *FIRST indirect tax paid by colonists who used products, as opposed to taxes on imports paid by merchants

o Stamp Act Congress: resolved that only their own elected representatives had legal authority to approve taxes; stated rights and grievances in Declaration of Rights and Grievances

o Sons and Daughters of Liberty founded to intimidate tax agentso Boycotts, nonimportation agreements o Argument of legislation vs. taxation - Parliament had right to legislate about matters affecting entire

empire, but only local colonial legislatures could legally tax them Ironic because representation would have been bad – American representatives would have

been outnumbered anyway

Declaratory Act: face-saving measure after repealing Stamp Act – asserted that Parliament had right to tax and make laws for colonies “in ALL cases whatsoever”, had same authority in America as in Britain

o I : renewed misunderstanding/conflict between colonists and government

Townshend Acts: duties on imports of tea, glass, and paper; crown officials paid independently from colonial assemblies; allowed officials to search private homes from smuggled goods with only a writ of assistance instead of judge warrant

o Massachusetts Circular Letter sent to every colonial legislature urging colonies to petition Parliament to repeal Acts

o Growing discontent also reflect by committees of correspondence: intercolonial committees that spread spirit of resistance by interchanging letters, keeping opposition to British policy fresh

impact : sentiment in favor of united action, roots of American congresses Boston Tea Party

o Mixed reaction from colonists – some applauded as defense of liberty, others thought too radical Intolerable Acts: punitive acts

o Coercive Acts: placed MA under martial law until colonists paid for tea, more troops, reduced power for MA legislature and increased royal governor’s; tried royal officials in England instead of colonies; quartering in all colonies

o Quebec Act organized Canadian lands from France Wrongly regarded as part of reaction to Boston Tea Party

Long term causes: Philosophical foundations

WHY Americans took such heed to their rights: Inherent nature of the New World’s social opportunity Republicanism: the idea that a just society is one in which all citizens willingly subordinate their private,

selfish interests to the common goodo Based on Greek/Roman republics

o States that authority/stability of government depends on virtue of the citizenry, esp its appetite for civic involvement

Whig ideology: feared threat to liberty posed by arbitrary power of the monarch and his ministers relative to Parliament representatives; attacked “corruption”

o Based on thoughts of the British political commentators known as “radical Whigs”o Corruption:

Patronage and bribes by the king’s ministers were symptoms of a wider societal rotting Warned citizens to be on guard and to be eternally vigilant against possible conspiracies

Colonial lifeo Dukes, princes, barons, bishops unknown in colonieso Property ownership and political participation widespreado Used to running own affairs – House of Burgesses, etc.

Conflict in interest Mercantilism: trade, colonies, wealth as basis for country’s military strength; colonies existed to provide

raw materials to parent country for growth and profit of mother countryo Currency shortage policy – colonists bought more than they sold so had to bartero Navigation Acts: 1) trade to and from colonies carried only by English or colonial built ships,

operated by colonial crews, 2) all goods imported into colonies pass only through English ports and pay tariffs, 3) specified enumerated goods from colonies exported to England only

I : Helped shipbuilding industry but limited manufacturing; gave Chesapeake tobacco a monopoly but with low prices; colonists had to pay high prices for English manufactured goods

Mostly lax enforcement, corrupt agents but sometimes tried to enforce lawsFrom notes –

Pros:o smuggled/found loopholes anyway

John Hancock benefited, richest man in colonies on eve of rev salutary neglect – Navigation Laws were laxly enforced 1763: PM George Grenville ordered the British navy to begin strictly enforcing Navigation Laws

o London paid large bounties to colonial producers of ship partso Virginia/MD tobacco planters had monopoly over British marketo Average American better off economically than average Englishman

1/5 of the taxes paid in Englando naval protection; land army of redcoats

Cons:o overdependency on British agents/creditors (did NOT force VA tobacco planters to sell their product only in Britain,

that’s a myth)o inhibited development of banking and paper currencyo stifled economic initiative due to lack of freedomo South favored due to tobacco, sugar, riceo stigmatizing, colonists felt “in a state of perpetual economic adolescence”o Conflicted with the interests of the colonists—they went to America to build better lives from themselves, not to serve

Englando Parliament set up a Board of Trade with Admiralty Courts – took away right of trial by jury and were considered guilty

until proven innocent

when customs officers came to America for inspection they had writ of assistance: inspectors could go into colonial taverns/areas and search for any illegal activity, not just a specific crime

Permanent, transferable – the holder of a writ could assign it to another Controversial when they were issued by courts in British America in the 1760s, especially the Province

of Massachusetts Bay Impact : Controversy over these general writs of assistance inspired the Fourth Amendment to the

United States Constitution, which forbids general search warrants in the United States Colonists would knock out inspectors and attack/tar-and-feather them if they tried to defy

Virtual vs. actual representation: Virtual representation = concept in Britain before Am Rev that those in Britain who could not legally vote were virtually represented by a member of Parliament anyway; actual representation = when everybody has a vote or the ability to elect a representative

o Colonial “no taxation without representation” vs. British “virtual representation” I: forced Americans to deny authority of Parliament altogether

Common Sense: Thomas Paine’s pamphlet from Jan 1776 that argued for the colonies becoming independent states and breaking all political ties with the British monarchy; argued that it was against common sense for 1) a large continent to be ruled by a small and distant island, 2) people to pledge allegiance to a corrupt govmt and unreasonable laws

o One of the most influential pamphlets ever writteno Uniquely crucial in promoting idea that what Americans should fight for was an independent and

republican American SEPARATE from Britain

Revolutionary War

Congresses First Continental Congress: 1774 ~ meeting in Philadelphia with 55 delegates from 12 colonies (no

Georgia) inc Samuel Adams (radical), Patrick Henry (radical), Paul Revere (radical), John Adams (moderate), George Washington (moderate), John Dickinson (moderate), John Jay

(conservative), Joseph Galloway (conservative)

o ***Not legislative body, only consultative; convention NOT congress… NOT calling for independence just yet, sought only to repeal Intolerable Acts and return to salutary neglect

o Purpose : determine how the colonies should react to what they felt violated libertyo Moderates argued with radicals about whether or not to go to war

John Adams played important role – helped defeat proposal for American home rule under British direction, which was similar to Albany Plan of 1754

o Outcomes: Declaration of Rights and Grievances – recognized Parliament’s authority to regulate

commerce but asked king to redress grievances, including that of the Currency Act of 1764, similar to that of Stamp Act Congress

Created the Association – MOST IMPORTANT action taken by Congress to protest the Intolerable Acts

Suffolk Resolves called for 1) complete boycott (sanctions) of British goods until grievances redressed, 2) military preparations as resistance to the Intolerable Acts

Creation of committees in every town to enforce Suffolk Resolves Meeting of a second congress in May 1775 if colonial rights weren’t recognized

Parliament rejected petitions mutiny grew, more violence and military preparations… Lexington and Concord = shot heard around the world, Bunker Hill = first true battle, heavy losses for

British, dissuaded king to accept Olive Branch Petition

2nd Continental Congress: o **Still no definitive sentiment for independence, but waged war while seeking peaceo New appeals to British people and king BUT also adopted measures to raise money, create army

and navy out of anticipation of rebuffo Appointed Congressman George Washington of Virginia as commanding general of the

Continental Army – background of leadership and character made him most political option (NOT chosen because of his military abilities/experience!)

Americans were distrusting of the New England army, but Washington was from VA Aristocrat status – not a fortune seeker, could be counted on to check the “excesses of the

masses”o July 1775: Olive Branch Petition professed American loyalty to crown, begged to prevent

hostilities but Bunker Hill dissuaded king

Declaration of Independence: adopted July 4, 1776 Congress appointed committee to write this explanation, headed by Thomas Jefferson

o Universal appeal – “natural rights” of humankindo Listed wrongs of George III, inc taxes without consent, removal of trial by jury, military

dictatorship, etc. Impact : clarified American motives

o Foreign aid could be solicitedo Patriots defined as rebels NOT loving subjects

Foreign impact: influenced later revolutions, such as French

Battles Bunker Hill: physical loss but morale victory for Americans

o **NO MORE attempts at reconciliation afterwardo Impact : caused George III to reject Olive Branch Petition, instead he hired 10,000 Hessian (German

mercenaries) soldiers

Battle of Saratoga: 1777 ~ o British plan was to have General Burgoyne push down the Lake Champlain route from Canada, be met by Colonel Barry St. Leger’s forces

from Lake Ontario and General Howe’s troops from NY if needed

o Am General Horatio Gates surrounds British with help of Benedict Arnold

Arnold had bought time with the failed invasion of Canada – without him, British would have recaptured Fort Ticonderoga, and if they had started from Ticonderoga instead of Montreal in 1777, Burgoyne would have succeeded in venture

o British defeat – unable to retreat or advance Burgoyne moved too slowly, too much baggage and women

Lack of communication Howe traveled to Philadelphia to engage Washington’s forces Colonists were defeated near Philadelphia, but this distracted Howe from helping Burgoyne Comfort of Philadelphia and pleasure-seeking Howe settled in city instead of advancing to Saratoga

St. Leger’s forces held back at Oriskany

o Impact : Prevented British from cutting off New England (plan to cut colonies in half) 1778 Franco-American alliance – France provided soldiers, naval fleet, and money

World war scale – o 1778 Franco-American alliance:

*First entangling military alliance of the Republic All along, secretly provided Americans with firearms (90%)

Didn’t openly assist at beginning because Declaration had not clarified American motives yet and Saratoga had not yet happened to show potential of success

WHY: Aristocracy influenced by liberal thinkers like Rousseau Officials saw practical benefits of helping America – since New World was valuable

to British econ, if British lost America, France might be able to regain former prestige (*PRIMARY motive)

Lousi XVI was afraid that if Britain regained its colonies, it might join with them to seize French West Indies to finance war debts

Ben Franklin played on French fears of American-British reconciliation Countered British proposal of American home rule within empire and beat it because

offered everything that British proposed with independence Americans accepted with distaste due to isolationist tendencies/opposition to Roman

Catholicismo Spain, Holland on colonial side

Yorktown: 1781 ~ o 3 armies converging – Washington, Lafayette, and Cornwalliso Cornwallis wanted to winter his troops in the South believing the war could be won in the spring, so

he stationed his troops at Chesapeake Bay in Yorktown to await supplies and reinforcements Assumed British would continue to control the sea

o Strategy: Use of French navy (Admiral de Grasse led)

Washington beset British by land with Rochambeau’s French army, de Grasse blockaded them by sea

A collection of gold and silver in Havana, Cuba from Spain to aid USo British defeat

“It was as if the world was upside down”

Comparison: British vs. American, Strengths vs. Weaknesses

Factors Britain US

Population 7.5 mil 3 mil, 1/3 loyal to EnglandManufacturing Highly developed Practically none, not a single gun

factoryMoney/economy Richest in world No $$$ to support war; econ

suffered from inflation due to printing of “Continental” paper money and paper money of individual states eventually received foreign aid, esp from Marquis de Lafayette

Arms Abundance of arms Not well armed – only 1/12 militiamen had his own musket later received from France

Army Large, well trained army (esp. navy) of 50,000 + 30,000 Hessians + 50,000 Loyalists + Indians

Volunteers, poorly equipped, numerous but highly unreliable Baron von Steuben whipped

7000 regulars into shape by end of war

Role of blacks British offered freedom for any slave in VA to join army Black Loyalists, by end of the war more than 14000 evacuated by British

Initially barred from militia service by end, more than 5000 enlisted, esp from northern states; fought at Trenton, Brandywine, Saratoga; became military heroes, cooks, guides, spies, drivers, road builders

Leaders Few officers capable of leading Dedicated officers + foreign leaders + diplomatic genius Ben Franklin

Geography Unfamiliar terrain—difficult to resupply troops

Lack of American centralization made the conquering of one city insubstantial in grand scheme

Familiar land—easy access to supplies

Traded space for time Agriculture was self-sustaining

Navy Naval world power No navyWill to fight Trained soldiers, no heart

many unwilling to kill American cousins

Whigs felt that British freedom battle was being fought in America, so they cheered American cause

soldiers brutally treated

Untrained soldiers, but defending homeland, so willing to fight unique moral causeBUT mainly a few colonists with zeal defending the rest profiteers undermined

Home government Inept - King George III stubborn, PM Lord North was a yes man

Not unified – no written constitution until 1781, Continental Congress

grew weaker, jealousy between individual states

Communication 3000 mile distance from home base delays, uncertainties

War facts: Major American leaders

o Baron von Steuben of Prussia helped train troopso John Paul Jones: first big naval heroo Marquis de Lafayetteo Ben Franklin: intellectual leadero Nathan Hale: volunteered for an intelligence-gathering mission in New York City but was captured by the British and hanged by British, “I

only regret that I have but one life to give for my country”o Peter Salem: slave who joined Edgell’s Minuteman company killed British Major Bitcairn at Bunker Hill

British leaderso King George IIIo Benedict Arnold: originally fought for the American Continental Army but defected to the British Army. While a general on the American

side, he obtained command of the fort at West Point, New York, and planned to surrender it to the British forces. After the plan was exposed in September 1780, he was commissioned into the British Army as a brigadier general.

Why he betrayed the US: passed over for promotion by the Continental Congress while other officers claimed credit for some of his

accomplishmentso middle class status put him at disadvantage

angered, thought he deserved promotiono General Charles Cornwallis

didn’t look like America was going to win Military strategies

o Americans: attrition, guerilla tactics, alliance with Franceo British: break colonies in half (North v South), blockades, “divide and conquer” i.e. use the Loyalists

“Southern Strategy” – more Loyalists in South Southern resources more valuable/worth preserving British win a number of small victories but cannot pacify the countryside (similar to US failures in Vietnam) Outcome: doesn’t work, so British move to Yorktown

Washington didn’t quantitatively win the most battles, but he won the important ones

Treaty of Paris: 1783 ~ Britain weakened

o Heavy reverses in India and West Indieso Minorca in Mediterranean had fallen, Rock of Gibraltar was tottering

o Lord North’s ministry collapsed, replaced by Whig ministry Americans sent John Adams, Ben Franklin, and John Jay to Paris

o Jay was deeply suspicious of Old World intrigue—he perceived that France could not satisfy conflicting ambitions of Americans and Spanish, so he secretly made separate overtures to London, disobeying congressional orders

o Preliminary treaty of peace in 1782

France was in a bad positiono Made promises to Spain but these promises weren’t able to be upheldo Wanted an independent US in abstract, not action – planned to keep US east of the Allegheny

Mountains Results:

o US benefit

Britain recognized independence of US Set Mississippi River as western boundary - US acquired land from Great Lakes to FL,

Atlantic to Mississippi Fishing rights off coast of Canada British were to remove troops and forts from US land this didn’t happen I: War of

1812o US concessions

Pay Loyalists for property No persecution of Loyalists Pay debts owed to British merchants

US and Brits did not uphold whole sides of their treaties impact: War of 1812, more conflict in future WHY the generosity of the treaty terms?

o Britain was trying to seduce America from the French allianceo Shaky, weak Whig ministry was more friendly to Americans than Tories

The Constitution/Early Republic:

Significance of Shay’s Rebellion, The Federalist’s Papers, a Constitution, Bill of Rights, Hamilton’s economic plan, assumption, excise tax, Whiskey Rebellion, Jay’s Treaty, Land Ordinances of 1785 & 1787, Judiciary Act of 1789, Washington’s Farewell Address, XYZ Affair, Alien & Sedition Acts, Virginia & Kentucky Resolutions, Compact theory of government, Republican Motherhood, Judicial review, Battle of New OrleansIdentify Great Compromise, Virginia Plan, New Jersey Plan, Three Fifths Compromise, strengths and weaknesses of the Articles of Confederation, 9th and 10th Amendments, Napoleon’s reasons for selling Louisiana, Embargo Act, differences between War Hawks and Doves

Land Ordinance of 1785: Acreage of the Old Northwest was to be sold, proceeds to pay off national debto Area surveyed before sale; divided into townships with area set aside for sale to benefit public

schools; titles duly recorded – diff from chaos south of Ohio Rivero Accomplishment of Articles govmt

Land Ordinance of 1787 (Northwest Ordinance of 1787): dealt with large territory between Great Lakes and Ohio River by 1) granting limited self-govmt to territory, 2) setting rules for creating new states

o Established how a nation should deal with its colonies - area would be subordinate to federal government for two evolutionary stages when at least 60,000 inhabitants, might be admitted by Congress as a state with same privileges of the other members

o Outlawed slavery in Old Northwesto I : Spread to other frontier areas, prevented future conflict between West and East

Articles of Confederation Basic info:

o Adopted by the Second Continental Congress in 1777, ratified in 1781 less than 8 months before Yorktown

Why delay = dispute over western lands beyond Allegheny Mountainso Central branch with only one body of Congress (unicameral)

No exec branch, judicial branch left mostly to states Strengths:

o Helped win waro Land legislation – 1785, 1787o Protected powers of individual states

Weaknesses: Congress lacked powero Financial

Worthless paper money Enforcing tax-collection program

Could only request states to donate money for national needs, no taxing power of own

Regulating commerce States had diff laws regarding tariffs and navigation

o Foreign – Europeans lacked respect for America because of weak governance; Spanish and British threatened to expand interests in western lands

Couldn’t prevent British from restricting trade, maintaining military outposts o Domestic – Lacked power

Unable to put down Shay’s Rebellion because couldn’t act directly upon individual citizens of sovereign states

Problems with the new nation FR

o Hostility with Britain British resented stab in back, refused to send minister for 8 years No commercial treaty; Navigation Laws stayed in place Shut down West Indies trade

But Yankees smuggled anyway Active along northern frontier

Conspired with VT’s Allen brothers, seeking to annex VT to Britain

Held chain of trading posts on US soil for Indian commerce Main purpose was to a) maintain relationship with Indians, b) prevent US invasion

of Canada – but excuse was that America failed to honor agreement to debts/Loyalists

Colonial response: demanded that the US impose restrictions on their imports to America but Congress didn’t have power to regulate commerce, so no action was taken

o Hostility with Spain In 1784, closed Mississippi River mouth to American commerce

Disputed territories in areas north of Gulf of Mexico British had granted to US in 1783

Schemed with Indians o Impact : Union lacked effective control over about ½ of total territoryo Cooled relationship with France

France demanded repayment of loans Restricted trade with West Indies

o Pirates of N African states Formerly protected from because British purchased immunity, but not anymore

Interstate conflicto Argued over boundaries minor pitched battleso Duties on each others’ goodso Depreciated paper currency

Shay’s Rebellion (1786-1787) and mobocracyo Motives: Farmers despised high state taxes, imprisonment for debt, lack of paper money o Led by Captain Daniel Shayso Government response: none from central govmt necessitate drastic action from state MA militia

Contributions from wealthy citizens, army raised and killed 3 but ended up pardoning Shayso Raised concern that unbridled republicanism fed an insatiable appetite for liberty that became

license for anarchyo Impact : spurs wealthy to hold Annapolis Convention, added more credence to Hamilton’s ideas for

a stronger central government eventually led to Constitution that created more freedom by limiting freedom

The Antebellum Period:Significance of Erie Canal, Monroe Doctrine, Missouri Compromise (1820), Clay’s American System, “Corrupt Bargain,” Jacksonian democracy, Tariff of Abomination, nullification, Force Bill, Indian Removal Act, John Marshall’s court decisions, Second Great AwakeningIdentify Transcendentalism (and the early 19c American writers) Emerson, Cooper, Irving, Thoreau, Fuller, and Female Reformers – abolitionists, suffragettes, Dorothea Dix, Temperance movement, William Lloyd Garrison, Frederick Douglass, Nativism, Manifest Destiny in the 1850s, Wilmot Proviso, Gadsden Purchase, Compromise of 1850, popular sovereignty, Bleeding Kansas, John Brown, Dred Scott decision

Civil War/Reconstruction: Significance of Emancipation Proclamation, Battle of Antietam, Battle of Gettysburg, Battle of Vicksburg, Compromise of 1877

Identify Advantages/Disadvantages of North and South at beginning of war, Reconstruction plans, Freedman’s Bureau, 13th, 14th, and 15th amendments

Gilded AgeSignificance of Plessy v. Ferguson, Transcontinental Railroad, Interstate Commerce Act, Captains of Industry and Robber BaronsIdentify Boss Tweed, Thomas Nast, differences between Old and New Immigrants

Plessy v. Ferguson: