death and the afterlife€¦ · the sky—the earliest pyramids, such as the step pyramid of djoser...
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DEATH and the AFTERLIFE: PREDYNASTIC and OLD KINGDOM EGYPT: FOCUS
(Stepped Pyramid of King Djoser and the Pyramids at Gizeh)
TITLE or
DESIGNATION:
Stepped
Pyramid of King
Djoser
ARCHITECT:
Imhotep
CULTURE or
ART
HISTORICAL
PERIOD: Early
Dynastic
Egyptian
DATE: c. 2675-
2625 B.C.E.
LOCATION:
Saqqara, Egypt
ONLINE ASSIGNMENT:
https://www.khanacademy.org/h
umanities/ancient-art-
civilizations/egypt-
art/predynastic-old-
kingdom/a/old-kingdom-the-
great-pyramids-of-giza
ONLINE ASSIGNMENT:
https://www.khanacademy.org/h
umanities/ancient-art-
civilizations/egypt-
art/predynastic-old-
kingdom/a/old-kingdom-
pyramid-of-khufu
TITLE or DESIGNATION:
Pyramid of Khufu at Gizeh
CULTURE or ART
HISTORICAL PERIOD: Old
Kingdom Egyptian
DATE: c. 2560–2540 B.C.E.
LOCATION: Gizeh, Egypt
ONLINE
ASSIGNMENT:
https://www.khanacadem
y.org/humanities/ancient
-art-civilizations/egypt-
art/predynastic-old-
kingdom/a/old-kingdom-
pyramid-of-khafre-and-
the-great-sphinx
TITLE or
DESIGNATION:
Pyramid of Khafre at
Gizeh
CULTURE or ART
HISTORICAL PERIOD:
Old Kingdom Egyptian
DATE: c. 2520-2494
B.C.E.
LOCATION: Gizeh,
Egypt
TITLE or
DESIGNATION: Great
Sphinx at Gizeh
CULTURE or ART
HISTORICAL PERIOD:
Old Kingdom Egyptian
DATE: c. 2520-2494
B.C.E.
MEDIUM: Sandstone
DEATH and the AFTERLIFE: PREDYNASTIC and OLD KINGDOM EGYPT: SELECTED TEXT
(Stepped Pyramid of King Djoser and the Pyramids at Gizeh)
PYRAMIDS AT SAQQARA and
GIZEH
Online Links:
Pyramid of Djoser - Wikipedia, the free
encyclopedia
Sed festival - Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Mastaba - Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Ancient Egyptian burial customs - Wikipedia,
the free encyclopedia
Djoser - Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Imhotep - Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Video Images of Saqqara - Discovering Egypt
PYRAMIDS AT SAQQARA and
GIZEH
Online Links:
Ancient Egyptian Monuments: Step Pyramid
of Djoser's, Saqqara
Smarthistory - The Great Pyramids of Giza
Stepped Pyramid of Djoser - National
Geographic
EGYPTIAN
KINGDOMS
Pre- and Early Dynastic Period
(6000 - 2686 BCE)
Old Kingdom (2686– 2134
BCE)
Middle Kingdom
(2030 - 1640 BCE)
New Kingdom
(16th-11th centuries BCE)
Osiris is not only a merciful judge of the
dead in the afterlife, but also the
underworld agency that granted all life.
Through the hope of new life after death
Osiris began to be associated with the
cycles observed in nature. He wears the
Atef crown and carries a crook and a flail.
He is both the husband and brother of
Isis and the father of Horus.
Horus was born to the goddess Isis after
she retrieved all the dismembered body
parts of her murdered husband Osiris.
She used her magical powers to resurrect
Osiris and to fashion a gold phallus to
conceive her son.
Once Isis knew she was pregnant with
Horus, she fled to the Nile Delta
marshlands to hide from her brother Seth
who jealously killed Osiris and who she
knew would want to kill their son.
Imhotep. The Stepped Pyramid of King Djoser (Zoser), c. 2675-2625 BCE, Saqqara
For his tomb complex at Saqqara, King Djoser (Dynasty 3, ruled c. 2681-2662 BCE)
commissioned the earliest known monumental architecture in Egypt. The designer of
the complex was a man called Imhotep.
It appears that he first planned Djoser’s tomb as a single-story mastaba, then later
decided to enlarge upon the concept. In the end, what he produced was a stepped
pyramid consisting of six mastabalike elements of decreasing size placed on top of
each other. Although his final structure resembles the ziggurats of Mesopotamia, it
differs in both its planned concept and its purpose of protecting a tomb. Djoser’s
imposing structure was originally faced with a veneer of limestone.
A mastaba is an Old Kingdom Egyptian tomb
The shape of the pyramid was a solar reference, perhaps
intended as a solidified version of the rays of the sun. Texts talk
about the sun’s rays as a ramp the pharaoh mounts to climb to
the sky—the earliest pyramids, such as the Step Pyramid of
Djoser at Saqqara—were actually designed as a staircase. The
pyramid was also clearly connected to the sacred ben-ben stone,
an icon of the primeval mound that was considered the place of
initial creation. The pyramid was considered a place of
regeneration for the deceased ruler.
Imhotep, the architect of the
Stepped Pyramid of King Djoser,
claimed to be founder of medicine,
the papyrus scroll, and the first to
use columns in architecture.
In the form of his ka statue, Djoser was able to observe these
devotions through two peepholes bored through the wall between
the serdab and the funerary chapel.
To the east of the pyramid were sham buildings- simple masonry
shells filled with debris- representing chapels, palaces with
courtyards, and other structures. They were provided so that the
dead king could continue to observe the sed rituals that had
ensured his long reign.
His spirit could await the start of the ceremonies in a pavilion
near the entrance to the complex in its southeast corner. The
running trials of the sed festival took place in a long outdoor
courtyard within the complex.
After proving himself, the king’s spirit proceeded first to the
South Palace then to the North Palace, to be symbolically
crowned once again as king of Egypt’s Two Lands.
Statue of King Djoser from the
Third Dynasty, limestone
This serdab is located at the Mortuary Complex of Djoser at Saqqara, c. 2680
BCE (on the northeast corner of the pyramid by the entrance to the mortuary
temple; original location of Djoser’s cult statue)
The heb-sed festival (an important ritual
completed by Egyptian kings, typically after 30
years on the throne) to renew their powers.
The courtyards are symbolic of Upper and
Lower Egypt, indicated by engaged columns
with papyrus and lotus capitals.
Mastabas tended to be grouped
together in a necropolis- literally, a
“city of the dead” – at the edge of
the desert on the west bank of the
Nile, for the land of the dead was
believed to be in the direction of
the setting sun. Two of the most
extensive of these early
necropolises are at Saqqara and
Giza, just outside modern Cairo.
The engaged columns spaced
along the exterior walls of the
North Palace, for example,
resemble stalks of papyrus.
Stylized papyrus blossoms
serve as their capitals.
These columns may have been
patterned after the bundled
papyrus stalks early Egyptian
builders used to reinforce mud
walls and symbolized Lower
Egypt. By contrast, the
architectural decorations of the
South Palace featured plants
symbolic of Upper Egypt, the
flowering sedge and the lotus.
Top Left: Ba bird from the Valley of
the Kings, tomb of Tutankhamun, c.
1325 BCE
Bottom left: Scarab pendant from the
Valley of the Kings, tomb of
Tutankhamun, c. 1325 BCE
Egyptian gylphs symbolizing (left to right) life (the ankh), stability (the djed pillar),
beauty, joy, and protection
Canopic jars were used by Egyptians in the mummification process. The
heads represented the four sons of Horus. They are:
• Duamutef, the jackal-headed god whose jar contained the stomach
(representing the east)
• Qebehsenuef, the falcon-headed god whose jar contained the intestines
(representing the west)
• Hapi, the baboon-headed god whose jar contained the lungs (representing
the north)
• Inseti, the human-headed god whose jar contained the liver (representing
the south)
Preserving the deceased’s body by mummification was only the first requirement
for immortality in ancient Egypt. Food and drink also had to be provided, as did
clothing, utensils, and furniture. Nothing that had been enjoyed on earth was to be
lacking. The Egyptians also placed statuettes called ushabtis (answerers) in the
tomb. These figurines performed any labor required of the deceased in the afterlife,
answering whenever his or her name was called.
Pyramid of Khufu at Gizeh, c. 2560–2540 BCE
The largest of the three pyramids is that of Khufu’s. As with Djoser’s Stepped Pyramid,
the four sides of each of the Great Pyramids are oriented to the cardinal points of the
compass. But the funerary temples associated with the three Gizeh pyramids are not
placed on the north side, facing the stars of the northern sky, as was Djoser’s temple.
The temples sit on the east side, facing the rising sun and underscoring their
connection with Re.
At Gizeh, across the Nile from modern Cairo, stand the three Great
Pyramids, the oldest of the Seven Wonders of the Ancient World. They
testify to the wealth and pretensions of the Fourth Dynasty pharaohs Khufu
(r. 2551-2528 BCE), Khafre (r. 2520-2494 BCE) and Menkaure (r. 2490-2472
BCE). The new tomb shape probably reflects the influence of Heliopolis, the
seat of the powerful cult of Re, whose emblem was a pyramidal stone, the
ben-ben. The Great Pyramids are symbols of the sun, where Egyptian kings
were reborn in the afterlife, just as the sun is reborn each day at dawn.
We know that the plateau of Giza,
renowned for its three Great
Pyramids, was chosen for its ability to
withstand the burden imposed by the
mass of the construction and for its
proximity to the high waters of the
inundation. Less than a thousand
yards separated the construction site
from the harbor area where the blocks
coming from the quarry at Tura were
unloaded.
Moreover, not all the stones had to be
brought from elsewhere; the
immediate environs of Giza furnished
the majority of the blocks needed for
the masonry of the interior. Once the
king had made up his mind, it was
necessary to plan the construction
work: the number of stone blocks
needed and where they would be
extracted, the requisitioning of the
work force, and the location of villages
for the workmen near the site.
Ben-ben stone from Heliopolis
The Pyramid Texts, inscribed on the burial chambers walls of many royal tombs
beginning with the Fifth Dynasty pyramid of Urnas, refer to the sun’s rays as the
ladder the pharaoh uses to ascend to the heavens.
Many questions remain about the construction of
these massive monuments, and theories abound as to
the actual methods used. The workforce needed to
build these structures is also still much discussed.
Discovery of a town for workers to the south of the
plateau has offered some answers.
It is likely that there was a permanent group of
skilled craftsmen and builders who were
supplemented by seasonal crews of approximately
2,000 conscripted peasants.
These crews were divided into gangs of 200 men, with
each group further divided into teams of 20.
Experiments indicate that these groups of 20 men
could haul the 2.5 ton blocks from quarry to pyramid
in about 20 minutes, their path eased by a lubricated
surface of wet silt.
An estimated 340 stones could be moved daily from
quarry to construction site, particularly when one
considers that many of the blocks (such as those in
the upper courses) were considerably smaller.
Khufu’s pyramid is constructed of inner, rough-hewn, locally quarried core stones,
which is all we see today, and angled, outer casing blocks laid in even horizontal
courses with spaces filled with gypsum plaster.
The fine outer casing stones, which have long since been removed, were laid with great
precision. These blocks of white Tura limestone would have given the pyramid a
smooth surface and been quite bright and reflective. At the very top of the pyramid
would have sat a capstone, known as a pyramidion, that may have been gilt. This
dazzling point, shining in the intense sunlight, would have been visible for a great
distance.
The interior chambers and
passageways of Khufu’s pyramid are
unique and include a number of
enigmatic features. There is an
unfinished subterranean chamber
whose function is mysterious as well
as a number of so-called “air shafts”
that radiate out from the upper
chambers.
These have recently been explored
using small robots, but a series of
blocking stones have obscured the
passages. When entering the
pyramid, one has to crawl up a
cramped ascending chamber that
opens suddenly into a stunning
Grand Gallery. This corbelled
passage soars to a height of 8.74 m
(26 feet) and leads up to the King’s
Chamber, which is constructed
entirely from red granite brought
from the southern quarries at
Aswan.
The king’s sarcophagus, carved from red
granite, sits empty at the exact central axis of
the pyramid. This burial chamber was sealed
with a series of massive granite blocks and the
entrance to the shaft filled with limestone in
an effort to obscure the opening.
Khufu’s mortuary complex also included seven
large boat pits. Five of these are located to the
east of the pyramid and were a sort of model;
these brick-lined boat shaped elements were
probably intended for use in the afterlife to
transport the king to stellar destinations.
Boat burials and models of this type had a
long history in royal mortuary contexts—a
fleet of 14 such pits, containing actual boats
averaging 18-19 meters (60 feet) in length
encased inside, were discovered at a Dynasty 1
mortuary enclosure in Abydos, the cemetery of
Egypt’s earliest kings. Often, however, as with
Khufu, the pits were simply boat shaped
models rather than containing actual boats.
In addition to these model boat pits, however, on the south side of the pyramid Khufu
had two massive, rectangular stone lined pits that contained completely disassembled
boats. One of these has been removed and reconstructed in a special museum on the
south side of the pyramid. This cedar boat measures 43.3 meters (142 feet) in length
and was constructed of 1,224 separate pieces stitched together with ropes. These boats
appear to have been used for the funerary procession and as ritual objects connected to
the last earthly voyage of the king, and were then dismantled and interred.
Pyramid of Khafre at Gizeh, c. 2520-2494 BCE
The second great pyramid of Giza, that was built by Khufu’s second son Khafre, has a
section of outer casing that still survives at the very top (and which would have
entirely covered all three of the great pyramids at Giza). Although this monument
appears larger than that of his father, it is actually slightly smaller but was
constructed 10 m (33 feet) higher on the plateau.
From the remains surrounding the
Pyramid of Khafre at Gizeh,
archaeologists have been able to
reconstruct an entire funerary
complex.
The complex included the pyramid
itself with the pharaoh’s burial
chamber; the mortuary temple
adjoining the pyramid on the east
side, where offerings were made to
the dead king, ceremonies
performed, and cloth, food, and
ceremonial vessels stored; the
covered causeway, or raised
corridor, who walls were decorated
with painted reliefs; and the valley
temple at the edge of the
floodplain.
The interior is much simpler than
that of Khufu’s pyramid, with a
single burial chamber, one small
subsidiary chamber, and two
passageways. The mortuary
temple at the pyramid base was
more complex than that of Khufu
and was filled with statuary of the
king--over 52 life-size or larger
images originally filled the
structure.
Khafre’s valley temple, located at
the east end of the causeway
leading from the pyramid base, is
beautifully preserved. It was
constructed of megalithic blocks
sheathed with granite and floors of
polished white calcite. Statue
bases indicate that an additional
24 images of the pharaoh were
originally located in this temple.
Map of the Giza Plateau,
showing the mastabas (Old
Kingdom Tombs as seen above)
constructed within the complex
In addition to these major
structures, several smaller
pyramids belonging to queens
are arranged as satellites. A
major cemetery of smaller
tombs, known as mastabas
(Arabic for ‘bench’ in reference
to their shape—flat-roofed,
rectangular, with sloping
sides), fills the area to the east
and west of the pyramid of
Khufu and were constructed in
a grid-like pattern for
prominent members of the
court. Being buried near the
pharaoh was a great honor and
helped ensure a prized place in
the afterlife.
The three Great Pyramids attest
to Egyptian builders’ mastery of
stone masonry and to their
ability to mobilize, direct, house,
and feed a huge workforce
engaged in one of the most lab0r-
intensive enterprises ever
undertaken.
Like all building projects of this
type, the process of erecting the
pyramids began with the
quarrying of stone, in this case
primarily the limestone of the
Gizeh plateau itself. Often, the
artisans had to cut deep tunnels
to find high-quality stone free of
cracks and other flaws. They
pried the stones free from the
bedrock with wooden levers.
At completion, the Great Pyramid was surfaced by white “casing stones” – slant-faced,
but flat-topped, blocks of highly polished white limestone. Later explorers reported
massive piles of rubble at the base of the pyramids left over from the continuing collapse
of casing stones, which were subsequently cleared away during continuing excavations of
the site. Nevertheless, a few of the casing stones from the lowest course can be seen to
this day in situ around the base of the Great Pyramid, and display the same
workmanship and precision as has been reported for centuries. Creating this type of
smooth surface is what architectural historians call ashlar masonry.
Khafre (Gizeh), c. 2575-2525 BCE, diorite
Khafre was an Egyptian pharaoh of the Fourth dynasty, who had his capital at
Memphis. According to some authors he was the son and successor of Khufu, but it is
more commonly accepted that Djedefre was Khufu's successor and Khafre was
Djedefre's brother and successor.
Khafre was the builder of the second largest pyramid at the Giza Necropolis complex
(his is 3 metres shorter than Khufu's). Most modern Egyptologists also credit him with
the building of the Great Sphinx.
The Sphinx is carved from the bedrock of the Giza plateau, and it appears that the core
blocks used to construct the king’s valley temple were quarried from the layers of stone
that run along the upper sides of this massive image.
The lion was a royal symbol as well as being connected with the sun as a symbol of the
horizon; the fusion of this powerful animal with the head of the pharaoh was an icon
that survived and was often used throughout Egyptian history. The king’s head is on a
smaller scale than the body. This appears to have been due to a defect in the stone; a
weakness recognized by the sculptors who compensated by elongating the body.
Directly in front of the Sphinx is a separate temple dedicated to the worship of its cult,
but very little is known about it since there are no Old Kingdom texts that refer to the
Sphinx or its temple. The temple is similar to Khafre’s mortuary temple and has
granite pillars forming a colonnade around a central courtyard. However, it is unique
in that it has two sanctuaries—one on the east and one on the west—likely connected to
the rising and setting sun.
On the south side are the subsidiary pyramids, popularly known as Queens'
Pyramids. Three remain standing to nearly full height but the fourth was so ruined
that its existence was not suspected until the recent discovery of the first course of
stones and the remains of the capstone. Hidden beneath the paving around the
pyramid was the tomb of Queen Hetepheres I, sister and wife of Sneferu and mother
of Khufu.
To keep the construction effort running
smoothly all year round without interfering
with agricultural work, teams of about
twenty thousand men were rotated every
three to four months. The work week was
nine days, with the tenth devoted to leisure.
The workmen took advantage of their free
day to return home to see their families or
simply to wash their clothes and make their
bread for the coming week. Remains of
workshops, storehouses, and shacks have
been unearthed in the vicinity of the
pyramids of Giza.
Each hut was designed to shelter a dozen
workers and had a kitchen, a cellar, and an
oven for baking. Tombs of workers who died
laboring on the pyramid were discovered in
1992 by Egyptian archaeologists at the
southeast of the Giza plateau. Study of
their skeletons has revealed that all the
men suffered from serious pathologies of
the spinal column and coccyx from the
excessive strain of hauling and carrying.
Above: Worker tombs at Gizeh
DEATH and the AFTERLIFE: PREDYNASTIC and OLD KINGDOM EGYPT: ACTIVITIES and REVIEW
(Stepped Pyramid of King Djoser and the Pyramids at Gizeh)
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