decision support system for environmental sounder purchase of catering m aterials and products for...

FkP0350 $4 Ei Scandinavian Airline Systems Danish Environmental Protection Agency

Decision support system for environmental sounder purchase of catering materials and products for inflight services

August 1995

e Kruger Consult w

Decision support system for environmental sounder purchase of catering materials and products for inflight services

Kim Christiansen k i f Hoffmann

Kriiger Consult A/S

August 1995

Contents

Foreword 5

1.

2.

2.1 2.1.1 2.1.2 2.1.3 2.1.4

2.1.5

2.2 2.2. I

2.2.2

2.2.3

2.3

3.

3.1

3.2

3.3

3.4

4.

4.1

4.2

Purpose of the project 7

Existing methods 8

Expert based semi-quantitative methods 8 Simple screening method 8 Environmental sounder purchase 9 Environmental sounder product development 1 I One-way versus reusable senice in national canteens (Denmark) 12 "Buying into the environment" 12

Quantitative life cycle inventory methods I 7 Comparison of one-way service and reusable senice (Sweden) 17 Comparison of one-way service and reusable service m e Netherlands) I8 A comparative study 19

Computer programmes for life-cycle assessment 20

Decision support system 27

Definition of product group 29

Screening: choice of criteria for material selection and selection of material for each product 30

Data collection and data treatment for suppliers of the product in the selected material 32

Evaluation 32

Results 34

Imposed changes in product and material purchase for inflight services 34

Example of comparison of environmental impact of a specific material delivered by different suppliers 35

References 39

Appendices 41

Appendix 1: Potential environmental themes in life cycle assessment 41

Appendix 2: Calculation of energy consumption as a function of weight and distance 42

Appendix 3: Observations on the choice of materials on different flight services in Europe 43

Appendix 4: Process trees of 3 coffee cups in SimaPro 2.1 44

Foreword

In 1993 the former environmental manager of SAS, Jlargen Grauengaard initiated a development project in cooperation with the former head of the inflight purchasing unit in Stockholm, H&an Andersson on environmentally friendlier purchasing of products for inflight services. Kim Christian- sen from Kriiger Consult A/S together with Stig Hirsbak (then at Rendan A/S, now Ramberll A/S) set up a project proposal for the Danish Environ- mental Protection Agency, which was finalized for decision in the Council on Recycling and Cleaner Technology by Mariane T. Hounum. The Council has supported the project with 25% and SAS has funded the rest.

The project report Le. the proposed decision support system has been written by Kim Christiansen and Leif Hoffmann of Kriiger Consult A/S; final drafts have been commented by H&m Andersson, Eva-Karin Dahl, Peter Melander and Bengt Olav Nzss from SAS Stockholm and Environ- mental Coordinator Martin Porsgaard Nielsen from SAS Copenhagen, and the latter is responsible for printing and distribution of the report. Special thanks to Tine Hedegaard from Kriiger Consult A/S for needed improvements of the draft english.

Thanks to all of you for patience and inputs. The proposed decision support system was due to many reasons never tested in full with the purchasing unit of SAS, but we hope the methodology proposed and the more fragmented practical results can be of inspiration for others developing and using tools based on the life cycle assessment approach and methodology for environmental sounder selection of materials and products in purchasing and procurement.

Serborg, august 1995

Kim Christiansen Leif Hoffinann

5

1. Purpose of the project

The purpose of the project was to develop a decision support system for environmental sounder purchase of catering materials and products for inflight services for Scandinavian Airline Systems (SAS). The decision support system has to be practicable for the purchasing staff of SAS i.e. it has to be practicable for people without any special knowledge of environmental problems.

Initially, different comparisons of service systems are reviewed. Secondly, selected computer tools for data handling in relation to life cycle assessment will be described, and some advantages and disadvantages are discussed.

With reference to previous comparisons of service systems a decision support system is described focusing on the requirements of an airline company. A non-exhaustive list of examples of requirements determined by the airline company and the transport process itself is as follows:

Quality image - the catering materials and products for inflight services have to signal quality especially to the passengers on the first class.

Environmental image - the catering materials and products for inflight services have to signal an environmental policy.

Commercial availability of the product - the supplier has to able to deliver the required service.

Functionality of the product - the product has to fulfil specific criteria such as e.g. washability in a dishwasher.

Price of the product - the product has to be competitive compared to alternative products.

Weight of the product - the weight of the product has to be in the same magnitude as the alternative products - especially for airline use.

Handling of the catering materials and products by the cabin crew - the catering materials and products have to be easy to handle within the limited space in the cabin.

7

2. Existing methods

A number of existing methods assessing different materials and products, especially service systems, are described in this chapter. The applicability of the methods is discussed. The methods are divided into three methodo- logies: Expert based semi-quantitative methods, quantitative life cycle inventory methods and computer tools for LCA.

2.1 Expert based semi-quantitative methods

2.1.1 Simple screening method One-way service (e.g. polystyrene) and reusable service (e.g. porcelain) are compared by using a simple screening method based on e.g. Christi- ansen et al. (1990) and Schmidt et al. (1990). In the comparison the following steps in the life cycle are included:

Description of the method

One-way service:

- production of granulate - production of product (e.g. termoforming) - use

waste disposal

Reusable service:

- production of product (e.g. porcelain cup) use dish washing (e.g. washing under running water and environmentally sound washing-up liquid) re-use -

The following environmental parameters are included in the assessment of the environmental effects:

energy consumption and emissions use of resources human health effects environmental effects

Comparison of alternatives The information on this comparative assessment is from immediately available literature e.g.: Habersatter (1991), Kindler & NiMes (1980), Tillman et al. (1992) and Schmidt et al. (1990).

The energy consumption and the energy related emissions are directly aggregated. The resources used for the different products are listed, and the use is scored depending on renewablehon-renewable and abundant/- scarce resources (e.g. 0, 1, 2, 3). The assessment of health and environmental effects includes all steps in the life cycle. The assessment of health effects also includes occupational health. The scoring of health and environmental effects is done by scoring the ingoing substances for exposure ("low", "higher than low") and for effects ("low", "higher than low") respectively (e.g. 0, 1, 2, 3).

8

The energy consumption and the energy related emissions are directly compared. The scoring for use of resources, health and environmental effects, respectively, is compared e.g. graphically.

If reusable service is used a sufficient number of times, the energy consumption and energy emissions are lower. The score for the consumption of material resources is lower for reusable service compared to one-way service due to the use of abundant raw materials (feldspar, kaolin and quartz) in the production of porcelain compared to the use of scarce raw materials (oil) in the production of polystyrene. The score for health and environmental effects is equal for both service systems.

Assessment of the method The method is an expert based method. It seems to be very simple, but a lot of background knowledge is necessary e.g. from earlier work with detailed assessment of the same materials or similar materials. The method is applicable as a decision tool in the choice between a limited number of materials.

2.1.2 Environmental sounder purchase The Danish Environmental Protection Agency @PA) has commissioned the development of a method to support environmental sounder purchase of selected products to national institutions (Toft & Dall, 1993). Among the selected products, service systems based on the following products can be found:

- one-way material: polystyrene and paper reusable service: porcelaidchina, melamine, steel and glass -

Description of the method The developed method uses the European eco labelling approach as a reference, and the assessment includes the following steps in life cycle:

acquisition of raw materials - production of the product - use of the product - disposal of used products

distribution (can be found in all the four mentioned steps)

The assessment includes the following environmental parameters:

- pollution of soil - pollution of water

pollution of air use of natural resources energy consumption

noise - occupational health

- effects on eco-systems

This list of environmental parameters is an extract from the more comprehensive list shown in appendix 1.

In the assessment of different products, the authors-and a working group representing producers and purchasers of the product group are choosing the most relevant environmental parameters to describe the environmental

9

problems of the four steps of the life cycle i.e. the "finger print" of the specific product group.

,

The primary functional unit is: Service for consumption of cold and hot drinks and lunch (in a limited extent also hot dishes) in a canteen in a public administration or a private company. The secondary functional unit is: Service for consumption of coffee in the individual office in the mor- ning and in the afternoon. The reusable service is supposed to be used 1,000 times. In the actual comparison there has been some exceptions:

i Pollution of air

- dishes and cups of melamine are excluded due to use in small amounts in canteens;

1

so2 (s) 230 142 I

- the cutlery is omitted due to the use of steel in all cases;

I

cups of paper are omitted due to the use of plastic cups in all cases; and

- dishes of plastic are omitted due to the use of paper dishes in all cases.

The information used in the comparative assessment is primarily found in foreign investigations dealing with one-way/reusable service: Gensch (1990), Sundstrom (1992) (will be mentioned later) and van Eijk et al. (1992) (will be mentioned later) and also by contact to a producer of industrial dish washers.

Comparison of alternatives The environmental effects of the choice of different service systems are compared on basis of information from the above mentioned sources, and special attention has been paid to the consequence of extrapolating the information to Danish conditions. The comparisons are made under the following headings: energy consumption, consumption of water, pollution of air, pollution of water and waste disposal. The results are presented in table 2.1.

Table 2.1 Gross energy requirement and selected emissions for one-way service and reusable service (To$ & Dall, 1993).

1 1 j Consumption of water' 1 ! I

I Pollution of water I COD (E) I 975 134 ~~~

1. The water consumption is not quantified by the authors.

The conclusion is that reusable service is better than one-way service re- garding energy consumption, total air and water pollution and waste treatment, but the water consumption is much higher for reusable service than

10

for one-way service. The energy and water consumption in the user phase is significant and, therefore, 90-100 % effectivity in the utilization of the dish washer is important.

Energy consumption Transpon energy

Assessment of the method The method is primarily based on results from studies in other countries, and therefore not transparent on data sources and calculation methods used, but attempts are included to assess these studies and to estimate values corresponding to Danish conditions. The method is not assessed to be workable as a screening tool for the choice between different service systems to be used in inflight services.

~

Ozone production by ~

the machine I

1

2.1.3 Environmental sounder product development The Dutch Organisation for Technical Development, the Ministry of En- vironment and the National Programme for Waste Recycling have commissioned a project to develop a handbook in environmental sounder product development (Brezet et al., 1994).

Description of the method The developed method includes the following steps in life-cycle:

production use waste disposal

-

The assessment includes the following environmental parameters:

- consumption of materials - energy requirement - emission of toxic substances

The environmental problems are related to the different steps in the life- cycle. An example related to the production of a photocopying machine is shown in table 2.2.

Table 2.2 Environmental matrix for production of a photocopying machine Prezet et al., 1994).

I

i substances Energy requirement 1 Emission of toxic j Consumption of

i materials I I Production

1 1 Use I

1 Waste disposal

Consumption of scarce resources Recycling of production waste

Paper consumption "Toner" waste and packaging

Recycling of the photocopying machine

4 I

Energy content of 1 Flame retardants ~

materials wastewater Process energy ~ "verbeteraars"

1 I

i "spuitgieten"

1 I i Selenium I

I ,

The next step in the procedure is to indicate the values of the different environmental problems. After the valuation, the environmental problems can be ranked. The ranking can also be presented in a matrix with the

11

same headings in the horizontal direction and the headings worse (thun- der), bad (rainy weather) and good (sonny weather). The results can be validated by performing a more detailed LCA e.g. by using computer tools like Simapro)

Comparison of alternatives An actual comparison by using the environmental matrix is not included.

Assessment of the method The matrix seems suitable for hot spot identification, and the method is similar to step two (screening) in the method described in chapter 3.

2.1.4

The Ministry of Housing and Building and the Environmental Protection Agency established a working group in 1977178. The task of the working group was to compare advantages and disadvantages with service systems based on one-way service and reusable service (Miljarstyrelsen 1981). The comparison encompassed dish, cup, saucer, glass, knife, fork, and teaspoon.

One-way versus reusable service in national canteens (Denmark)

Description ofthe method

For both service systems the following parameters were compared:

- technical conditions and working economy - energy consumption

- use of working capacity environmental conditions

use of foreign currency

Comparison of alternatives The alternatives have been assessed for canteens, that serve between 20 and 2,000 employees. In canteens, that serve between 40 and 2,000 employees, it was economical advantageous to use reusable service. The energy consumption was lower for all magnitudes of canteens using reusable service.

The effects on the physical environment have not been assessed due to different effects of the two systems. The use of reusable service requires more employees in the canteens. The use of foreign currency was assu- med to be most advantageous by use of reusable service, but the authors make a reservation for this result.

The total assessment indicates that reusable service was the most advantageous for canteens which serve more than 40 employees.

Assessment of the method The health and environmental conditions were not described very detailed: "The environmental effects from the production of the service - both one- way and reusable service - are difficult to define and often unimportant". The method applied other principles than normally chosen today and is, therefore, assessed as being not suitable as a screening method.

2.1.5 "Buying into the environment" The British organisation "Business in the Environment" has developed a set of guidelines for integrating the environment into purchasing and supply. The report is based on cooperation with a group of expert advi-

Description ofthe method

12

sors and consultation of some 114 organisations. The methodology en- compasses seven principles and for each principle the guidelines discuss :

- the relevant issues, i.e. explains the need for the principle and identifies the relevant issues;

- action points, i.e. steps which should be considered to meet the criteria of the principle;

guidance, i.e. advice and information to help meet the action points; and

references, i.e. further information including books, articles, publications and organisations which may be able to offer help.

Principle 1: Understand the business reasons Policy and procedures for "buying into the environment" should be based on sound business reasons and an evaluation of costs and benefits within four categories:

- compliance with legislation, where national and international legislation is focusing more and more on environmental issues like the protection of scarce resources, investments in cleaner technology, cleaning-up existing pollution and reduction of emissions to air, land and water in accordance with "best available technology" or "best available techniques";

security of supply, where environmental issues may jeopardise the viability of supply chains;

- market opportunities, where increasing consumer demands for environmentally acceptable products and management practices can give the quickly responding supplier a competitive advanta- ge; and

benefit versus cost, taking into account that purchased goods and services represent a major proportion of the total operating costs for most organisations, the qualit! . dr.li\wing performance, the design improvements and the en\ ironmcntsl performance are all issues, that supplement the tradiIi,m.iI Le\ issue: the price (reduction).

Actions points are e.g. to identify the le;islai\ c' pressure, risk-imposed suppliers, market opportunities, resource nerds. and suppliers of major importance to the company image.

Principle 2: Know your environment Factors influencing the environmental position of a company include geo- graphic location; nature of processes and outputs; impact on local, regional and global resources; organisational culture; competitive position in sectors or markets; and product or service supplied. A clear understanding of these issues is essential to the development of a purchasing policy for the environment and a business plan; conduct an environmental ranking of e.g. suppliers; understand the links between environmental performance and the supply chain; and the adoption of a partnership style and facilitate the collection and use of information.

The guideline includes a list of environmental issues which are divided into global issues and regional/local issues, and which can be seen as a supplementary checklist to annex 1. Global issues listed are:

- global warming - ozone depletion - tropical deforestation - toxic waste disposal - non-renewable fossil fuel - acid rain - population pressure and land use - non-sustainable development - maintenance of biodiversity

and regional/local:

- contaminated land - air emissions - water quality - noise - waste management - vehicular exhaust - recycling - packaging - energy efficiency - visual amenity - greenbelt land use - preservation of SSSI - environmental incidents

Principle 3: Understand your Supply chain The guideline prescribes a two-factor based prioritization of the many hundreds or thousands of suppliers used by a company:

1 . Which suppliers are linked, through the product/services supplied, to environmental issues which are of importance to the organisation?

2. Does the organisation have any commercial links or types of contract which could result in some environmental risks? This would apply just as much to contractors and service providers, as to product/material suppliers.

Some mainstream environmental issues of concern are wood and wood- based materials; ozone depleting substances; large quantities of energy; recycle materials; micro pollutants e.g. dioxins or mercury; and chemicals in bleaching, product fumigation and repair.

The ranking procedure has not yet been developed into a systematic or scientific process, but will be based on purchasing managers own judge- ment, provided that environmental issues and risks are clearly understood and with continued support from environmental specialists. Main action points are to decide on the framework for environmental ranking; select the group of suppliers to be involved; develop the criteria for the ranking; and provide training for purchasing and environmental staff.

14

Principle 4: Adopt a Partnership Style Adopting a Partnership Style does not mean that customers and suppliers must enter formal partnership arrangements to benefit from sharing information. There are two good reasons for this approach:

Firstly, not all suppliers have yet fully appreciated the potential benefits of environmental improvement either in terms of risk avoidance, market opportunity or operational efficiencies, and customers can help to achieve this, and together they may even find mutual commercial and financial benefits.

Secondly, suppliers can help customers in a world of imprecise knowledge, a shortage of information and very few recognised standards of performance, where the "best available" solutions are most likely found in a cooperation.

The exchange of information is most effectively organised through personal contacts either in supplier seminars or small meetings, whereas experiences with questionnaires have shown, that they are only effective if the request is for highly focused or specific information.

Principle 5: Collect only Information Needed Purchase managers must determine what information is needed for the essential processes of supplier evaluation, contract monitoring and vendor rating. Site visits to validate quality of process and management will only be required for certain suppliers. The acid test must be whether processes to use the information have been defined. The information must have value if it is to justify the cost of production and the cost of collection and analysis.

Action points are to identify how existing purchasing processes and systems can be used, beginning with how to involve the buyers; to decide what information is needed to support these processes and to provide other relevant information; to decide by what method the information will be obtained; and to provide training for buyers and users of information.

In table 2.3 a list of pros and cons of different information collection methods are presented.

15

Table 2.3 Pros and cons of difSerent information collection methods.

* Can be systematic

* Opportunity for de- and structured

Meetings and structured seminars

I

l

i I Questionnaires

i Site visits

When

From the beginning and throughout

* Contract monito-

* Vendor rating * Preliminary suppli-

er evaluation (se- lectively)

ring

* Supplier evaluation * Vendor rating

Pros

* Informal * Opportunityfor

c 1 a ri fi c a t i o n * Opportunityfor

feedback * Key to partnership

style * Builds commitment

and understanding

* Consistency * Resource efficient * Large quantity of

* Flexible * Useful where pur-

pose is clear (with training)

information

* Best quality of information

* Useful for collec- ting large volumes of information

* Opportunityfor suppliers to share benefits and value

* Build commitment and understanding

* Can be indepen- dent

Cons i * Hard to make and ~

* Resource intensive 1

* Information collec- I tion less detailed 1

systematic

~

I * open to misinter-

I pretation I

* Do not build commitment and understanding

* Mixed quality of information I

* May require vali- ' dation

* Resource intensive 1 * Can be intrusive

unless handled correct i

Principle 6: Validate Supplier's Environmental Performance Validation does not necessarily mean that an "audit" must be carried out nor be necessary for all information or for all suppliers. Validation is likely to involve request for further information and documentation; review of available data or documents; meetings and site visits; and management system audits.

Some of the action points are to decide what information needs to be validated and what the best method is for each of the suppliers concerned; to review and develop validation methods to ensure resource effectiveness; and to develop an action plan based on validation findings.

Principle 7: Set a Timetable for Performance Improvement Organisations with experience in environmental purchasing emphasise the importance of devising targets which the organisation wishes specific suppliers to achieve in a given timescale. By agreeing on targets, which are both achievable by suppliers and acceptable to the buyer, the benefits of performance measurement are fed into the supply chain.

16

Action points are to design environmental improvement targets and an action plan for meeting these; to discuss realistic timescales to meet environmental performance policy objectives, standards and targets; and to work together (supplier and buyer) designing incentives for continually achieving high environmental performance standards.

Assessment of the method The methodology developed is although resumed above in more broad terms, also detailed in the form of checklists and actions points for the principles included. The key features of the model is the cooperation and information exchange with the suppliers based on a preceding ranking of the - from an environmental point of view - most important suppliers and the involvement of both purchasing and environmental expertise. The principles of the procedures in "buying into the environment" are thus very similar to the methodology described in chapter 3.

2.2 Quantitative life cycle inventory methods

2.2.1 Comparison of one-way service and reusable service (Sweden) Producers of one-way service @aper and plastic producers) have commissioned an investigation of the energy consumption and the environmental impacts from one-way service and reusable service (Sundstrom, 1992). The comparison includes the following: dish, cup, saucer, glass, knife, fork and teaspoon. The one-way service is made from paperboard lamina- ted with polyethylene and polystyrene. The reusable service is made of porcelain, glass and steel. The reusable service is supposed to be used 1,000 times.


The comparison includes:

energy consumption

pollution of water - pollution of air

- solid waste.

The information is collected directly from the producers, and, therefore, often confidential i.e. not available for detailed quality assessment.

Comparison of altematives The comparison shows that the energy consumption is equal for both service systems if the dishwasher is filled to at least 70 % of its capacity. If the effectivity of the energy production is lowered, and if the degree of recycled paper used to the paperboard dishes, and if more waste is incinerated, then the use of one-way service will be more favourable.

The use of one-way service results in the same or a higher contribution to the air pollution than the use of reusable service. The use of reusable service gives a higher contribution to water pollution than the use of one- way service.

There is no obvious difference between the two systems as far as waste generation is assessed. The amount of waste to be disposed depends on the amount of waste incinerated with energy recovery (one-way) and the amount of sludge (reusable) used as soil improvement in agriculture.

Assessment of the method The method seems to be detailed, but the calculations are not transparent or easy to validate. The information contained is, therefore, not suitable

17

for other assessments. The method can not be used as a screening method due to the excessive use of detailed data from many industrial sources.

I

Used once, washed once

2.2.2 Comparison of one-way service and reusable service (The Netherlands)

Cups and saucers made of porcelain are compared to one-way service made of polystyrene or paperkardboard (van Eijk et al., 1992). The following steps of the life cycle are included in the assessment:


Used twice, washed once

- primary processing and recovery of raw materials production of materials manufacturing of the product use

- disposal of the product

, Polystyrene Papedcardboard 1 Polystyrene

The assessment includes the following parameters:

Papedcardboard ' 32 I

- impact on air - impact on water - energy consumption - landfill volume

Impact on air 1800 I

The information used in the comparative assessment is collected from producers, organizations, expert groups (e.g. TNO) and available literature (e.g. Habersatter, 1991).

! 48 '

The energy consumption, UPA (units polluted air), UPW (units polluted water) and landfill volume has been calculated per kg material. UPA and UPW are calculated by using the Dutch environmental limit values for air emissions and emissions to water.

1 -' I

Comparison of alternatives The one-way service is compared to cups and saucers made of porcelain. The reusable service is dished after having been used once or twice. For the parameters: Energy consumption, UPA, UPW and landfill volume the transition point is calculated i.e. the point (expressed as number of ser- vings) where one alternative changes from being worse to being better than another alternative.

1 * I

The transition points for the different parameters and for reusable service compared to one-way service are shown in table 2.4.

Table 2.4 Transition point for reusable service (van Eijk et al., 1992).

1 Landfill volume i 125 1 99 I . 109 I 89 j 1. The impact on water will always be worse for the reusable service

18

When choosing between the alternatives the life time of the reusable cups has to be taken into account Le. the actual life time have to be as long as the transition point requires.

Assessment of the method The method requires access to a high volume of data and thereby an excessive data collection effort. The calculation of the environmental parameters from the emissions are based on Dutch regulations, limiting the applicability to Danish (and Nordic) conditions. Therefore, the method is not assessed to be applicable as a screening method for this project.

2.2.3 A comparative study ASS1 (the Swedish paper and packaging group) have commissioned Chal- mers Industriteknik to compare two existing studies on paper products (Ekvall, 1992). The studies, included in the comparison, are a Swedish study: "Packaging and the environment" (Tillman et al., 1992) and a Swiss study: "Oekobilanz von Packstoffen Stand 1990" (Habersatter, 1991).

Description of the method The results from the two existing studies of the assessment of corrugated board are compared for a number of parameters:

- energy (thermal (fossil, renewable resources, energy in

emissions to air (CO,, SOz, NO,, HC, CO, particulates, odou-

emissions to water (BOD, COD, suspended material, oil) solid waste (total, including ashes)

materials, heat), electricity)

rants) -

- -

The difference is calculated as percent related to the Swiss data, and vari- ates from i 226 % to + 1113 %. The two studies are investigated further for differences. The identified differences are attempted eliminated through simulations. The results of the simulations are also reported.

Comparison of the studies The comparison shows a number of differences between the two studies:

The two types of corrugated cardboard have different composi- tion (e.g. different share of recycled fibres) The two types of corrugated cardboard are produced at an inte- grated paper mill and at a separate paper mill The heat recovery is different in the two countries The system boundaries of the energy system are different in the two studies The system boundaries of the emissions differs between the two studies Inside the two studies there is a difference between the system boundaries Precombustion is included in the Swiss study but not in the Swedish External and internal energy production are treated differently in the two studies Avoided emissions due to saved coal combustion are left out in the Swiss study

countries - Collection of reusable paper is treated differently in the two

19

It can be concluded that the results of the studies still differs in spite of the attempt to eliminate the differences by using simulations.

The conclusion of the comparative study is, that one of the studies is not more correct than the other, but:

- that "a life" may be judged differently, quite legitimately depending on purpose and, therefore, criteria for an underlying decision situation; and

- that the life cycle of a product - just as for an individual! - is a reflection of the individual as much as it is a reflection of the world and the conditions around her! "

Assessment of the methods The methods have been compared and assessed by the author (Ekvall) and no further assessment of the methods are therefore included.

2.3 Computer programmes for life-cycle assessment

Several computer programmes have been developed (or are under development) to assist in conducting LCA studies or more general environmental assessments of materials and products. None of the commercial or non-commercial available software presents the optimal solution, and the choice of software depends on the study purpose (time and economic limi- tations etc). In this subchapter a short description of a selected group of software is included, see table 2.5, based on Miettinen (1994), Sustainabi- lity (1993) and SETAC (1993, 1994). The remarks are orientated towards a general description of the programmes and their feasibility for screening application in a purchase situation, although no detailed "scientific" evaluation of the programmes has been made. In general, the software presented covers the phases in executing a life cycle assessment fairly well, but none of the programmes are optimal in all steps. The practitioner, therefore, can choose to apply several of the programmes or seek to com- bine these; the latter possibility is for the time being limited by data and information exchange problems between the d ifterent programmes.

20

Table 2.5 Overview of LCA software tools. The tcrble is developed in cooperation with Bo Weidema, Institute of Product Development and all suppliers listed have had the opportunity to comment. In general, data quality of many of the data bases used in the softwares is disputed. This could imply a need for expert assistance when using any software available.

Software, Developed and sold by; language and ~ fax operating system

~ Boustead Model I

~ Dr. Ian Boustead ~ +441403865284

1 MS-DOS I

DESC

Decision Model for Environmental Strategies of Corporations

EcoManagerm

ECOPACK 2000 Version 2.1E

Institute for Applied Environmental Econo- mics The Netherlands

+3 1703623469

Franklin Associates Ltd. and PIRA Intemational USA

Dipl. Chemiker Max Bolliger Switzerland

Esslenstrasse 26, CH-8280

EkoTool Soil and Water Finland 1 English Mr Fjalar Kommonen

1 MS-DOS I I

Price

1994

License 13,000 ECU/y

Customer made @rice on demand)

License 7,500 ECUiy

2,980 ECU

Special version with 20 starts 298 ECU

?

Remarks

Data base and operating programs allowing inventory calculations for any industrial system. The data base contains information on the fuel producing industries of all OECD countries plus information on a further 2,000 industrial processes including all of the major packaging and building materials. Used by several major industries worldwide as a database and used to calculate the PWMI and APEAL data. All updates to programs and database supplied free to licensees. Initial on- site training and ongoing telephone support supplied as part of the licence. Could be used for screening applications in purchase but not very transwent and once to high if this is the only application.

~ ~

Computer model for translating environmental demands into future company cost estimations. Developed in cooperation with Unilever. Feasibility for screening application in purchase not assessed.

Lifecycle inventory program based on PEMS. 1 (PIRA). Databases contain Franklin's comprehensive US data on materials, energy and fuels. transportation, and waste management. The material database contains data on over 80 materials, including paper and board, polymers (including HDPE, LPDE, PP, PS, PET, and PVC), steel, glass, and aluminium, and access to individual process data. Feasibility for screening application in purchase not assessed.

Developed for application to packaging systems with basic information derived from the'BUWAL studies, but many supplementary data have been added. Includes data for C02-emissions during the production stages of packaging materials and coeficients for SO2 and chlorine from waste incineration. The data included covers aluminium, tinplate, glass, 8 plastics, various papers and boards, and energy for power generation and transport. In the impact assessment part of the programme both the critical volume and ecological scarcity concepts can be applied to air and water emissions; detailed calculations available for German conditions. Ecobalances using the European (INCPEN) data compiled by Dr. Ian Boustead can also be performed. Up to five packaging items can be compared and graphical presenta- tions are available. Data are easily interchanged, and user data can also be added. Feasibility for screening application in purchase not assessed.

Software for optimising linear models. Treats environmental issues as costs. Not developed solely for LCA purpose. Feasibility for screening application in purchase not assessed in detail but most likely to complicated.

21

Software, language and operating system

EcoPro 1.0

English or German

Windows 3.1

- ' EPS 2.0

Environmental l Pnonty Strategies

in product design

English

Windows Excel

I Gahi-Basis

' German and English

I Windows

IDEA

International Database for Ecoprofile Analysis

English

dBase N

Developed and sold by; fax

Eidgenossiche Materialpriifungs- und Forschungsanstalt Switzerland

S. Dall' Acqua

+41713OO199

Swedish Environmental Research Institute (WL) and Federation of Swe- dish Industries (Sweden) Dr. Bengt Steen, IVL + 463 14821 80

IKP. Stuttgart Germany Dipl. ing. Ingrid F'tlei- derer t497116412264

International Institute for Applied System Analysis and Environmental Rese- arch Centre of Finland

+35804566538 Y j o Virtanen

Price

1994

?

Demo available

1994?

?

10,OOO

Remarks

EcoPro was designed for professional life cycle analysis of products and procedures. The life cycles are reproduced by flow charts. Once a product has been defined by its process tree, it can be used in h r - ther life cycles, thus enabling very complex process trees. Each process box in a process tree consists of two standard sheets for input and output materials, energy and water consumption, emissions to the air and water and waste. For each waste material it is possible to indicate a model for disposal with its specific emissions. Once a process tree has been fully defined, the life cycle inventory of the corresponding product can be calculated, which gives detailed information about environmental parameters. Two or more product inventories can be compared by bar charts for each parameter. Assessment can be done by several impact categories such as greenhouse potential, ozone depletion potential, 8.0. as well as by critical volumes and "Okopunk- te" or by user defined evaluation systems. The software is supplied with data for energy, disposal, and evaluation models. Actualised BUWAL 132 data on packaging materials is added in autumn 1995. The database can be modified freely according to the needs of the user. The software is released in spring 1995 and works also on networks. Feasibility for screening application in purchase not assessed.

EPS is a programme to help comparing two product concepts (systems) and to decide which is less harmful to the environment. In opposition to nearly all other methods available, EPS starts up with a valuation of a series of impact parameters (emissions etc.) based on several safeguard objects i.e. human health, biodiversity, production, resources and aesthetic values calculated from the willingness to pay to restore them to their normal status from an emission equivalent; the choices of values of "willingness-to-pay " seems arbitrary. The environmental impact is then calculated from a multiplication of the Environmental Load Indices with the masses of materials etc. used resulting in Environmental Load Units that can be added to one figure for each product. The system is based on Excel and sensitivity analysis of the results (incl. error figures) is included. EPS has only limited options for defining and calculating process trees and a link to LCA Inventory Tool will be included in the software. Originally developed to support product developers in Volvo, but also tested in a project with a larger group of Swedish and Norwegian industries. Assessed as feasible for screening application in purchase if inventory data are available from other sources.

Developed for life cycle inventory studies with data from 54 partner companies; includes energy, transport, emissions and waste management. Planned for yearly update and inclusion of evaluation methods Feasibility for screening application in purchase not assessed.

Developed originally by IIASA in Austria for detailed inventory analysis. Contains an excessive database @rimarily on European data) on basic materials, energy conversion, 1 ,OOO production processes and transportation with data from publicly available sources covering approx. 1 ,OOO products. Industrial sectors covered include pulp and paper, steel, aluminium, petrochemicals, plastics, inorganic chemicals, glass, energy conversion, transportation, and waste management. Process modules can be combined by the user to give a material inventory. The database has been criticized for containing old, obsolete data. Both average data and minimudmaximum values can be used for sensitivity analysis. Assessed as not feasible for screening application in purchase due to complicated software - not user friendly - and uncertain data quality.

22

Software, language and

~ operating system

1 KCGECO

I English 1

Macintosh

LCA Inventory Tool 2.0

English

Windows 3.1


The Finnish Pulp and Paper Research Institute KCL Dr. Anssi Kiima +3580464305

Ekologik: Chalmers Industriteknik Sweden Miss Lisa Person +4631827421

Lifeway

Product Life-cycle Assessment Educational Tool

Danish

Windows Excel

Technical University of Denmark, Visionik and I. Kriiger Systems AS Mogens Soerensen, Visionik +4533134240

Price

1994

2,700 ECU + VAT

Demo diskette and manual available free of charge

3,500 ECU incl. database and 1 year phone support

Demo

200

Remarks

KCL-ECO is a calculation program designed especially for carrying out life cycle inventories. It is also applicable to a wide variety of other types of flow system analyses, which include linear sets of equations. The sets of equations make up a mathematical model that describes the system as a whole. The effects of any changes made in the equations are immediately observable. KCL-ECODATA is a database based on the FileMakerm Pro (claris) program. It is supported by basic information from the paper industry and related branches, e.g. the chemical, energy and transport industries. The modules are also available as hard copy print-outs. The user interface is fully graphical, with an open structure. The user can specify hislher own units, streams, their junctions and set of equations. The program sol- ves extensive sets of linear equations very quickly, in seconds. The report of the calculation can be formatted in many ways. The program includes online and balloon help. Graphical interface and database for sale separately. Feasibility for screening application in purchase not assessed.

LCA Inventory Tool (LCAiT) is a software for calculations in Inven- tory Analyses. The tool has a user friendly graphic interface under MS Windows. A flowchart is build from process and transport cards that are connected by using simple click and draw. Each connection has a percentage of the flow. By clicking a card a dialogue box opens in which the input parameters can be inserted. Reference texts can be added to all data fields. LCAiT easily calculates the mass balance and the inventory results based on the chosen functional unit. A database containing energy camers and transport means, and connected emission factors is used. The database is updated regularly by Chalmers Industriteknik, but the users may add and save their own energy car- riers or transport data. One process tree can be imported to another LCAiT file allowing modular design (i.e. making it possible to com- bine several life cycles). The results from one LCAiT file can be imported into a card in another file. This opens the possibility of building complex systems. LCAiT supports dynamic data exchange. Im- pact assessment can be performed in Excel since the Inventory results easily can be imported to Excel. The tool contains a number of finished life cycle analyses including all data and data sources. A main reference is Tillmann et al., 1991 : Packaging and the Environment. A read only demo version with a limited database for screening application is available for free. Feasible for screening of inventory part only; assessed as not feasible for screening application in purchase without expert assistance.

Lifeway combines an inventory spreadsheet (which is designed to link to e.g. LCA Inventory Tool) and the evaluation part of the life cycle assessment and offers a unique graphical presentation of the results. In the evaluation part the user can define individual weights of all input and output parameters. Lifeway is developed for educational purposes, and the spreadsheet only comprises a maximum list of twenty processes and twenty input and output parameters. Lifeway has only limited options for defining and calculating process trees. Assessed as not presently feasible for screening application in purchase due to limited capacity.

1

I I

23


Oeko-Base

German

Windows

OkoPack

German

MS-DOS

PEMS.l


Migros - Genossen- schafts-Bund Logistik-T A/Oeko-Base Switzerland Peter Meier +4112773088

Lahyani Software Solu- tions Switzerland Tel: +4142210085

PIRA UK

P R A Environ- , Dr. Neil Kirkpatrick mental Manage- i44372377526 ment System

English

Windows Excel 5

~

I

PIA

Product Improvement Analysis

Inst. for Applied En- vironmental Economics, BMI and B&l

tme + 3 1703623469

Dutch and English

MS-DOS

Price

1994

5,500 ECU

Demo

10,OOO ECU initial site licence; additional site licences 2,500 ECU

2,500 ECU individual licence

1 year free user club with unlimited software support

Demo

1 ,OOo

Demo

Remarks I

Database for analyzing and selecting packaging materials and products based on MS Access. Earlier versions were called Oeko-Base I and II. Based on the BUWAL method and data, and developed for Swiss conditions (BUWAL reports 132, Oekobilanz von Packstoffen, 1991 and 133, Methodik f i r Oekobilanzen, 1990, supplemented with U. Kasser & P. Hofstetter: Oekobilanzen von Packstoffen, Korrekturen - Erganzunge - Forschungsvorschlige, 1992). Evaluation made by the use of critical volumes and results presented in bar diagrams in earlier versions have been supplemented by the use of the Eco-Scarcity concept and calculation of Eco-Scarcity Points. The database is updated regularly and covers both packaging materials, processes and transport. Waste management options can be adopted to other countries. Assessed as not feasible for screening application in purchase due to uncertain data quality and evaluation methodology applicable to Switzerland onlv.

~~

Developed for inventory analysis of packaging; based on BUWAL methodology and data. Assessed as not feasible for screening application in purchase due to uncertain data quality and evaluation methodology applicable to Switzerland only.

PEMS is a user friendly software program for conducting comprehensive environmental LCA. The software utilises both spreadsheets and databases; some data sources are old and of disputed quality e . g . BUWAL and IDEA. It has a transparent methodology using the best practice recommendations as specified in the SETAC Code of Prac- tice. The software enables the user to create new life cycle inventories, incorporating site specific data and/or using data from within the built-in database. Using a series of prompts and questions the model guides the user through the production of a complete life cycle inventory analysis study. PEMS works on a modular system which allows the user to link life cycles to produce complex systems with ease. The user is also able to modify and update both standard and user created systems once they have been created. A new release of the software is planned for April 1995 which will enable the user to create an inventory analysis directly by drawing out a flow diagram. From an inventory, the user is then able (if it is desired) to conduct impact assessment determinations and valuation using user defined weightings for the various impact categories. The software incorporates a module for the production of graphs allowing the user to create an extensive range of graphs and reports. Up to six different systems can be compared concurrently. PEMS contains detailed life cycle inventory data on a variety of materials including paper, plastic and metals: virgin and recycled paper and board, a variety of polymers (HDPE, LDPE, PP, PET, PVC, PVOH, and PC), tinplate, glass and aluminium; packaging product examples. Includes also the PMWI data. The methodology is well explained and consistent with international guidelines. Regularly updated. Evaluation aspects under development.

A cut down version of PEMS called EcoAssessor is soon to be launc- hed. EcoAssessor builds up an inventory directly from building a flow diagram. Does not contain “disaggregated“ and is not able to deal with iterative loops (e.g. recycling rates), but includes the same reporting options. The price for individuals will bee 700 ECU.

Assessed as feasible for screening application in purchase with expert assistance; price of software might be prohibitive.

Developed for inventory analysis. Covers energy production, transportation and waste treatment. Inclusion of financial module in consi- deration. Feasibility for screening application in purchase not assessed in detail but most likely to complex.

24

' hocter & , Gamble LCA.l

~ English

Windows , Excel/Lotus

I

REPAQ

SimaPro 3

English

MS-DOS (rnin. 4 MB RAM)


Procter & Gamble European Technical Centre Belgium Mrs. Bea de Smet 4-3224562099

Franklin Associate USA

i-19136496494

PRB Product Ecology Consultants

Mr. Mark Goedkoop

+3 133652853

Price

1994

Avail. for free

~

License 7,500 ECU + 710 ECU for yearly updates

Standard analyst version 2,300 ECU

Designer version 1,150 ECU

Multi-user version 4,600 ECU for 2 and 1,150

added user

Educational version (50 users)

i 1,775 ECU

' for every

Sundstrom-model Miljobalans AB Sweden

+4640121160

1 Not available

Remarks

Developed for inventory analysis of packaging materials and mostly based on BUWAL data (of disputed quality). The spreadsheets allows individual results for primary, secondary, and tertiary packaging to be displayed as well as the composite. Electricity production and emissions are European average values, whereas waste disposal is country specific (specified by the user). The spreadsheet calculates the net energy consumption, solid waste, air and water loadings. Assessed as not feasible for screening application in purchase due to limited coverage of materials and uncertain data quality.

Developed for life-cycle inventories and based on data from more than 100 individual industry studies on packaging etc. in North Ame- rica. The programme has recently been extensively revised and version 2.0 has improved user interface and technical flexibility. Data quality uncertain due to lack of transparency and coverage of all industrial operations. User data can be added. The reporting options allow tabular as well as graphical output of up to five alternatives. Environ- mental loadings can be reported either pr. component or pr. media, and energy summaries can be shown by categories of energy, material resource, process, transportation or by source, e.g. oil, coal, or natural gas. Feasibfity for screening application in purchase not assessed.

SimaPro is a programme designed to act as a decision support tool in the design process, where it is usually not possible to make in-depth analysis of the environmental impacts of an activity or a product. SimaPro contains a process and material database including Dutch and Swiss data (the latter from BUS/BUWAL) which are combined through a weight-based material and process combination for a user defined product. In the SimaPro database there are some 60 materials and several production processes. On materials, data exist on production primarily, but also on disposal and recycling processes. In total approximately 500 processes are included. Furthermore, databases on transport and energy production are included. The user can freely browse and modify the database according to own needs. Product alternatives can be descrihed a s assemblies i.e. the raw materials and processes needed in their production. SimaPro can handle an unlimited number of suhassemhlirs. thus enabling very complex products. After the assemhi! h a \ heen defined. it is placed in a life cycle, where the use and d isp iw~ l processes are defined. Version 2.0 was released in June 199.3 incluJin~c nru data. and supplementedthe critical volume impact a\\essnien: (>! \'rrsion 1 with OEKOPUNKTE (Swiss) or a user defined e\aiua:it>:i <\<rem. Version 3 was released in November 1994 and tcsrurrs n graphical presentation of process trees, normalisation and c\ niua!il 'r: har p p h s . multiple outputs and avoided impacts in each rcisv.! i n n . , \ a ~ ~ \ r new concepts for waste treatment, opportunir? t a b link nddi l i . ,nn: lire cycles (e.g. for packaging). SimaPro is availahic 11. \r'c. ,"! \ crwons for analysts (detailed studies) or designers (qui;L nk*c\\riwrx, The worlds most widely- used tool for the asse<sniec: o' r n t t,c~nnirntal impacts of products. Also available for netui.rh 11 I J.1' dn!nt>n<es from the Delft Tech- nical University (IDEPIIAT. .;<(I r i i ~ * c ~ i a I \ i and the University of Am- sterdam (construction matcnal.8 u 111 t.r added to SimaPro 3.0. Assessed as feasible for scrwnin: application in purchase and included as example for further dicrus$ion and test in the report (version 2); data qualie uncertain.

Inventory database developed for individual clients for more than 20 years. Assessed as not feasible for screening application in purchase due to confidentiality of data and not-transparent calculation methods.

25


TEMIS

Total Emission Model for Integra- ted Systems (in German GEMIS: Gesamtemissions- Model Integrierter Systeme)

German and English

MS-DOS

TEAMTM

Tools for Environ- mental Analysis and Management

English

Windows C+ +

M U


Oko-Institut Darmstadt Germany Mr. Uwe Fritsche

+49615 18 19133

Ecobilan

France

+ 33 1433 144OO

Umweltbundesamt and Frauenhofer Institute

Price

1994

100

Configuration dependent

Remarks

TEMIS is a tool for researchers and decision-makers in energy-policy. It helps to determine the environmental impacts of different energy scenarios, both complex ones on national or international scale, and locals scenarios for industrial sites. Besides energy scenario analyses, TEMIS can be used to analyze for example transportation systems and material process chains. TEMIS covers standard energy systems which can be used for model calculations. In reality, energy systems under study do not always coincide with the built-in models, for example, in efficiency, emission control etc. The TEMIS model takes into account the emissions from the operation of energy facili- ties as well as "upstream activities" i.e. the first part of the life cycles, and the emissions due to material acquisition. The database covers standard energy systems. Assessed as not feasible for screening applications in purchase due to limited scow (enem systems) and most likely to complex.

Based on the industrial experience in the field of ecobalances, the Ecobilan group has developed in Europe and USA two kind of tools: A software called T E W , designed for LCI, LCA and economic modelling and a database of LCI called D E W . T E W , Tools for Environmental Analysis and Management was developed during three years in a team of 7 programmers specialized in hierarchial net- work computation and connectionism with object orientated program- ming techniques. It includes all the useful features of older software, and is specifically designed to meet the needs of major industrial companies: Portability as a Windows program fully compatible with Windows 3.1 and Windows 95. Versions for large networks and Unix workstations will be ready in 1995. Interfacing for data acqukihon: A very powerful fully object orientated database compatible with the major existing industrial database softwares, allowing export and im- port of data and calculation of results for a multitude of company internal and external databases (and also commercial LCA systems). All types of control parameters allow all kinds of simulation. On line help and friendly wizards are guiding the users from system construction to result presentation. A built in management of graphical presen- tations of inventory and evaluation results, enables the users to compare any sets of simulation. Various kinds of autocheck procedures e.g. mass balances, system consistency 8.0. are build in and allow easy sensitivity analysis. The program incorporates a series of impact assessment methods (CML, EPS, Critical Volumes a.0.) and original Ecobilan methods. Scaling elements and data are provided for comparing results to well known activities (100 km car drive, 100,OOO people town water pollution a.0.). Modularity makes it possible to reuse complete LCI for e.g. chemical intermediates in other process chains. Both detailed assessments and screening assessments for e.g. product design can be done as well as economic calculations also usable for financial accounting systems linked to physical flows. Fu- ture versions of the program will include automatic optimization, decision analysis tools, design tools for dismantling operations a .o. The DEAMm database @ata for Environmental Analysis and Mana- gement) includes more than 7,000 LCI modules based on data from industrial sites, or on the best revised public data covering a wide range of countries and industrial sectors such as energy, transport, chemicals and petrochemicals, packaging, building materials and equipments, textile, automotive (from car bodies to different compo- nents), agriculture, food industry products, electronics, and all type of waste management systems (incineration, recycling, landfilling a.s.0.). The database is fully object oriented and modules are sold according to customer needs under any format (paper sheet, Excel, T E W , a.s.0.).

Feasibility for screening application in purchase not assessed.

'l Inventory database and calculation scheme for packaging products. Feasibility for screening application in purchase not assessed.

26

3. Decision support system

Four basic steps The decision support system for environmental sounder purchase of catering materials and products for inflight services developed to fulfil the requirements of Scandinavian Airline Systems (SAS) includes four steps:

1 . Definition of product group. 2. Screening: choice of criteria for material selection and selection

of material for each product. 3. Data collection and treatment for suppliers of the product in the

selected material (inventory analysis). 4. Evaluation (impact assessment).

The different steps are described in the following. The headings in paren- thesis denotes the steps according to normal SETAC nomenclature (Code of practice (Consoli et al., 1993)); the definition of the product group and together with the screening equals the goal definition and scoping.

Compared to typical LCA Compared to a typical LCA methodology, the decision support system fo- cuses in step 1 on a more qualitative selection of realistic product-material combinations based on company specific (purchase) criteria that are not based on environmental considerations. In step 2., also more qualitatively based, a matrix of environmental concerns and life cycle stages is used to select the environmentally most sound material for each product. Then in step 3. , a more conventional data collection (inventory analysis) is depic- ted for the potential suppliers of the selected product-material combination. Thereby, the quantitative comparison is limited to suppliers of the same product type in the same material, and these data are used in step 4. for the final evaluation i.e. choice of supplier.

Originally, the methodology was supposed to be tested by the purchasing organisation of SAS. This has, due to a number of reasons, not been possible. The methodology is, therefore described briefly and the chapter is by no means mend to be used as a cookbook for a purchase department. It is recommended to use skilled internal or external experts in the environmental assessment and the LCA for further development and use of the methodology.

Flow diagram of tasks A flow diagram of the decision support process is included in table 3.1; additional keywords not discussed in the text are included for inspiration; some keywords are taken from subchapter 2.1.5.

Some tasks devoted to the purchasing department can be contracted to the environmental expert or another consultant, but valuable experiences on the methodology will then not be gained in the purchasing department.

27

Table 3.1 Flow diagram for the decision support system.

- Select product(s) and materials for comparison

Environmental expert - Supply motivating examples

- Describe decision support sy from other companies

stem and methodology

1. Definition of product group

SAS Purchasing department - Describe supply chain - Organize supplier seminar - List intemal resources and data

Supplier to SAS - Supply list of product or material

alternatives - Supply data on purchase criteria

Environmental expen - Present environmental assess

ment matrix - Supply general data on key

characteristics of materials

2. Screening: Choice of criteria for material selection

SAS Purchasing Department

- Select cntena for the environ-

- Select matenal alternative to the

I

I - Know your environment ' , mental assessment matnx -

1 product(s) I

I 3. Collection and treatment of data from suppliers inside the material category chosen

I I

I Enmronmental expen - Supply input for supplier

1 - Supply spread sheet for data questionnaire

~ I 1 collection I - Supply literature data to help I support quality assurance of I supplier data

~ SAS Purchasing Department j - Formulate supplier questionnaire

- Contact suppliers by phone - Visit suppliers 4 - Organize dah and perform

I quality assurance

Supplier to SAS: - Collect and supply company data - Collect and supply data from

- Collect and supply general con- ~

sub-suppliers

sumption and waste management data

4. Evaluation: Choice of supplier based on computer-programme and/or environmental expert assessment

I

SAS Purchasing Department I Assist in using computer-pro- ' - Evaluate alternative suppliers

I - isc cuss with expert(s) their as-

1 - Choose supplier

I ' grammes 1 using computer programmes I - Perform expert based assess-

! ment 1 sessment

28

3.1 Definition of product group

Products found in catering manual In the definition step a listing of products necessary for the inflight servi-

ce on a specific route has to be carried out. The necessary products are found in the catering manual, where the catering equipment trays for different routes and customer groups are described. For the different parts of the service e.g. glass for cold drinks, cups for warm drinks, dishes, cutlery and so on, a list of alternative materials can be set up; see table 3.2.

Table 3.2 Alternative materials for different parts of the service.

glass for cold drinks

cups for warm drinks

dishes

cutlery

~

glass plastic glass (e.g. polystyrene) paperboard glass (e.g. PE-coated paperboard)

porcelain cup melamine plastic cup (e.g. polystyrene) paperboard (e.g. PE-coated paperboard)

porcelain dishes melamine dishes plastic dishes (e.g. polystyrene) paperboard dishes (e.g. PE-coated paperboard)

steel plastic cutlery ( e . g . polystyrene)

Company speci$c criteria When the specific tray (Le. flight route and class) has been selected the first part of setting up the system boundaries is finished. Next, the purchase unit has to select alternatives for selected products on the tray, and this selection can be done from the list presented in table 3.2 and based on a series of company speci$c criteria such as:

image of the company commercial availability

price - quality

- weight

The result of this company specific scoping of the product group to be compared for materials (step 2) and suppliers (step 3) could be a decision to use steel based cutlery due to image alone, to omit porcelain dishes due to price or to select only plastic or paper alternatives for tourist class due to price and weight. By scoping based on company criteria, the environmental comparisons are limited to realistic alternatives,

29

3.2 Screening: choice of criteria for material selection and selection of material for each product

sources I pact

Decision matrix for screening In the screening step a decision matrix is used. The decision matrix en- compasses the following general impact categories:

pact

resources - human health impact - ecological health impact

Before - on - after The parameters have to be assessed for the following life-cycle steps, which are a comprised version of the four step life-cycle normally used:

before the aeroplane (i.e. raw materials acquisition and production)

- on the aeroplane (i.e. use) after the aeroplane (Le. disposal) -

The 3 x 3 matrix is shown in table 3.3, which also depicts some qualitative assessment criteria selected as an example from a more comprehensive list of environmental parameters; see appendix 1.

Table 3.3 Decision matrix. The matrix shows examples on the potential exposures or emissions.

I I On the aeroplane I life-time 1 maintenance 1 maintenance I

1 weight' 1 accidents I

After the aeroplane recyclable 1 air emissions i air emissions ' waste water waste water 1 solid waste 1 solid waste , work environment ~

1. The weight of the service is supposed to be an important factor. The influence is explained in the following text.

The decision matrix is used to systemize the criteria used for chosing between different materials by using a qualitative or semi-quantitative assessment. When a material has been selected the quantitative data collection can start.

In practice, some mixing of the steps can be expected i.e. some quantitative data on weight and fuel consumption might be used already in step 1, or data on energy consumption might be used to supplement the criteria "renewability" in step 2. But the data collection should be kept at a mini- mum in the first two steps to make the decision process as cost-effective as possible.

Weight andfuel consumption A key parameter for the choice of material for inflight service is the weight of the material - as stated in chapter 3.1. To show, that the weight

30

also has environmental implications calculations on additional fuel consumption caused by additional weight, e.g. due to selection of an environmentally sounder, but heavier, material alternative, are included.

1 Short distance 3,708 ~ 3,765 1 aeroplane2 I I

The fuel consumption can be calculated from available information on aeroplane type etc. (SAS, 1993) assuming direct proportionality between initial weight of the plane and energy consumption as presented in appendix 2. The key values from appendix 2 is presented in table 3.4.

I 57 1 50

I I I

Table 3.4 Changes in energy consumption as a consequence of one extra ton of cargo. Assumption: the flying time is one hour, and the load factor is lU0 %.

i

100 % load One ton additio- ' Additional fuel ' 4 % - rule' 1 factor nal cargo consumption I litre I litre i litre i litre

, Average weight Fuel consumption i Fuel consumption

litrehour ton I j litrelton . hour 1

1 6,398 j 34 i 50 1 i aeroplane' ~ ~ I

1 Longdistance

1. 2.

3.

The fuel weight is converted to volume (0.792 kg/l). For short distance the average is: initial weight: 65 ton, cargo: 15 ton, passengers: 130, speed: 815 kdhour , fuel consumption: 4,000 Uhour, and energy consumption: 0.07 Ikon ' km. For long distance the value is: initial weight: 185 ton, cargo: 35 ton, passengers: 240, speed: 860 M h o u r , fuel consumption: 6,200 I/hour, and energy consumption: 0.04 Ikon ' km.

SAS has estimated the additional use of energy, while loading additional (and also by reduction of) cargo or service, to be 4 weight% fuel per ton additional cargo and per hour @ e n s Olav Nass, SAS, Stockholm, personal communication December 1994). This value has been calculated by using the average weight of the plane as illustrated in table 3.5 (Peter Me- lander, SAS, Stockholm, personal communication January 1995).

Table 3.5 Calculation of the fuel consumption expressed as litre &el per ton additional cargo per hour.

I I European operation ! 140 i 6,200 1 44 I

I Intercontinental ope- 155 1 6,800 1 ' ration I I

From table 3.5 the additional fuel consumption is seen to be 44 litre/ton hour = 35 kg/ton . hour which is the same as 3.5% or 4%. This value can be regarded as a role of thumb.

Table 3.4 shows, that the approximative method overestimate the additional fuel consumption for short distance aeroplanes compared with the

31

Data Pom suppliers

rule-of-thumb. For the long distance aeroplane the results are the other way around. Therefore, the 4% rule is suitable as a simple approximative method of calculating additional fuel consumption.

3.3 Data collection and data treatment for suppliers of the product in the selected material

Data on the specific product has to be collected from the suppliers (and producers) and supplemented with data from literature.

Literature data are often peer reviewed but too old to illustrate the current production system. More up-dated data from producers are often disputed and without peer review. For both types of data the question of data quality in LCA is very new. Also literature often focus on materials without going into details with specific products. Included for some new LCA- software are also data bases, and several industrial organisations in Europe and USA are working with standardized "cradle to gate" data sets; see table 3.5.

Table 3.5 "Cradle-to-gate " data sets.

APME ISOPA ECOSOL PMMA ECSA IISW EUCAR IISI AIS

Association of Plastic Manufacturers of Europe (PWMI, 1992, 1993, 1994) Isocyanite Producers Association European Centre of Studies on Linear Alkylbenzenr Polymethylmethacrylate Taskforce European Chlorinated Solvents Association International Institute of Synthetic Rubber Producers European Council of Automative Research International Iron and Steel Industry Aluminium Industry

-

Following the collection of material data. different producers of the specific, final products have to be contacted in order to collect specific information on their contributions to:

consumption of resources human health impacts ecological health impacts

More detailed potential impact categories (en\ ironmental themes) are listed in appendix 1.

3.4 Evaluation

Software or expert based In the evaluation step (often called impact assessment) the data collected from the suppliers and/or from literature are treated in two different ways:

32

- Using commercially available LCA-software models Le. Oeko- base or Simapro.

Using an expert assessment based on organized (and normalized) data from the producers or suppliers of materials and final products.

The evaluation includes an interpretation of the results from both LCA- software models and the expert assessment. The computerized assessment is very quantitative of nature whereas the expert assessment also can include more qualitative aspects. Through testing of the different options differences can be discussed.

The evaluation can then support the decision making i.e. the choice of the supplier/producer, who delivers/produces the specific product with the least impact on resources, health, and environment.

33

4. Results

No practical implementation In this chapter the preliminary results of the qualitative and quantitative parts of the decision support system are discussed. The methodology has, as earlier mentioned, not been tested nor implemented in everyday practice with the purchase unit of SAS. Therefore, the results are of more "in- direct" nature. SAS has throughout the project period made changes in the service concepts as well as changed materials for a series of products; a summary is included as subchapter 4.1.

In subchapter 4.2, an example of the supplier choice (step 3 and 4) is included using the software Simapro version 2.1 to compare three different suppliers (Le. different data sets).

4.1 Imposed changes in product and material purchase for inflight services

Changes in inflight services In the project period several changes in the infligth service have been carried out partly as a consequence of the implementation of "SAS concept 1995" (SAS Arsmodel 1995) (Eva-Karin Dahl, SAS, Stockholm, personal communication, august 1994; Martin Porsgaard Nielsen, SAS, Copenhagen, personal communication, february 1995):

EuroClass - Scandinavia and Europe: Tray napkin of paper has been replaced by a cotton napkin.

porcelain. Hot towel of cotton has been replaced by a refresher. The packaging for the refresher will be "kiseloxid" . Aluminium dishes will be washed and reused. The snack-box made of plastic has been replaced by a box made of 50% plastic and 50% cardboard. PVC has been removed from "comfort kits". The synthetic material on the headrest has been replaced by textile or paper.

- Service of melamine has been (will be) replaced by service of

Touristclass - Scandinavia, Europe and Intercontinental: The serving of food will be in a "picnic-basket". Different solutions of one-way materials or reusable materials will be discussed in the future.

General: Work is done to change the plastic bags on board (e.g. taxfree sale) to shopping bags made from environmentally sounder produced cotton.

The "SAS concept 1995" is based on a "product differentiating strategy", which means that the changes have to be acknowledged by the passengers as retention or increasing of the quality especially at EuroClass and also as a function of the flight distance. None of the changes have been eva- luated using the above mentioned methodology.

34

Different examples of the choice of materials on different flight services in Europe are presented in appendix 3.

4.2 Example of comparison of environmental impact of a specific material delivered by different suppliers

Comparing cup suppliers Computer tools can be used in the quantitative step of the described methodology. As mentioned earlier the methodology has not been tested in practise (by contact to suppliers etc.) and, therefore, a computer tool (Simapro 2.1) will be demonstrated only by comparison of environmental impacts from the production of polystyrene. The information on production of raw material originates from Habersatter (1991), Steinhauge & van Dam (1990) and PWMI (1993). The information on production of final products and incineration originates from Habersatter (199 1).

The cases to be compared can be described as follows:

Cup A Production of polystyrene (Steinhauge & van Dam (1990); production of 1,000 polystyrene cups by injection moulding and incineration of waste (Habersatter, 1991).

Cup B Production of polystyrene (Habersatter, 1991); production of 1,000 polystyrene cups by injection moulding and incineration of waste (Habersatter, 1991).

Cup C Production of polystyrene (PWMI, 1993); production of 1,000 polystyrene cups by injection moulding and incineration of waste (Habersatter, 149 1).

The results of a comparison made by Simapro 2.1 can be expressed by a classification system developed by CML (Leiden, the Netherlands) (Hei- jungs et al., 1992) or by the Ecopoint system developed by the Swiss Ministry of the Environment (reference). The Ecopoint system has been adapted to Dutch norms in Simapro 2.1. The results of the comparison, expressed according to the CML-method and the Ecopoint system, are shown in figure 4.1 and in table 4.1 respectively.

35

0

co3

I ' Coffeecup, A Coffee cup, B I Steinhauge & van Habersatter (1991)

Dam(1990) 1

c 0

Coffee cup, C PWMI (1993)

3 0

Tee""

~ Production of raw matenals

~ bolystyrene)

3 0 5 2

I I

2,093 1 2,919 1 6,911

I

5 0 s 0 -

' bolystyrene cups)

I Waste disposal' 1 (1 00 % Incineration)

oc mi

830'

- 1,018

Comparison of environmental impact of polystyrene production expressed according to the CML-method. The comparison is based on information of different origin; see text.

I I ~ Total

I

Coffee cup C has the highest score in the following effect categories: eutrophication, ecotoxicity , energy consumption, acidification and human toxicity. Coffee cup B has the highest score in the following effect categories: solids and photochemical smog and A has the highest score in greenhouse effect.

i 1,618 2,414 6,466 1

,

Table 4.1 Comparison of environmental impact of polystyrene production expressed according to the Swiss Ecopoint system. The comparison is based on information of different origin; see text. Process trees for the different alternatives are shown in appendix 4.

36

The Ecopoint score for injection moulding is the same for all three cups due to the assumption that the processing of the polystyrene is carried out on the same plant irrespectively of the origin of the raw material. Coffee cup C shows the highest overall score followed by B and A, which is in accordance with the results expressed according to the Dutch CML classification method shown in figure 4.1

37

References

Brezet H, van der Horst T, te Riele H, Duijf G, Haffmans S , Bottcher H, de Hoo S , Zweers A, Verkooyen H (1994). Handleiding voor milieuge- richte produkt ontwikkeling. Den Haag: NOTA.

Christiansen K, Grove A, Hansen LE, Hoffmann L, Jensen AA, Pommer K, Schmidt A (1990). Miljmrdering a PVC og alternative materialer. Miljqrojekt nr. 13 1. Karbenhavn: Miljnrstyrelsen.

Consoli F, Allen D, Boustead I, Fava J, FrankIin W, Jensen AA, de Oude N, Parrish R, Perriman R, Postlethwaite D, Quay B, SCguin J, Vigon B (eds.) (1993). Guidelines for Life-cycle assessment: A "Code of practice". Society of Environmental Toxicology and Chemistry (SETAC) (SETAC Workshop, Sesimbra, Portugal, 31 March - 3 April 1993).

Ekvall T (1992). Life-cycle analyses of corrugated cardboard. A comparative analysis of two existing studies. CIT-Ekologik report 1992:3. Gote- borg: Chalmars Industriteknik.

Gensch CO (1990). Porzellan - Mehrweggeschirr oder Polystyrol - Ein- weggeschirr? Darmstadt: 0ko.Institut e.V. (cit. fra Toft & Dall (1993)).

Habersatter K (1991). Oekobilanz von Packstoffen Stand 1990. Schriften- reihe Umwelt Nr. 132. Bern: Bundesamt fiir Umwelt, Wald und Land- schaft (BUWAL).

Heijungs R, Guink JB, Huppes G, Lankreijer RM, Udo de Haes HA, Sleeswijk AW, Ansems AMM, Eggels PG, van Duin R, de Goede HP (1992). Environmental life cycle assessment of products. I Guide; I1 Backgrounds, 1992. Leiden: CML.

Kindler H, Nikles A (1980). Energieauhand zur Herstellung von Werk- stoffen - Berechnungsgrundsatze un Energieaquivalenzwerte von Kunst- stoffen. Kunststoffe 70( 12):802-807.

Miettinen P (1993). Software tools in life cycle assessment. In Weidema BP (ed.). Environmental assessment of products. A textbook on life cycle assessment. Helsinki: UETP-EEE.

Miljarstyrelsen (198 1). Engangsservice kontra flergangsservice i statslige kantiner. Kerbenhavn: Miljlastyrelsen.

PWMI (1992). Eco-balance methodology for commodity thermoplastics. A Report for The european Centre for Plastics in the Environment (PWMI), edited by Dr. Ian Boustead. Brussels.

PWMI (1993). Eco-profiles of the European plastics industry. Report 2: Olefin Feedstock Resources. A Report for The european Centre for Pla- stics in the Environment (PWMI), edited by Dr. Ian Boustead. Brussels.

PWMI (1993). Eco-profiles of the European plastics industry. Report 3: Polyethylene and Polypropylene. A Report for The european Centre for

39

Plastics in the Environment (PWMI), edited by Dr. Ian Boustead. Brus- sels.

PWMI (1993). Eco-profiles of the European plastics industry. Report 4: Polystyrene. A Report for The european Centre for Plastics in the Envi- ronment (PWMI), edited by Dr. Ian Boustead. Brussels.

PWMI (1994). Eco-profiles of the European plastics industry. Report 5: Co-Product Allocation in Chlorine Plants. A Report for The european Centre for Plastics in the Environment (PWMI), edited by Dr. Ian Boustead. Brussels.

PWMI (1994). Eco-profiles of the European plastics industry. Report 6: Polyvinyl Chloride. A Report for The european Centre for Plastics in the Environment (PWMI), edited by Dr. Ian Boustead. Brussels.

SAS (1993). Passenger information material.

Schmidt A, Christiansen K, Jensen AA, Nielsen K, Lange M, Andersen 0, Grandjean P, Rasmussen B, Sortkjar 0, Lnrkkegaard K (1990). Inte- greret miljar- og arbejdsmiljervurdering a nye materialer. Dansk Teknolo- gisk Institut/Miljoteknik.

SETAC (1993). LCA-News 3(6).

SETAC (1994). LCA-News 4(1); 4(5); 4(6).

Steinhage CCM, van Dam A (1990). Milieu-inventarisatie verpakkings- materialen. Rotterdam: van den Bergh & Jurgens. (Not published).

Sundstrom G (1992). Energi- och miljobelastning frh enghgsservis och diskad flerghgsservis - en jiimfnrrelse. Malmo: Miljobilans Gustav Sund- strom AB.

Sustainability (1993). The LCA Sourcebook. An European Business Guide to Life-cycle Assessment. London: Sustainability Ltd.

Tillman A-M, Baumann H, Eriksson E, Rydberg T (1992). Packaging and the environment - Life-cycle analyses of selected packaging materials. Quantification of environmental loadings. SOU 199 1 :77. Goteborg: Chal- mars Industriteknik.

Toft J, Dall 0 (1993). Grnrn, statslig indbbspolitik. Delrapport 3: Miljnr- vurderinger. Arbejdsrapport fra Miljnrstyrelsen nr. 53. Kerbenhavn: Miljnr- styrelsen.

van Eijk J, Nieuwenhuis JW, Post CW, de Zeeuw JH (1992). Reusable versus Disposable. A comparison of the environmental impact of polystyrene, paperkardboard and porcelain crockery. Publikatiereeks produkten- beleid nr 199 1/2. Ministerie van Volkshuisvesting, Ruimtelijke Ordening en Milieubeheer .

40

Appendices

Resource Energy

I - ! Ecological health 1 impacts I

Water

Psychological impacts 1 Tiredness i I

Groundwater i

~

!

Human health impacts

Depletion of stratospheric ozone i 1 I

~ Surface water I

Lsnd Area (Id) i ~ ~ Quality

, Chemicallbiological impacts ~ Acute Toxicity I

Regional impacts

I

~ Photo-oxidant formation

"Sick building syndrome"

Acidification I

I i

I I

Physical impacts

, Eutrophication (terrestnal, aquatic)

Neurotoxicity

Organ toxicity

Physical impairment, injuries

Noise

1

, Effects on biological diverslty

Global impacts

Local impacts 1 Acute aquatic toxicity , (Ecotoxicolopical effects) 1

1 Global warming

- ~ Acute terrestrial toxicity i

Chronic aquatic toxicity ~

I I 1 Chronic terrestrial toxicity 1

I Mutagenicity/genotoxicity I

41

Appendix 2: Calculation of energy consumption as a function of weight and distance

I

~ Type of aero- ~ Initial Cargo' I Number of Cargo/pas- Speed j plane 1 weight 1 ton I ton i todpassenger kmhour

1 passengers senger

~ MD80 ??

MD81 63.5 15.4 133 0.116 I 815

MD82 ~ 67.8 17.5 , 156 0.112 ~ 815

~ MD87 61.2 14.8 110 ! 0.135 815

I

~ MD83 72.6 16.4 j 133 0.123 i 815 I

I 1 Boing 737-500 , 60.6 14.0 13 1 0.107 j 810

37.4 242 0.155 860 1 Boing 767- I

The energy consumption expressed as Ikon-km has been calculated on basis of available information on different types of aeroplanes (SAS, 1993) assuming direct proportionality between initial weight and energy consumption.

Fuel con- i Energy con- ~

sumption ~ sumption l/hour ~ l/ton ' km I

I !

! ??

4,000 0.077

4,000 0.072 i

I 3,600 0.072 ~

4,000 0.068

3,100 0.063

6,200 0.039

I

i 1 Initial weight 1 Net weight ~ Cargo Distance 1 Energy con- I

, ton i ton ton km l/ton . !un sumption

1. Cargo include passengers, luggage and food etc

sumption i I

In the following calculations average values for short distance and long distance will be used. For short distance the average is: initial weight: 65 ton, cargo: 15 ton, passengers: 130, speed: 815 km/hour, fuel consumption: 4,000 l/hour, and energy consumption: 0.07 l/ton . km. For long distance the value is: initial weight: 185 ton, cargo: 35 ton, passengers: 240, speed: 860 km/hour, fuel consumption: 6,200 l/hour, and energy consumption: 0.04 Ikon . km.

I

As an example, the effect of one additional ton of e.g. service is calculated for short and long distance (flying time 1 hour) assuming 100 % load factor. The actual load factor is supposed to be between 50 % and 100 %, therefore, the energy consumption is also calculated for a 50 % load factor assuming that the cargo is proportional with the number of passengers.

1 3,708.25 i

I I

~ 16 ' 815 i 0.07

~ Short ~ 57.50 50 ~ 7.5 815 0.07 I ~ Short i 66.00 I 50

I I

1 3,765.30

3,280.3 8 ~

The transport of one additional ton of cargo by a short distance aeroplane results in an additional fuel consumption of 57 1. The energy consumption for an aeroplane with 50 % load factor is calculated to be 3,280 1 fuel i.e. a fuel reduction of 428 1. The transport of one additional ton of cargo by a long distance aeroplane result in an additional fuel consumption of at 34 1. The energy consumption for an aeroplane with 50 % load factor is calculated to be 5,762 1 fuel i.e. a fuel reduction of 602 1.

Long ~ 185.00 I 150 I 35

Long ! 186.00 I 150 1 36

~

I I ~

I

42

860 ~ 0.04 1 6,364.00

860 ~ 0.04 6,398.40 I I I

Long ~ 167.50 ~ 150 j 17.5 860 j 0.04 5,762 .OO

Appendix 3: Observations on the choice of materials on different flight services in Europe

Copenhagen-Lisboa, 03.93 Tourist class. SAS

Copenhagen-Nice, 09.94 Tourist class Swissair

Copenhagen-Bruxelles, 1 1.94 Business class. SAS

~

18-8 steel, Thericia, 2 spoons, 1 fork, 2 knifes

971124 Dynoplast

18-8 steel Therisia Cutlery

Coffee cup

steel, Swissair

Suisse Langenthal porcelain Schonwald Germany 994, 971034

511100 DuniBili

PS Sandher Diopoldsau Beverage glass

Drink glass I glass (SAS) glass (wine) plastic SAS "hexafod"? @re-food iuice served in PS)

I Plate

______

Suisse Langenthal 971 121 Dynoplast (2 PC)

I Bowl (hot) melamine

971 123 Dynoplast, (2 PC.)

Bowl (cold) fruit: porcelain with PS-foil

Hot food casserole aluminium ' aluminium

Lid for casserole aluminium aluminium

Trav silver oaoer Dlastic with uaper

Salt and Deber Dauerbaes oauerbaes

Cream small plastic cups (Mathilde) small PS with aluminium lid (5% CHT)

paper blue-and-white paper

aluIpaperlPE? -

Napkin

Wet napkin aldpaper

In appendix 3 an incomplete list of the choice of materials for inflight ser\,ice products is included based on personal observations throughout the project period. The listing is only to illustrate the variation in materials available, but also the differentiation between tourist class and business class and a first indica- tion of changes over time.

43

Appendix 4: Process trees of 3 coffee cups in SimaPro 2.1

SimaPro 2 . 1 _ _ _ - - Structure - - - - - Date: 9 5 / 0 7 / 2 5

Assembly: 'Coffee cup, A', Indicator

No Contr.Tota1 1 . 2666 2 660 2093 3 23 1433 4 39 1410 5 102 436 6 55 334 7 279 279 8 4 1 935 9 210 894

1 0 113 684 11 5 7 1 5 7 1 1 2 12 573 1 3 . 5 6 1 1 4 163 265 1 5 103 103 1 6 94 104 1 7 1 0 1 0 1 8 113 139 1 9 26 26 20 9 45 2 1 36 3 6 22 7 7 23 1 1

(Unit = - x ~ . O E + O ) [.I Assembly: 1 .000E+O p Coffee cup, A

1.1 Material: 4.000E+O kg polystyrene bj L[.] Material: 4.160E+O kg styrene

L[.l Material: 4.2433+0 kg ethylbenzene [.I Material: 2.0373+0 kg ethene bj

lL.1 Material: 2.7093+0 kg naphta bj Lf.1 Material: 2.8443+0 kg crude oil bj

[.I Material: 3.140E+O kg benzene L[.] Material: 4.1763+0 kg aromatics

L[.] Material: 5.5543+0 kg naphta bj L[.] Material: 5.8323+0 kg crude oil bj

t [.I Processing: 4.000E+O kg injection moulding L[.] Energy: 1.520E+1 MJ electricity Europe

[.I Energy: 7.6463+0 MJ powerplant coal L[.] Material: 2 . 6 0 9 3 - 1 kg crude coal B

[.I Energy: 4.134E+O MJ powerplant lignite L[.] Material: 4 . 1 3 4 3 - 1 kg crude lignite

1.1 Energy: 4.2863+0 MJ powerplant oil L[.] Material: 1 . 0 4 5 E - 1 kg crude oil B

[.I Energy: 3.7243+0 MJ powerplant gas L[.l Material: 8 . 0 9 6 3 - 2 kg crude gas

[.I Energy: 5.6093+0 MJ electricity nuclear 1.1 Energy: 3.070E+O MJ electricity hydraulic

SimaPro 2 . 1 - - - - - Structure - - - - - Date: 95/07 /25

Assembly: 'Coffee cup, B', Indicator

No Contr-Total 1 . 3492 2 2913 2919 3 6 6 4 12 573 5 . 5 6 1 6 163 265 7 103 103 8 94 104 9 1 0 1 0

1 0 113 139 11 26 26 1 2 9 45 1 3 3 6 36 1 4 7 7 15 1 1

(Unit = - x l.OE+O ) 1.1 Assembly: 1 .000E+O p Coffee cup, B

[.I Material: 4.000E+O kg polystyrene B lL.1 Energy: 5.4723+0 MJ fuels for electricity

[.I Processing: 4.000E+O kg injection moulding L[.] Energy: 1.520E+1 MJ electricity Europe

[.I Energy: 7.6463+0 MJ powerplant coal L[.] Material: 2 . 6 0 9 3 - 1 kg crude coal B

1.1 Energy: 4.134E+O MJ powerplant lignite L[.] Material: 4 . 1 3 4 3 - 1 kg crude lignite

1.1 Energy: 4.2863+0 MJ powerplant oil L[.] Material: 1 . 0 4 5 E - 1 kg crude oil B

[.I Energy: 3.7243+0 MJ powerplant gas L[.] Material: 8 . 0 9 6 3 - 2 kg crude gas

[.I Energy: 5.6093+0 MJ electricity nuclear [.I Energy: 3.070E+O MJ electricity hydraulic

t

44

SimaPro 2.1 - - - - - Structure - - - - - Date: 95/07/24

Assembly: 'Coffee cup, C', Indicator

No Contr-Total 1 . 7484 2 6911 6911 3 12 573 4 . 561 5 163 265 6 103 103 7 94 104 8 10 10 9 113 139

10 26 26 11 9 45 12 36 36 13 7 7 14 1 1

(Unit = - x ~ . O E + O ) [.I Assembly: 1 . 0 0 0 E + O p Coffee cup, C

[.I Material: 4.000E+O kg polystyrene P 1.1 Processing: 4.000E+O kg injection moulding L[.] Energy: 1.520E+1 MJ electricity Europe

[.I Energy: 7.6463+0 MJ powerplant coal L1.1 Material: 2.6093-1 kg crude coal B

[D] Energy: 4.1343+0 MJ powerplant lignite L[.] Material: 4.1343-1 kg crude lignite

1.1 Energy: 4.2863+0 MJ powerplant oil L[.] Material: 1.045E-1 kg crude oil B

[.I Energy: 3.7243+0 MJ powerplant gas L[.] Material: 8.0963-2 kg crude gas

[.I Energy: 5.6093+0 MJ electricity nuclear [ D l Energy: 3.070E+O MJ electricity hydraulic

t

45

decision support system for environmental sounder purchase of catering m aterials and products for...

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