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BoundlessWriting
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BoundlessWriting1. IntroductiontoCollege-LevelWriting
1. IntroductiontoCollege-LevelWriting1. BasicPrinciplesofAcademicWriting2. DevelopingYourVoiceasaWriter3. GettingHelpMeetingCollegeWritingExpectations4. DiscussingWritinginClass5. Attributions
2.WritinganEffectivePaper
1. OverviewoftheProcessofWritingaPaper1. IntroductiontotheWritingProcess2. IntroductiontotheThesisStatement3. Attributions
2. StepsofWritingaPaper1. Step1:PrewritingandChoosingaTopic2. Step2:Researching3. Step3:Outlining4. Step4:Drafting5. Step5:Revising6. Step6:EditingandProofreading7. Step7:CompletingaFinalReview8. Attributions
3. PrewritingTechniques1. Brainstorming2. Freewriting3. ClusteringandConceptMapping4. Attributions
4. BuildingYourPaper1. ModesofPersuasion:Ethos,Pathos,andLogos2. ApproachestoYourIntroductoryParagraph3. ApproachestoYourBodyParagraphs4. ApproachestoYourConcludingParagraph5. Attributions
5. QuotingandParaphrasing
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1. TheBasicsofQuotations2. IntroducingandFormattingQuotations3. Paraphrasing4. Attributions
6. IncorporatingObjectionsandOpposingViews1. TheImportanceofAddressingOpposingViews2. TechniquesforAcknowledgingOpposingViews3. RefutingYourOpposition4. Attributions
3. TheResearchProcess
1. UnderstandingtheAcademicContextofYourTopic1. UnderstandingtheAcademicContextofYourTopic2. Attributions
2. OrganizingYourResearchPlan1. OrganizingYourResearchPlan2. Attributions
3. FindingYourSources1. TheImportanceofReliability2. ScholarlySources3. ChoosingSearchTermsforSources4. Attributions
4. UnderstandingYourSources1. UnderstandingYourSources2. Attributions
5. UsingYourSources1. TakingUsefulNotesonYourSources2. MaintaininganAnnotatedBibliography3. WritingWhileYouResearch4. IncorporatingYourSourcesIntoYourPaper5. Attributions
6. CitingYourSources1. TheImportanceofCitingYourSources2. Attributions
4.OverviewofEnglishGrammar:PartsofSpeech
1. IntroductiontoEnglishGrammarandMechanics1. ComponentsofaSentence2. StructureofaSentence
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3. IntroductiontoInflection4. Attributions
2. Nouns1. NounsasSubjectsandObjects2. Attributions
3. Pronouns1. IntroductiontoPronouns2. PronounsasSubjectsandObjects3. Attributions
4. Verbs1. IntroductiontoVerbs:Tense,Aspect,andMood2. VerbTense:Past,Present,andFuture3. VerbalAspect:Simple,Progressive,Perfect,andPerfect
Progressive4. VerbMood:Indicative,Subjunctive,andImperative5. Attributions
5. Modifiers:AdjectivesandAdverbs1. IntroductiontoAdjectivesandAdverbs2. Adjectives3. Adverbs4. MisplacedandDanglingModifiers5. Attributions
6. Conjunctions1. Conjunctions:Coordination,Correlation,Conjunction,and
Subordination2. Attributions
7. AgreementandParallelism1. Subject-VerbAgreement2. Pronoun-AntecedentAgreement3. StructuralParallelismWithinaSentence4. Attributions
5.OverviewofEnglishGrammar:PunctuationandMechanics
1. Commas1. IntroductiontoCommas2. CommonCommaMistakes3. Attributions
2. ColonsandSemicolons1. Colons
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2. Semicolons3. Attributions
3. ApostrophesandQuotationMarks1. Apostrophes2. QuotationMarks3. Attributions
4. HyphensandDashes1. Hyphens2. EmDashesandEnDashes3. Attributions
5. OtherPunctuation1. Parentheses2. EndingPunctuation3. Attributions
6. GeneralMechanics1. CommonSpellingErrors2. CapitalLetters3. AbbreviationsandAcronyms4. Numbers5. Italics6. Attributions
6.WritingEffectiveSentences
1. TheImportanceofWording1. TheImportanceofWording2. Attributions
2. WordChoice1. Precision2. UsingtheDictionaryandThesaurusEffectively3. Attributions
3. Tone1. AppropriateLanguage2. Attributions
4. Diction1. Gender-NeutralLanguage2. ActiveVoicevs.PassiveVoice3. Concision4. Attributions
7.WritingEffectiveParagraphs
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1. OrganizingYourIdeas1. TopicSentences2. Attributions
2. ConnectingYourIdeas1. Transitions,SignalPhrases,andPointingWords2. Attributions
3. KeepingYourWritingEngaging1. VaryingYourSentenceStructureandVocabulary2. Attributions
8.RhetoricalModes
1. IntroductiontoRhetoricalModes1. IntroductiontoRhetoricalModes2. Attributions
2. TypesofRhetoricalModes1. ArgumentationandPersuasion2. Classification3. CauseandEffect4. ComparisonandContrast5. Definition6. Description7. IllustrationandExemplification8. Narration9. ProcessAnalysis10. Attributions
9.WritingAcrossDisciplines
1. IntroductiontoWritingAcrossDisciplines1. WritinginDifferentAcademicDisciplines2. Attributions
2. WritingintheHumanities1. IntroductiontoWritingintheHumanities2. Attributions
3. WritingintheNaturalandSocialSciences:TheResearchPaperandtheIMRADModel1. PrinciplesofWritingintheSciences2. OverviewoftheIMRADModel3. Abstract4. IntroductionandThesis
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5. Methods6. Results7. DiscussionandConclusion8. Attributions
4. WritinginBusiness1. IntroductiontoWritinginBusiness2. Attributions
10.WritingaPaperinMLAStyle(Humanities)
1. IntroductiontoMLAStyle1. WhentoUseMLAStyle2. Attributions
2. MLA:QuotationsandCitations1. MLA:BlockQuotations2. MLA:In-TextCitationsandParentheticals3. MLA:TheWorksCitedSection4. Attributions
11.WritingaPaperinAPAStyle(SocialSciences)
1. IntroductiontoAPAStyle1. WhentoUseAPAStyle2. OverallStructureandFormattingofanAPAPaper3. Attributions
2. APA:StructureandFormattingofSpecificElements1. APA:TitlePageandRunningHead2. APA:Abstract3. APA:Headings4. APA:SeriesandLists5. APA:BlockQuotations6. Attributions
3. APA:EmpiricalResearchPapers1. APA:ReportingStatistics2. APA:TablesandFigures3. Attributions
4. APA:CitationsandReferences1. APA:TheReferencesSection2. APA:HowtoReferenceDifferentTypesofSources3. APA:In-TextCitationsandParentheticals4. Attributions
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12.WritingaPaperinChicago/TurabianStyle(History)
1. IntroductiontoChicago/TurabianStyle1. WhentoUseChicago/TurabianStyle2. OverallStructureandFormattingofaChicago/TurabianPaper3. Attributions
2. Chicago/Turabian:StructureandFormattingofSpecificElements1. Chicago/Turabian:TitlePage2. Chicago/Turabian:Headings3. Chicago/Turabian:BlockQuotations4. Chicago/Turabian:TablesandFigures5. Attributions
3. Chicago/Turabian:CitationsandReferences–NotesandBibliography(NB)System1. Chicago/Turabian(NB):TheBibliographySection2. Chicago/Turabian(NB):HowtoReferenceDifferentTypesof
Sources3. Chicago/Turabian(NB):FootnotesandEndnotes4. HowtoReferenceDifferentTypesofSourcesinFootnotes5. Attributions
4. Chicago/Turabian:CitationsandReferences–Author–Date(AD)System1. Chicago/Turabian(Author–Date):TheReferencesSection2. Chicago/Turabian(Author–Date):HowtoReferenceDifferent
TypesofSources3. Chicago/Turabian(Author–Date):In-TextReferencesand
Parentheticals4. Attributions
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1:IntroductiontoCollege-LevelWriting
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1.1:IntroductiontoCollege-LevelWriting1.1.1:BasicPrinciplesofAcademicWriting
Academicwritingpresentsthoroughlyinvestigatedideastoaninformedaudience.
LearningObjective
Contrastacademicandpopularwriting
KeyPoints
Academicwritingmakesaclaimoranargument,andusesacombinationofevidence(detailsandfacts)andclearexplanationsoflogicalreasoningtosupportthatclaiminordertopersuadethereader.Goodacademicwritingisconcise;ratherthanusingflowerylanguageandoverlycomplexsentencestructures,whichcandistractfromanargument,writersshouldusethesimplestlanguagepossibletolettheirideasshinethrough.Academicwritingusuallyusesobjectivelanguage,whichallowswriterstoconvincethereaderthattheirargumentistrue,ratherthanjustsubjectiveopinions.Agoodacademicwriterisabletoseebothsidesoftheargument,orclaim,andcounteritwithsupportingevidence.
KeyTerms
genre
Acategoryortypeofwriting,usuallyinreferencetodifferentacademicdisciplines.
claim
Anassertion,usedasthebasisforanacademicpieceofwriting,thatmustbeprovenwithevidence.
counter-arguments
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Ideasandevidencewhichrefuteoropposetheoriginalclaim.
analysis
Acriticalexaminationbythewriterwhichdrawsconnections(ornotesdisconnections)betweenpointsofevidence.
academicwriting
Writingthatispublishedorpresentedtoaspecializedaudienceinordertoinform,persuade,demonstrate,explore,orachievesomeotherspecificpurpose.
“Academicwriting”isabroadtermthatcoversawidevarietyofgenresacrossdisciplines.Whileitsfeatureswillvary,academic(orscholarly)writingingeneraltriestomaintainaprofessionaltonewhiledefendingaspecificpositionoridea.
Therearemanydifferentapproachestoacademicresearch,sinceeachdisciplinehasitsownconventionsthatdictatewhatkindsoftextsandevidencearepermissible.Scholarlywritingtypicallytakesanobjectivetone,eventhoughitarguesinfavorofaspecificpositionorstance.Academicwritingcanreachabroaderaudiencethroughmoreinformalvenues,suchasjournalismandpublicspeaking.
OverarchingPrinciplesofAcademicWritingAcademicwritingcomesinmanyformsandcancoverawiderangeofsubjectmatter;however,successfulwritingwilldemonstratecertainconventions,nomatterwhatisbeingwrittenabout.
TheThesisStatement:MakingandSupportingaClaim
Strongacademicwritingtakesastanceonthetopicitiscovering—ittriestoconvincethereaderofacertainperspectiveorclaim.Thisclaimisknownasthe“thesisstatement.”Themajorityofanacademicpaperwillbespentusingfactsanddetailsto“prove”tothereaderthattheclaimistrue.Howthisisdonedependsonthediscipline:inthesciences,aresearchpaperwillpresentanoriginalexperimentanddatatosupporttheclaim;inaliteratureclass,an
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essaywillcitequotationsfromatextthatweaveintothelargerargument.Regardlessofdiscipline,theoverarchinggoalofmostacademicwritingistopersuadethereadertoagreewiththeclaim.
Concision
Concisionistheartofusingthefewestwordspossibletoconveyanidea.Somestudentsmistakenlythinkthatlongerwordsandmorecomplicatedsentencestructuresmaketheirwriting“better”ormoresophisticated.Inreality,thelongerandmorecomplicatedasentencegets,theharderitisforareadertointerpretthatsentenceandstayengagedwithyourargument.Forexample,ifyoufindyourselfusingaphraselike“duetothefactthat,”youcansimplifyyourwordingandmakeyoursentencemorepowerfulbysaying“because”instead.Similarly,say“now”or“currently”ratherthan“atthispointintime.”Unnecessarilycomplicatedwordingdistractsyourreaderfromyourargument;simplersentencestructuresletyourideasshinethrough.
Objectivity
Mostacademicwritingusesobjectivelanguage.Thatis,ratherthanpresentingtheargumentasthewriter’sopinion(“Ibelievethat…”,“Ithinkthismeans…”),ittriestoconvincethereaderthattheargumentisnecessarilytruebasedonthesupportingfacts:“thisevidencerevealsthat…”
BreakingtheRulesTherearecountlessexamplesofrespectedscholarlypiecesthatbendtheseprinciples—forinstance,the“readerresponse”schoolofliterarycriticismabandonstheobjectivestancealtogether.However,youhavetoknowtherulesbeforeyoucanbreakthemsuccessfully.
Thinkofachefputtingchilipowderinhotchocolate,adeliciousbutunexpectedbendingofarule:typically,dessertsarenotspicy.Inordertosuccessfullybreakthatrule,thecheffirsthadtounderstandalltheflavorsatworkinbothingredients,andmakethechoiceknowingthatitwouldimprovetherecipe.It’sonlyagoodideatobreaktheserulesandprinciplesifthereisaspecific,goodreasontodoso.Therefore,ifyouplantodispensewithoneoftheconventionsofacademicwriting,itisagoodideatomakesureyourinstructorapprovesofyourstylisticchoice.
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BuildingAcademicWritingSkillsAcademicworkisanexcellentwaytodevelopstrongresearchandwritingskills.Trytouseyourundergraduateassignmentstobuildyourreadingcomprehension,criticalandcreativethinking,researchandanalyticalskills.Havingaspecific,“real”audiencewillhelpyouengagemoredirectlywiththereaderandadapttotheconventionsofwritinginanygivengenre.
TheoriginalDallasPublicLibrary
Acrossmanyacademicdisciplines,researchisoftenrequiredforwritingassignments.
1.1.2:DevelopingYourVoiceasaWriter
Developandshowcaseyouruniquevoicewhileadheringtotherulesofwritingcontentandstyle.
LearningObjective
Differentiatebetweenvoiceandstyle
KeyPoints
Whileacademicwritingstressesformalconventions,opportunitiesexisttoexperimentwithawiderangeofstylesandvoices.Amorecasualwritingstylemightincludecontractions,humor,exclamations,and/orfamiliarvocabulary.Otherswritingsmayinclude
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clause-heavysentences,esotericterminology,andformallanguage.Stillothersfavoranalogies,idioms,metaphors,andcolorfulimagery.“Authorialvoice”isacharacteristicofawriter’sdistinctivestyle.Itisanimportantelementofacademicwriting,fiction,andnonfiction.Voiceisdevelopedovertimeandthroughexperience.
KeyTerms
format
Thearrangementofimages,titles,headers,content,andotherformalelementsofwritingwithinawork.
style
Anauthor’suniquemethodofputtingtogetherwords,phrases,sentences,analogies,metaphors,idioms,andexpressions.
voice
Thedistinctpersonalitythatcomesthroughinawriter’sworkwhichmayconveytheauthor’sattitudeandcharacter.Itmayrepresentthecharacteristicspeechandthoughtpatternsofthewriter.
You’veprobablyheardthatonequalityfoundingoodwritingisvoice.“Voice”referstoelementsoftheauthor’stone,phrasing,andstylethatarerecognizablyuniquetoherorhim.Adistinctive,persuasivevoicewillsuccessfullyengageyouraudience—withoutit,yourwritingriskslosingyourreaderdespiteyourtopnotchresearchorhowwellyouadheredtosoundwritingpractices.Yes,academicwritinghasrulesaboutformat,style,andobjectivitythatyoumustfollow,butthesewillnotrescueboring,impersonalprose.Whateveryouchoosetowriteabout,becertaintodevelopanauthorialvoice!
Havinga“uniquevoice”doesnottranslateintohavingaradicallydifferentstylefromothers.Inacademicwriting,voiceboilsdowntoseeminglyinsignificantsmallhabitsandpersonalpreferences.Buttheymatter!Ifeachstudentinyourclasswastoldtoexplainacomplexconcept,notonewoulddoitinthesameway.Eachwouldusedifferentlanguageandsyntaxtosaythesamebasicthing.Overtime,eachstudentwouldcontinuetomakesimilarchoicesinlanguageandsyntax,andreaderswouldeventuallyassociatethosechoiceswithparticularwriters—eachstudentwouldhavedevelopedanauthorialvoice.
Keepinmindthatvoiceisnotsomethingyoucanautomaticallycreate.Itmaybetemptingtouseunusualsyntaxorfancyvocabularyhopingtomakeyour
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writingstandout.Beforewarned-thatwouldnotbeyourgenuinestyle.Thereisnoquickwaytocreatearecognizablevoice,asitcanonlybedevelopedovertime.Thekeytodevelopingyourvoiceistokeepwritingandtothinkaboutwhatspecifictypesofwritingexciteyou.Payattentiontohowyousaythings—whatwordsyouuse,whatsortsofphrasesandsentencestructuresyoufavor,evenwhatkindofpunctuationappearsinyourworkfrequently.Thesearethechoicesthatwilleventuallybecomemarkersofyourauthorialvoice.
IndividualstyleattheOhioRenaissanceFestival
Muchlikethepeopleshownabovedressedindifferentcostumes,everywriterhasadistinctstyle.Youshouldmaintainthedistinctiveelementsofyourvoiceandstyleintheacademiccontext.Evenwhenyou’reoutsideyourcomfortable,everydayenvironment,youcanstillfindwaystoexpressyouruniquestyle.
1.1.3:GettingHelpMeetingCollegeWritingExpectations
Youruniversitycanprovideseveralresourcestohelpyouthroughtheprocessofplanninganddraftinganacademicpaper.
LearningObjective
Giveexamplesofplacestofindcampusresourcesforwriting
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KeyPoints
Theconventionsofacademicwritingcanbeconfusingatfirst,butthereisnoneedtostrugglealone.Collegesprovidestudentswithavarietyofresourcesandadviserstohelpstudentsadjusttowritingatthecollegiatelevel.Takeadvantageofwhateverresourcesyourcollegeoffers.Takingadvantageoftheseresourceshastheaddedbenefitofpushingyoutobegintheprocessearlysoyouwillhaveenoughtimetowriteandreviseseveraldrafts.Somecollegespublishoutstandingstudentwork,whichcanprovidevaluableexamplesforyouasyougetusedtoacademicwriting.
KeyTerms
workshop
Agatheringofstudentswhosharebrainstorming,research,drafting,revision,andeditingtipsbyreadingandrespondingtoeachother’spapers.
writingcenter
Aspace(oftenbothphysicalandonline)thatprovidesstudentswithfreeassistanceonpapers,projects,reports,multimodaldocuments,webpages,etc.frominstructorandpeerconsultants.
drafting
Theprocessofbeginningtowriteandreviseapaper,withtheunderstandingthatnooneelsewillseeit.
Thetypicalstudententerscollegewithawealthofexperiencewritingfive-paragraphessays,bookreports,andlabreports.Eventhebeststudents,however,needtomakebigadjustmentstolearntheconventionsofacademicwriting.College-levelwritingobeysdifferentrules,andlearningthemwillhelpyouhoneyourwritingskills.Thinkofitasascendinganotherstepupthewritingladder.
Manystudentsfeelintimidatedaskingforhelpwithacademicwriting;afterall,it’ssomethingyou’vebeendoingyourentirelifeinschool.However,there’snoneedtofeellikeit’sasignofyourlackofability;onthecontrary,manyofthestrongeststudentwritersregularlygethelpandsupportwiththeirwriting(that’swhythey’resostrong).Collegeinstructorsareveryfamiliarwiththeupsanddownsofwriting,andmostuniversitieshavesupport
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systemsinplacetohelpstudentslearnhowtowriteforanacademicaudience.Thefollowingsectionsdiscusscommonon-campuswritingservices,whattoexpectfromthem,andhowtheycanhelpyou.
KingsCollege,Cambridge
Collegewritingcanseemdauntingatfirst,buttherearemethodstohelpyoumasterit.
WritingMentorsLearningtowriteforanacademicaudienceischallenging,butuniversitiesoffervariousresourcestoguidestudentsthroughtheprocess.Mostinstructorswillbehappytomeetwithyouduringofficehourstodiscussguidelinesforwritingabouttheirparticulardiscipline.Ifyouhaveanydoubtsaboutresearchmethods,paperstructure,writingstyle,etc.,addresstheseuncertaintieswiththeinstructorbeforeyouhandinyourpaper,ratherthan
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waitingtoseethecritiquestheywriteinthemarginsafterward.Youarenotbotheringyourinstructorbyshowingupforofficehours;they’llbegladtoseeyou.
WritingCentersMostcollegeshavewritingcentersthataredesignedtohelpstudentsmeetcollege-levelexpectations.Thesecentersusuallyofferone-on-oneadvisorymeetingsorgroupsessionsthatcovertopicsrangingfromconductingresearchtoconqueringprocrastination.Manywritingcentersemploystudentmentorsfromawiderangeofdisciplines,sotrytoworkwithonewhodeeplyunderstandsthefieldyou’rewritingin.
LearningbyExampleManystudentsliketolearnbyexample,andfinditveryhelpfultoreadotherstudents’academicwriting.Someuniversitiespublishoutstandingstudentessays.Someprofessorskeepcopiesofstudentpapers,andtheymaybewillingtoshowyouexamplesofwritingthatmeetstheirexpectations.Genuinestudentpapersareuniversallybettermodelstofollowthananyofthe“sampleessays”ontheInternet.
Student-LedWorkshopsSomecoursesencouragestudentstosharetheirresearchandwritingwitheachother,andevenofferworkshopswherestudentscanpresenttheirownwritingandofferconstructivecommentstotheirclassmates.Independentpaper-writingworkshopsprovideaspaceforpeerswithvaryinginterests,workstyles,andareasofexpertisetobrainstorm.Ifyouwanttoimproveyourwriting,organizingaworkshopsessionwithyourclassmatesisagreatstrategy.Youcanalsoaskyourwritingcentertohelpyouorganizeaworkshopforaspecificclassorsubject.Inhighschool,studentssubmittheirworkinmultiplestages,fromthethesisstatementtotheoutlinetoadraftofthepaper;finally,afterreceivingfeedbackoneachpreliminarypiece,theysubmitacompletedproject.Thisformatteachesstudentshowtodividewritingassignmentsintosmallertasksandschedulethesetasksoveranextendedperiodoftime,insteadofscramblingthroughtheentireprocess
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rightbeforethedeadline.Somecollegecoursesbuildthiskindofwritingscheduleintomajorassignments.Evenifyourcoursedoesnot,youcanmastertheskillofbreakinglargeassignmentsdownintosmallerprojectsinsteadofleavinganunmanageableamountofworkuntilthelastminute.Academicwritingcan,attimes,feeloverwhelming.Youcanwasteagreatdealoftimestaringatablankscreenoratroublesomeparagraph,whenitwouldbemoreproductivetomoveontodraftingotherpartsofyourpaper.Whenyoureturntotheproblemsectionafewhourslater(or,evenbetter,thenextday),thesolutionmaybeobvious.
Writingindraftsmakesacademicworkmoremanageable.Draftinggetsyourideasontopaper,whichgivesyoumoretoworkwiththantheperfectionist’sdauntingblankscreen.Youcanalwaysreturnlatertofixtheproblemsthatbotheryou.
SchedulingtheStagesofYourWritingProcessTimemanagement,nottalent,hasbeenthesecrettoalotofgreatwritingthroughtheages.Notevena“great”writercanproduceamasterpiecethenightbeforeit’sdue.Breakingalargewritingtaskintosmallerpieceswillnotonlysaveyoursanity,butwillalsoresultinamorethoughtful,polishedfinaldraft.
Sampleschedule:
Monday:Visityourinstructor’sofficehourstodiscussideas,sources,andstructurefortheessay.Tuesday:Doresearchatthelibraryfrom5:00to9:00,takingdetailednotesandplanninghoweachpieceofresearchwillfitintoyourpaper.Wednesday:Doresearchatthelibraryfrom2:00to6:00,takedetailednotes,andgiveyourselfpermissiontowriteanimperfectdraft.Thursday:Beginafirstdraftoftheessay.Friday:Continueexpanding/editingthefirstdraft.Saturday:Lookagainatthedraftandcontinuetomakechanges/additions/deletions.Sunday:Writeafinaldraft.Printoutyourpaperforproofreading(it’sworthit).Monday:Don’tlookattheessay.However,ifthereareanyremainingquestions,gotoyourinstructor’sofficehours.
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Tuesday:Revise,editandproofreadtheessayonemoretime.Relaxwhileeveryoneelseinyourclassispanicking.Wednesdaymorning:Givetheessayafinalreadandproofread,andprintitout.Wednesdayafternoon:Turninyouressay.
EmailingYourInstructorExampleEmail
Subject:ExpositoryWriting101:OfficehoursonTuesday
Dear/HelloProfessor[Lastname],
IhaveafewquestionsaboutthenextessayassignmentforExpositoryWriting101.WoulditbeconvenienttodiscussthemduringyourofficehoursonTuesday?LetmeknowifthereisaspecifictimewhenIshouldstopby.Thankyouforyourhelpwiththeseassignments.
Manythanks,
[Firstname][Lastname]
ExpositoryWriting101;T,Th,10:00
TipsforEmailingYourInstructor
Bepolite:Addressyourprofessorformally,usingthetitle“Professor”withtheirlastname.Dependingonhowformalyourprofessorseems,usethesalutation“Dear,”oramoreinformal“Hello”or“Hi.”Don’tdropthesalutationaltogether,though.Beconcise.Instructorsarebusypeople,andalthoughtheyaretypicallymorethanhappytohelpyou,dothemthefavorofgettingtoyourpointquickly.Signoffwithyourfirstandlastname,thecoursenumber,andtheclasstime.Thiswillmakeiteasyforyourprofessortoidentifyyou.Donoteverask,“Whenwillyoureturnourpapers?”IfyouMUSTask,makeitspecificandrealistic(e.g.,“Willwegetourpapersbackbytheendofnextweek?”).
1.1.4:DiscussingWritinginClass
Classdiscussionisanessentialpartofthefeedbackandrevisionprocess,
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sinceitprovidesaspaceforstudentstocommunicatedifferingviews.
LearningObjective
Identifytechniquesfordiscussingwritinginclasseffectively
KeyPoints
Thegoalofclassroomdiscussionisnotonlytopromotecomprehensionofasharedtext,butalsotoencouragestudentstolistento,understand,andexchangetheirassessmentsofatext.Asalearningmethod,classroomdiscussionsaregenerallymorefunandinteractivethansimplylisteningtoateacherlectureortakingawrittentest.Classdiscussionsencouragelearningthroughactiveparticipation,comprehension,andlistening.Theyhelpstudentstothink,solveproblems,listentoothers,andanalyzetheideasofotherstudents,allwhilebackinguptheirownthoughtswithevidencefrompastclassteachings.Incorporatingperspectivesandideasfromclassdiscussionintoyourpaperallowsyoutostrengthenconnectionsbetweencourseconceptsanddemonstrateyourengagementinwhatothershavetosay.In-classworkshopscanprovideyouwithvaluablefeedbackfromyourpeersabouthowtoimproveyourpaper,andalsoteachyoutobeamorecarefulandcriticalreaderofyourownandothers’work.
KeyTerm
workshop
Adiscussioninwhichpeoplecangiveoneanotherfeedbackoneachother’swriting.
ClassroomDiscussionsClassroomdiscussionisn’tsimplyawayofgainingpoints;it’sanessentialpartoflearning,comprehending,andsharingknowledge.Classdiscussionisoftenusedtogetherwithotherformsofassessmenttocalculateyourgrade,eveniftherearenopointsexpresslyawarded.Togetherwithlecturesandindividualstudy,discussingcoursereadingsandmaterialswithyourpeersand
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theinstructorcanopenupnewinsightsthatareimpossibletoachieveonyourown.Inordertogetthemostoutofclassdiscussion,theinstructorandallstudentsshouldengageinanactualconversation,notsimplyquestion-and-answer.
Classroomdiscussion
Thisclassdiscussionisengaging.
Asalearningmethod,classroomdiscussionsaregenerallymorefunandinteractivethansimplylisteningtoateacherlectureordoingwrittenwork.Whenpresentingaquestiontoaclassofstudents,teachersopenuptheclassroomdiscussiontodifferentideas,opinions,andquestions,andcanmediatewhilestudentscomeupwiththeirownconclusions.Classdiscussionsencouragelearningthroughactiveparticipation,comprehension,andlistening.Theyhelpstudentstothink,solveproblems,listentoothers,andanalyzetheideasofotherstudents,allwhilebackinguptheirownthoughtswithevidencefrompastclassteachings.Discussionsalsoencouragethepracticeofinformaloralcommunication,whichisamuch-neededskilllaterinlife.
Whenparticipatinginaclassdiscussion,thefollowingstrategiesareeffective:
Trytostayontopic.Outsidereferencesareoftengoodforcontext,butrememberthatthefocushereisonlearning.Trytouserelevantvocabularyfromthelessontoconfirmyourunderstandingofnewconceptsanddemonstrateyourauthority.Trytobuildupontheideasofothers;listenandrespondasmuchasyouspeak.Alwaysberespectfultoothers,especiallyifsomeoneinthediscussionoffersanopinionthatdiffersfromyourown.
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Trytoprovideconstructivecriticismtoothersregardingtheirthoughts,comments,orwork:“Ithinkyou’reontherighttrackhere,butthispointdoesn’tseemtobesupportedwithdirectevidence.”Don’tgettooworkedupifyoudisagreewiththeinstructororanotherstudent.Astrongemotionalresponseisgood,sinceitindicatesyou’reengagedwiththetopic,butalwayskeepacalmdemeanortoshowyourclassmatesyourabilitytoworkinthissettingwithoutgettingangryorflustered.
WritingWorkshopsAworkshopisaspecialkindofclassroomdiscussioninwhichstudentsdiscusseachother’swork.Theadvicegivenaboveonclassdiscussionsalsoapplieswhenyouandyourpeersaregiventimeinclass(orinagroupstudysession,inthewritingcenter,etc.)toworkshopdraftsofeachother’spapers.Awritingworkshopisanexcellentwaytogetsuggestionsfrompeersthathelpyouimproveyourpaper,sincefellowstudentsmaybeabletoofferaperspectiveyourinstructorcannot.Constructive,focusedworkshopcritiquingalsoallowsyoutobecomeamorecriticalreaderandwriter.Herearesomequestionsthatmightbehelpfulforclassdiscussionsaboutstudentwriting:
Whatistheauthorsayinginthistext?Usethreewordstodescribethetoneandstyletheauthorusesinhis/herargument.Isthisthebesttoneandstyletoachievetheauthor’spurpose?Wheredoestheauthorpresentrhetoricthatisbasedonemotion?Onfacts?Whichoftheseseemtobemostprevalentintheargument?Whydoestheauthorthinkthisargumentmatters?Havetheyconvincedyouthatitmatters?Howmightthe“sowhat”factorberaised?Whatspecialterminologydoes(orshould)theauthoruse?Howdoesthistextrelatetootherthingsthathavebeenreadinthisclass?Givetheauthortwopositivecomments,andthreesuggestionsforimprovementinthenextdraft.
Attributions
BasicPrinciplesofAcademicWriting
“Boundless.”http://www.boundless.com/.BoundlessLearningCCBY-SA3.0.
“Concision.”https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Concision.Wikipedia
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CCBY-SA3.0.
“Academicwriting.”http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Academic_writing.WikipediaCCBY-SA3.0.
“TheNostalgicGlass|DallasLibrary.”http://nostalgicglass.org/background.php?pn=19.TheNostalgicGlassCCBY-SA.
DevelopingYourVoiceasaWriter
“Style(visualarts).”http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Style_(visual_arts).WikipediaCCBY-SA3.0.
“voice.”http://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/voice.WiktionaryCCBY-SA3.0.
“TwoFops|Flickr-PhotoSharing!.”http://www.flickr.com/photos/frted/4003842153/.FlickrCCBY-SA.
GettingHelpMeetingCollegeWritingExpectations
“TheCainProjectinEngineeringandProfessionalCommunication,ManualforWritingMentors.September17,2013.”http://cnx.org/content/m15909/latest/.OpenStaxCNXCCBY3.0.
“Writingcenter.”http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Writing%20center.WikipediaCCBY-SA3.0.
“schedule.”http://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/schedule.WiktionaryCCBY-SA3.0.
“Academicwriting.”http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Academic_writing.WikipediaCCBY-SA3.0.
“KingsCollege|Flickr-PhotoSharing!.”http://www.flickr.com/photos/riklowe/552649138/.FlickrCCBY.
DiscussingWritinginClass
“Boundless.”http://www.boundless.com/.BoundlessLearningCCBY-SA3.0.
“StudySkills.”http://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/Study_Skills%23Having_Discussions.WikibooksCCBY-SA3.0.
“comprehension.”http://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/comprehension.
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WiktionaryCCBY-SA3.0.
“Peopleinworkshopclasspublicdomainimagepicture.”http://www.public-domain-image.com/people-public-domain-images-pictures/crowd-public-domain-images-pictures/people-in-workshop-class.jpg.html.PublicDomainImagesCCBY.
ProjectGutenberg.http://www.gutenberg.org/files/30168/30168-h/30168-h.htm.Publicdomain.
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2:WritinganEffectivePaper
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2.1:OverviewoftheProcessofWritingaPaper2.1.1:IntroductiontotheWritingProcess
Learningtowriteislikefollowingarecipe;thereisroomforcreativity,butyouneedtoknowthebasics.
LearningObjective
Outlinethestepsofthewritingandrevisionprocess
KeyPoints
Eachstepofthewritingprocesshelpstobuildastrongpaper.Thestepsofthewritingprocessareprewriting/choosingatopic,researching,outlining,drafting,revising,editing/proofreading,andthefinalreview.Asyoubecomefamiliarwiththe“recipe”ofwritinganditscomponents,youwillfeelincreasinglycomfortableandcreativeinthewritingprocess.
KeyTerms
expositorywriting
Derivedfromtheword“expose,”expositorywritingseekstoexpose,explain,describe,define,orinform.
recursive
Pertainingtoaprocedurethatcanbeusedrepeatedly.Incomposition,awritermayreturntothetasksofapreviousstageonceinformedbytheactivitiesofacurrentstage.
writingprocess
Aseriesofoverlappingstepswritersuseincomposing.Theprocessmaydifferbasedonthepurposeandformofthecomposition.
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TheWritingProcessInhighschool,studentsusuallysubmittheirworkinmultiplestages—fromthethesisstatementtotheoutlinetoadraftofthepaper,andfinally,afterreceivingfeedbackoneachpreliminarypiece,acompletedproject.Thisformatteachesstudentshowtodividewritingassignmentsintosmallertasksandschedulethesetasksoveranextendedperiodoftime.Incollege,itisyourresponsibilitytobreaklargeassignmentsdownintosmallerprojectssoyoudonothaveanunmanageableamountofworkatthelastminute.
Weshouldfirstaddressthecommonresistancetoform.Beginningwritersoftenprotestthatimposingformalrulesonwritingcontradictsthenotionofwritingasacreativeart.Sometimes,however,workingwithinaformactuallyenhancescreativity.Approachingtheprocessofwritingthesamewayeachtimebuildsfacilityandeaseintoyourwriting.Youbecomefamiliarwiththeprogressionoftheproject,knowingthateachstagehasaspecificpurposeinthecreationofastrongfinalproduct.
ARecipeforGoodWritingTheseasonedbakernolongerpullsoutthecookbookeverytimeshewantstobakeacake.Infact,shemightchargeintothepantrylookingfornewandinterestingingredients,likechilipowderforthechocolateicing.Buttherewasatimewhenshefollowedtherecipestepbystepandbydoingsolearnedexactlywhathappenswhenyouleaveoutoneingredientoroverdoanother.Thinkofthefollowingchaptersasyourcookbookforwritingasuccessfulpaperandlookforwardtothedaywhenyoucanfocusmoreonbeingcreativewithspicesthanonlearningtherecipe.
Here,then,arethestepsofthewritingprocess:our“recipe”forgoodexpositorywriting.Asyoureadthem,considerwhatmightbeentailedineachstep.Imaginewhatyou’llbedoingandwhyitcouldbeusefulincreatingasuccessfulfinalpaper.
Step1:PrewritingandChoosingaTopicStep2:ResearchingStep3:OutliningStep4:DraftingStep5:RevisingStep6:EditingandProofreading
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Step7:CompletingaFinalReview
Canyoufigureoutwhyyoumightneedeachstep?Startthinkingofsomequestionstoaskasyoumoveforward.Yourquestionmightbe“WhyintheworldwouldIwanttospendprecioustimeoutlining?”Youmightask,“Whydoesthereneedtobeastepforrevisingandthenaseparatestepforeditingandproofreading?”Youmightwonderhowtoapproachthedraftingphasewithoutfeelingoverwhelmed,oryoumightbecuriousaboutthebrainstormingmethodswerecommend.
It’simportanttorecognizethatwritingisarecursiveprocess.Justasyoutastewhenyoucook,thengobackandaddmoreofsomethingtoenhancethedish’sflavor,whileyouarewritingyou’reregularlygoingbacktoearlierstagesorjumpingforwardintheprocessasneeded.Thoughtherearereasonsforusingtheparticularstepsabove,theyarepartofaflexibleprocessthat’stheretoserveyou,thewriter.
TechniquesinDepthOncewe’veexploredeachofthesesteps,we’lldelvedeeperintosomeofthemorenuancedtechniquesinvolvedincreatingastrongargument.
Section3examinestheprocessofdevelopingathesisfromthebrainstormingstagethroughtothefinalstatement.Everythinginapaperisorganizedaroundthethesisstatement.Howdoyouknowwhenyouhaveonethatisstrongenoughtoholdapapertogether?
Section4guidesyouthroughbuildinganarrativethatmakessenseforyourtopicandpurpose.Thenarrativeiswherethewritercreatesakindofmagicwiththepowerofpersuasion.Whatarethepracticaltoolsbehindthismysteriousprocess?
Section5looksatthesupportiveuseofquotationsandparaphrasing,answeringquestionsaboutformatting,appropriateuseofquotes,andotherissues.Isthereskillbehindthechoiceofwhentouseaquoteandwhentoparaphrase,orisitarandomselection?
Section6addressesthestrategyofincorporatingintoyourpaperpossibleobjectionstoyourargument.Butisitwisetomakeyouropponents’argumentforthem,andifso,shouldyouweakentheirargumentsinordertostrengthenyourown?
Trylookingateachstageofthewritingprocessasanecessaryingredientforacake,andyou’llbegintorespecteachstepforwhatitoffersyourfinal
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product.Noonewouldwanttoeatflourbyitself,butleavingitoutofthemixingprocesswouldspelldisasterfordessert(unlessyouaremakingflourlesscake).Similarly,whileyoumayfindtheideaofresearchingorproofreadingdistastefulinisolation,you’lllearntoappreciateandevenenjoyeachstepoftheprocessforwhatitcontributestothewhole.
2.1.2:IntroductiontotheThesisStatement
Astrongthesisstatementisspecific,focused,andholdstensionbetweenideas.
LearningObjective
Distinguishbetweenadefensiblethesisstatementandafact
KeyPoints
Oneofthekeyelementsofagoodthesisstatementistensionbetweentwoideas.Thefocusofyourthesisshouldbenarrowenoughforyoutobeabletocoverthetopicthoroughly.Yourthesisshouldbespecific,inordertograbthereader’sattention.Onceyouhaveathesisstatement,you’llwanttogatherevidencebothforandagainstthestatement.Creatingathesisandresearchinggotogether.Oneprocessinformstheother,andyouwilloftenneedtogobackandforthseveraltimestocreateasolidthesisthatcanbebackedbyresearch.
KeyTerms
thesis
Aclaimthatawritermustuseevidencetodefend.
defensible
Capableofbeingdefendedorjustified.
Imagineyou’rehavingdinnerwithafewfriends.Overdessertandcoffee,onefriendsays,“ProfessorEllisismyfavorite.”Hisstatementmightelicitafewnodsandacommentortwo.Anotherfriendtakesitupanotch:“IthinkDr.Ellisisthebestprofessorattheschool.”Withthisstatement,yourfriendhastakenastand,whichcaninspiresomeinterestanddebate.Inresponse,
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anotherfriendsays,“Youguysseemtothinkthatbeingagoodprofessorisallabouthowavailableandniceheorsheistothestudents,butIthinkithasalotmoretodowiththeprofessor’scommitmenttoscholarship.Infact,IthinkthatwhileDr.Ellismightbethemostpopularprofessor,Dr.Cassidyis,objectivelyspeaking,actuallythebest.”Isthislaststatementalittlemoreprovocative?Mightyourguestspourasecondcupofcoffeeandstayalittlelonger?Why?
MakingaClaimStrongacademicwritingtakesadefinitivestanceonthetopicitiscovering.Ratherthansimplyreportingdetails,academicwritingusesdetailstotrytoproveapoint.Thispointisoftencalledyour“thesisstatement,”asentencethatexpressesyourpointofviewonthetopic,whichyouwillsupportwithevidenceandresearch.Thekeyelementofathesisstatementisthatitisnotafact:itisaclaim,somethingthatyouhavetouseevidencetoprove.Yourthesisisthebackboneofyourpaper,andeveryfactandideayouaddtoyourpaperwillsupportit.
Atthedinnerparty,yourfriendwillgivereasonafterreasonwhycrotchetyDr.Cassidyisactuallythesuperiorprofessor,supportingeachreason,wehope,withfactshecanbackup.Bytheendoftheevening,youmaygohomewithanewrespectforDr.Cassidy’sbodyofscientificresearch,hisabilitytomakestudentsstrivemuchharderthantheydoinDr.Ellis’sclasses,andhisconsistentgradingpolicies.Ifso,yourfriendwillhavechangedyourmind.Anditallbeganwithhisprovocativestatement:histhesis.
ElementsofaStrongThesisStatementFocus
You’regoingtoneedtomakeyourcasewithinthescopeofonepaper,sothefocusshouldbenarrowenoughforyoutobeabletocoverthetopicthoroughly.Ifyou’rewritingathree-pagehistorypaperabouttheVietnamWar,don’tsetouttoproveanenormousclaimabouttheentireconflict.Pickasub-sub-topicyouareinterestedin,likeguerrillawarfareintropicalclimatesortheuseofmilitaryhelicoptersinrescuemissions,andfocusyourthesis
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statementonwhatyoucanproveaboutthatsmallerchunk.
Specificity
Youwantthereadertobedrawninimmediatelytotheheartoftheargument.Thatmeansnamingnames—forexample,not“OnethemeinHamlet,isvengeance…,”but“InHamlet,Fortinbras,Laertes,andHamletallseektoavengetheirfathers…”
The“SoWhat?”Factor
Goodwritingmakesreaderscareaboutthetopic.Whenyousetouttowriteandproveyourthesisstatement,don’tsimplyhavethegoalofsaying,“Thisismyclaimandhere’sevidencetosupportit.”You’llwantyourwritingtoboildownto,“Thisismyclaim,here’swhyitmatters,andhere’sevidencetosupportit.”
CraftingYourThesisThereismorethanonewaytowriteathesisstatementforanacademicpaper.Themostimportantelementisthatyouaremakinganoriginalclaimandthenusingfactsandevidencetosupportit.However,therearemanywaystoexpressyourclaim.Allofthesewaysengagewiththecurrentlyexistingbodyofacademicwriting,butaddsomethingnew:yourideas,framedasaclaimbasedonevidence.
Tension
Onetechniqueforwritingathesisstatementisarguingagainstanexistingview.Thinkoftheconstructionas,“While____,actually____.”Yourguidingthreadthroughthepaperwillbetoconvincethosewhothinkthefirstthingthatthesecondthingisactuallytrue.
Herearetwoexamplesofthesisstatementswithembeddedtension:
WhileorganizationsliketheAmericanNaziPartyandtheKuKluxKlanmayposearealdangertoindividualsandthefabricofanintegratedsociety,thetenetsofdemocracydemandthattheirrighttofreespeechbeprotectedbytheAmericanCivilLibertiesUnion.
WhiletheAmericanCivilLibertiesUnionhasaresponsibilitytoprotectfree
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speech,thisresponsibilityisbasedonpreservingdemocracyandshouldthereforenotbeextendedtohategroupsliketheAmericanNaziPartyandtheKuKluxKlan,groupswhichhaveastheiraimthesegregationanddivisionofsociety.
Whicheversideoftheissueistaken,youcanseethatthereisinherenttensionbecauseofthe“While___,actually___”construction.
Refining
Anotherwaytointroduceadefensiblethesisstatementistorefineanalreadyexistingidea:takeagenerallyacceptedconclusionandstretchitfurther.Thereareasmanyopinionsastherearepeopleintheworld,anditcanbeusefultousesomeoneelse’sideaasafoundationforyourown.However,rememberthatgoodthesesarebasedonoriginalopinions.Avoidparrotingsomeoneelse’s;rather,referenceandbuilduponit.
Analyzing
Thesisstatementscanbeusedtoprovideyourownoriginalanalysisofsomething,whetheritisahistoricalevent,apieceofliterature,orascientificphenomenon.Athesisstatementcanbeahypothesis,whichyousetouttoprovethroughevidence.Itcanbeaconnectionthatnobodyhaseverthoughtofbefore.Thekeyelementhereisthatyouarelookingatalreadyexistingfactsandopinions,andthenputtingthemtogethertoproveyouridea.
AddressingCounter-ArgumentsOnceyouhaveathesisstatement,you’llwanttogatherevidencebothforandagainstthestatement.Youmightevenwanttocreate,aswasdoneabove,athesisstatementthatistheoppositeofyoursandlookforresearchprovingbothofthem.(Thisisadebatingtechniquethatallowsthedebatertoskillfullyparryanycounter-argument.)Includingcounter-argumentsinyourpaperisatechniquewe’lldiscussinthedraftingsection.Fornow,besuretocollectinformationonbothsidesofyourthesis.
Makealistofthestrongestargumentsforandagainstyourthesisstatement.You’renotthinkingsomuchintermsofnumbersherebutratherstrength.Ifyoucan’tmakeseveralstrongpoints,youmaywanttore-workthethesis.
Creatingathesisandresearchinggotogether.Oneprocessinformstheother,
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andyouwilloftenneedtogobackandforthseveraltimestocreateasolidthesisthatcanbebackedbyresearch.Justkeepfollowingyourinterests,yourcuriosity,andtheprocesswillstayenjoyable.
Attributions
IntroductiontotheWritingProcessIntroductiontotheThesisStatement
“defensible.”https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/defensible.WiktionaryCCBY-SA3.0.
“Step2:Researching.”https://www.boundless.com/writing/textbooks/boundless-writing-textbook/writing-an-effective-paper-235/steps-of-writing-a-paper-237/step-2-researching-243-16871/.BoundlessCCBY-SA4.0.
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2.2:StepsofWritingaPaper2.2.1:Step1:PrewritingandChoosingaTopic
Prewritingcanhelpyoutakeageneraltopicandmakeitmorespecific.
LearningObjective
Explainthedifferenttypesofprewritingexercises
KeyPoints
Duringprewritingexercises,itisimportanttorecordeverythingthatcomestomindwithouteditingasyouwrite.Youcanusethevarioustechniquestogenerateanumberofdifferentideastochoosefromtoformulateyourtopic.Brainstormingcanhelpyoufindwhereyourtrueinterestslieandwhatpartofatopicyoumightwanttodelveintofurther.Freewritingcanhelpyougeneratenewideasaboutatopicbywritingnonstop,withoutediting,forasetamountoftime.Clustering,orconceptmapping,canhelpyourefineyourthoughtsandnarrowthescopeofatopicbymakingamapordiagramofdifferentideasyouassociatewithacentraltopic.
KeyTerms
brainstorming
Aprewritingtechniqueintendedtogeneratecreativeideasquicklyandwithoutediting,throughwordorideaassociation.
freewriting
Aprewritingtechniqueinwhichthewriterwritescontinuouslyforasetperiodoftimewithoutregardtospelling,grammar,ortopic.
conceptmap
Adiagramthatshowstherelationshipsbetweenconcepts.Conceptsarewrittenincirclesorrectangularboxes,whichareconnectedbyarrowsthatarelabeledwithphrasessuchas“isa,”“givesriseto,”“resultsin,”
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“isrequiredby,”or“contributesto”thatdenotetherelationshipsbetweenconcepts.
Outlining
Aprewritingactivitythatallowsyoutoorganizetoyourideasbyplacingthemintoanorderedsequenceofprimaryandsecondaryideas,whichshowstherelationshipofthepartstothewhole.
clustering
Aprewritingtechniqueconsistingofwritingacentralideainacircleonasheetofpaper,addingrelatedideasaroundthecircle,andconnectingthemwithlinestoshowhowtheyrelatedtoeachother.
Writingoftenfeelsdemandinganddifficultbecauseyouaredoingtwoseeminglycontradictorythingsatthesametime:creatingandcontaining.Youwantyourideastoflowlikeariver,swiftandstrong,butifyoupouroutyourideasindiscriminately,theriverwilloverflowitsbanks.Youhavetobejudiciousabouttheamountofinformationyouincludeandselectivewithyourwordchoices.Bothfreedomandstructurearenecessarytocontainanddirecttheflow.
Whenyouhavenoideawhattowriteabout,prewritingcanhelpgetideasflowing.Prewritingreferstowhatyoudobeforeyoubeginwriting,whetherthat’sbrainstorming,makingaconceptmap,ormakinganoutline.Byprewriting,youcangiveorganizationandlogicalcoherencetoyourideas.Youmightbetemptedtosavetimebyskippingtheprewritingstage,but,ultimately,puttingalittleextraworkinatthebeginningcansaveyoutime—andstress—especiallywhenyou’rewritingapaperclosetoyourdeadline.Thetoolsusedintheprewritingstagecanbeusedatanypointinthewritingprocesstohelpyouclarifyyourideas,tohelpyoudecidewhatdirectiontotake,andtonurturecreativitywhenyou’refeelingstuck.
Brainstorming,freewriting,andclusteringarethreeformsofprewritingthathelpsparkideasandcanmoveyouclosertotheheartofwhatyouthinkandfeelaboutatopic.And,yes,eveninanexpositorycomposition,heartmatters!You’remuchmorelikelytowriteaninterestingpaperifyoucareaboutthetopic.Let’sexplorehowthesethreeprimarymethodswork.
BrainstormingYoumighthaveheardthephrase,“Therearenobadideasinbrainstorming.”Thisisanotherwayofsayingthatitcanbehelpfultogatherallofyourideas
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aboutatopic(eventhebadones)justtogetstarted.Thisprocessiscalledbrainstorming.Youdothiswithanotherpersonorinagroup,andeachpersoncontributesthoughtsaboutthesubjectinarapid-fireway.Afterwards,youcanpickthebestideasandcompilealist.Often,intheprocessofbrainstorming,youwilldiscoverthatmanyofyourideasarealreadyconnectedtooneanother.Havingtheseconnectedideasalreadylaidoutwillhelpyoutoformanoutlinemoreeasily.
Notebooks
Freewritingcanbeagreatwaytogetideasmoving.
FreewritingFreewritingcancomeinhandyifyouhaveageneraltopicbutarenotsurewhatyouwanttosayaboutit.Thepurposeoffreewritingistohelpyoudevelopideasspontaneouslyandnaturally.Setyourselfatimelimit,andthenstartwritingaboutyourtopic,recordingthoughtsinfullsentencesastheycomeintoyourmind.Donoteditasyougoorevenlookbackatwhatyouhavewritten,andtrytoavoidanydistractions.Justkeepwritingasthoughtsoccurtoyou.
Clustering
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Thegoalofclustering,orconceptmapping,istogeneratelotsofideasaboutaverybroadtopic,muchlikefreewriting.Youbeginbywritingdownakeywordinthemiddleofablankpage.Youcontinuewithoutpausingtojotdownthewordsyouassociatewiththekeyword,circlingthem,anddrawingalinetoconnectthemwiththekeyword.Aseachwordtriggersnewideas,youwritethosedown,circlethem,andconnectthemwiththewordthatinspiredthem,radiatingouttocreateaconceptmap.Youcanthenchoosetheideasyouthinkarebestsuitedforyourassignmentandusetheorganizationoftheconceptmaptoguideyourwriting.
OutliningAftercollectingyourideas,butbeforeturningthemintoanessay,manypeoplefindithelpfultoproduceanoutline.Outliningshowshowparticularideasfit—ordon’tfit—intoacohesivewhole.Youdesignateyourprimaryideasandgroupsubordinateorsupportingideasunderneaththem.Thisisthefirststageinstructuringtheessayitself.
2.2.2:Step2:Researching
Researchingyoursubjectisanimportantstepinwritingbecauseithelpsyounarrowyourfocus.
LearningObjective
Identifyusefultechniquesfortheresearchprocess.
KeyPoints
Researchisdonetobackupclaimsandverifyspecificdata.Researchisdonetoinformyourownopinion,nottoechoothers’thoughts.Continuallyaskingincreasinglyspecificquestionsaboutyourtopicwillhelpkeepyourresearchfocusedandundercontrol.Stayingopentoalternativeideasduringtheresearchphasewillmakeforabetter-informedopinionandastrongerpaper.Keepingrecordsofresourcesasyoudoyourresearchwillmakethewritingprocesslessdaunting.Astrongthesisstatementisspecific,focused,andholdstensionbetweenideas.Usingprewritingtechniquesduringtheresearchphasecanhelprefine
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andreorientthedirectionofresearch.
Theprimarythingtokeepinmindduringtheresearchphaseisthatyou’reseekingprimarilytoinformyourownthinkingonthetopic.You’renotlookingatwhatothershavewritteninordertoprovideyouwithanopinion.Thepointofwritingthepaperistoexploreyourownthoughtsaboutatopic.Researchalsohelpsyouverifyspecificdataandbackupanyclaimsyoumaymakeinyourpaper.
It’susefultobeginwithafewquestionsrelatedtoyourtopic.Theseshouldbeaspectsofthetopicthathavemadeyoucurious.Ifyouhaven’tfoundsuchquestions,dosomemoreprewritingexercisestogetyourcreativejuicesandintellectualpassionsflowing.
Theattitudewithwhichtobeginsearchingis,“Iwanttoknowwhatotherpeoplehavediscoveredwhenexaminingthesamequestion.”Atthispointyou’renotlookingforevidencetoproveaposition.Yourmindisopentoallthepossibilities.Thinkofitasgatheringallthebestthinkersonthistopicinoneroomtohaveadiscussion.You’rethemoderatorofthediscussion,andyouwanttohearfromeveryonebeforeyoumakeupyourmind.Ifyoukeepthismindsetduringtheresearchphase,you’remorelikelytowriteanengagingfinalpaper.
NarrowingtheScopeOfcourse,withthevastamountofinformationavailableatourfingertipstoday,it’sunlikelyyou’llbeabletoreadeverythingeverwrittenonatopic.It’suseful,therefore,tocreatesomeguidelinesforyoursearchthatwillnarrowthepool.
Askyourself,forexample,whetheryourtopichasatimelessqualityorisbestinformedbyrecentopinion.ApaperexploringwhetherHamlet’sgoalofrevengewasachievedcoulddrawonsourcesfromallages,whereasthethemeofrevengeinrecentpoliticaleventswouldrequirecurrentsources.
Whenyouwriteexpositoryessays,youhearalotaboutprimaryandsecondaryresearch.Aprimarysourceisauthoredbythepersonwhoconductedthestudy,orwhocreatedtheparticulartheoryorlineofthoughtbeingdiscussed.Secondarysourcesmayquoteprimarysourcestosupportapointordrawconclusionsfromexaminingmanyprimarysources.Mostofthetime,it’susefultoinitiallyconsultsecondarysourcesbecausetheycanpointyoutowardtheprimarysourcesthatmostinterestyou.
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Forthepurposeofyourpaper,you’llwanttoquotethestudyorthethinker(theprimarysource)directly—first,becauseyouwanttobesureyoureallyunderstandwhattheauthorisconcluding(secondarysourcescanmisrepresenttheprimarysource),andsecond,becausebyreadingtheprimarysource,you’llgetthewholepicture,ratherthanjustthepartselectedbythesecondarysource’sauthor.Remember,you’reassemblingthebestthinkers,andyouwanttounderstandalloftheirarguments.
DivingInSo,howdoesonebegin?WithallthecautionsaboutnotusingtheInternetforresearch,ifwekeepinmindthatwe’reafterprimarysources,weneedn’tbeafraidofusingasearchenginetobeginourinvestigation.WhileWikipediaisn’tacceptableasasourceitself,itcancertainlygiveusastartingpoint.Puttingyourquestionrightintoyoursearchenginecanstartyouonatreasurehunt.Evenjustscanningthelist,youcanjotdownsomeideasthathelpbetterdefinewhatyou’reinterestedinfindingout.Asyouclick,youcanbegintofollow“clues”towhatleadingthinkersorresearchers(dependingonmytopic)haveconcluded.
Here’showastudentmightwinnowaresearchtopicaboutthewomen’smovementinthe1970s.Shebeginswiththequestion,“Howhasthewomen’smovementofthe1970saffectedtoday’swomen?”Puttingthatquestionintoasearchengineyieldsmanyarticles,someveryrecent.Readingafewofthese(andtakingnotesasshegoesonexactlywhereshegotherinformation)leadshertomakethestatement,“Largelyduetotheradicalfeministfactionofthe1970swomen’smovement,girlsborninthetwenty-firstcenturyhaveopportunitiesandexpectationswellbeyondwhatwaspossibleforthoseborninthemiddleofthetwentiethcentury.”Thoughthiswillnotbeherfinalthesisstatement(findoutwhy,below),itisnarrowenoughforhertostartfindingmorespecificinformation.
BeReadytoChangeCourseAsyounarrowthescopeofyourresearch,you’llbefindingoutthingsyoudidn’tknowandencounteringperspectivesyouhadn’tconsidered.Resistthetemptationtoignorethatwhichcontradictstheconclusionyouwereheadingtoward.Youmightactuallychangeyourmindinthecourseofyourresearch,andthatjustshowshowflexibleyourthinkingis.Youcanalsokeepanopen
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mindabouthowyou’regoingtopresentyourpaper.Thestudentabove,forexample,mayfindsomanycomparisonsinherreadingtothewomen’ssuffragemovementthatshebecomesintriguedandwritesanessaycontrastingtheERAcampaignwiththecampaignforwomen’ssuffrage.
BacktotheDrawingBoardAtanytimeduringtheresearchprocess,youcanclarifyyourthinkingbyusingoneoftheprewritingexercises.Sometimes,aconceptmapcanbeofuseduringthisphase,helpingyouseehowthingsarerelated.Youmightfindthatwhatyouthoughtwasthecentralquestionisactuallyoneofyourarguments,andmostofyourlinescomeoffadifferentbubble,whichyoucandecidetomakeyourthesis.
HowResearchingCanGoWrong
TooManySources
Continuallymakingyoursearchmorespecificwillhelpyouavoidgettingoverwhelmedbyresearch.
Thereasonsomepeopledreadresearchisthattheyfeeloverwhelmed.It’seasytodoifyoucontinuallylookatalltheinformationavailableonatopic.It’ssimplyimpossibletoreadanddigestallthatinformation!Thesolutionistorecognizethatyou’reincontroloftheprocess.Youhaveaquestion,youfindinformationthatinformsyou,andyoumakeyourquestionmorespecific.Youkeepatit(amorespecificquestion,findingavarietyofwell-thought-outanswerstothequestion,whichleadtoastill-more-specificquestion)untilyou
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feelconfidentcreatingastatementyoucanstandbehind.
Anotherthingthatcantripusupisneglectingtokeeptrackofwherewefindwhat.Thereareusefulsoftwareprogramsdesignedtohelporganizequotesandpointswiththeirsourcematerial,butallthat’snecessaryispenandpaperoracomputerdocument.Asyouread,ifyoufindsomethingrelevant,immediatelymakeanoteofthereferencematerialforthatsource(book,article,website)andthenunderneath,entertherelevantresearch.Therearemorecomplicatedmethodsforlongerpapers,butgenerallythisworksfineforessays.Justbesureyouknowinadvancewhatformyourreferenceswillneedtotake,soyougatheralltheinformationyou’llneed.Youdon’twanttohavetoseekouteverysourceagainwhenyou’rewritingyourreferencepage.Ideally,you’llcodeeachpieceoftextyouputintoyourpapersothatyoualwaysknowwhichreferenceit’sattachedto,evenifyoumoveitaroundinthepaper.
2.2.3:Step3:Outlining
Afteryouchooseyourtopicandassembleyourresearch,organizeyourideasbeforeyoustartdrafting.
LearningObjective
Recognizethedifferentusesforanoutlineasatool
KeyPoints
Outliningthestructureandorganizationofyourpaperbeforeyoustartwritingwillsaveyoutimeandhelpyouformastrongerargument.Theorderinwhichyoulayoutyourevidencecandeterminehowconvincingyourargumentistoyourreaders.Assemblinganargumentisathree-stepprocess:(1)drawingconclusionsbasedonevidence;(2)clearlyexplaininghowyoudrewthoseconclusions;and(3)structuringyourargumentformaximumimpact.
ThePurposeoftheOutlineNowthatyouhavechosenyourthesisstatementandresearchedevidencetosupportyourvariousclaims,youneedtoorganizeitallintoacoherent,logicalstructure.
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Anoutlineisagreatwaytotroubleshootandfirmupyourargumentbeforeyoucommittoitinadraft.It’slikeplanningoutaroutebeforeyoutakeyourtrip:itwillsaveyouagreatdealoftimeandwillhelpyouforeseeroadblocksbeforeyougettothem.You’llbeabletoseewhetheryouhaveenoughevidencetosupportagivenclaim,whetheryourclaimssupportyourlargerthesis,howtolinkyourargumentsandcounter-arguments,andwhatorderofpresentedevidencefeelsmostpowerful.
Puttingthepiecestogether
Onceyouhavetheelementsofyourargument,youneedtoconnectthemtogetherinanoutline,formingtheskeletonofanargumentthatmakessense.
GettingStarted1. Writeyourfirstclaim/pointonanindexcard,andthenwriteeachpiece
ofsupportingevidenceonhalfanindexcard.(Youcanuseshorthandfortheresearch—aslongasyouknowwhatitis.)Putallofyourideasonthesecards,soyoucangetthefullpicture.
Forexample:
Claim:Public-servicecampaignsdesignedtochangeconsumerhabitsregardingelectricaluse,whilesuccessful,havehadonlyminimalimpactonfactorscontributingtoclimatechange.Evidence:Study1:Householdelectricalusefallsby__%afterconsolidatedadcampaignbyenvironmentallobby.Evidence:Study2:Scientistsreportthatmuchmoremustbedoneto
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stemclimatechange.Loweredpowerusagebyconsumersisnotsufficient.Evidence:Study3:Piegraphshowingreasonsforclimatechange.Backing:Mentionrecentweatherdisasters?
2.Dothesamewiththeotherclaimsandpiecesofevidence.
3.Nowyoucanrearrangethepiecesofevidenceasnecessarytogowiththemostappropriateclaim.Forexample,thethirdpieceofevidence,above,mightnotbenecessaryforthatparticularclaim,becausetheotherevidenceisstrongenough.Thepiegraphmightmakemoreofanimpactifyouwaitandincludeitwiththeclaimabouttheagriculturalenvironmentalfootprint.Youmightalsodecidethattheadditionalbackingaboutrecentweatherdisastersmakesyourargumentweaker,ratherthanstronger,becauseitisn’tevidence-basedandhaslittletodowiththeclaim.
4.Onceyou’refairlysureofyourorder,puttapeonthebackoftheindexcardsandtapethem,inoutlineform,ontoapieceofposterboardwiththethesiswrittenatthetop.Leavethissomewhereprominentinyourworkspace,soyoucanmakechangesastheycometoyou.
QuestionstoAskYourselfThereisnoeasy-to-followformulaforcreatingtheperfectargumentstructure.Thewayyouorganizeyourpaperwillvarydependingonwhatyourgoalisandwhatelementsoftheargumentyouwanttoemphasize.Ingeneral,askyourselfthefollowingquestions:
Doesthethesisintroduceandgivecontextforthediscussionthatfollows?Doanyideaslackafoundationthatneedstobeaddressedearlierinthepaper?Doeseveryclaimhavetheevidencenecessarytosupportit?Haveyouweededoutextraneousevidence?Doyouwanttoleadwithyourstrongestclaim,ordoyouwanttosaveitfortheendofyourpapersoyoucanfinishonastrongnote?Wheredoyouneedtomakeclaimsexplicit,andwherewillyouraudienceunderstandthemeveniftheyareonlyimplied?Wheredoyouwanttoaddressyouropposition?Doesitmakemoresensetodoitearlyontopreemptaudienceobjections,orwouldyoubebetteroffbuildingupyourargumentbeforeaddressinganycounter-arguments?
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Theoutlinestageallowsyoutoexperimentwithdifferentwaysoforganizing.Youcan(andprobablywill)changethestructureofyourargumentwhenyoudraftyourpaper,andperhapsagainwhenyourevise.Ifyouplanyourstructurebutrealizethatitisn’tworkingonceyousitdownandwrite,feelfreetomoveelementsaround.
UsingtheOutlineasaToolHerearesomewaystousetheoutlinetomakeabetterargument.
Readyourthesis,claims,andevidenceoutloudtoafriend.Askyourfriendiftheargumentmakessenseandwhatheorshewouldchangetomakeitstronger.Askwhatwasthestrongestpartoftheargumentandwhy(soyoucandecidebothwheretoputthestrongestpunchandhowtoshoreuptheotherclaims).Leaveenoughtimeaftercreatingyouroutlinetogetatleastanight’ssleepbeforewritingyourfirstdraft.Often,sometimeawaywillallowyourmindtorevealproblemswiththeargumentandmayevenprovidethesolutions!Ifyoufindthatyourargumentdoesn’tfeelverystrong,don’thesitatetogobacktotheresearchphasetofindadditionalevidence.Mostsuccessfulwritersgobackandforthfromstagetostageoftenastheywrite.Asyoulearnmoreaboutboththetopicandtheargumentyouwanttomake,you’llhaveaclearerideaofthekindsofstudiestolookfor.Asyoufindadditionalevidence,youmaydecidetocreateanewclaimoreventotweakyourthesis.Playdevil’sadvocate.Lookingatyouroutlineboard,comeupwithcounter-argumentsandquestionsforeachclaim.Youcanevenputtheseontheboardondifferentcolorindexcards.Makeityourgoaltoaddressthesequestionsandcounter-argumentssufficientlyinyouressay.Thinkabouttransitions.Doesonetopicleadnaturallytoanother?Howisthesubjectofeachparagraphrelatedtothesubjectofthenextparagraph?Aftereachclaim,ask,“Whatdoesthereaderneedtoknownext?”Youmayneedtorearrangetheorderbasedontheeaseoftransitionfromonetopictothenext.Foreachindexcard(eachclaim,pieceofevidence,eachbackingconcept),askyourself,“Howisthisimportanttothethesis?”Ifyoucan’tanswer,considerthatyoumaybeusingevidencesimplybecauseyoucollectedit,notbecauseitsupportstheoverallideaoftheessay.
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2.2.4:Step4:Drafting
Thedraftingphasecreatesacoherentpathforthereadertofollowfromthesistoconclusion.
LearningObjective
Describethedifferenttypesofparagraphsinanessay
KeyPoints
Thedraftingphaseisaboutleadingthereaderdownthepathofevidencetoreachtheconclusionyousetoutinyourthesisstatement.Theintroductionneedstobebothinterestingtothereaderandacoherentguidetothepaper.Eachbodyparagraphcontainsonepointandtheevidencetosupportthepoint.Evidenceshouldnotbeusedtosupportmorethanonepoint.Anticipatoryquestionsshouldguidebodyconstruction.Theconclusionsynthesizes,ratherthanrestates,theargument.
Yourthesiswillcondenseaseriesofclaimsintooneortwosentences.Toproveyourthesis,youwillneedtoarticulatetheseclaimsandconvincethereaderthattheyaretrue.Consequently,themajorityofyourpaperwillbededicatedtopresentingandanalyzingevidencethatsupportsyourclaims.
Bythetimeyoustartwriting,youshouldalreadyhaveconductedresearchandassembledyourevidence.Youshouldalsoknowfromyouroutlinewhichpiecesofevidenceyouwanttousetobackupeachclaim.Whatyouhaveprobablynotfinishedworkingoutishowyouwanttopresentthosepiecesofevidenceandtiealltheclaimstogether.Thefirstdraftisthetimetofocusondoingthat.
DraftingBestPracticesWritingdraftsmakestheworkmoremanageable.Italsobuildsinthetimenecessaryforyourbraintointegratetheinformationandcomeupwithnewwaystopresentit.Withthatinmind,herearesomewaystomaximizethebenefitsofdrafting:
Writewithoutediting:Draftinggetsyourideasontopaper,whichgivesyou
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moretoworkwiththantheperfectionist’sdauntingblankscreen.Youcanalwaysreturnlatertofixthemistakesthatdroveyoucrazy.Ifyougetstuck,justjumptothenextparagraph.Atthisstage,yourgoalistokeepwriting.
Allowtimebetweendrafts:Oneofthegreatbenefitsofwritingaseriesofdraftsisthatitallowsyourbraintosiftthroughtheinformationlayerbylayer.Whenyouwriteandthentakeabreak,especiallyifthebreakincludesagoodnight’ssleep,thenexttimeyouapproachyourpaperyou’llhavenewideas,andproblemswillbesolved.
Recognizethatyoumayneedtonarrowthescopeofthepaper:Ifyou’refeelingoverwhelmedandtryingtomanagemoundsofevidence,itmaybethatthescopeofthepaperissimplytoolarge.Thedraftingstageisaboutseeingwhatworksandwhatdoesn’t,sodon’thesitatetotrim,discard,andshiftasnecessary.
Revisitpriorstagesoftheprocessasneededtomoveforward:Ifyou’refeelingstuckorunsure,goplaywithyouroutline.Ifyouhaven’talreadyputyourpointsonindexcards,dothatnowsoyoucanmovethemaround.Ifyou’refindingthatyourevidenceseemsscanty,gobacktotheresearchphase.Andifyouneedcreativeinspiration,doodleaconceptmaparoundyourparagraph’sclaimorchataboutitwithafriend.Trynottoresistthesesteps“back”—writingisnotlinear,it’siterative.Enjoythebenefitsofthat.
EvidenceThefirstthingyoushouldassembleisevidence.Youcannotmakeagoodargumentunlessyouhavestrongevidenceinsufficientamounts.Itisthefoundationoftherestofyourpaper—everyclaimyoumakeandconclusionyoudrawmustbebackedupbytheevidenceyoupresent.
Evidencecancomeinmanyforms:data,writtenreportsorarticles,graphsorvisualrepresentations,evenanecdotesandinterviews.Choosewhateverformsworkbestforyourargument.Whileitisimportanttoprovideenoughevidencetosupportyourargument,beselectiveaboutwhatyouuse.Itisbettertochooseseveralveryconvincingpiecesofevidencethantohavemanydifferentpiecesthatareonlyvaguelyconvincing.Alsobecarefulabouthowreliableyourevidenceis.Faultyevidencecandamagethecredibilityofyourentirepaper,somakesurethateverythingyouuseisaccurateandcomesfromatrustworthysource.
Next,youwanttobeclearonwhatconclusionsyouaredrawing.Makesurethateveryconclusioncorrespondstosomepieceofevidence.Alsohavean
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ideaofhowyouwanttoorganizeyourconclusions,particularlytheorderinwhichyouwillpresentthem.Conclusionsshouldbuildoneachother.Figureouthowtheyfittogetherbeforeyoustartwriting,andyourpaper’sstructurewillbenefitfromit.
Warrantsarethewayinwhichyoulinkevidencetoconclusions.Broadlyspeaking,“warrant”referstotheexplanationofyourreasoning.Eventhoughyouwillnotstateeverywarrantopenly,youneedtomakesurethattheyallholdupunderquestioning.Ifrequired,youneedtobeabletoarticulatetotheaudiencewhyevidencesupportsclaimsandconclusions.Youshouldalsohaveanideaofwhatpartsofyourargumentarecomplexorimportantenoughthatyourwarrantswillneedtobestatedexplicitly.
ParagraphTypesYouhaveyourthesisandallofthepointsofargumentandcounter-argumentmappedout,alongwiththeirsupportingevidence.Thethesisoftenappearsintheopeningparagraphofthepaper,althoughyoumaychoosetoconstructadifferentformforyourpaper.Eachpointofargumentorcounter-argumentwillhaveaparagraphofitsown.You’llwanttoconcludethepaperbybringingthepointstogetherandgivingthereaderasenseofclosure.
Introduction
Yourpaper’sopeningletsthereaderknowwhatthetopicisand,usually,leadshimorhertoyourthesisstatement.
Guidelinesforconstruction:
Considerwritingtheintroductoryparagraph(s)last,ratherthanfirst:It’seasiertointroducesomethingyouknowthoroughly.Also,it’svitaltobecreativeinthisfirstparagraph,andafteryou’vewrittenyourpaper,you’llfeelfreertoplaywithwordsandideas.Youcangobacktotheprewritingexercisestosparkideasfortheapproachyou’lltake.
Letyourtopicandstyleofargumentguideyourmethodofintroduction:Acontroversialtopicthatincludesstrongparrieswithcounter-argumentsmightbestbeintroducedbyaprovocativestatement.Astoryabouthowthetopicgarneredyourinterestmightbeaninvitingintroductiontoapaperthatincludespersonalanecdotes.Youmightdecidetobeginwiththequestionorconundrumthatleadstoyourtopicsentence.Ananalogyormetaphorcouldbeawaytointroduceasubjectthat’sdifficulttounderstandoriswell-worn
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andneedsanewperspective.Sometopicsarebestdescribedwithimagery.Don’tlimityourselftopedanticfactsthatplodtowardthethesisstatement.
Makeitinterestingforthereader:Agoodwriteralwayskeepsinmindthatthere’spotentialforpublicationineverypieceofwriting.Evenifonthefirstroundtherewillbeonlyonereader,writeasifyouhaveabroadaudience.Youneedastrongstartifyouwantthereadertoreadmorethanthefirstfewsentences.Youmakeitinterestingbymakingstrongstatements.Ifitdoesn’tcaptivateyou,itwon’tinterestyouraudience.Takeariskandbebold.WhyshouldanyonecareaboutthistopicShowus!
Alsomakeitacoherentguidetothepaper:Atthesametimeasyou’remakingyourintroductionintriguingandcaptivating,youwanttomakeitlogical.Youneedn’tgiveawaythesecretsofyourargumentintheintroduction(e.g.,“IwillshowthatthisthesisistruebyprovingX,Y,andZ”),butyouwillneedtocreateaclearpathtothethesisandgiveusanideaoftheterrainwe’llbecrossing.
Example:
He’seighteenyearsold,thissoldier,justoutofpublicschool.Theclicheaboutnotbeingabletogrowafullbeardactuallyapplies,andhe’scuthimselfshavingenoughtohavetinyscarshealingonhisthinface.Hesitsonthegroundafewfeetfromtherubble,open-mouthedandbarelybreathing.Thebombmust’vebeenintheengine.Thejeep’sdoorisayardbehindhimandhisbuddies,well,hecan’tseeallthebodies,butthere’snoquestionthatthey’redead.Andsomethinginsidehimisdyingtoo.
Thisstoryisn’tasrareaswecivilianswouldliketothink.EstimatesfromtheVeteransAdministrationputthepercentageofmilitarypersonnelwithpost-traumaticstressdisorder(PTSD)between11and20%,andU.S.veteransuicidesaverageoneperday.Althoughthegovernmentisupto$2billiondollarsspentontreatmentforPTSD,thereisacaponwhatisofferedtoanindividual.Askingforadditionalassistancecansimplybetoostressfulforanalreadyvulnerableveteran.Clearly,moreofthemilitary’sfinancialresourcesmustbedirectedtowardrehabilitatingmenandwomenwho’veexperiencedmilitarycombat.Itisourresponsibilityascivilianstoensuretheirtreatmentandrecovery.
Whattechniquedidthewriterusetocaptureyourattention?Diditwork?Whatotherelementsofagoodintroductiondidyounoticehere?Whatelementsaremissing?Canyoufindthethesis?Whatdoyouthinkabouttheuseofstatisticsinthesecondparagraph?Whatwouldyoudodifferentlyifyouwereintroducingthisthesis?
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BodyParagraphs
Whenanalyzingyourevidence,beasthoroughandclearaspossible.Youmaybefamiliarwiththerhetoricalstrategyoflogos,orstep-by-steprationalargument.Itwillprobablybehelpfultoadoptthatasamodelandconductyouranalysisthroughprogressivepoints,eachoneofwhichbuildsoffthepreviousone.Evenifitseemslikeyouareoversimplifyingthings,itisbettertogiveyouraudiencetoomuchanalysisthantoolittle.Makesureeverystepisincluded,andthatthedescriptionofyourevidence’spurposeisclear.Youdonotwantanypartofyourprocesstobeambiguousforyourreaders,ortheymaystopunderstandingoragreeingwithyourargument.
Revisitingyouroutline,you’llseeyourstrategyforbuildingyourargument.Whetheryoustartoffwithyourstrongestpointoracounter-argument,oryoureelyourreaderinslowly,yourbodyparagraphswilleachhavethefollowingelements:
Eachparagraphaddressesone(andonlyone)ideainsupportofthethesis:Thinkofeachparagraphasapointtobemade,andthengathertheresourcesaroundit.Youcanhaveseveralpiecesofevidenceinaparagraph,buteachpieceshouldbesupportingthatonepoint.Inturn,ofcourse,eachparagraph(eachpoint)supportsthethesis.Keepinmindthatwitheachparagraph,you’rewantingthereadertobecomelessskepticalaboutyourthesis.You’recreatinganahamomentforthereaderwitheachparagraph’sconcludingsentence.
Eliminateredundancy:Ifyoucanmakeonlythreestrongargumentsinsupportofyourthesis,don’ttrytoaddmore.You’llweakenyourcasebymuddlingthereader.Don’tre-useevidencetosupportmorethanonepoint,either—itactivatessuspicioninthereader.Anddon’tmakethecommonmistakeofrestatingyourthesis.Eachparagraphneedsitsownfocus.Youwantthereaderdrawingtheconclusionthatthispointsupportsthethesis.
Paragraphsthatarticulateacounter-argumentneedtorefuteit:Perhapsitgoeswithoutsaying,butifyou’regoingtobringupacounter-argument(andthisisanexcellentstrategy),youneedtoacknowledgeitandthengivethereasonsitdoesnotleadtotheconclusionitsproponentsespouse.Youaren’ttryingtomaketheirargument,you’rebringingitupbecauseyouknowit’sprobablyinyourreader’smindandyoumustaddressittoarguesuccessfully.
Anticipatingreaders’questionsmakesyourargumentflow:Lookatyourargumentcritically,askingyourselfthesamequestionsthatyouwouldofascholarlyarticle.Scholarlyarticlesshouldbeevaluatedbasedoncriteriasuchasthoroughness,credibility,andaccuracy.Takethesameapproachwithyour
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paper.Thinkaboutthesub-claimsyouwillneedtomaketoclarifyandsupportyourmainargument.Ifyoumakeaclaim,whatotherthingswillyouneedtoproveinordertobackthatup?Whatassumptionshaveyoumadethatneedtobearticulatedtoyourreader?Anticipatingreaders’questionsandprotestationswillhelpguidetheflowofthepaperandmaketransitionssmoother,asyou’llintuitwhatneedstocomenext.
Thereisasubtlearttotransitions:Yougetabettersenseofthisartasyoureadandwritemore.Youdon’twantthereaderthinkingaboutform—youwantthereaderfocusedonyourargument.Therefore,youlinkyourparagraphswithtransitionsentencesthatmakethepathclear:
“So,we’vefoundthatsolarpowerandwindpowerareeconomicallyviableinCostaRica,butcangeothermalpower,withitshighinitialcosts,proveaworthwhileinvestmentovertime?”
Youcanguessthatthisbodyparagraphfollowsothersthatdiscusswindandsolarpower,andthethesisisabouttheuseofalternativeenergysources.Thisparagraphwilllikelyshowthatgeothermalpowerisalsoviable.Asareader,youhaveyettobeconvinced,butyourmindisopen:you’rereadytohearwhetherornotit’sviable.You’renotwonderingwherethepaperisgoing,andyou’renotconfusedaboutthewriter’sstance.Ifyoufinditdifficulttocreateatransition,itmaybethatyouneedtomovetheparagraphsaroundsothatanaturaltransitionarises.
Conclusion
It’ssadlyraretoreadaninterestingconcludingparagraph,butit’snotadifficultchallengeifyoukeepinmindthatyou’renotrestatingyourthesis,you’reretracingyourargumentinanewway.Justbecauseyou’renotpresentingnewinformationdoesn’tmeantheconclusionmustbestale.Youhavepermissiontogetcreative.Here’swhattheconclusionmustdo:
Showhowtheideasinthepaperworktogethertosupportthethesis:Youhaven’tmadeyourargumentuntilyoutieitalltogether.You’veledthereaderdowntheyellowbrickroad,butnoheelshavebeenclickeduntilthey’vereadtheconclusion.Whileyoudon’twanttointroducenewpointsorevidencehere,youcancertainlyusenewtechniques,likeimageryorstory.Youmighttaketheperspectiveofaskepticandexperiencetheargumentthroughhiseyes,oryoumightshowusavisionofabrighterfuturenowthatyourthesishasbeenimplemented.Thewatchwordissynthesis,ratherthanrepetition.
Tieinthemorecompellingelementsfromtheintroductionandbodyparagraphstoprovideasenseofcohesion:Ifyouusedanimageinyour
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introduction(thinkofthesoldierfromtheexampleabove),considerrecallingitintheconclusion.Thisoffersthereaderasenseofsymmetryandcompletionifitisn’toversimplified.Similarly,youcanrecallimagesorstoriesusedinotherpartsofthepaper.Theseactasanchorsforthereader’smemory,andwhenmemoryistriggered,ourmindstendtobemoreopen.Thinkofthecrescendoinapieceofmusic,wherethethemeiswoventogetherwithotherelementsofthepiece,andthelistenerismovedtotears.Revisitingandweaving,makingsomethingnewintheprocess,iswhatmakesaconclusioneffective.
Readoveryourpaper.Whatstandsouttoyou?Whatgivesyouchills?Thesamewillprobablybetrueforyourreader.Thesearethepointstorecallinyourconclusion.Justasalawyerlaysouthiscasetothejurymostpowerfullyinclosingarguments,thisisyourchancetomakeyourcaseclearlyandconcisely.
2.2.5:Step5:Revising
Revisinghappensonmanydifferentlevelsofyourpaper,fromindividualwordsandsentencestolargerissuesoforganizationandcoherence.
LearningObjective
Distinguishbetweenrevisingandediting
KeyPoints
Sincethemostsignificantchangeswillbemadeatthefoundationallevel,itisbesttostartthere.Youreviseforpurposeandorganization.Makesurethatyouendupfulfillingyourstatedpurposeandthatyouremainon-topicforyourentirepaper.Alsoseeifyoumaintainthesamevoicethroughoutthepaperorifyouendedupmakingunplannedshiftsintoneorvocabulary.Takingbreaksbefore,during,andaftertherevisionprocesswillmakeiteasier.Lettinggoofwhatdoesn’tworkinthepaperisaskilltobeembracedandvaluedasawriter.
KeyTerms
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purpose
Anobjecttobereached;atarget;anaim;agoal.
organization
Thewayinwhichsomethingisorganized,suchasabookoranarticle.
consistency
Inlogic,aconsistenttheoryisonethatdoesnotcontainacontradiction.Thelackofcontradictioncanbedefinedineithersemanticorsyntacticterms.
Goodwritingisessentiallyrewriting.Iampositiveofthis.—RoaldDahl
Oneofthebesttoolsinawriter’stoolkitistheabilitytorevise.Aswiththepriorstagesofwriting,it’sactuallynotadistinctphasethathappensonlyonce,butpartofarecursiveprocess.Draftingandrevisingisadialoguebetweentheinnerartistandtheinnercritic.Theartistshouldnotbebotheredbythecriticwhileinthecreativezone,andthecriticshouldbeletlooseunfetteredduringtherevisionprocess.
Writingandrewritingareaconstantsearchforwhatitisoneissaying.—JohnUpdike
Revisionisalmostuniversallyreviledinitially,butthemoreexperiencedawriterbecomes,themoreheorsheappreciatesthispruningprocess.Revisingtightenstheargument,strengthensthevoice,andsmoothesthesyntaxsoyou’releftwithonlythebestbits.
Intheprewritingstage,weasktheinnercritictotakeanicelongnapallthewaythroughthefirstdraftingphase,butnowweawakenitandputittowork.
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Revision
Revisingideassothattheyarepersuasive,cogent,andformasolidargumentistherealworkofwriting.
WhenShouldIReviseMyPaper?Revisionbeginsafteryou’vefinishedyourfirstdraftandisrepeatedasoftenasnecessaryfromthatstageforward.It’suseful,though,totakeatleastadayandanightawayfromthedraft,ratherthanjumpingintorevisingimmediately.Thebreakwillgiveyouthenecessarydistancefromwhatyouhavewrittentolookatitwithacriticaleyeandwillgiveyouthepsychologicalspacetoshiftfromartisttocritic.
Reviewing
Re-readingcompletedworkisessentialformorethanjustcatchingtypos.
HowShouldIGetStarted?Wefirstneedtodistinguishrevisingfromediting.You’regoingtohaveaseparateroundofgoingthroughyourpapertofixgrammarmistakes,adjustvocabulary,andmakesureyouhavenotrepeatedtheword“very”toomanytimes.There’snoneedtothinkaboutthatstagenow.Whatwe’redoinghereislookingathowyourargumentisconstructed.
Thekindsofchangesyoumakewhenrevisingrelatetohowwellyou’re
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makingyourcase.Youmayhavetoalterhowyourargumentworksorhowit’sorganized.Changesatthislevelarethebiggestonesyouwillmake,whichiswhythere’snopointinplayingaroundwithwordchoiceorpunctuationwhenyoumightberewriting,orevendeleting,theentireparagraph.
Thefirstthingtolookforwhenrevisingispurpose.Nowthatyou’vewrittenthewholepaper,lookbackatyourthesisstatement.Isitstillwhatthepaperisabout?Andifso,doeseverythinginyourpaperrelatebacktothatargument?Readthroughthepapernowandcheckforpurpose.
Thenextstepistoensurethatyourargumentmakessenseandhaspower.Allofyourclaimsmayrelatetoyourthesis,yes,butareyouconvinced?Remember,you’rewearingyourcritichatnow.Pretendyoudidn’twritethepaperandarebeingpaidasacritic.Makeyourselfveryhardtoplease.Thengothroughthepaperandmakenotesontheseaspectsandanyothersthatstrikeyouasyouread.
Thefollowingarespecificcategoriesofthingstowatchfor.
Argumentation
Isthethesissetupinawaythatmakesyoucareaboutit?Aretheclaimsrelatedpreciselytothethesis,ordotheybecometangentialatanypoint?Aretheyinteresting?Doestheevidenceprovewhatitisintendedtoprove?Aretherewell-placedexamples?Aretheyentirelyrelevant?Bytheendofthepaper,mightsomeonewhobelieveddifferentlyfromthethesisbeswayedbytheargument?Ifnot,whynot?What’smissing?Andifso,whatwerethestrongestpoints?Arethereextraneousparagraphsorsentencesthatseemlessimportanttothepoint?Whereistheclimaxofthispaper,whereyoumostfeeltheauthor’smastery?
Organization
Isthestructureofthepaperaseffectiveasitcanbe?Doestheorderoftheparagraphsmakesense?Doeseachparagraphbuildoffofwhatwasdevelopedinthepreviousone?Doestheendofthepaperrelatebacktothebeginning?Arethedifferentstepsoftheargumentlinkedinalogicalmanner?
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Iseverystepadequatelyexplained,orarethereleapsorholesinlogic?Dosomeideasseemtocomeoutofnowhere,ordoyoufeellikeyou’vebeenpreparedforeachnewconcept?
VoiceandConsistency
Doesthetopiccaptureyourinterestbecauseofthewayit’spresented?Canyoutellfromthetonethattheauthorcaresaboutthetopic?Istheauthor’stonemaintainedthroughoutthepaper?Doeseverythinginthispaperworktowardsarticulatingorprovingthethesis?
WhattoDoWithYourCritiqueAnotherreasonstudentsavoidrevisingisbecausetheyjumptooquicklyfromthecritiquepartofrevisiontotherewrite,askingthebraintodoacreativeactivitywhenit’sstillinthecriticalmindset.
So,ifyouhavethetime,itwouldbewisetotakeabreakfromthepaperagainatthispoint,atleastforalittlewhile.Onceyou’veheardfromthecritic,takingarestwillgiveyourbraintimetorelaxandcomeupwithideasforrevisions,movingnaturallybackintoinspired,creativemode.
Whenyou’vetakenthattime,theprocessmayflowquitenaturally.Ifnot,though,recognizethatyou’rerepeatingthestepsyouusedindrafting.
AddressFoundationalIssuesFirst,youshoreupthethesisstatement(orrewriteitentirely),thenaddresstheclaims—rewritingthemforclarityordeletingthemifthey’renotstrong.Youcanevengobacktoyouroutlineandmovethingsaroundagain,reevaluatingtheorderoftheargument.Thesis,claims,order:thesearethebonesofthepaper—thefoundation.Onlyafteryou’resatisfiedwiththesedoyoumovetorevisingparagraphs.
BreakingDowntheBigPicture:RevisingattheParagraphLevel
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Foreachparagraphandsection,askyourselftwothings:
Whatdoyouwanteachparagraphtodo?Howwelldoeseachparagraphcompletethattask?
Webeginwiththebodyofthepaper,leavingtheintroductionandconclusionforlater.Thebodyisthemeatonthebones.Itneedstobeevenlydistributedandformapowerfulwhole.Foreachone,askthefollowingquestions,butaskthemingentlerartistmode,ratherthaninruthlesscriticmode:
Isthisparagraphnecessarytotheargument?Iseverysentencerelevanttotheclaimmadeintheparagraph?Isthereanythingmissingfromthefirstsentencetotheclaim—apieceofevidenceoranargumentthatwouldmakeitmoreconvincing?Istheargumentfullyexplained?Doesitflowwell?Howdoeseachsentencemakeyoufeel?Whatisthetrajectoryofyourfeelingfromsentencetosentencetoclaim?Doestheinformationinthisparagraphlogicallyleadtothenextone?Isthetransitiontothenextparagraphsmoothandeasytofollow?
Fixthesethingsnow.
Theintroductionandconclusionbringinmoreoftheartisticaspectsofwriting,andsoyou’llwanttorelaxthecriticabithereandlookattheseparagraphsfromaninterestedreader’sperspective.Again,notabadideatotakeabreakbeforeaddressingthesetwoparagraphs.
Askthesequestionsfortheintroduction:
Dothefirstfewsentencesintrigueme?Doesthesubjectseemcompelling?Doesmyattentionlapseatanypoint?Doesthenarrativeleadmetoanunderstandingofthetopic?HowdoIfeelafterreadingit?Energized?Eagerformore?
Taketimetorevisetheintroductionnow,butconsiderbeginningtherevisionwithaprewritingexercisetogetthecreativejuicesflowingagain.
Askthefollowingquestionsaboutyourconcludingparagraph:
Istheargumentwoventogetherhereorsimplyrestated?Doesthisparagraphintroducenewevidenceorclaims?DoIfeelasenseofcompletionandsatisfactionwhenIfinish,oramI
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leftwithunansweredquestionsandunmetexpectations?Isthereasenseofartistry,ofmastery,tothislastparagraphorsetofparagraphs?
Ifyoucanleavetherevisionoftheconclusionforafewhoursafteransweringthesequestions,yourbrainmaysolveanyquestionofhowtoskillfullyweaveyourargumenttogether.Allowyourselfsomequiettimetoletimagesandstoriestoarise.Re-readtherevisedintroductionasasourceofinspiration.
LettingGoRevisingcanbeametaphoricaljourneyinlettinggo.It’seasytogetattachedtowhatwe’vewritten,anddeletingsomethingyou’vespenthoursoncanfeelpainful.Yes,youknowitwillmakeforabetterpaperinthelongrun,butyoumaybemoanallthelosttimeandeffort.
Ifyoucanreframeitforyourself,though,andrecognizethatrevisingisnotseparatefromwritingbutanintegralandvitalpartoftheprocess,you’llseethatthenextparagraphyouwriteisbuiltontheoneyoujusthadtodelete.Yourfinalpaperwillbesuccessfulbecauseyoutrustedtheprocess—trustedyourcreativemindtocomeupwithnewmaterialevenbetterthantheold.
That’sthemagicofrevisions—everycutisnecessaryandeverycuthurts,butsomethingnewalwaysgrows.—KellyBarnhill
2.2.6:Step6:EditingandProofreading
Editingandproofreadingensureclarity,improvestyle,andeliminateerrors.
LearningObjective
Recognizelanguagethatisunclearorimprecise
KeyPoints
Editingandproofreadingareconcernedwiththestyleofyourwriting,notthesubstanceofyourargument.Editingfocusesontheclarityofyourwriting,particularlywordchoice,sentenceconstruction,andtransitions.Proofreadingfocusesonmechanics,suchasgrammar,spelling,andpunctuation.
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Unlikerevisingforpurpose,editingandproofreadingfocusonthesentencelevelofyourwork.Whenediting,youlookathowclearlyyouhavewritten.Thegoalistomakesurethatyoursentencesareeasilyunderstoodandtightlywritten.Whileeditingfocusesonimprovingyourwriting,proofreadingismorelikefact-checkingit.Thegoalofproofreadingistofindandcorrectmechanicalerrors.Itcanbehelpfultodoapeerreview:askoneofyourpeerstoeditandproofreadyourpaper.Sincetheyareseeingyourworkforthefirsttime,theywillprobablybeabletospotproblemsthatyouhavemissed.Readingaprintedpageoftextbackwardsisagoodwaytocatcherrors.
KeyTerms
editing
Theprocessofselectingandpreparingwritten,visual,audio,andfilmmediausedtoconveyinformationthroughtheprocessesofcorrection,condensation,organization,andothermodificationsperformedwithanintentionofproducingacorrect,consistent,accurate,andcompletework.
proofreading
Thereadingoftexttodetectandcorrectproductionerrors.Proofreadersareexpectedtobeconsistentlyaccuratebydefaultbecausetheyoccupythelaststageofproductionbeforepublication.
peerreview
Assessment,beforepublication,byanauthorityorauthoritiesinthepertinentfieldofstudy,ofthewrittenformofanidea,hypothesis,theory,and/orwrittendiscussionofsuch.
hyperbole
Exaggeratedstatementsorclaimsnotmeanttobetakenliterally.
Afterrevisingforpurpose,youstillhavetwolevelsofrevisionleft:editingandproofreading.Whenyoumoveontoediting,theemphasisisclarity.Then,onceyoursentencestructureandlanguagehavebeencleanedup,youmoveontoproofreading,whereyouchecktheaccuracyofyourspellingandgrammar.
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EditingEditing,likerevising,issomethingthatyouwilldothroughoutthewritingprocess.Mostoftheeditorialprocesswilltakeplaceafteryouhaveworkedoutyourfinalargumentandorganizationalstructure.Editinglooksatyourworkonasentence-by-sentencelevel,consideringwaystomakeeverythingyousayasclearandpreciseaspossible.
Duringtheeditingprocessyou’llmainlywanttoconsiderlanguage,construction,andstyle.
EditingforLanguage
Withlanguage,theoverallquestioniswhetheryouareusingthemostaccuratelanguagepossibletodescribeyourideas.Yourreaderwillhaveaneasiertimeunderstandingwhatyouwanttosayifyou’reprecise.Besuretocheckforthefollowing.
Pronounclarity:Makesureit’sclearwhateach“it,”“he,”and“she”refersto.Precisevocabulary:Makesureeverywordmeanswhatyouintendittomean.Alwaysuseadictionarytoconfirmthemeaningofanywordaboutwhichyouareunsure.Althoughthebuilt-indictionarythatcomeswithyourwordprocessorisagreattime-saver,itfallsfarshortofcollege-editiondictionaries,ortheOxfordEnglishDictionary(OED).Ifspell-checksuggestsbizarrecorrectionsforoneofyourwords,itcouldbethatyouknowaworditdoesnot.Whenindoubt,alwayscheckadictionarytobesure.Definedterms:Whenusingtermsspecifictoyourtopic,makesureyoudefinethemforyourreaderswhomaynotbefamiliarwiththem.Ifthatmakestheparagraphtoocumbersome,considerusingadifferentterm.Properlyplacedmodifiers:Makesureyourreadercanclearlydiscernwhateachadjectiveandadverbrefersto.Hyperbole:Seeifyoucaneradicatewordslike“amazing”and“gigantic”infavorofmoreprecisedescriptions.Alsoexamineeachuseoftheword“very”andseeifyoucanfindamoreprecisewordorphrase.
Finally,payattentiontowordiness.Writingthatisclean,precise,andsimplewillalwayssoundbest.
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EditingforSentenceConstruction
Ifyouwanttomakeeverythingeasyforyouraudiencetoreadandunderstand,startbysimplifyingyoursentences.Ifyouthinkasentenceistoocomplicated,rephraseitsothatitiseasiertoread,orbreakitintotwosentences.Cleardoesn’tmeanboring,bytheway.Complicatedisnotasynonymforartistic!
Considerhowbalancedyoursentencesarewithinaparagraph.Youdon’twanteverysentencetohaveidenticallengthandstructureortobeginthesameway.Instead,varyyourprose.
Thisisalsothetimetoaddtransitionsbetweenclausesandsentencesthataren’tconnectedsmoothlytoeachother.Youdon’tneedtointroduceeverysentencewith“then,”“however,”or“because.”Usingthesewordsjudiciously,though,willhelpyourreaderseelogicalconnectionsbetweenthedifferentstepsofyourargument.
EditingforStyle
Editingforstyleismoredifficult,becauseaswritersgainpracticetheyusuallydeveloptheirownuniquestylisticquirks.That’sagoodthing.Insteadofthinkingthatyoushouldwriteacertainway,whatfollowsisgeneraladviceforthekindsofwritingthatcanhelporhurtyourwork.
Thinkabouthowyouuseactiveandpassiveverbs.Often,rewritingasentencetotakeitfrompassivetoactivewillmakeitsimplerandeasiertoread.Considerthefollowingsentences:
ManyofthosewhohaveheldtheofficeofgovernorofIllinoisinthepasttwentyyearshavebeenmetwithchargesofcorruptionduetopoliticalmisdealings.Overthepasttwentyyears,manyIllinoisgovernorshavefacedpoliticalcorruptioncharges.
Thesecondisshorter,lesswordy,andclearer.Inthiscase,changingfrompassivetoactivemadeamajorimprovement.Pleasenote,thisdoesn’tmeanthatyoushouldneverusepassiveverbs.Somesentencesdoreadbetterwiththem.It’suptoyoutodecidewhichworksbetterforyourscenario.
Ingeneral,wheneveryoucanreplacean“is”ora“was”withanactionverb,yourwritingwillfeelmorevibrant.“Thehorsewasshakingwithfear,”isslightlylesspowerfulthan“Thehorseshookwithfear.”Betteryet,ifthe
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contexttellsusthehorseisfrightened,wecansay,“Thehorsetrembled.”“Trembled”isamorespecificformof“shook,”whichisitselfanimprovementover“wasshaking.”Thisstepenlivensresearchpapersperhapsmorethananyother.
Anotherthingtolookatwithyourverbuseisparallelism—usingthesamepatternofwordstoprovidebalanceinasentence.Ifyouarelistingthings,trytomakethemallthesamepartofspeech.Lookattheseexamples:
Unbalanced:“Johnlikesreading,hisstudies,andtalking.”Parallel:“Johnlikesreading,studying,andtalking.”
Botharegrammaticallycorrect,buttheparallelsentencehasabetterrhythm.
ProofreadingProofreadingisthefinalstageofrevision.It’sokaytocorrecttyposorgrammaticalerrorsifyoucatchtheminearlydrafts,butyoushouldsavethoroughproofreadingforyourfinaldraft.Waittobeginthisstepwhenyouaresurethatyouwillnotbechanginganythingelseinyourpaper.
Herearesomeofthethingsyoushoulddoeverytimeyouproofread:
Checkspelling.Bealertfortypos.Checkpunctuation.Makesurethatyouareusingthecorrectformattingandcitationstyle.Checkthatyourverbtensesremainconsistent.Lookatsubject/verbandpronoun/antecedentagreement.
Tryreadingeachpagebackward.Thisdoesn’tworksowellforediting,butitcanreallyhelpwithproofreading.You’llcatchmanyoftheaboveproblemsthisway.
TipsforEditingandProofreadingKnowyourerrors.Asyougetusedtorevising,youwillprobablyrealizethattherearesomeerrorsyoumakemorefrequentlythanothers.Maybeyouhaveatendencytowardwordiness.Maybethere’saparticularruleofgrammarthatalwaysgivesyoutrouble.Whateveryourparticularweaknessis,youcanpayspecialattentiontoitwhenrevising.
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Secondly,takethetimetodomultiplere-readings.Startbygoingthroughforoneparticularkindoferror,andonlypayattentiontothat.Thenchooseanotherthingtofocuson,andreadyourpaperagain.Keepgoinguntilyou’resatisfiedthatyourpaperisasgoodasitcanbe.Prioritizetheissuesyouknowyou’remostlikelytofind.
Beforeconcludinganywrittenassignment,youcanuseyourwordprocessor’sspell-checkfeatureinordertoidentifyanyoverlookedspellingmistakesinyourwork.However,it’simportanttolookforerrorsyourselfaswell.Peoplearemorecapableofunderstandingwordsincontextthanwordprocessors.Forexample,spell-checksoftwarecan’talwaystellwhether“their,”“there”or“they’re”fitsinaspecificsentence,butapersonalwayscan.Therefore,it’sagoodideatousebothcomputerspell-checking,andgoodold-fashionedhumaneditingwitharedpenandpapercopy!
Spellingerror
Theaimofproofreadingistocatchsurfacemistakesinspelling,punctuation,formatting,etc.—suchasontherestaurantsignabove,wherethewritermisspelled“omelette”as“omelate.”
2.2.7:Step7:CompletingaFinalReview
Whenyou’redonewithallthestepsofrevision—revisingforpurpose,editing,andproofreading—makeonefinalreviewofyourpaper.
LearningObjective
Listquestionsyoucanusetoself-evaluateyourpaper
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KeyPoints
Lookonemoretimetomakesurethatyoumeetthecriteriaoftheassignmentandthatyouhavetakencareofallthechangesyouwantedtomake.Askyourselfifyouthinkthepaperisnowfinished,orifyoustillhavethingsyouwanttoimproveupon.Afinalreviewafterrevisionswillhelpyoudetermineifyourpaperisreadytobeturnedin.
KeyTerm
criteria
Standardsforjudgementorevaluation.
Afterspendingsolonglookingatyourpaperonthelevelofindividualwordsandsentences,itcanbehelpfultoreturntothebigpicture.Beforeyouturnyourpaperin,readitoveronemoretime.Youdonothavetolookforspecificproblems.Justtrytogetageneralsenseofwhatyourpaperhasturnedinto.
Itcanbehelpfultoimaginethatyouarereadingsomebodyelse’spaperduringthisfinalread-through.Whatwouldyousaytoapeerifthiswerehisorherpaperinsteadofyourown?Doesithaveaclearthesis?Doestheargumentmakesense?Youcanalsotryreadingyourpaperoutloudtoseehowitsounds.
Directions
Reviewingworkthroughoutthewritingprocesshelpsmakesureit’smovingintherightdirection.
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Thepurposeofafinalreviewisnottopromptmajorchanges,asyoualreadyaddressedthosewhenyourevisedforpurpose.Instead,doingafinalreviewwillhelpyouseehowallthechangesyoumadeworktogetherasawhole.
Thisisalsoyourlastchancetomakesureyoumeetthecriteriaoftheassignment.Areyoustillsayingwhatyouintendedtosay?Didyoucompletethetaskyousetforyourselfintheintroduction?Lookathowyourargumenthasdevelopedandwhetheryouarehappywithit.Ifyou’renot,youcangobackintorevisionmode.Ifyouare,thencongratulations—youcanfinallysaythatyourpaperiscomplete.
EvaluatingYourProcessAtthispoint,youcanmakeafinalassessmentofyourprocess.Thelearningcomesnotonlyfromyourresearchandwriting,butalsofromreflectionabouttheprocessyouwentthrough.Afteryoureadyourpaper,askyourselfthefollowingquestions:
Howcreativeisthepaper?Ifitfeelsalittleblandtoyou,youmightconsiderspendingadditionaltimeusingtheprewritingactivitiesthenexttimeyouwriteapaper.Youmightalsoconsiderreadingmoreofthetypeofwritingyou’redoingtogetafeelforthestyleandtosparkyourownimagination.Doesitfeellikeyourbesteffort?Doyoufeelsomedisappointmentwhenyoureadyourpaper,asifyouknowyoucouldhavedonebetter?Timeisoftenafactorhere.Budgetingintimeforreflectionisn’toftentaught,butit’sacrucialaspectofthecreativeprocess.Wheredidyougettrippedup?Lookingbackovertheexperienceofwriting,whichpartsoftheprocessdidyouavoid?Whichpartsweredifficulttowrapupandmoveonfrom?Whichpartsdidyouenjoymost?Canyouseealloftheanswersreflectedinyourwriting?Isthewritinggoodbuttheresearchscanty,orisitheavilycitedbutdisorganized?Howmightyouaddressbalanceintheprocessnexttimearound?Whatdidyouenjoy?Dwellforatleastamomentortwoonthepartsoftheprocessyoumostenjoyed.Didyouhaveagreatconversationwithafriendduringthebrainstormingsession?Didyouwriteanespeciallystrongparagraphforoneofyourclaims?Didyouletyourselfsleeponaproblemandwakeupwiththeanswer?Didyoufeellikeyoufoundyourvoicewhenwritingtheintroduction?Nowgiveyourselfamomenttoconsiderhowtoexpandthosegoodfeelingsintotherestoftheprocessnexttimeyouwrite.
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Writingisanart.It’snotsomethingwe’reborndoing,yetit’ssomethingwe’reaskedtodoalotinprofessionalwork.Makingtheprocessenjoyableforyourselfisbothusefulandimportant.Youhavethepowertomakeyournextwritingexperienceevenbetter.Keepworkingatthepartsofwritingthataremoredifficultforyouwhileexpandingonthephasesthatdelightyou,andyournextpaperisboundtobemoreenjoyable,moreinspired,and,ultimately,better.
Attributions
Step1:PrewritingandChoosingaTopic
“Boundless.”http://www.boundless.com/.BoundlessLearningCCBY-SA3.0.
“conceptmap.”http://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/concept_map.WiktionaryCCBY-SA3.0.
“clustering.”http://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/clustering.WiktionaryCCBY-SA3.0.
“freewriting.”http://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/freewriting.WiktionaryCCBY-SA3.0.
“RhetoricandComposition/PlanningandPrewriting.”http://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/Rhetoric_and_Composition/Planning_and_Prewriting%23What_are_Some_Other_Ways_to_Get_Ideas.3FWikibooksCCBY-SA3.0.
“SMLNotebooks/20090903.10D.52443/SML|Flickr-PhotoSharing!.”http://www.flickr.com/photos/seeminglee/3882941631/.FlickrCCBY-SA.
Step2:Researching
“Urval_av_de_bocker_som_har_vunnit_Nordiska_radets_litteraturpris_under_de_50_ar_som_priset_funnits_(3).jpg.”https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Urval_av_de_bocker_som_har_vunnit_Nordiska_radets_litteraturpris_under_de_50_ar_som_priset_funnits_(3).jpgWikimediaCommonsCCBY2.5.
Step3:Outlining
“five-paragraphessay.”http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/five-paragraph%20essay.WikipediaCCBY-SA3.0.
“TheCainProjectinEngineeringandProfessionalCommunication,ThreeModulesonClearWritingStyle:AnIntroductiontoTheCraftofArgument,byJosephM.WilliamsandGregoryColomb.September17,2013.”http://cnx.org/content/m17224/latest/?collection=col10551/latest.OpenStaxCNXCCBY3.0.
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http://nopsa.hiit.fi/pmg/viewer/photo.php?id=1235441.http://nopsa.hiit.fi/pmg/viewer/photo.php?id=1235441.CCBY.
Step4:Drafting
“SupportingYourThesis.”https://www.boundless.com/users/268747/textbooks/fremont-college-english-composition/paper-execution-2/drafting-your-paper-12/supporting-your-thesis-65-1333/.BoundlessLicense:Other.
“GettingHelpMeetingCollegeWritingExpectations.”https://www.boundless.com/writing/textbooks/boundless-writing-textbook/introduction-to-college-level-writing-233/introduction-to-college-level-writing-234/getting-help-meeting-college-writing-expectations-83-8682/.BoundlessLicense:Other.
““SoWhat?”.”https://www.boundless.com/users/364813/textbooks/professional-writing-ae312174-61d8-432f-9276-655b5a888adc/week-5-boundless-presentation-641/so-what-659/so-what-662-943/.BoundlessLicense:Other.
“AssemblingYourArgument.”https://www.boundless.com/users/268747/textbooks/fremont-college-english-composition/paper-execution-2/planning-your-argument-10/assembling-your-argument-48-8497/.BoundlessLicense:Other.
“GeneratingFurtherQuestions.”https://www.boundless.com/users/268747/textbooks/fremont-college-english-composition/paper-execution-2/drafting-your-paper-12/generating-further-questions-66-1672/.BoundlessLicense:Other.
Step5:Revising
“Boundless.”http://www.boundless.com/.BoundlessLearningCCBY-SA3.0.
“consistency.”http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/consistency.WikipediaCCBY-SA3.0.
“organization.”http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/organization.WikipediaCCBY-SA3.0.
“purpose.”http://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/purpose.WiktionaryCCBY-SA3.0.
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“RhetoricandComposition/Revising.”http://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/Rhetoric_and_Composition/Revising%23A_Change_for_the_BetterWikibooksCCBY-SA3.0.
“Revisioninprocess|Flickr-PhotoSharing!.”http://www.flickr.com/photos/juliejordanscott/5613078605/.FlickrCCBY.
“Lina,proofreadingmyessay.hot.|Flickr-PhotoSharing!.”http://www.flickr.com/photos/bmh4you/54929599/.FlickrCCBY.
Step6:EditingandProofreading
“Boundless.”http://www.boundless.com/.BoundlessLearningCCBY-SA3.0.
“peerreview.”http://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/peer_review.WiktionaryCCBY-SA3.0.
“editing.”http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/editing.WikipediaCCBY-SA3.0.
“proofreading.”http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/proofreading.WikipediaCCBY-SA3.0.
“UsingtheDictionaryandThesaurus.”https://www.boundless.com/writing/textbooks/boundless-writing-textbook/writing-effective-sentences-252/word-choice-30/using-the-dictionary-and-thesaurus-effectively-137-1341/.BoundlessLicense:Other.
“RhetoricandComposition/Editing.”http://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/Rhetoric_and_Composition/Editing.WikibooksCCBY-SA3.0.
“RhetoricandComposition/Revising.”http://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/Rhetoric_and_Composition/Revising%23Differences_Between_Revising.2C_Editing.2C_and_ProofreadingWikibooksCCBY-SA3.0.
“Allsizes|Omelate|Flickr-PhotoSharing!.”http://www.flickr.com/photos/smudie/44633735/sizes/z/in/photostream/FlickrCCBY-SA.
Step7:CompletingaFinalReview
“Boundless.”http://www.boundless.com/.BoundlessLearningCCBY-SA3.0.
“RhetoricandComposition/Reviewing.”http://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/Rhetoric_and_Composition/Reviewing.
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WikibooksCCBY-SA3.0.
“Freedomofchoice-Image&PhotobyKrzysztofPoltorakfromDetails-Photography(22077920)|fotocommunity.”http://www.fotocommunity.com/pc/pc/display/22077920.FotoCommunityCCBY.
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2.3:PrewritingTechniques2.3.1:Brainstorming
Brainstormingisaprewritingtechniqueusedtohelpgeneratelotsofpotentialideasaboutatopic.
LearningObjective
Describetheprocessofbrainstorming
KeyPoints
Brainstormingislistingallofyourideasaboutatopic—eventhebadones—withoutcensoringorediting,inordertogetyourideasflowing.Brainstormingisatitsmosteffectivewhendrawingonthepowerofinteraction.Casual,free-formnote-takingwhilereadingorengaginginconversationcanbeaformofbrainstorming.Groupbrainstormingcanbeagreatwaytoengagewithpartnersorteammembersonaprojectandmakesureeveryone’sideasareheard.
KeyTerm
brainstorming
Listingideasaboutatopic,eventhebadones,untilyoufindoneyoulike.
Atitsmostbasic,brainstormingislistingideas.Ifyou’rehavingtroublecomingupwithagoodtopicforapaper,sometimesithelpstowritedowneveryideathatoccurstoyou,eventhebadones,untilyouhaveastronglistgoing.
Brainstormingisusefulforfiguringoutwhatyou’reinterestedin.Thetechniquecantakemanyforms,butperhapstheofthemmosteffectiveisthatitdrawsonthepowerofinteraction.We’veallhadthosegreatconversationsinwhichsomeonesayssomethingthatsparksanideaormemoryinsomeoneelse,whichthensparksafurtheridea,andbeforeyouknowit,everyoneisfeelingenergized.
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Youcancreateoneofthoseconversationsaboutthetopicofyourpaper.Juststartachatwithafriendoragroupaboutthetopicandhaveyourpenandnotebookhandy.Jotdownnotesastheconversationprogressesandyouhearideasthatsparkyourinterest.Foranessayonthewomen’smovementofthe1970s,youmightgeneratethefollowinglistbytalkingwithfriendsorcallingyourmother:
equalpaychoiceofcareerfreedompurposeinsocietyvaluingthe“feminine”—stillanissue?messagesgirlsgetnoweffectsofthemovementonmensuccessfulornot?
Anotherwaytobrainstormistoreadanarticleorabookchapteronthetopicandwritedownwhateveroccurstoyouasyouread,evenifithasnothingtodowiththetext.You’reinteractingwiththetextlikeyoumightinteractwithaperson,lettingtheauthor’sideassparknewthoughtsinyou.
Youcanalsobrainstorminagroupifyou’reworkingonawritingprojectwithapartnerorateam.Findawhiteboard,picksomeonetowrite,andrecordideas,topics,andnotesastheycomeup.Inadditiontobeinghelpfulinfindingatopic,thisprocesscanbefunandhelpbreaktheicewithyourfellowstudentssothateveryonefeelsasthoughtheycanshareinthediscussion.
Onceyou’vegeneratedalotofideasthroughbrainstorming,youcanchooseafewofthemtodofurtherprewritingexerciseswithtoeventuallycreateyourthesisstatement.Perhapsthemostimportantthingtorememberaboutthisprocessisthat“therearenobadideasinbrainstorming.”Whilethissayingisnotstrictlytrue—forexample,itwouldbeabadideatotackleanassignedessayaboutfeminisminthe70sbywritingaboutthelifecycleofthelunarmoth—itisvaluablebecauseithelpsyourememberthatbrainstormingisn’taboutcomingupwithaperfectsolution.It’saboutconsideringyourtopiconmanylevelsuntilyoufindanapproachyou’reexcitedabout.
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Nobadideas
Sometimes,ithelpstostopcensoringyourselfandwritedowneveryideayouhave—eventhebadones.Youcandecideonthebestonelater!
2.3.2:Freewriting
Freewriting,aprewritingtechnique,canhelpyoubreakoutofwriter’sblockbylettingyourideasflownaturally.
LearningObjective
Describetheprocessoffreewriting
KeyPoints
Freewritingiswritingwithouteditinginordertogetyourideasflowing.Freewritingcanbeausefulprewritingtechniquetohelpthinkofdifferentdirectionsyourpapercantake.Tofreewrite,getapenandpaper(oropenupablankcomputerdocument)andsetyourselfatimelimit.Thenstartwritingaboutyourgeneraltopic,recordinganythoughtsastheycomeintoyourmind.Noeditingallowed!
KeyTerm
freewriting
Theprocessofwritingloosely,withoutself-censorship,inordertodevelopideasspontaneouslyandnaturally.
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WhatIsFreewriting?Haveyoueverexperiencedwriter’sblock,thatfrustratingfeelingofknowingwhatyouwanttosaybutnothowtosayit?Freewritingisagreatwaytogetawayfromthat.It’ssimple:Youjustwrite,anddon’tworryaboutwhetherornotwhatyou’rewritingisgoodornot—you’rejusttryingtogetyourselfintoanaturalflow.
Freewritingisagreatprewritingtechnique.Itwillcomeinhandyifyouhaveageneraltopicbutarenotsurewhatyouwanttosayaboutit.Getapenandpaper(oropenupablankcomputerdocument)andsetyourselfatimelimit.Startwritingaboutyourgeneraltopic,recordingthoughtsastheycomeintoyourmind.Donoteditasyougo,orevenlookbackatwhatyouhavewritten.Justkeepmovingonasthoughtsoccurtoyou.Thepurposeoffreewritingistodevelopideasspontaneouslyandnaturally.
Example1:HamletConsiderthisexample,atwo-minutefreewriteonthetopicofrevengeinHamlet:
PeoplesayHamletisaplayaboutrevenge,butisrevengesuccessfulifhediesattheend?IskillingClaudiusenoughtomakeHamlethappy?Didhesucceedatanything,ordidhejustdestabilizeDenmarkfurther?Fortinbrasseemslikeabetterking—atleastheisinterestedingovernment.Butheisn’ttherightfulruler,whichispartofwhyHamletwasupsetwithhisuncleinthefirstplace.Orwashe?Ishemoreupsetaboutthemurderortheusurpation?Doeshewanttoruleorjusttogetrevenge?Ishisquestforvengeancetheactofajustice-seekingprinceorarerevengeandrulershipatcross-purposes?
Thereareafewgoodthingstonoticeaboutthisfreewrite.First,theparagraphhasmanymorequestionsthanobservationsoranswers.Thisisperfectlyfine.Freewritingisnotaplacetoworkoutanswerstoquestions,butrathertofigureoutexactlywhatquestionyouwanttoask.
Theotherthingtonoticeisthegeneraltrajectoryoftheparagraph.Thedifferentquestionsareconnectedtoeachother,albeitveryloosely.Again,thisisfine.Freewritingdoesnotneedtoberigidlyorganizedaslongasitstaysrelativelyclosetoitsgeneraltopic.Often,freewriteswillendupproducingaunifiedlineofthoughtevenwithoutyoutryingtoconnecteverything.Thereisasignificantdifferencebetweenthestartingpointof“IsHamlet’srevenge
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successful?”andthefinalquestionsof“DoesHamletwanttogetrevengeorbecomearuler?,”and“Canyouseekrevengeandbearuler?”Allthreearedifferentapproachestothesamebroaderquestion,though.Infact,thosesecondquestionscanberefinedintomorespecificanswerstothefirstone.
Atopicfromthefirstquestionmightbe“Hamletdoesnotsuccessfullyachievehisgoalofvengeance.”Atopicfromthelastquestionsmightbe“HamletfillshisstatedgoalofkillingClaudius,butsinceheleavesDenmarkwithoutakingheultimatelyfailsatcorrectingthewronghewantedtocorrect.”Bothideasarefarmorefocusedthanwhatyoustartedwith.
Example2:LolitaNowthatyou’veseenanexampleoffreewritingandtheresearchtopicsitcanpointyoutoward,tryitwiththisexample:
HumbertHumbertisacreepydudewhobasicallyruinsLolita’slife.Butherecognizesthathe’sbeingjudgedbytheworldforhisactionsandhesayshe’sfullorremorse.Ishesincereorjustplayingitupforthe“jury”?Hesoundssincere,thoughflowery.Dohiselaborateprofessionsofguiltworktoabsolvehimormakehimseempurelytheatrical?WhatabouthowhetalksaboutLolita?Hedoesn’tevencallherbyherrealname,whichisDolores.Inalotofways,she’smoreofanobjectofhisfantasythanarealperson.Doesthatmakehisbehaviorlesscondemnablebecausehe’sclearlynuts?Ormorecondemnablebecausehe’sunempathetictotheextreme?
Whatresearchdirectioncouldthisfreewritingexamplebringyoutoward?
2.3.3:ClusteringandConceptMapping
Creatingaconceptmapisaneasywaytovisuallyrepresenttherelationshipsamongyourideas.
LearningObjective
Describetheprocessofcreatingaconceptmap
KeyPoints
Clusteringistheprocessofwritingdownabroadtopic,thencreatingaconceptmapwheredifferentclustersofrelatedsubtopicsarerepresented
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visually.Clusteringisaneffectivewaytonarrowyourfocusifyourtopicistoobroad:youcanpickonebranchofyourconceptmaptofocuson,ratherthanthelargecentraltopic.Tomakeaconceptmap,writedownyourmaintopicinthecenterofapage,thenmakebranchesandsub-brancheswithrelatedsubtopicsasyouthinkofthem.
KeyTerms
clustering
Aprocessinwhichyoustartwithamaintopic,thenexploreclustersofrelatedsubtopics.
conceptmap
Adiagramofrelatedideas.
Ifyouarehavingtroublebreakingabigtopicdownintosmallerones,youmightwanttotryclustering.Thisisatacticinwhichyouwritedownaverybroadtopicorideaandthenmakeaconceptmap,inwhichyoudiagramsmallerideasorcategories(clusters)thatrelatetothecentraltopic.
Sayyouarewritingapaperthatteachesyourclassmateshowtoperformatask.Youhaveonepagetoprovidedetailedinstructionsaboutanactivity.Ifyouhavechosen“gardening”asthatactivity,youwillnotbeabletogiveanadequatedescriptioninthespaceprovided.There’ssimplytoomuchinformation.Youhavetochooseasmallertaskassociatedwithgardening.Thequestionis,whichone?
Allthethingsyoulinkedto“gardening”aresmallertasksyoucoulddescribe.Youcanevenbreakthemdownintofurtherlevelsofdetail.Forexample,thesubcategoryof“researchingandpurchasingplantsandseeds”canbebrokendownintoseparatebubblesforresearchandpurchasing.Thepurchasingbubblecouldbebrokendownintoa)wheretopurchaseplants,b)whentopurchaseplants,c)howmuchtopayfordifferentplants,andsoon,untilyoureachtherightlevelofspecificity.Inthisway,youcanbreakyourgeneraltopicdownfrom“explaininggardening”tosomethinglike“explaininghowtopurchaseasunflowerplant.”
Thegoalofclustering,muchlikefreewriting,istocomeupwithlotsofdifferentpossibilities.Thenyoucanchoosewhichonesyouthinkarebestsuitedforyourassignment.Makesurethatyoudon’tcensoryourselfwhenyou’remakingaconceptmap:addanythingyoufeelisrelatedtoyourtopic
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andletitflow!
Attributions
Brainstorming
“Step1:PrewritingandChoosingaTopic.”https://www.boundless.com/writing/textbooks/boundless-writing-textbook/writing-an-effective-paper-235/steps-of-writing-a-paper-237/step-1-prewriting-and-choosing-a-topic-47-7910/.BoundlessCCBY-SA4.0.
“128239619_1eb47bcb3f_b.jpg.”https://www.flickr.com/photos/jurvetson/128239619.FlickrCCBY2.0.
FreewritingClusteringandConceptMapping
“Step1:PrewritingandChoosingaTopic.”https://www.boundless.com/writing/textbooks/boundless-writing-textbook/writing-an-effective-paper-235/steps-of-writing-a-paper-237/step-1-prewriting-and-choosing-a-topic-47-7910/.BoundlessCCBY-SA4.0.
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2.4:BuildingYourPaper2.4.1:ModesofPersuasion:Ethos,Pathos,andLogos
Carefulrhetoric,ortheartofcraftingargumentsthroughtoneandpresentationofevidence,canmakeyourargumentmoreconvincing.
LearningObjective
Identifyappealstologos,pathos,andethos
KeyPoints
Rhetoricinvolvesthe“how”ofmakingarguments—itasksyoutothinkaboutwhatkindofwritingwillmakeyourargumentmostconvincingtothereader.Inclassicalrhetoric,therearethreemainstrategiestoappealtothereader:logos,pathos,andethos.Ethos,logos,andpathoseachaffectthereaderdifferently.Whenchoosingastrategy,thinkaboutwhatkindofargumentyouwanttomakeandwheneachstrategymightbemostuseful.Keepingreaders’potentialobjectionsinmindwillhelpyouselectthemostappropriatestrategies.Whilepersuasivestrategiesmakeagoodpapermoreconvincing,themostcredibleargumentsarethosewhichhonestlyexaminetheissuefromallsidesusingthemostreliablesourcesofinformation.Audienceanalysis,developingathoroughunderstandingofanaudience(education,values,beliefs,etc.),iscrucialinmakingchoicesrelatingtotheuseoflogos,ethosandpathos.
KeyTerms
logos
Atechniquethatreliesonreasonedargument.
pathos
Acommunicationtechniquethatmakesanappealtotheaudience’s
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emotions;usedmostofteninrhetoricandinliterature,film,andothernarrativearts.
ethos
AGreekwordmeaning“character,”usedtodescribetheguidingbeliefsoridealsthatcharacterizeacommunity,nation,orideology.Inrhetoric,thetermisoftenusedinreferencetothecredibilityofanauthorbasedonhisorherexpertiseand/orpersonalcharacter.
UsingRhetoricalandAudienceAnalysisArhetoricalanalysiscallsuponreaderstocloselyreadatextanddetermineseveralcharacteristicsaboutit,includingauthor,context,purpose,andemotionalappealand/oreffects.Inotherwords,readersmusttakealookatAristotle’sthreepersuasiveappealstotheaudience:logos,pathos,andethos.Aswriters,you’llusethesetoolstobuildaconvincingargument.
Choosingpersuasiveappealsdependsonthepurposeoftheargument,butitalsostemsfromaudienceanalysis.Knowingasmuchaspossibleabouttheaudienceyouaretryingtoreachcanhelpyoutodeterminewhichappealsaremostlikelytobeeffective.Thingstoconsiderincludetheaudience’scorevalues,beliefs,andthelevelofknowledgetheyalreadyhaveaboutthesubjectyouareaddressing.Someargumentsemployallthreeoftheseappeals,whileothersrelyonastrategicapplicationofjustacoupleofthem.
Logos
Logosreliesontherigoroususeoflogicandreason.Argumentsbasedonlogosusuallyemploydeductiveand/orinductivereasoning.Deductive,ortop-down,reasoningappliesageneralruletodrawaconclusionaboutaspecificcaseorcases:“Allmenaremortal.Arturoisaman.Therefore,Arturoismortal.”Inductive,orbottom-up,reasoningconstructsapremiseorrulebygeneralizingandextrapolatingfromaspecificcaseorcases:“EverypersonIhaveeverknownofhaseventuallydied.Ihaveneverheardareportofanypersonlivingforever.Therefore,peoplearemortal.”
Pathos
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Incontrasttologos,pathosreliesonevokinganemotionalreactionfromtheaudience.Theevidenceinapathosargumentismorelikelytobepersonaloranecdotal.Moreover,thesuccessoftheargumentdependsontheauthorunderstandingtheaudience’svaluesandbeliefs,andmanipulatingthem.
Ethos
Ethosworksbygivingtheauthorcredibility.Bybuildingcredibilitywiththeaudience,thespeakerorwriteralsobuildstrustwithhisorheraudience.Ethoscanbeusedtostressthepersonalcredentialsandreputationofthespeaker/writer,orcitereliableauthorsorsources.Writersandspeakerswhoemployethostostrengthentheirargumentshouldavoidattackingorinsultinganopponentoranopposingviewpoint.Themosteffectiveethosdevelopsfromwhatisstated,whetheritisinspokenorwrittenform.
Writerscanpullelementsfromanyofthesestrategiesasneededtomakeapersuasiveargument.
WhenandHowtoUsePathosGenerally,pathosismosteffectivewhenusedintheintroductionandconclusion.You’retryingtograbreaders’attentioninthebeginningandtoleavethemwithconvictionattheend,andemotionisausefultoolforthosepurposes.Describingtheplightofpeopleaffectedbytheissueathandmightopenthepaper,forexample,andthenberevisitedintheconclusion.
Therearesubtlewaystousepathosthroughoutthepaperaswell,andyoucandothatprimarilythroughwordchoice.Yourreaderisgoingtobelookingforholesinyourargumentandwilllikelybristleatanyhintofbeingmanipulatedwithemotioninthebodyparagraphs,preferringthatyousticktothefacts.Butbychoosingyourwordscarefully,youcanmakesuggestionsthathaveasubconsciouseffectonthereader.Here’sanexample:
Thoughthecandidateisolderthanmostwho’veheldtheoffice,heisknowntobeenergeticandactive.Thoughthecandidateisolderthanmostwho’veheldtheoffice,heisknowntobespry.
Whenyoureadthefirstsentence,whatimageformedinyourmind?Maybeanolderguysmilingandjoggingorshakinghandswithsupporters?Andthesecondsentence?Theword“spry”isgenerallyusedonlyforelderlypeople,
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soyoulikelyimaginedsomeoneslightlydifferent,perhapsalittleolderandalittlelessenergetic.Sincewe’retalkingaboutapolitician,theword“spry,”whileostensiblymeanttomean“activeandenergetic,”isputtingasuggestioninthereader’sheadthatthepoliticianmightbealittleoldforthejob.Alittlesneaky?Well,youmightthinkofitthatway,butyoucanalsohavealotoffunbuildinganeffectiveargumentusingwordsthataffectthereaderinveryparticularways.
Therearecountlesswordsandphrasesthatholdacommonmeaningforyouraudienceotherthantheirdefinedmeaning.Canyouimaginewhenyoumightchoosetheword“backpack”over“bag,”or“uzi”over“gun,”or“guardian”over“parent,”or“paperback”over“book,”or“liberal”over“unrestricted”?Whataretheconnotationsofthechosenwordsversustheirsynonyms?
Whilethemoreobvioususesofpathos—inwhichyoumakeadirectemotionalappeal—maycometoyouearlyinthewritingprocess,thesesubtlechoicesofsuggestivewordsmightemergeasyourevise.Usethistoolsparingly,though,sothesubconscioussuggestiondoesn’tbecomeobvioustoyourreaderandthereforehavetheoppositeeffect.
WhenandHowtoUseLogosGenerallyspeaking,logosiswhatpeopleexpectinanargumentthesedays.Weareasocietyorientedtowardlogicalreasoningandscientificproof,soyou’reprobablygoingtoneedtodrawonlogosatsomepointinyourpaperandwilllikelyuseitineverybodyparagraph.Agoodargumentwillusuallyincludebothfactsandreasoningandmaybebolsteredbyexamples.
Considerthisexamplefrom“HealthEffectsofCigaretteSmoking,”publishedbytheCentersforDiseaseControlandPrevention:
Smokersaremorelikelythannonsmokerstodevelopheartdisease,stroke,andlungcancer.
1.Smokingisestimatedtoincreasetherisk—
Forcoronaryheartdiseaseby2to4timesForstrokeby2to4timesOfmendevelopinglungcancerby25timesOfwomendevelopinglungcancerby25.7time
2.Smokingcausesdiminishedoverallhealth,increasedabsenteeismfromwork,andincreasedhealthcareutilizationandcost.
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Perhapsyoudidn’tneedconvincingthatsmokingisbadforyourhealth,butifyoudid,you’dhaveadifficulttimearguingwiththesestatistics,allfootnotedontheCDCwebsite,allbasedonreputablestudies.
Ifwewereincludingthisevidenceinapaperaboutthedangersofsmoking,wecoulddecidethatsuchweightyevidencecanstandonitsown:excessivereasoningmightactuallyweakentheargument.Butifwearewritingapaperaboutwhycigarettesshouldbemadeillegal,orsomeother,moreradicalidea(andamoreinterestingpaper),wemightneedtomakeourreasoningclear:
Weknow,then,thatcigarettesareextraordinarilydangerous—manytimesmoredangerousthancaraccidents—andhighlycostly.Yet,whilewe’veincreasedsafetystandardsforcarssteadilysincethe1970s,requireddriversandpassengerstowearsafetybelts,andareevenconsideringtechnologicalinnovationsthatwillmechanizehighwaystoeliminatedrivererror,wehaveasyetdonelittletoregulatetheuseofcigarettes.Discouragedthroughtaxation,yes,officialwarnings,yes,butdirectregulation,no.
Thereasoningintheaboveparagraphtakesoneofthestatisticsandexplainsitsrelevancetotheargument.You’llneedtodothisinalmosteverycasesothatthelinkyou’remakingbetweentheevidenceandtheclaimisclear.
Itcanbeusefultothinkoflogosasbuildingacase,whereyourthesisstatementisthethingyou’retryingtoprovebeyondashadowofadoubt.You’rethedefenseattorney.Whatwouldmakethisanair-tightcase?Whatmightbeinthejury’smindthatyouneedtoaddresssothattheywon’tgointodeliberationwithquestionsordoubts?Whatkindsofevidencemightconvincethem?Planningoutthebodyofyourpaperislikeplanningtopresentyourevidenceinthecourtroom,stepbystep.Toomuchinformationwillgetboringandmuddlethejury,soyou’llwanttostickwithyourmostsalientexamplesandmostconvincingevidence.
TheArtofEthosInAristotle’sday,ethosusuallyappliedtothetechniqueaspeakerusedtoestablishcredibilityforhimself,the“whyyoushouldlistentome”portionofthespeech.Now,weestablishourreliabilitymostlybydemonstratingathoroughknowledgeofthetopicandbycitingcrediblesources.Weneedtoletourreadersknowthatthestudieswe’recitingarefrompeer-reviewedjournals,forexample,andtheopinionswe’requotingarefrompeoplewhoknowwhatthey’retalkingabout.
Whileacupuncturewasoncerelegatedtotherealmof“quacks”and“snake
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oil,”itisnowconsideredbymainstreammedicalsciencetobeaneffectivetreatmentforpain.TheNationalInstitutesofHealth(NIH)websitestatesthat,“Resultsfromanumberofstudiessuggestthatacupuncturemayhelpeasetypesofpainthatareoftenchronicsuchaslow-backpain,neckpain,andosteoarthritis/kneepain.Italsomayhelpreducethefrequencyoftensionheadachesandpreventmigraineheadaches.Therefore,acupunctureappearstobeareasonableoptionforpeoplewithchronicpaintoconsider”(NIH,2014).Doctorsthemselvesseemgladtohavefoundapossibleremedyforchronicpain.Infact,athirdofacupuncturistsnowpracticingintheUnitedStatesarealsomedicaldoctors(NCCAM,para.2).Thisonce-suspectartisincreasinglyembracedbyphysicianslookingforadditionaloptionsfortheirmostchallengingpatients.
Here,we’rebolsteringourclaimthatacupunctureisacceptedasaneffectivetoolforpainreliefbyquotingthegovernmentalagencyNIH,whichiswidelyrecognizedandrespected,andbytalkingaboutdoctors—alsowell-respected—embracingthepracticethemselvesinordertobetterservetheirpatients.
Yoursourcesneedtobecredibletoyourskeptics.Mostoftheobjectionstoourclaim,above,willlikelycomefrompeoplewhotrustconventionalmedicalpracticesandarewaryoftryingpracticestheyhaven’tencountered.Thisparticularaudience,then,wouldbemorelikelytoconsidertheNIHandagroupofmedicaldoctorscrediblethantheywould,say,theAmericanAcademyofMedicalAcupunctureoragroupofChinesepractitioners.Partoftheethosofyourargument,then,isfindingresourcesyouraudiencewouldfindcredible.Byextension,youearnreaders’respectforquotingsourcestheyconsidertrustworthy.
Don’tdiscountyourownknowledgeandexperience,though,whenconsideringtheethosaspectofyourargument.Theintroductionandconclusion,again,mightbethebestspotstotellyouraudiencehowyou’reconnectedtothetopic.Ifyou’rewritingaboutschoolvouchersandyouattendedbothpublicandprivateschools,thatdetailmightgiveyousomeinsightintobothsidesofthedilemmaand,therefore,credibilitywithyourreaders.Ifyou’reanartistandfeelyouwouldhavedroppedoutofhighschoolwereitnotforyourartclasses,youwoulddowelltoincludeyourexperienceinapaperaboutfundingfortheartsineducation.
Yourreaderiscountingonyourabilitytobeobjective,aswellasknowledgeable.You’lldemonstrateyourobjectivitybyusingsourcesthatarewidelyrespectedandbygatheringinformationfrombothormanysidesoftheissue.Realrhetoricisabouthonestlyseekinganswers,andwhilethereissomepersuasivetechniqueinvolved,themostsatisfyingargumentisonethatisthoroughlyexplored.Intheend,then,yourcredibilitylieswithyour
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diligenceandyourwillingnesstopresentyourfindingswithtransparency.
Capturetheattentionofyouraudiencewithrhetoric
Usingappropriaterhetoricaltoolsandawell-thought-outargumentativestructureisawayofensuringthestrengthofyourwriting.Inaddition,rhetoricgivesyouwaysofcapturingtheattentionofyouraudienceandleadingthemtotheconclusionsofyourargument.
2.4.2:ApproachestoYourIntroductoryParagraph
Theeffectiveintroductoryparagraphintroducesthetopicinawaythatmakesthereaderinterestedandcurious.
LearningObjective
Ordertheelementsofanintroductoryparagraphthatusesconcept-funnelstructure
KeyPoints
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Aneffectivetechniqueforintroductionsistoopenwithasentenceortwothatgrabsthereader’sattention.Therearecommonwaystointroduceatopicthatareoverusedandthereforenotrecommended.Theconcept-funnelstructureleadsthereaderfromabroadconceptofthetopictothethesisstatement.Themirrorconstructionhitseachclaimofthepaperinthesameorderthey’representedinthebodyofthepaper.Stylistically,itisadvisabletoleaveoutovertreferencestotheconstructionofthepaper.Leavingtheintroductionuntiltheendofthedraftingprocessmakesiteasiertowrite.
GrabbingtheReader’sAttentionTherearemanywaystobeginapaper,somestraightforward,othersmorecreative.Papersgenerallyneedtoaimforanobjectivevoiceandstayclosetothefacts.However,youhaveabitmorefreedomintheintroduction,andyoucantakeadvantageofthatfreedombyfindingasurprising,high-impactwaytohighlightyourissue’simportance.Herearesomeeffectivestrategiesforopeningapaper:
MakeaprovocativeorcontroversialstatementStateasurprisingorlittle-knownfactMakeacaseforyourtopic’srelevancetothereaderOpenwithaquote,abriefanecdote,orimagerythatillustratestheissueTakeastandagainstsomethingStakeapositionforyourselfwithinanongoingdebateIntroduceachallengingproblemorparadox
Afteryougrabthereader’sattentionwiththeopening,makeacasefortheimportanceofyourtopic.Herearesomequestionsthatmayhelpatthisstage:Whydidyouchoosethistopic?Shouldthegeneralpublicoryouracademicdisciplinebemoreawareofthisissue,andwhy?Areyoucallingattentiontoanunder-appreciatedissue,orevaluatingawidelyacknowledgedissueinanewlight?Howdoestheissueaffectyou,ifatall?
Concept-FunnelStructure
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Apopularintroductionstructureistheconcept-funnel.Inthisstructure,youbeginwithgeneralinformationaboutyourtopic,narrowthefocusandprovidecontext,andendbydistillingyourpaper’sspecificapproach.Asyoumovefromgeneralbackgroundinformationtothespecificsofyourproject,trytocreatearoadmapforyourpaper.Mirrorthestructureofthepaperitself,explaininghoweachpiecefitsintothebiggerpicture.Itisusuallybesttowritetheintroductionafteryouhavemadesignificantprogresswithyourpaper,soyoucanaccuratelymirroritsstructure.
AStrongBeginning
Acommoninterpretationofthefunnelstructureistostartverybroadandsiftdowntothethesis,butifyoustarttoobroad,youwillloseyouraudienceinthefirstline.Resistthetemptationtobeginyourintroductionwithphraseslikethese:
Fromthedawnoftime…Throughouthumanhistory…Intoday’sworld…Fromearliestmemory…Webster’sdefines[topic]as…
Theseopeningshavebeenusedsooften,theynolongergrabourattentionbuttriggerusintoanticipatingsomethingdullandpredictable.Instead,thinkofthattopopeningofthefunnelaspiquingthereader’sinterestaboutthetopicyou’rewritingabout.Youcandothiswithimagery(“Asix-year-oldgirlinatatteredbluedressstandsonthestreetcornerat11p.m.,hereyessearchingeverycar…”),withaprovocativestatement(“TheU.S.governmentisnolonger‘of’or‘bythepeople’butiscontrolledbybillionaires”),withcontext(“Onanygiveneveningon65thStreetbetweenBroadwayandAmsterdaminthecitythatneversleeps,therearecrowdsgatheringinfrontofLincolnCenter”),orevenwithaconcessiontoanopposingargument(“AmandaWilcox’s19-year-olddaughterwasmurderedwhilehomeonwinterbreak.AmandaandherhusbandNickwerecompletelydevastatedandbesetbybothgriefandanger”).
MirroringtheConstructionofYourPaper
Aftergrabbingreaders’attentionwithaninterestingopening,you’llwanttolayoutyourbasicargument.Thisprovidesyourreaderswithstructure,appealingtothelogicalmind,aftergrabbingthemthroughtheiremotionsor
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theirimagination.Leadingthemfromyourclaimstoyourthesis,whichisgenerallyatthebottomofthe“funnel,”isalsoasubtleactofpersuasion,whispering,“OnceI’veprovenallofthesepoints,you’llseethat[mythesis]mustbetrue.”Youcouldactuallysaythat,butgenerallyit’sbettertoletthereaderdrawthatconclusionbyreadingthesolid,well-substantiatedargumentthatisyourpaper.Whatyouwanttodohereissimplydrawalinefromyouropeningtoyourthesisstatement,usingyourclaims.
Whileyou’reappealingtologicandreasoninthispartoftheintroduction,youneedn’tleaveartistrybehindentirely.Thinkofthispartasweavingtogethereachclaimwiththeemotionyoubroughtupinthebeginning,bringingthestrandsinonebyone.Together,theycreatethethesis.
Thebasicstructureisthis:
1. Introducethegeneraltopicinaninterestingway2. Claim13. Claim24. Claim35. Anyotherclaims6. Thesisstatement
Trytoleaveoutovertreferencestothefactthatthisisanessay(e.g.,“Inthisessay,Iwillprovethat…”).Theformistheretoprovidethestructure,givingyouthefreedomtobeartisticwithinit.
AmandaWilcox’s19-year-olddaughterwasmurderedwhilehomeonwinterbreak.AmandaandherhusbandNickwerecompletelydevastatedandbesetbybothgriefandanger.Theculpritwascaught,andfriendsofthecouplewouldoffercomfortbytellingthecouplethatthemanwouldpayforwhathedid,hopefullywithhislife.AmandaandNickcouldseehowpeoplewouldthinkthesewordswouldhelp.Revengeseemssatisfyingonthesurface:atleastthereissomethingthatcanbedoneto“rightthewrong.”Butneitherofthesebroken-heartedparentscouldfindsolaceinvengeance.Theyrecognizedthatputtinghermurderertodeathwouldnotbringbacktheirdaughter,evenifitmightfeeljustified.Theywerealsoawarethatevenwhenthecaseagainstafelonseemsair-tight,DNAevidencehascleared263convictssincetheyear2000.Thefamiliesofmurdervictimsaroundthecountryhavereasontofeelanger,hurt,andevenutterhatredforthepersonwhotookawaytheirlovedone.Butthedeathpenaltyisasolutionbasedonpassionandemotion,notaviablepunishmentforanycrimeinacivilizedsociety.
Inthisparagraph,theexampleintheopeningtakesusthroughtheclaims,gettingusclosertothethesis.Thisisawayofweavingtheparagraph
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together.Thereaderisusheredintothetopicandthroughtheclaimswithoutbeingconsciousofreadinganessay.
WritetheIntroductionLastSavingyourintroductoryparagraphuntiltheendofyourdraftingprocesswillputthepowerofyourpaper’sargumentbehindyouasyoucreate.Askyourselfthesequestionsbeforeyoubegin:
Whyisthistopicinteresting?What’sthemostfascinatingorshockingthingIfoundinmyresearch?WhatkindsofthingssurprisedmeasIreadandwrote?HowwouldItellafriendaboutwhatIfound?IfIweretopickupabooktoreadaboutthistopic,whatwouldcapturemyimagination?
Allowyourselftoenjoytheprocessofwritingyourintroduction.Letyourcreativityrunfreehere,withinthegeneralstructure.Takesomerisks!Thisistheplacewhereyourpersonalitycanshowthrough,tothedelightofthereader,whoisundoubtedlyreadyandwaitingtobesurprised.
2.4.3:ApproachestoYourBodyParagraphs
Apowerfulargumentdependsonsolidlyandappropriatelyconstructedbodyparagraphs.
LearningObjective
Ordertheelementsofabodyparagraph
KeyPoints
Thestructureofeachbodyparagraphincludesatopicsentence,evidencesupportingthetopicsentence,aconclusion,andatransition.Thetopicsentenceisanarguablestatementrelatedtothethesis,introducingthemainideaoftheparagraph.Partofcreatinganeffectiveargumentischoosingthemostappropriateandpowerfulfromthevariousformsofevidenceandwaystopresentthem.Transitionsentencesleadreaderstothenextclaimintheargument.
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KeyTerm
topicsentence
Anarguablestatementsummarizingaclaimthatsupportsthethesis.
ConstructingaParagraphThebodyofthepaperpresentsyourargumentpointbypointtorevealthewisdomofyourthesis.Youdecidedontheorderofthesepointsduringtheoutlinephase,butasyouwriteyoumaychoosetoreorderthemformaximumimpact.Youmayalsodecidetoscrappointsthatdon’thavetheimpactyouexpectedthemtohave.Flexibilityisausefulqualityduringthedraftingphase.
Eachbodyparagraphwillbeorganizedaroundaclaim,whichyou’llformintoatopicsentence.You’llgenerallybegineachparagraphwithitstopicsentence,thenyou’llmovetotheevidencethatledyoutothisclaimbeforeendingwithaconcludingsentencethatweavesclaimandevidencetogether.You’llalsohavetransitionsentencesthatlinktheparagraphstogether,andtheycanappearattheendorbeginningofeachparagraph.
SampleBodyParagraphStructure
Topicsentence(announcingtheclaim)Evidence1Evidence2Evidence3Concludingsentence
TheTopicSentenceLikeyourthesis,eachtopicsentenceisanarguablestatement,notafact.Thefactscomeintheformofevidencethatyou’llpresentinthenextsentences.Itneedstobeclearhowthetopicsentencerelatestoyourthesisanditshouldaddressonlyonepoint.
Ifyou’rehavingdifficultyformulatingatopicsentence,youcanwritethefollowingstem:“OnereasonIbelievemythesisstatementistrueisthis:”andthencompletethesentence.
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OnereasonIbelievemythesisstatementistrueisthis:Theimageryintheopeninglinesof[Frost’spoem]“HomeBurial”immediatelyevokesthetensionbetweenhusbandandwife.
Thenyoucanleaveoffthestemandsimplybegintheparagraphwithwhatyoubelieve.Checktoseewhetherthestatementsumsuponeofyourclaims.Ifitdoesn’t,youmayneedtorevisityourclaimsandreworkthemsotheyfityourargumentatthisstageofthewritingprocess.It’scommonforyouropinionstobecomeclearerandmoresophisticatedasyouspendmoretimewithyourtopic,sodon’tbeafraidtomakesomechanges.
Check,too,toseewhetherthetopicsentenceisarguableandclear.Occasionally,itmaytaketwoorthreesentencestoexpresstheclaim,andthatcanwork,butbeingabletoencapsulateitintoonesentencemeansyouunderstandwhatyou’recommunicatingthoroughlyenoughtowriteconcisely.
PresentingEvidenceAsyouapproachthestructureofanindividualparagraph,you’llwanttoconsiderhowthisparticularclaimwouldbebestpresented.Youprobablyfounddifferenttypesofevidenceinyouresearch:quotesfrompeoplewho’vestudiedyourtopicextensively,storiesoranalysesfrompeoplewho’vehaddirectexperiencewithit,andstudiesthatofferconclusions.Recognizethatusingaseriesofanyoneofthesetypesofevidencecouldbecomerepetitiveandeitherboreoroverwhelmyourreader.Poundingstatisticafterstatisticintoaparagraphmayseemconvincingasyou’rewriting,butitmighthavetheoppositeeffectandmakethereaderdisengage.
Instead,writeyourtopicsentenceandlookovertheevidenceyou’vegatheredforthatclaim.Isthereafirst-handaccountthatmightbestillustratethispoint?Perhapsaquotefromawell-knownauthoritywouldcaptureyourreader’srespectrightaway.Itcouldbethatarecentstudyfoundexactlywhatyourtopicsentenceclaims,andyouwanttoleadwiththat.
Justaswiththeintroductoryparagraph,you’llneedtoconsiderthatratherthansimplyofferingproofofyouropinion,you’realsocourtingyourreader.Varietyofpresentationwillkeepareaderinterestedinyourargument,aswillthestrengthandreliabilityoftheevidence.Ifyou’rehesitatingtorelateastoryortociteastudybecauseyou’renotsurewhetherit’sconvincing,leaveitout.Yourreaderwillfeeldisrespectedbyanyattempttoslipinaweakerpoint.Thereisnoadvantagetobulkoverstrength.
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Therearesomeorganizationaltoolsthatcangiveyoudirectionwhenformingyourparagraphs.Justsomeofthewaystopresentevidenceareasfollows.
Cause-Effect
Thistypeofparagraphexplainswhysomethinghappened.Often,you’llwantyourreadertounderstandtherelationshipbetweenyourclaimandyourthesis,andthistechniquecanlinkthem.
Example:Whilepeoplemaycitevariousreasonsforgettingmarried,underneatheveryoneoftheseclaimsistheneedforsecurity.
Problem-Solution
Here,thewriterpresentsaquestionorissueandthenshowshowtosolveit.Thistypeofparagraphcanshowthereaderwhyyou’reproposingyourthesis.Theevidencecanbothprovetheproblemstatementandbegintorevealthethesis-relatedsolution.
Example:Oneproblemwiththeincreasingemphasisoncollegesportsprogramsistheinevitabledecreaseinacademicfocus.
Compare-Contrast
Thismethodexposesthesimilaritiesanddifferencesbetweentwothings.Thistechniquecanprovidegreaterclarityastohowyourthesismakesmoresensethananalternativeidea.
Example:Whilethemethanegassesproducedbydammingmaybesomewhatproblematic,ourprimaryconcernshouldbethefargreateramountofmethaneproducedbythebeef-productionindustry.
SequentialExposition
Thissimplytellswhathappenedinwhatorder.Itcanbeusedtoexplaintoareaderhoweventsledtowhatthethesisproposesortheproblemitseekstorectify.
Example:Often,whenacompanyisinfinancialtrouble,managementbeginslayoffs,whichleadtoloweredcompanycosts,whichleadstogreaterinvestorconfidence,whichleadstoincreasedstockprices,whichincreaseshareholderwealthand,often,managementcompensation.
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Description
Offersdetailsaboutthephenomenonoreventbeingdiscussed.Thisisparticularlyusefulwhenyouwantthereadertogetthesamepictureoftheissuethatyouhave.
Example:Hisprisoncellconsistedofatoiletandametalbedframewithathin,stainedmattressandasmallplasticpillow.Theairwasstagnantandclose,withfansonlyinthemaineatingarea.
ConcludingYourParagraphandTransitioningYourconcludingsentencewilloftenhaveanechoofthetopicsentenceinitwhilemovingthereaderforwardtothenexttopic.
Wesee,then,thattreesactuallydohaveachemicalsystemofcommunication,stunningasthatmayseem,butwhatmightthatmeanforthehuman-forestrelationship?
Thefirstpartofthesentence,inthisexample,sumsuptheevidencejustpresented,andthesecondpartintroducesthenexttopic.Likely,thetopicsentenceofthenextparagraphwillsuggestashiftinthewaypeopleapproachforestmanagement.
Ofcourse,youwon’twanttomakeeveryconcludingsentenceaquestion.Youmightdecidetohaveaconcludingsentenceandthenatransitionsentence.
Thefactthattoxicsewageisstillbeingdumpedintoourwaterwaysisdishearteninginitself.Evenmorestartling,however,istheknowledgethatthegovernment’sregulatoryagencieshaveallbutendorsedthebehavior.
Inthiscase,wecanpresumetheparagraphgaveevidencethattoxinsarepollutingstreams,rivers,lakes,andoceans.Fromthetransitionsentence,weanticipatethatthenextparagraphwillcontainevidencethatgovernmentagenciesnotonlyknewaboutitbutsomehowsupportedthepractice.
TheCollectedParagraphsWhenyou’vewritteneachbodyparagraph,lookthemovertocheckfor
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varietyinyourpresentationstyles,strengthofargument,logicalparagraphpositioning,andoverallreadability.Whileagoodmixofstylesmakesthepapermuchmoreinteresting,themostimportantthingisthateachclaimispresentedatitsmostpowerful.Yourconclusionwillservethepurposeofweavingyourclaimstogether,butbeforeyoumovetothatstage,takeonelastlookatthebodyandmakethechangesnecessarytostrengthenyourargumentasmuchaspossible.
2.4.4:ApproachestoYourConcludingParagraph
Theconclusion,whilenotaddingnewinformationtotheargument,caninspirereaderstobelievethepaper’sthesis.
LearningObjective
Ordertheelementsofasuccessfulconcludingparagraph
KeyPoints
Theconcludingparagraphsummarizesthepaper’sargumentandrestatesthethesis.Reversingtheconcept-funnelformatoftheintroductoryparagraphcanbeausefulformfortheconclusion.Recommendations,projections,orchallengescanfollowtheargumentsummary.Revisitinganyimages,quotes,orquestionsofferedintheintroductioncanbesatisfyingtothereaderandaddpowertotheargument.
Theconcludingparagraph(or,rarely,paragraphs)summarizestheargument,showinghowitsupportsthethesis.Itspurposeistoleavereaderswithastrongsenseoftheargument,therebyencouragingthemtoadoptthethesisastheirown.
Theconcept-funnelapproachoftenusedforintroductionscanbereversedhere,movingthefocusfromnarrowtobroad.Alongtheway,youcanincluderecommendationsforfuturebehavior,ifbehaviorchangeisapplicabletoyouressay.Hereyouhaveacommonformatforconcludingparagraphs:
ThesisstatementrevisitedClaimsrepeated,wovenwithtransitionsRecommendations,projections,orchallengesIntroductoryopeningrevisited
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Onewaytothinkoftheconclusionisas“TheTaleoftheConqueringHero.”Theherorecountshisadventurebyfirsttellingyouhisaccomplishment,thenrecountingthestepsthatledtoit,andfinallyputtingitintoabroadercontext.
ThesisStatementItcanbeeffectivetobegintheconclusionwiththethesisstatement,afteratransitionstem,suchas,“It’snowquiteclearthat…,”or“Aswehaveseen,thepreponderanceofevidenceshowsusthat…”Youneedn’tnecessarilyrepeatthethesisstatementwordforword,butitsessenceshouldbethesameasitwaswrittenintheintroduction.
Restatingthethesissignalstothereaderthatyou’renolongergoingtointroducenewevidenceandarewrappingupyourargument.Thereadermakesanemotionalshiftwiththissign,andsomakingyourpurposeknownimmediatelyhelpskeepthereaderinterested.
RevisitingtheArgumentNext,you’llrestateyourclaims,butyou’llwanttodothisinawaythatflows.Yourreaderwillcheckoutquicklyifyou’resimplymarchinghimorherthroughtheparagraphs.Thistime,you’reconsideringeachclaimasadropinthebucketofyourargument.You’renolongertryingtoprovetheclaim.Yourreaderhasalreadyseentheevidencesupportingthetopicsentence.Thinkoftheconclusionasthephilosophyphaseofthepaper,whereyoutakeabroaderlookattheissueandconsiderthepointsoftheargumenttogether.
Asyou’reweavingyourclaimstogether,youcangetcreative.Snatchesofevidence,suchasaquoteorastatistic,canbeincludedforemphasisifusedsparingly.Youmaydecidetochangetheorder,ifyouwanttheclaimstoflowalittledifferentlyherethantheydidinthebodyofthepaper.Yourpointhereistoshowthereaderhowtheseclaimsinformoneanothertosupportthethesis,andtoemphasizethesignificanceofeachclaimtotheargument.
“Wefoundthat[claim1],whichonitsownwouldhavedemandedasignificantshiftinpolicy,butwhenwealsoconsider[claim2],itisnolongeraquestionofneed,butofurgencyinthehighestdegree.”
Sometimes,theprocessofwritingtheconclusionwillrevealaholeintheargument,andyoucanusethisdraftasaprompttogobacktotheresearchphasetofillthegapinknowledge.Keepinmind,though,thatanynewclaims
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orevidencemustbeintegratedintothebodyparagraphsofthepaper.Thereshouldbenonewevidenceorclaimspresentedintheconclusion.
Optional:RecommendationsandChallengesInthisstageoftheconclusion,you’vewrappedupyourargumentandarenowaskingpeopletothinkmorebroadly.Youcanofferrecommendationsforreaderstochangetheirbehaviorbasedonwhatthey’velearnedfromtheessay.Youcanpaintapictureofthefuture—eitheronewherethecurrentstatecontinuesoronewherethechangesyouconsiderinthepaperareimplemented.Oryoucanmakeasocietalchallengeofsomekind.
“So,ifgriefisnatural,andwehaveseenthatitis,wemustdiscontinueourpracticeofavoidingthediscomfortofdeathandthesadnessofthebereaved.Wemustbegintoembracethelowsoflifeaswellasthehighs.”
“Wehaveseenthatpolyamoryisaviablesocialalternativetomarriageandcanresultinrelationshipsevenmorecommittedandreliable,butwhatdoesthatmeanforyou?Willyoucontinuetoclingtotraditionandspurnthosewholiveinnon-traditionalways?Willyoubeoneoftheforcesslammingthedoorshutonsocialacceptanceof‘differentothers’?Orwillyouopenyourmindandyourheartandrecognizethatthereareotherwaysofbeingthatworkaswellasyourown?”
“Armednowwiththeknowledgeofhowdirethesituationis,wemustact.Thethreemostimportantareasforustoimplementpersonalchangesare…”
Thisportionoftheconclusionwon’tapplytoalltopics,andit’scertainlynotarequirement.Youmaychoosetoleavethereadertoconsidertheimplicationsoftheargument,ratherthancreatingakindofcalltoaction.Youmaywanttotrybothversionsandseewhichoneyouprefer.
Optional:IntroductoryOpeningRevisitedWhilethisoptionmayfeelunnecessary,afterallthathasgoneintoyourconclusion,atleastconsiderrevisitingtheopeningtoyourintroduction.Itcanbeverysatisfyingtoareadertohavetheclosurethatevenjustafewsuch
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sentencescanprovide.
Say,forexample,thatyourintroductionbeganwithadescriptionofapre-teengirlinadrug-riddledcitybeingforcedtowalkthestreetstoearnmoneyforherparents’drughabit.Ifit’sapowerfulimage,itwilllingerinthereader’smind.Bringingthereaderbacktothatimageintheconclusioncanclosetheemotionalloopforthereader,showinghimorherhowindividualaction,orachangeinpolicy,canchangethesituationforthisgirl.Thepowerofthatemotioncansignificantlyaddtothepowerofyourargument,soyouwouldn’twanttowastetheopportunity.
Youmayhavebegunyourpaperwithaquotation,ratherthananimage,orwithaquestion.Revisitingthosewordsnowoffersasparkofrecognitioninthereaderandsubconsciouslymakestheargumentseemsolidandwellthought-out.
Whileyouneedn’tgetoverlyemotionalwithyourending,youdowanttomaketheconclusionpowerful.Therefore,avoidweakeningyourargumentinanywayhere,by,forexample,makingconcessions,belittlingyourselfasinexpert,oradmittingtonotdoingenoughresearch.Makeyourcaseandstickbyit,endingstrongandwithintegrity.
Attributions
ModesofPersuasion:Ethos,Pathos,andLogos
““AudienceAnalysis”.”http://www.comm.pitt.edu/oral-comm-lab/audience-analysis.UniversityofPittsburgh-DepartmentofCommunicationCCBY-SA3.0.
“Rhetoric.”http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rhetoric.WikipediaCCBY-SA3.0.
“Logos.”http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Logos.WikipediaCCBY-SA3.0.
“ethos.”http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ethos.WikipediaCCBY-SA3.0.
“RhetoricandComposition/RhetoricalAnalysis.”http://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/Rhetoric_and_Composition/Rhetorical_Analysis%23Critical_ReadingWikibooksCCBY-SA3.0.
“RhetoricandComposition/Analyzingassignments.”http://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/Rhetoric_and_Composition/Analyzing_assignments%23Rhetorical_AnalysisWikibooksCCBY-SA3.0.
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“pathos.”http://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/pathos.WiktionaryCCBY-SA3.0.
“HealthEffectsofCigaretteSmoking.”http://www.cdc.gov/tobacco/data_statistics/fact_sheets/health_effects/effects_cig_smoking/CentersforDiseaseControlPublicdomain.
“Acupuncture:WhatYouNeedtoKnow.”https://nccih.nih.gov/health/acupuncture/introduction.NationalInstitutesofHealthPublicdomain.
“Allsizes|[PortraitofJuneChristy,1947or1948](LOC)|Flickr-PhotoSharing!.”http://www.flickr.com/photos/library_of_congress/5354175531/sizes/l/in/photostream/FlickrPublicdomain.
ApproachestoYourIntroductoryParagraph
““IntroductionandThesis.”.”https://www.boundless.com/writing/textbooks/boundless-writing-textbook/writing-across-disciplines-254/writing-in-the-natural-and-social-sciences-the-research-paper-and-the-imrad-model-275/introduction-and-thesis-80-10363/.BoundlessLicense:Other.
ApproachestoYourBodyParagraphsApproachestoYourConcludingParagraph
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2.5:QuotingandParaphrasing2.5.1:TheBasicsofQuotations
Whenyou’rewritingapaper,itisimportanttoavoidvaguegeneralizations,especiallywhenitcomestoparaphrasingotherauthors.
LearningObjective
Identifyproblematicgeneralizations
KeyPoints
Vaguetermslike“criticssay”or“iswidelyregardedas”thatattempttotaketheplaceofparticularexamplesweakenevidencebynotcitingspecificsources.Quotingandparaphrasingtheideasandknowledgeothershavesetforthisawaytoshowyourreaderhowyouarrivedatyourconclusions.Youmustalwaysciteideas,aswellasanyotherinformationotherthancommonlyknownandacceptedfacts.Quotationsaremostappropriatewhentheauthorisparticularlywell-known,whenyouwanttoaddanairofauthoritytotheinformation,andwhentheexactwordsareparticularlyeloquent.Paraphrasinggivesyoumoreflexibilitywithsentencestructureandallowsthereadertohearyouruniquevoiceandreasoninginthepaper.
KeyTerms
quote
Torepeattheexactwordsofanotherwiththeacknowledgementofthesource.
quotation
Afragmentofahumanexpressionthatisbeingreferredtobysomebodyelse.
paraphrase
Torestateanother’sthoughtsorideasindifferentwords.
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AvoidingGeneralitiesWhenwritingapaper,itisimportanttoavoidvaguegeneralizations,especiallywhenitcomestocharacterizingthethoughtsofothers,whethertheyholdsimilarorcontrarypositionstoyourown.Catch-allphrasessuchas“criticssay”or“iswidelyregardedas”arevagueandunconvincingbecausetheyhavenobasisforverification.Thesetypesofphrasesmightseemusefultocondenseresearchwhereyou’vediscoveredubiquitousagreementonaparticularposition,butinthosecases,itwouldbebettertociteaseriesofauthorsorquoteaparticularinstanceratherthanmakeasweepinggeneralization.Aproperlyplacedquotationcanarticulateyourpositionandprovidesubstantiationatthesametime.Mostoftenaquotationistakenfromtheliterature,butalsosentencesfromaspeech,scenesfromamovie,elementsofapainting,etc.maybequotediftheyfurthertheargumentyou’retryingtomake.
Diditdriveyoucrazyasakidwhenanadultinyourlifetoldyouyouhadtodosomething“BecauseIsaidso!,”andofferednootherjustification?Thinkofthatwhenyou’reabouttowrite,“Theysaythat…,”or“Mostpeopleagree…”You’renotgivingthereaderanyreasontobelieveyou.They’regoingtofurrowtheirbrowsjustasyoudidasachild,andyourtrustwithyourreaderwillbecompromised.
CollectingQuotationsWhileyou’reresearchingyourtopic,whenabrilliantlywordedsentencecatchesyoureye,saveit.Whenyoufindastatementsummarizingevidenceyouplantouseorevidenceyouthinkyoumightuse,saveit.Lookforstatementsthatconcurwithyourargument,butalsoforassertionsthatcontradictyourclaims,asyou’llusetheseforrefutationpurposes.
YoucanuseprogramslikeZoteroorEndNote,orsimplydragthequotationintoadocument.Justmakesureyou’realsosavingthecompletesourcematerial(forbothin-textcitationsandthereferencepage),soyouwon’thavetogosearchingforitlater.Ifyoucanorganizeyourquotationsbytopic,somuchthebetter.They’llbemucheasiertofindwhenyouneedthem.
WhentoQuote,Paraphrase,and
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CiteIt’simportantfirsttorecognizewhencitationsarerequired.IntheU.S.,ideasarealwaysattributedtothethinkerorwriter,asareanyfactsdiscoveredthroughresearch.Ifyoufindinformationataparticularsource,you’llusuallyneedtocitethatsource,thoughcommonlyknownandacceptedfacts(suchastheundisputeddatesofaparticularwar,forexample,orthepoundequivalentof32ounces)neednotbecited.
Therearetimeswhenaquotationwillgiveyoumaximumimpactandtimeswhenparaphrasingismoreeffective.Lookatthefollowingalternativesinapaperabouttransformingculturalmores.
“Theweakcanneverforgive.Forgivenessistheattributeofthestrong,”(Gandhi,1931).Infact,asGandhisaidin1931,offeringforgivenessisnotadisplayofweakness,butindeed,itsopposite.
Inthiscase,whilethesecondsentenceisn’tabadsummaryoftheidea,boththesyntaxofthedirectquoteandthereputationofthespeakermakethequotationfarmorepowerfulthantheparaphrasedreference.Quotationsareusefulwhentheauthorisparticularlywell-known,whenyouwanttoaddanairofauthoritytotheinformation,andwhentheexactwordsareparticularlyeloquentorhistoricallysignificant.Thisonemeetsallthecriteria.
Here’sonefromanessayabouttheuseofalternativemedicine:
OnebrightspotintheongoingcampaignagainsthumantraffickinghasbeentheUnitedNations,foundedaftertheWorldWarII.
Inthiscase,there’snoneedtoquoteorparaphrase.Thefirstpartofthesentenceisyouropinion,andthesecondpartisgeneralandundisputedknowledge.WidelyacceptedfactslikewhentheUNwasfoundedneedn’tbeparaphrasedorcited.IfyouweretothengoontotelluswhatexactlytheUNhasdonetocombathumantrafficking,you’dneedtociteyoursources.
Here’sanexampleofparaphrasing:
Thereareactually69,436,660registeredCatholicsintheUnitedStates(22%oftheU.S.population)accordingtotheAmericanbishops’countintheirOfficialCatholicDirectory2013.
Youwouldn’tneedtoquotethedirectory,becausethere’snomorepowerin
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thequotethaninyoursummaryofit.Butsinceitisaprecisenumberthatisn’tcommonknowledge,youdoneedtociteit.Noticethattheword“actually”iscoloringthephrase.It’stheauthor’swayofdisputingapossibleperceptionthatthereligionisindecline.Thisishowusingyourownwordsgivestheoptionofcontextualizing.Paraphrasinggivesyoumoreflexibilitywithsentencestructureandallowsthereadertohearyouruniquevoiceandreasoninginthepaper.
Thecatchwithparaphrasingisthatyouneedtobesurethatallthewordsyou’reusingareactuallyyourown,otherthanconventionaltermsanddesignations(like“registeredCatholics”).Ifthereareparticularphraseswithinaworkyou’reparaphrasingthatyou’dliketoquotedirectly,you’llwanttoputquotesaroundthosephrases,likethis:
InDemocracyMatters,forexample,WestadvocatesrevisitingthefoundationoftheU.S.Constitutiontorecognizeandcounter“freemarketfundamentalism”whichhebelieves,amongotherpolicies,hasundercutthedocument’sintention(West,2004).
Here,thephrase“freemarketfundamentalism”isclearlyaphraseuniquetoWest’sworkandmustberecognizedassuchbyusingthequotationmarks.
ToQuoteortoParaphrase?Considerwhetheryoushouldquote,paraphrase,orsimplystatethefollowingexamples:
1. Onlife:“90percentofitishalfmental.”2. About68percent[ofpeopleoverage25intheU.S.]donothavea
bachelor’sdegree.3. FewerhomeswerelosttofiresinSanDiegoCountylastyearthanthis
year.4. Bitterherbcombinationshavebeenusedforcenturiestostimulatethe
digestivesystem.5. “[Thedisappearanceofhoneybees]isthebiggestgeneralthreattoour
foodsupply.”
Thefirstsentenceisagoodexampleofsomethingyoushouldquote.Knowingwhosaidit(YogiBerra)isimportant,becauseit’sanoriginalthought,andbecauseknowingthespeakerisonereasonwhyit’sfunny.Youwouldn’twanttoparaphraseitbecausetheexactwordsareimportanttothehumorandthewordingisuniquetothespeaker.
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Number2couldbeparaphrasedorquoted,butparaphrasingmightbethebetterchoicebecauseyoucouldleaveoutthebracketsandputthestatisticincontextofwhateveryou’rewritingabout—forexample,“Infact,despitetheassumptionsofmanymiddleclassparents,onlyabout32percentofpeoplelivingintheUnitedStateshavecompletedabachelor’sdegree,”(2015,Politifact.com).
Number3isabitofagrayareaasfarascitationisconcerned.Youmightassumethatit’sacommonfactthatcouldbefoundanywhere,andsoyouwouldn’tneedtociteit.Thatsaid,itmaydependonthecontextofthequote,andwhetherit’sadisputedidea.Ifyourreaderquestionsit,you’regoingtolosecredibilitywithoutacitationthatheorshecanfollowupon.Ifitisdisputed,you’llwanttoparaphraseandcitethesource.It’snotlikelythatquotingdirectlywouldprovidemorecredibility,soitisthereforeunnecessary.
Number4wouldgenerallynotneedtobecited,thoughyou’lllikelybefollowingitupwithmorespecificinformationthatwill.Youmightconsiderthataquotefromanherbalistordoctorofferingthesameinformationmightgivetheskepticalreaderafeelingofbeingonmoresolidground.
Number5isoneyou’llwanttoquotedirectly,asthepersonwhosaidit(KevinHackett,oftheUSDA)isakeypersoninthedebateabouthoneybeecolonycollapseandwhattodoaboutit.You’llnotethatthere’snoquestionaboutwhetherornottocitethesource,becauseit’sanoriginalthought,notacommonfact.
Yousee,then,thatwhiletheissueofcitationisrelativelystraightforward—whenindoubt,cite—thequestionofquotationversusparaphraseissubtler.It’sadecisionbasedbothontheneedsoftheargumentandartisticsensibility.
Therevisionprocesswillbehelpfulinthisregard.You’llnoticeifyourpaperplodsfromonequotetoanother,overwhelmingthereaderwithotherpeople’swords.You’llalsonoticewhetheritseemslessthanauthoritativeandneedsthebackingofdirectquotes.Thecitations,throughout,areafoundationalelement,showingthereaderhowyourargumentdevelopedandwhyyouthinkasyoudoaboutthesubject.Letthosewhoseshouldersyou’restandingonsupportyou,butdon’tletthemtakeover.It’syourpaper,afterall.
2.5.2:IntroducingandFormattingQuotations
Toquoteanauthor,copytheauthor’sexactlanguageandusequotationmarkstoshowyouarereproducinglanguagefromanothersource.
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LearningObjective
Applyformattingrulesforusingquotations
KeyPoints
Usequotationmarksaroundastatementtogivetheoriginalwriterorspeakercredit.Whenyouintroduceaquote,paycloseattentiontotheproperuseofquotationmarksandrelatedpunctuation.Toparaphraseistorestateanotherauthor’spointinyourownwords.Whenyouparaphrase,youdon’tneedtousequotationmarks,butyoustillneedtogivecredittotheauthorandprovideacitation.Otherwise,youarecommittingplagiarism.
KeyTerms
quotation
Afragmentofahumanexpressionthatisbeingreferredtobysomebodyelse.
paraphrase
Arestatementofatextindifferentwords,oftentoclarifymeaning.
quotationmarks
Symbolsusedtodenoteaquotationinwriting,writtenatthebeginningandendofthequotation.
QuotingversusParaphrasingParaphrasingisusingaparticularideathatyoutookfromanotherauthorandputtingitinyourownwords.Quotingisusingtheexactwordsofanotherauthor.Bothmethodshelpyouintroduceanotherauthor’sworkasameansofstrategicallyimprovingthepersuasivenessofyourpaper.Generally,youwillchooseaquotationratherthanparaphrasingwhenyouwanttoaddanairofauthoritytotheinformationyou’representing,whenthewordsyou’reusingareofferedbyasourceimportanttoyourparticulartopic,orwhentheexactwordshavehistoricalrelevanceorareparticularlyeloquent.
Toquoteanauthor,youshouldcopytheauthor’sexactlanguageandframe
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thewordswithquotationmarks,whichsignalsthatyouarereproducingexactlanguagefromanothersource.Quotationmarksgivefullcredittotheoriginalauthor,soyou’llneedtomakeitclearwhosewordstheyare.
IntroducingaQuotationAnintroductorytagisonewaytoeffectivelyintroducequotations.Thisisalsoknownasa“signalphrase.”Anintroductorytagisaphrasethatintroducesaquotebyprovidingtheauthority’snameandastrongverb.Forexample:
DesmondTutucounters,“Racism,xenophobiaandunfairdiscriminationhavespawnedslavery,whenhumanbeingshaveboughtandsoldandownedandbrandedfellowhumanbeingsasiftheyweresomanybeastsofburden.”
Thisisonlyonewaytointroduceaquotation,however,andifit’stheonlymethodyouuse,yourpapercouldbegintosoundstilted.Considerincorporatingthequoteintoasentenceinotherways,aswell.Youmay,forexample,explainthequotebeforeofferingit:
Thousandsofyearsago,GautamaBuddhawasofferingteachingsonhownottoholdontohostilities,saying:“Youwillnotbepunishedforyouranger,youwillbepunishedbyyouranger.”Thisisbynomeansanewproblem.
FormattingandPunctuatingQuotationsQuotationscallforspecialrulesregardingpunctuation:
Ifaquotationisintroducedformally,useacolon.
Theauthorexplicitlystates:“SocrateswasonlyafigmentofPlato’simagination.”
Ifaquotationissetoffwith“hesaid”or“shesaid”(ortheimplicationofit),useacommaprecedingthequotation.
Useanellipsis(…)toindicatethatthereismoretothequotethanyouofferhere.
Hebroughtlistenerstotearswhenheendedhislastbroadcastwithhis
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familiar,“Andthat’sthewayitis…”
Ifyourquotationhasaquotationwithinit,theinnerquotationneedsapairofsinglequotationmarksandtheouterneedsapairofdoublequotationmarks.
Thisisthepivotalpartofthestory:“Thedoormancriedout,‘Youforgotyourcoat!’asheranafterthecab.”
Ifyouchoosetobreakupasingle-sentencequotationwithyourownwords,usecommastooffsetthequotationfromyourexplanation.
“Inthemiddleofthenovel,”thecriticclaims,“themaincharacter’sreflectionsarerestrictedbyhissenseofimpendingchange.”
Periodsandcommasshouldbeplacedinsidethequotationmarks.Colons,semicolons,anddashesshouldbeplacedoutsidethequotationmarks.Questionmarksandexclamationpointsshouldbeplacedinsidethequotationmarks,unlessthepunctuationappliestothewholesentence(notjustthequote).
Whentheteam’sbestplayersaid,“We’reinforabadseason,”itbecameclearthattheteam’smoralewasflagging.WasAmericareallylisteningwhenPresidentKennedysaid,“Askwhatyoucandoforyourcountry”?
WhentoUseBracketsWithinQuotationsWhenusingquotations,youneedtobeverycarefultocopythewordsastheyappearinthesourcetext.However,youmayfindthataquotationdoesnotgrammaticallyalignwiththewayyouwanttouseit,orthattherelevanceofthequotationmaynotbereadilyapparenttoareader.Whenthathappens,youmightwanttochangeitslightlyinordertomakeitfityouressay.Insuchcases,squarebracketsshouldbeusedaroundwordsnotcontainedintheoriginalquote.
Bracketscanbeusedtodothefollowing:
Clarifymeaning:
“[Fiestas]arethelifebloodofthisregion.Weneedtohonorour
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traditionseven,andespecially,aftertragedy.”Sr.Gomeztoldreporters.(Theoriginalquotationusedthepronoun“They,”inanswertoareporter’squestionaboutafiesta.)
Encloseachangeinverbtensetobetterflowwithyoursentence:
Silvenmaintainedtheassertionthroughouthislife:“Itseemsunlikelythatthispairing[was]duetoahumanneedforcompanionship.”
Encloseanexplanatoryphraseifawordisn’tclear:
RenownedfamilytherapistVirginiaSatironcemused,“Ihaveoftenthoughthadtherebeensomebodylikemearound,somethingmighthavebeenabletobedone[aboutherowndivorce].”
BlockQuotationsIfyouareusingalongquotation(fourormoretypedlines),insteadofquotationmarks,youshouldindenttheentirequotationfivespaces.Ifthequoteistwoormoreparagraphs,indentthefirstlineofeachparagraphsanadditionalfivespaces(maintainingtheindentoftherestofthequote).Whenusingthisformat,youdonotneedtousequotationmarks.
Quotationonarock
AquoteonthewallofThierryEhrmann’s“AbodeofChaos.”Thisgraffiti-stylequotationcitesitssourcetextandpagenumber.
2.5.3:Paraphrasing
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Appropriatelyparaphrasingtheideasofresearchersandauthorscanaddstrengthtoyourargument.
LearningObjective
Distinguishbetweenparaphrasingandsummarizing
KeyPoints
Whenusingyourownwordstodiscusssomeoneelse’swork,youareparaphrasing;whenyouusethewordsofsomeoneelse,youarequoting.Bothmethodshelpyoutointroduceanotherauthor’sworkasameansofstrategicallyimprovingthepersuasivenessofyourpaper,byprovidinganexampleorevidencerelevanttoaclaimthatyouhavemade.Argumentsaremorepowerfulwhensourcematerialiswoventhroughthepaperwithparaphrasing,savingquotationsformomentsofimpact,authority,andeloquence.Ifaquotationneedstobesubstantiallychanged,itmaybebettertosimplyparaphrasetheauthor’sideasinyourownwords.Fullyunderstandingthecontextofthewordsyou’reparaphrasing,andcitingthesourcecompletely,givesanauthenticrepresentationofthesourceandstrengthensyourargument.
KeyTerms
context
Thesurroundings,circumstances,environment,orbackgroundthatdetermine,specify,orclarifythemeaningofapieceofwriting.
quotation
Afragmentofahumanexpressionthatisbeingreferredtobysomebodyelse.
citation
Aparaphraseofapassagefromabook,orfromanotherperson,forthepurposesofascholarlypaper.
Asyou’rewritingyourpaper,you’llwanttobringinevidencetosupportyourclaims.You’llgenerallydothisthroughparaphrasingandquotingwhatyou’vediscoveredintheresearchphaseofyourwritingprocess.Here,we’llfocusonparaphrasing,notingitsappropriateuseanddifferentiatingitfrom
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otherformsofcitations.
ParaphrasingIsDifferentfromSummarizingWhenyousummarizeanarticleorbook,you’reprovidinganoverviewofthework,highlightingitsmajorfindingsorthemes.Asummaryislikelookingatadistantsourcethroughatelescope:thegeneralshapeandideasareclear,butthedetailsarefuzzy.Youmayneedtoofferasummaryifyourtopicisabookorastudypotentiallyunknowntoyourreader,sothatheorshehasabasisforunderstandingtheargumenttocome,butwhenofferingevidence,you’llusuallybechoosingtoparaphraseratherthansummarize.
Youwanttoleadyourreader,inyourpaper,alongthepaththatbroughtyoutoyourintellectualconclusion:thethesisstatementyousetoutintheintroduction.Thatmeansyou’llbepresentingthereaderwiththeresearchthatconvincedyouofthisstatement,includingstatisticsthatimpressedyou,others’argumentsfororagainstaparticularposition,factsyouencounteredthatshiftedyourperspective,andevenstoriesorexamplesthattouchedyouemotionally.Theseallcamefromsomewhere,andyou’llwanttosharetheiroriginswithyourreaders.Thereareacouplereasonsforthis:
Readersliketobeabletocheckthingsoutforthemselves.Youmaytellthemthat39.4%ofadultsintheU.S.areobese,buttheymayfindthathardtobelieve.Whentheycheckoutthesource(theCentersforDiseaseControl),however,they’lllikelybeconvincedandmorewillingtoacceptthepremiseyou’rebuildingon.Citingsourcesmakesyoucrediblewithbothyouraudienceandwiththoseyou’reparaphrasing.Itshowsyou’renotpretendingthattheinformationyou’vegatheredissolelyfromyourownmind,butyou’rebuildingonwhatothershavesaid,observed,andexperienced.That’swhatresearchisallabout.
Paraphrasingwillbethemostcommonwaytosharewithyourreaderswhatyou’vefound.Whenyouparaphrase,you’remaintainingthesamelevelofdetailastheoriginalsource(unlikesummarizing),butyou’resynthesizingwhatyou’vereadtocreateaseamlessargument.
WhyNotJustUseQuotations?
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Imaginehowchoppyapaperwouldbe,jumpingfromoneperson’swordstoanother,toanother,andanotherwithonlytransitionsentencesinbetween.Itwouldbeverydifficulttofollow,andyourownvoicewouldbedrownedoutbyallthe“experts.”Expositorywritingisn’taboutgivingusotherpeople’sopinions—it’saboutgivingusyourown.Thoseothervoicesaretheretosupportyouandyourargument.
Whatyou’llbedoing,then,iswritingwhatyouthinkandweavinginevidencetosupportyourthinking.Forexample,lookatthefollowingparagraph:
“Anethicalapproach,whilebothadmirableandarguablyanimprovementintoday’seducationalsystem,doesnotgofarenoughasamethodoftrulyconnectinghumanbeingstooneanotherandtotheirtruenature.InherbookCaring:AFeminineApproachtoEthicsandMoralEducation,NelNoddingsoffersamorefeminineapproachtoeducation—onebasedonreceptivity—thatprioritizescaringoverjustice.”
YouseeherethatthewriterhasafirmgraspofboththetopicandtheapproachNelNoddingsdescribes.Eventhoughheiscitingevidenceandevenaspecificsource,thevoiceisstillhis,weavingDr.Noddings’sthoughtsintohisown.Thiskindofweavingistheprimaryreasontouseparaphrasing.
Anotherreasonistosavedirectquotationsforimpact.Ifyouquoteonlywhenthesourcewillofferanairofauthoritytoyourargument,whentheexactwordsareeitherhistoricallyimportantorparticularlyeloquent,orwhenthesourceisofprimaryimportancetoyourtopic,thequoteswillcarrymuchmoreweight.Inallotherinstances,paraphrasingwillmovethenarrativealongmuchmoresmoothly,tyingittoyourownstylealongtheway.
Evenwhenyouwanttouseaquote,itsometimesneedstobechangedsosubstantiallytofityournarrativethatitmaybebettertosimplycitetheauthor’sideasinyourownwords.
AuthenticityinParaphrasingAswithanyinstanceofappealingtoanotherauthor’sworkwithinyourown,whetheryouuseparaphrasingorquotation,theprimarycriterionforuseshouldalwaysbeitsrelevancetoyourthesisandclaims.However,you’llneedtobesurethatyou’renottwistingormanipulatinganotherauthor’swordstomatchyourownpurposes.
Makenotesduringtheresearchphaseonthecontextofeachpieceofevidenceyoufind,anddouble-checkthatcontextforrelevancetoyourownclaim.This
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willensurethatyouhavenotmisusedanotherauthor’sworkforyourownpurposes.
Ifyoufindanarticlethatquotesabook,aninterview,oranotherarticle,doyourbesttotrackdowntheoriginalsourcesoyoucanbesureofitscontext.Forexample,peoplesometimesquoteRobertFrostassaying,“Goodfencesmakegoodneighbors.”Ifyoureadthepoem,however,you’llfindthatthesentenceisironic:it’sasadquipofferedbytheneighborofthenarratorinthepoem,notamaximforhowtolivewell.
FormsofCitationAnotherpartofauthenticity,ofcourse,iscitingyoursourcescorrectlyandcompletely.Theformofcitationwithinthetextwillvarybasedonthestyleyou’reaskedtouse,butyouwillneed,ataminimum,thetitleoftheworkandthenameofthecollection(ifany)itisin,thepublicationdate,theauthor’sorauthors’name(s),theeditor’sname,ifany,andthepagenumber(s)ofthematerialyou’reparaphrasing.Allofthishelpsyourreaderfindthesourcematerial.
Interlockingarchitecturalcomponents
Paraphrasinglinksyourownthinkingwiththeideasandresearchofothers,creatingastrongandengagingargument.
Attributions
TheBasicsofQuotations
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“Boundless.”http://www.boundless.com/.BoundlessLearningCCBY-SA3.0.
“CatholicChurchintheUnitedStates.”https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Catholic_Church_in_the_United_StatesWikipediaCCBY-SA.
“SandalwoodOil.”https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sandalwood_oil%23cite_note-1.WikipediaCCBY-SA.
“IntroducingandFormattingQuotations.”https://www.boundless.com/writing/textbooks/boundless-writing-textbook/writing-an-effective-paper-235/quoting-and-paraphrasing-240/introducing-and-formatting-quotations-91-1349/.BoundlessLicense:Other.
“QuotingRelevantPassages.”https://www.boundless.com/users/268747/textbooks/fremont-college-english-composition/academic-writing-3/quoting-19/quoting-relevant-passages-90-535/.BoundlessLicense:Other.
“WritingBetterUniversityEssays/Mainpart.”http://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/Writing_Better_University_Essays/Main_part%23Weasel_TermsWikibooksCCBY-SA3.0.
“quotation.”http://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/quotation.WiktionaryCCBY-SA3.0.
IntroducingandFormattingQuotations
“Boundless.”http://www.boundless.com/.BoundlessLearningCCBY-SA3.0.
“quotationmarks.”http://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/quotation_marks.WiktionaryCCBY-SA3.0.
“paraphrase.”http://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/paraphrase.WiktionaryCCBY-SA3.0.
“Paraphrasing.”https://www.boundless.com/writing/textbooks/boundless-writing-textbook/writing-an-effective-paper-235/quoting-and-paraphrasing-240/paraphrasing-93-1348/.BoundlessLicense:Other.
“IntroducingQuotations.”https://www.boundless.com/users/268747/textbooks/fremont-college-english-composition/academic-writing-3/quoting-19/introducing-quotations-92-8169/.BoundlessLicense:Other.
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“RhetoricandComposition/QuotationMarks.”http://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/Rhetoric_and_Composition/Quotation_MarksWikibooksCCBY-SA3.0.
“quotation.”http://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/quotation.WiktionaryCCBY-SA3.0.
“QuoteonRock.jpg.”http://www.flickr.com/photos/home_of_chaos/3081512135/in/photostream/“Ecrire,voilàl’acteterroristeabsolu…_DDC3707.JPG|Flickr-PhotoSharing!.”CCBY2.0.
Paraphrasing
“Boundless.”http://www.boundless.com/.BoundlessLearningCCBY-SA3.0.
“NelNoddings.”https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nel_Noddings.WikipediaPublicdomain.
“citation.”http://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/citation.WiktionaryCCBY-SA3.0.
“WritingBetterUniversityEssays/Referencing.”http://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/Writing_Better_University_Essays/Referencing%23Citations_and_QuotationsWikibooksCCBY-SA3.0.
“quotation.”http://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/quotation.WiktionaryCCBY-SA3.0.
“Interlocked|Flickr-PhotoSharing!.”http://www.flickr.com/photos/mpcevat/7214860714/.FlickrCCBY2.0.
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2.6:IncorporatingObjectionsandOpposingViews2.6.1:TheImportanceofAddressingOpposingViews
Whenyouconsiderandcounteractopposingarguments,youstrengthenyourownargument.
LearningObjective
Matchanargumenttoacorrespondingcounterargument
KeyPoints
Anargumentisawrittenorspokenformofdefense.Anargumentshouldtakeastanceaboutaparticularpointofview,thesis,orclaim.Trytoanticipatewhatobjectionsyourreadersmighthavetoyourargument,andtrytounderstandwhytheymightobject.Anacademicargumentsupportsitsclaimwithsoundreasoning,research,andevidencesuchasfacts,statistics,andquotedopinionsfromauthoritiesonbothsidesoftheargument.Askepticalreaderhasadoubtful,questioningattitude,andexpectsathoroughpresentationoflogicalreasoningandevidence.Thiscanbeahelpfulaudiencetokeepinmindwhenwritingyourpaper.Intheresearchphase,gatheringevidenceagainstyourargumentwillhelpyourefutecounterargumentsinthewritingstage.
KeyTerms
counterargument
Anargumentthatisopposedtoanotherargument.
argument
Anattempttopersuadesomeoneofsomething,bygivingreasonsorevidenceforacceptingaparticularconclusion.
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refute
Toprovesomething(astatement,theory,claim,argument)orsomeonewrong.
Anargumentmust,bydefinition,takeastanceonanissueandprovideevidenceforaparticularconclusion.However,writersmayneglectthenextstep,whichisjustasimportant:discussingopposingviewpointsandprovidingcounterarguments.
SincereExplorationofCounterargumentsJustasacriminaltrialisostensiblyaboutfindingoutthetruthofwhathappenedduringthecrime,considerthattheaimofyourpaperistogettothetruthoftheissueyou’readdressing.Thereisfarlesssatisfactioninmakingaconvincingargumentifobjectionsareleftunansweredandevidenceissweptundertherug.Youwouldn’twantyourverdicttobeoverturnedonappeal!
ResearchBothSidesThebestwaytocounteractanopposingviewpointistoanticipatewhatanopponentmightsay.Whenresearchingthetopic,then,don’tlimityourselftosympatheticsources;findsourcesthatdisagreewithyourargument.Takenoteoftheirrationaleanduseofevidence.Thatway,youwillbefamiliarenoughwiththeseopposingviewpointstoargueagainstthem.Whenyouencounterdissentingopinions,trytofigureoutwhysmartandrationalpeoplewouldholdthosepositions.Whatevidencedotheylookat?Howdotheyinterpretthatevidence?Whymighttheydisagreewithyourpointofview?
Whenwe’repassionateaboutatopic,emotionscansometimescloudourrationality.Wetendtohavedisdainforopposingargumentsandaren’topentoevenhearingwhatthoseontheothersidehavetosay.Tomoveyourselfoutofthisemotionalrealmandbackintotherealmofthewell-reasonedargument,trytakingastrategyfromdebatetournaments.Debaterspreparefortournamentsbygatheringinformationonbothsidesofatopic.Theyactuallydon’tknowwhichsidethey’llbearguinguntilthedebatebegins,andsotheymustbejustaspreparedtoarguethesidetheydon’tagreewithastheonetheybelievein.Asyou’reresearching,then,takethedebater’sapproachto
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gatheringinformationsoyou’llbeverywell-informedabouttheopposingviews.
Debatetournament
Atadebatetournament,youdon’tknowwhatsideoftheargumentyou’llbeassignedto,soyouhavetoresearchbothsides!
UnderstandtheOtherPointofViewWhenyouencounterthesedissentingopinions,getcurious.Trytofigureoutwhysmartandrationalpeoplewouldholdthosepositions.Whatevidencedotheylookat?Howdotheyinterpretthatevidence?Whatlifeexperiencesmightleadthemtodisagreewithyourpointofview?
Forexample,apersonwhohasgrownuphuntinginacommunitythathasneverexperiencedgunviolencemighthaveaverydifferentperspectiveonguncontrolthansomeonewhosechildwasthevictimofashooting.Duringtheresearchphase,you’llwanttohavearespectfulvisionofboththesepeopleinyourmindtobuildanargumentthatmighthelpincreasetheunderstandingofwheretheotheriscomingfrom.
Then,whenyoubeginstructuringyourargument,imaginehowyourskepticalreadermightreacttoyourthesisstatementandeachofyourclaims.Imaginethatthisreaderissmart,informed,hasthoughtcarefullyabouttheissue,andhasreachedatotallydifferentconclusion.Trytopersuadethisreader;workhardtodemonstratewhyyourpositionismoreconvincingthanthealternatives.
Forexample,tobegindiscussingthelegalizationofphysicianaid-in-dyingwithanaudiencethatmaybeinitiallyaversetotheidea,youmightbeginwith
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somethinglikethis:“Theimpendingdeathofalovedone,particularlyapersonwhocannolongercommunicateforherself,canposeintenseethicalandemotionalquestionsforthosedesignatedtomakemedicaldecisionsforthepatient.Hasteningdeathcanseemantitheticaltothegoalsofmedicine,andtheartificialextensionoflifethroughinvasiveand/orriskymedicalproceduresoftendoesnotprovideaneasieralternative.So,howmightonegoaboutmakingsuchfundamentaldecisions?”
ProveYourPointIntroducingopposingviewpointsisnecessary,butdonotstopthere.Theburdenofproofisonyou,astheauthoroftheargument.Ifyoufailtoneutralizeacommonobjection,readerswillhaveanexcusetorejectyourargument.Justasyoubuiltyourownargument,torefuteopposingviews,you’llneedtoincludeevidencefromresearchstudies,statistics,andquotedopinionsfromexperts.
Thestrongestargumentsarethosewhichcarefullyconsiderallperspectivesinanattempttofindthemostreasonableviewoftheissue.Yourreaderswilldeeplyappreciateyoureffortsbecausetheyshowrespectforboththeseriousnessofyourmissionandforthereadersthemselves.Enjoytheprocess!
Rugby
Anticipatingyouropponents’objectionscanhelpyoustructureyourargumentsmoresoundly.
2.6.2:TechniquesforAcknowledgingOpposingViews
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Youcanboostyourcredibilitybyacknowledgingspecificsourceswhodisagreewithyourposition,theneffectivelyrefutingtheirarguments.
LearningObjective
Modifylanguagetobeneutralintonewhenpresentingacounterargument
KeyPoints
Iftheopposingviewthatyouareconsideringandcounteractingcomesfromanotherauthor,besuretointroducetheauthorandthepointofviewinaneutralway.Neutrallanguageisnotemotionallycharged,biased,orpolemical.Useneutrallanguagewhenyoupresentopposingviewpoints.Examplesofneutralwordsare“contends,”“argues,”“suggests,”“admits,”“claims,”and“believes.”Youcanintroducecounterargumentswithdirectquotationsfromanopposingexpertbyparaphrasing,byofferingarhetoricalexample,orbyofferingaconditionalstatement.Satirecanbeusedinlessformalessaystoinjecthumorandrelaxthereader’sdefenses.Usingstraw-mancounterargumentsandweakenedoppositionalstatements,whilesomewhattempting,willnotservetostrengthenyourownargumentbutwillseverelyweakenitbycausingthereadertoloserespectforit.
KeyTerms
strawman
Aninsubstantialconcept,idea,endeavor,orargument,particularlyonedeliberatelysetuptobeweaklysupported,sothatitcanbeeasilyknockeddown;especiallytoimpugnthestrengthofanyrelatedthingoridea.
concession
Aliterarydeviceinwhichoneacknowledgesthemeritsofanopposingargument.
neutral
Favoringneitherthesupportingnortheopposingviewpointofatopicofdebate;unbiased.
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credibility
Reputationimpactingone’sabilitytobebelieved.
opposition
Anoppositeorcontrastingposition.
Makingastrongargumentincludesansweringanyofthepotentialobjectionsthatmayforminareader’smind.Yourjobduringtheresearchphaseistofindcounterargumentsandmaterialtorefutethem,andinthedraftingphasetoconstructyourargumentinawaythatincorporatestheseobjectionsandcounterarguments.We’llexaminebothphaseshere.
FindingCredibleSourcesforCounterargumentsYoucanboostyourcredibilitybyacknowledgingspecificsourceswhodisagreewithyourposition.Ifyousummarizeopposingviewswithoutattachingthemtoactualwriters,itmayappearasthoughyouhaven’tdoneyourresearch.However,ifyoucitecounterargumentsfromexpertsinthefield,andthenworktorefutethoseargumentseffectively,youcanlendauthoritytoyourownargument.
Asyou’reresearching,spendsometimeputtinginsearchtermsasifyouwerearguingfortheopposition.Ifyouconsistentlycomefromyoursideoftheissue,youmaymissarticlesbysomeofthestrongeropponents.Forexample,ifyou’rearguingforhate-crimelegislationandyoursearchtermsuseonlylanguagerelatedtothat,youmayfindcounterargumentsbasedonfreespeech,butyoumayexcludethosethatopposelegislationonreligiousgrounds.Beginningyoursearchcanbeassimpleasputtingthequestionintoasearchengine:“Whywouldanyoneopposehate-crimelegislation?”
Ofcourse,youdon’twanttostopthere.Justaswithyourownargument,you’llwanttofindthebestthinkersontheopposingsideoftheargument.Followthepathofeachobjectiontodiscoveritsroots.Gatherquotessummarizingtheirviewpointsandthengodiggingtofindstatisticsandotherresearchthatbothbackandcountertheirclaims.
Ifyourmindischangedintheprocess,sobeit!Youcanchangeyourthesisandclaimsandarguefortheothersideoftheissue.Eitherway,you’llbegatheringthebestinformationfrombothsidesoftheargumenttopresenttoyouraudience.
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PresentingCounterargumentsinYourPaperThereareseveralwaystointroducetoyourreaderthecounterargumentsyou’veuncovered:quotingasourceforthecounterargument,paraphrasingasource,orusingyourownwordstoofferarhetoricalexampleorconditionalstatement.Whicheverwayyouchoosetobringthecounterargumentintothediscussion,however,you’llwanttouseneutrallanguage.
UsingNeutralLanguage
Makeitclearthatyouarepresentingsomeoneelse’sviewpoint,butdon’tuseemotionallycharged,biased,orpolemicallanguagetosummarizeit.Don’tdismissyouroppositionfromtheoutsetwithlanguagelikethis:“JohnSmithnaivelyargues…”Instead,youcouldsay,“JohnSmithcontends,”andthensummarizeJohnSmith’sview.YoucangoontoexplainexactlywhySmith’sopinionisnaive—butmakesureyougiveitafairshotfirst.Herearesomeexamplesofneutralverbsyoucanusetointroduceanotherauthor’sopposingview:“contends,”“argues,”“suggests,”“admits,”“claims,”“believes.”
Therearemanyvalidwaystointroduceanopposingview,butdotrytopresentitinaneutralmannerbeforeyoushootitdown.Themoreyourreadersbelievethatyouarebeingfairtoyouropponents,themorelikelytheyaretobeopentoyourrefutation.
Quotations
Youcanquoteanexpertinthefieldwhohaspubliclyobjectedtotheyourthesis.Oryoucanquoteapoliticianoranotherpublicfigurewhohasrecentlybroughtuptheissue(keepinginmindthatthislatteroptiondatesyourpaper),aslongasyoudoitrespectfully.Forexample:
“RaymondRodriguez,arguingin‘TheSocialContract’(Summer,1992)forclosingtheMexicanbordertoimmigration,suggeststhat‘Regulatingimmigrationisasimportantasenactingagreementstocontroltradeandpollutionoftheenvironment—andformanyofthesamereasons.Theviolationofanation’sterritorialintegrity,itssafetyandwell-being,cannotbetolerated.’Let’slookateachoftheseconcernsinturn.”
You’llnoticefirstthattheauthorhasanHispanicsurname,whichlendsethos
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tohisperspective.You’llalsonoticethatthepublicationanddateisincluded,soareadercanquicklyandeasilyfindtheoriginalsourcematerial.Areadermightwanttoverifywhatyouquotehereandalsoseeifyou’vemanipulatedthecontextinanyway.(Areadermightbewondering,“Didhereallyjustcompareimmigrantstopollution?)You’vepresentedhiswordsrespectfully,however,allowingthemtospeakforthemselves.Andthelastsentencetellsthereaderyouwilldealwitheachoftheconcerns—violationofterritorialintegrity,safety,andwell-being—inyourrefutation.
Anadvantageofusingquotationsisthatyouareallowingtheoppositiontospeakforitself.Yourreadercan’tscoffthatyou’reofferinganinaccuratesummaryoftheargument,becauseyouareusingtheopposingexpert’swords.
Paraphrasing
Paraphrasingisasimilarapproachbutallowsyoutocontextualizethecomment.Youwillwanttoresistthetemptationtoskewthecomment’smeaningortoeditorialize!
“JonescontendsthatTheseusservesasacounterpointtoOberonandTitania,actingasajustandrighteousmonarchinsteadoffallingswaytowhimsandpersonaldesires.”
TheauthorofthispaperhasalreadyintroducedthereferencedexpertandishereintroducinganewportionofJones’scounterargument.It’spresentedreasonablyandrespectfully.
“Ofcourse,thereisapointtobemadethatnuclearenergycreateslesspollutionthanusingcoaloroil.”
Thisiscalledaconcession.Youareconcedingthattheopposingargumentisnotcompletelyfalse.Ofcourse,youwillgoontoexplainwhythiscounterargumentisnotconclusive,butasyouintroduceit,youshowthatyouunderstandthelogicalandrationalbasisfortheargument.
UsingaRhetoricalExampleorConditionalStatement
Anotherwaytopresentacounterargumentistointroduceitinyourownwordsintheformofanexample.Indoingthis,you’reactingasaproxyforyourreaders,voicingtheirpotentialobjections,hopefullyatjustthemomentthoseobjectionsariseintheirminds.
“Allthistalkabouttoleranceandthepossibilityofrehabilitationisnicein
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theory,butwhatifitwasyourownparentorchildwhowaskilled?Wouldn’tthemeaningofajustsocietydepend,then,onthecourtactingonyourbehalf?”
Inthisexample,thewriterisputtinghimselfinhisreader’splace,voicingoneofthemostcommonandunderstandableobjectionstohisthesis.Hehasplacedthisobjectionjustafterhisclaimthatallpeopleshouldbegiventheopportunityforredemption,becauseheknowsthatthat’stheclaimthatismostlikelytoignitethiscounterargumentinthereader’smind.It’sarhetoricalexample(someonekillingalovedone)intheformofaseriesofquestions.
Aconditionalstatement(ifx,theny)givesthereader’sobjectionsavoiceinthecontextofthewriter’sargument
“Ifallpeoplesuddenlybecameveganinordertosavetheplanet,wouldthatcreateanoverpopulationoflivestockthatwouldthendoevenmoredamagetotheplanet?”
Here,thewriterapproachesconcessionbyacknowledgingthatitmakessensetoatleastconsiderthiscounterargument.Ifthisistrue,thenthatmaybetrue.
Whilealloftheaboveexamplesuseaseriousandrespectfultonetointroducecounterarguments,thereisanotheroptionthatcanbeeffective,dependingonyouraudienceandyourintentions.
UsingSatireasaRefutationStrategySatireisahumoroustonethatcanbedeployedinsummarizingapositioninordertonotonlydrawoutitsshortcomings,butalsotocorrectorchangetheshortcomingsoftheposition.Itislesslikelytobeusedinacademicwriting.
Forexample,inapopular(asopposedtoacademicorprofessional)essayadvocatingforstrictlyenforcedleashlawsincities,youmightwritesomethinglikethis:
“Whileitmayseemlikeanactofpet-friendlybeneficenceandtrusttoallowyourmutttoroamfreeinthestreets,exercisinghisrighttosniffandbitewhomeverhepleases,unrestrainedanimalsinpublicplacesultimatelyposeapotentialthreattothesafetyofpedestrians.”
Well-donesatirecanmakethereadersmile,perhapsevenifheorsheisone
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ofthepet-friendlyownersreferencedintheparagraph.It’sgoodforustolaughatourselves,andwhenwedoso,wecanrelaxourdefensesandopenuptotheopposingargument.
Thetrickistousethistechniquewithoutalienatingreaders,andthatisnotaneasybalance.Ifyourreaderfeelsmocked,you’velosthim.Andevenifyourreaderagreeswithyourthesis,shemaybeturnedoffcompletelybythelackofrespectforotherreaders.
Youcanpokefunandberespectfulatthesametime.You’lljustneedtousethistechniquewithcautionandcare.
TheTemptationtoWeakentheOpposingArgumentYoumaybetemptedtoweakenanobjectiontoyourargumentbyturningitintoastrawman,oraflimsyversionoftheoriginalpoint.Astraw-manargumentcanmakeapointoverlysimplistic,describeanincompleteconceptortakeapointoutofcontext.Youmayhaveheardtalk-radiohostsandopinioncolumnistsemploythisstrategy.Thistactic,however,resultsintheunfairlabelingofothers’argumentsasuninformed,feeble,orotherwiseunworthyofaconsiderateresponse.Intruth,thestrawmanisawell-knowntactic,andreaderscandetectitquiteeasily.Ifyoushortchangetheopposingviewpoint,yourreaderswillsuspectthatyouaretryingtocompensateforshortcomingsinyourownargument.
Yourargumentwillbemuchstrongerifyoupresentopposingviewpointsinasympatheticlight.Comparethefollowingexamples:
“Studentsclaimthattheycheatontestsbecausetheyaretoobusytostudy.Inreality,studentscanfindthetimetostudyiftheylearntime-managementskills.”
“Studentsfacemanytimeconstraints:betweenworkandfamilyobligations,socialresponsibilities,sports,clubs,andtheexpectationsofprofessors,whoallthinktheirclassshouldbethetoppriority,studentscanhavetroublefindingtimetostudyforalloftheirtests.Somestudentsadmitthattheyseecheatingastheonlywaytoreconciletheirconflictingobligations.However,studentscanfindthetimetostudyiftheyworkontheirtime-managementskills.”
Thesecondexamplepresentstheargumentmoresympatheticallyandrealistically.Itacknowledgesthatstudentsmayfacelegitimatedifficultiesas
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theytrytofindtimetostudyforalloftheirclasses.Clearly,inthesecondexample,thewriterhasconsideredthisissuefromthestudents’perspective,andhasattemptedtofindasolutionthattakestheirconcernsintoaccount.
You’llwanttopresentcounterargumentstoyourthesisinwaysthatrespectthosewhodisagree.Thatincludesresearchingtofindthethoughtleadersontheopposingsideofyourtopic,presentingtheirargumentsinanhonestlight,andthenmovingintorespectfulrefutation.
2.6.3:RefutingYourOpposition
Afteryoupresentthelikelyobjectionstoyourargument,youcanshowyourreaderswhytheyshouldbewillingtotakeyourside.
LearningObjective
Outlinetheprocessforrefutinganargument
KeyPoints
Considerandcounteropposingviewpointsinordertostrengthenyourownargument.Countertheseobjectionsbyshowingyourreaderthatyourpositionismorereasonablethantheopposingposition.Itisimportanttoclearly,completely,andrespectfullystatetheopposingview.Therearevariouswaystorefutecounterargumentsinyourpaper,andselectingonewilldependonyourtopic,youraudience,andspace/timelimitations.Ineachrefutationparagraph,you’llwanttostateyouropponent’sargument,clearlystateyourobjectiontothatargument,supportyourobjectionwithevidenceandsupportivestatements,andthenconcludewithacomparisonoftheideas.Duringtherevisionprocess,you’llneedtolookforredundancyofinformationinclaimandrefutationparagraphsandcheckthestructureforflow.
KeyTerm
viewpoint
Thepositionfromwhichsomethingisobservedorconsidered;anangle,
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outlook,orpointofview.
Nowthatyou’vebuiltastrongfoundationofcredibilitybypresentingthelikelyobjectionsandreasonedoppositiontoyourargument(respectfully,ofcourse!),youcanshowyourreaderstheflawsinthesecounterarguments.Remember,skepticalreadersneedtobeconvincedthatyourpositionismorereasonablethantheirown,andsoyourrefutationwillneedtobebothaccurateandthorough.Intheprocess,you’llwinsupportfrombothsidesoftheargumentforyourreasonableapproach.
WheretoAddressCounterargumentsDependingonyourwritingstyleandmaterial,yourargumentcouldfollowvariousstructuralformats:
Presentyourownargumentfirst,andthenpresentandcounteracttheopposingviewpoints.
Thisstructurehastheadvantageofputtingyourargumentinpeople’smindsfirst,soitcanbeusefulwhenyouarespace-limitedoryouraudienceistime-limited.
Presenttheopposition’sviewsfirst,andthenprovethatyourargumentismorereasonablethantheopposingviews.
Thisstrategygetsobjectionsoutintheopenrightaway,whichcanbeespeciallyusefulforradicalorunexpectedthesisstatements.Theapproachhereis,“Iknowwhatyou’rethinking,buthanginthere,andyou’llseewhereI’mcomingfrom.”
Alternatebackandforthbetweenyourargumentandopposingpoints.
Here,youacknowledgeeachobjectionasit’slikelytoariseinthereader’smind.Youareanticipatingwhateachclaimmightbringupforthereaderandhandlingitimmediately,soheorshehasnoopportunitytogethungupontheobjection.
StructuringYourRefutation
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Therearefourbasicpartstoarefutationofanopposingargument:youintroducethecounterargument,stateyourobjectiontoit,offerevidencetosupportyourview,anddrawaclearconclusionbycomparingtheviewpointsheadtohead.
Introduction
“Theoppositionsays…”
Presenttheviewaccuratelyandfairly,andpossiblyconcedethatthereisreasonormerittothisperspective.Forexample:“OpponentsoftheAnimalWelfareActclaimedthattheuseofanimalsubjectsindrugtestingwasabsolutelynecessarytosavehumanlives.”
Objection
“However…”
Here,youstateyourobjectiontotheview—thereasonthereadershouldnotaccepttheopposition’sviewpoint.Itmaybeintheformofaquestionorstatement.Forexample:“Isitaccurate,however,tosaythatintelligentpeoplearenotsusceptibletobrainwashing?”Noticetheuseoftheword“accurate.”Whilethecounterargumentmightmakesomerationalsense,haveresearchandexperiencevalidatedtheassumption?Youcouldphraseitasastatement,asopposedtoaquestion.Howaretheydifferent?Wouldthestatementbemoredirect?
SupportforObjection
“Because…”
Supportyourobjectionwithhigh-qualityevidence,expertopinion,andsolidreasoning:“TheBureauofJusticeStatisticsfoundthatin2005,punitivedamageswereawardedtoonly5percentofplaintiffsinciviltrials.”Here,thewriterusesbothawidelyrespectedsourceandstatisticsthatrefutethecounterclaim.Colorfullanguage,appealstoemotion,andrhetoricaldevicesholdlittleweightagainstaclearlyfleshed-outpositionsupportedbyappropriateexamplesandsolidevidenceofferedbyreputablesources.
Conclusion
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“Therefore…”
Inthisfourthstep,theconflictmustberesolved.You’veintroducedtwovalidviewpoints.Whyisyoursthestrongerone?“Whilejobcreationprogramsmayindeedincreasethenation’sshort-termfinancialburden,thestrategyofputtingpeoplebacktoworkhasconsistentlybeenproventocreateastrongereconomicandsocialfabricinthelongrun.”Concludingstatementsarenotsimplyrestatementsoftheclaimbutactualcomparisonsofthetwoapproacheswithaconclusionastowhyoneargumentissuperior.
RevisingCounterargumentsandRefutationsIntherevisionstage,you’llwanttolookatthebalanceofthepaper.Ratherthanaddressingeverypossibleobjectiontoyourthesis,youmaydecideatthispointtoeliminatethelesserobjections,soasnottooverloadthepaperwithcounterarguments.
You’llalsoneedtolookforredundancy.Makesureyourclaimsandyourrefutationsarenotrepetitive.Ifyouhavearefutationthatsimplyrepeatsoneofyourclaims,seeifyoucanfindadifferentwaytorefutetheopposingargument.Yourreaderwillloseinteresttheminuteyougetrepetitive.
Finally,ensurethatifyourintroductionandconclusionincludecounterargumentscenarios(images,quotes,stories),they’reconsistentwithwhatyou’vefoundintheresearch.
Objection!
Tobeanacearguer,you’llneedtoclearlystateyourobjectionstoyour
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opponent’sargumentsandsupportyourobjectionswithevidence.
Attributions
TheImportanceofAddressingOpposingViews
“Boundless.”http://www.boundless.com/.BoundlessLearningCCBY-SA3.0.
“Meta-discussion.”http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meta-discussion.WikipediaCCBY-SA3.0.
“argument.”http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/argument.WikipediaCCBY-SA3.0.
“AssemblingYourArgument.”https://www.boundless.com/users/268747/textbooks/fremont-college-english-composition/paper-execution-2/planning-your-argument-10/assembling-your-argument-48-8497/.BoundlessLicense:Other.
“AnticipatingPotentialObjections.”https://www.boundless.com/users/268747/textbooks/fremont-college-english-composition/academic-writing-3/summarizing-18/anticipating-potential-objections-86-534/.BoundlessLicense:Other.
“counterargument.”http://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/counterargument.WiktionaryCCBY-SA3.0.
“RhetoricandComposition/Argument.”http://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/Rhetoric_and_Composition/Argument%23Dealing_With_the_OppositionWikibooksCCBY-SA3.0.
“Student_Union_Debate.jpg.”https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Student_Union_Debate.jpg.WikipediaCCBY-SA3.0.
“Rugby-Pioneers:3Rugbytradecards.”http://rugby-pioneers.blogs.com/rugby/3_rugby_trade_cards/.blogs.comCCBY-SA.
TechniquesforAcknowledgingOpposingViews
“Boundless.”http://www.boundless.com/.BoundlessLearningCCBY-SA3.0.
“credibility.”http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/credibility.WikipediaCC
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BY-SA3.0.
“neutral.”http://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/neutral.WiktionaryCCBY-SA3.0.
“opposition.”http://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/opposition.WiktionaryCCBY-SA3.0.
“RepresentingObjectionsFairly.”https://www.boundless.com/users/364813/textbooks/professional-writing-ae312174-61d8-432f-9276-655b5a888adc/week-3-boundless-presentation-620/responding-to-objections-624/representing-objections-fairly-629-942/.BoundlessLicense:Other.
“UsingSatiretoSummarize.”https://www.boundless.com/users/268747/textbooks/fremont-college-english-composition/academic-writing-3/summarizing-18/using-satire-to-summarize-88-1172/.BoundlessLicense:Other.
“RhetoricandComposition/Argument.”http://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/Rhetoric_and_Composition/Argument%23Dealing_With_the_OppositionWikibooksCCBY-SA3.0.
RefutingYourOpposition
“Boundless.”http://www.boundless.com/.BoundlessLearningCCBY-SA3.0.
“RhetoricandComposition/AnalyzingAssignments.”http://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/Rhetoric_and_Composition/Analyzing_Assignments%23Summary.2FResponse_PaperWikibooksCCBY-SA3.0.
“viewpoint.”http://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/viewpoint.WiktionaryCCBY-SA3.0.
“AddressingOpposingViewpoints.”https://www.boundless.com/users/364813/textbooks/professional-writing-ae312174-61d8-432f-9276-655b5a888adc/week-3-boundless-presentation-620/responding-to-objections-624/addressing-opposing-viewpoints-632-70/.BoundlessLicense:Other.
“RhetoricandComposition/Argument.”http://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/Rhetoric_and_Composition/Argument.WikibooksCCBY-SA3.0.
“PunitiveDamageAwardsinStateCourts,2005.”http://www.bjs.gov/content/pub/pdf/pdasc05.pdf.U.S.Department
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ofJusticeLicense:Other.
“Objection.jpg.”https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ace_Attorney%23/media/File:WonderCon_2015_-_Phoenix_Wright_(17049616945).jpg.“WonderCon2015-PhoenixWright(17049616945)”byWilliamTungfromUSA-WonderCon2015-PhoenixWright[2].LicensedunderCCBY-SA2.0viaCommons-https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:WonderCon_2015_-_Phoenix_Wright_(17049616945).jpg#/media/File:WonderCon_2015_-_Phoenix_Wright_(17049616945).jpgCCBY-SA2.0.
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3:TheResearchProcess
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3.1:UnderstandingtheAcademicContextofYourTopic3.1.1:UnderstandingtheAcademicContextofYourTopic
Goodargumentsconvinceareadertoreconsiderpreviouslyacceptedknowledgeoropinionsaboutatopic,alsoknownasthestatusquo.
LearningObjective
Explaintheimportanceofincludingadiscussionofthestatusquoinapaper
KeyPoints
Inwriting,“statusquo”referstohowearlierscholarshaveapproachedanissue.Intheearlierpartofapaper,thewritermustexplaintothereaderthestatusquoaboutasubjectinorderforthereadertounderstandthestakesofchangingtheargument.Thestatusquoisalsocommongroundbetweenawriterandareader.
KeyTerm
statusquo
ALatintermmeaningthecurrentorexistingstateofaffairs;literally,“thestateinwhich.”
WhatIstheStatusQuo?“Statusquo”referstotheexistingandacceptedbodyofacademicresearchanddiscourseonagiventopic.Conductingtheappropriateresearchonthisdiscourseisanimportantpreliminarysteptoacademicessaywriting.Academicpapersrelyonthestatusquotoinformandsupportthewriter’sargument.Oneofthemainprinciplesofacademicwritingisactiveand
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creativeinterpretationofresearchandargumentsthathavecomebefore.
FindingtheStatusQuoWithinthecontextofacademicwriting,“statusquo”refersprimarilytoscholarlyfindings—thatis,whatotheracademicexpertshavepublishedaroundaparticularsubject.Priortowritinganacademicpaper,thewritermustinvestigateandstudyscholars’argumentsthoroughlyandcritically.Thishelpsthewriterunderstandhowscholars’argumentsfitintothewidercontextofthepaper,anditappliesevenincaseswherethemajorityofresearchwillbeusedforknowledgeratherthancitationpurposes.
Examiningthestatusquo
Beforeyoubeginwritingonanytopic,itisimportanttounderstandthedominantconversation,orthestatusquo,associatedwiththetopic.Examiningthestatusquoisagoodwayoffiguringoutwheretosituateyourspecificinsightonatopic.
Asthewritercontinuesherresearch,shewilleventuallyfindsourcestoincorporateintothepaper.Duringthewritingprocess,itcanbehelpfulto
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formquestionsfocusedonaspecificworkorideatohelpsetupthepaper’shypothesis.Becausethestatusquoiscrucialtothewriter’sargument,itisusuallyincludedinthepaper’sintroduction.
WhyDoestheStatusQuoMatter?Identifyingthestatusquointheintroductionservesseveralpurposes.First,ithelpsreadersimmediatelyunderstandthecontextoftheargument.Whenreadersareinformedaboutthesourcesusedtosupporttheargument,theycangainabetterunderstandingofit.Second,identifyingthestatusquoalsotellsreaderswhythewriter’sangleisuniquecomparedtopastresearch.
Accuratelysummarizingthestatusquoalsodemonstratesthatthewriterhasenoughknowledgeandexpertisewithinthefieldtoconfidentlymakeanargument.Audienceshaveadifficulttimetrustingawriterwhofailstodescribeorprovethatheorsheisfamiliarwiththestatusquo.
ContributingtotheStatusQuoThestatusquoisnotfixedandisconstantlyevolvingandgrowingbecausenewwritingaddstoandchangesit.Wheneverawriterputsforthanewargument,drawsanewconclusion,ormakesnewconnections,thestatusquochanges,evenifonlyslightly.Asaresearcherandwriter,youalsohavethepotentialtochangethestatusquothroughyourresearchandargument.
Attributions
UnderstandingtheAcademicContextofYourTopic
“Boundless.”http://www.boundless.com/.BoundlessLearningCCBY-SA3.0.
“TheCainProjectinEngineeringandProfessionalCommunication,ThreeModulesonClearWritingStyle:AnIntroductiontoTheCraftofArgument,byJosephM.WilliamsandGregoryColomb.September17,2013.”http://cnx.org/content/m17223/latest/?collection=col10551/latest.OpenStaxCNXCCBY3.0.
“statusquo.”http://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/status_quo.WiktionaryCCBY-SA3.0.
“Boystrainedinthefundamentalsofnavigationmaybecome
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techniciansinthearmedservice,LosAngeles,Calif.ThomasGraham,amemberoftheVictoryCorpsatPolytechnicHighSchool,islearningtouseasextanttodeterminelongitudeandlatitude(LOC|Flickr-PhotoSharing!.”http://www.flickr.com/photos/library_of_congress/2179076051/lightbox/FlickrPublicdomain.
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3.2:OrganizingYourResearchPlan3.2.1:OrganizingYourResearchPlan
Tosavetimeandeffort,decideonaresearchplanbeforeyoubegin.
LearningObjective
Outlinethestepsoftheresearchprocess
KeyPoints
Yourresearchplanwillspecifythekindsofsourcesyouwanttogather.Thesemayincludescholarlypublications,journalarticles,primarysources,textbooks,encyclopedias,andmore.Mostsearchengineswillletyoufiltersearchresultsbytypeofsource.Youcanlimityoursourcesbydateandtimeperiodwhenplanningyourresearch.Youcanusesearchenginestofindonlyarticleswrittenwithinaspecifictimeframetoensureyourfindingsarerelevant.Youcanapplyfilterssuchas“writteninthepast10years”tonarrowyoursearchresults.
KeyTerm
research
Pursuitofinformation,suchasfacts,principles,theories,applications,etc.
Aresearchpaperisanexpandedessaythatreliesonexistingdiscoursetoanalyzeaperspectiveorconstructanargument.Becausearesearchpaperincludesanextensiveinformation-gatheringprocessinadditiontothewritingprocess,itisimportanttodeveloparesearchplantoensureyourfinalpaperwillaccomplishitsgoals.Asaresearcher,youhavecountlessresourcesatyourdisposal,anditcanbedifficulttosiftthrougheachsourcewhilelookingforspecificinformation.Ifyoubeginresearchingwithoutaplan,youcouldfindyourselfwastinghoursreadingsourcesthatwillbeoflittleornohelptoyourpaper.Tosavetimeandeffort,decideonaresearchplanbeforeyoubegin.
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Books,books,books…
Donotstartresearchhaphazardly—comeupwithaplanfirst.
CreatingaResearchPlanAresearchplanshouldbeginafteryoucanclearlyidentifythefocusofyourargument.Narrowthescopeofyourargumentbyidentifyingthespecificsubtopicyouwillresearch.Abroadsearchwillyieldthousandsofsources,whichmakesitverydifficulttoformafocused,coherentargument.Itissimplynotpossibletoincludeeverytopicinyourresearch.Ifyounarrowyourfocus,however,youcanfindtargetedresourcesthatcanbesynthesizedintoanewargument.
Afternarrowingyourfocus,thinkaboutkeysearchtermsthatwillapplyonlytoyoursubtopic.Developspecificquestionsthatcanbeansweredthroughyourresearchprocess,butbecarefulnottochooseafocusthatisoverlynarrow.Youshouldaimforaquestionthatwilllimitsearchresultstosourcesthatrelatetoyourtopic,butwillstillresultinavariedpoolofsourcestoexplore.
IfyouarestudyingtheBattleofGettysburg,forexample,youmightdecidetolookintoanynumberoftopicsrelatedtothebattle:medicalpracticesonthefield,socialdifferencesbetweensoldiers,ormilitarymaneuvers.Ifyourtopicismedicalpracticesinbattle,ansearchfor“BattleofGettysburg”wouldreturnfartoomanygeneralresults.Youwouldalsonotwanttosearchforasingleinstanceofsurgery,becauseyoumightnotbeabletofindenoughinformationonit.Findahappymediumbetweenverybroadandtoospecific.
Anotherpartofyourresearchplanshouldincludethetypeofsourcesyouwanttogather.Thepossibilitiesincludearticles,scholarlyjournals,primary
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sources,textbooks,encyclopedias,andmore.Mostsearchengineswillletyoulimitsearchresultsbytypeofsource.Ifyouknowthatyouareonlylookingforarticles,youcanexcludethingslikeinterviewsorabstractsfromyoursearch.Ifyouarelookingforspecifickindsofdata,likeimagesorgraphs,youmightwanttofindadatabasededicatedtothatsortofsource.
Youcanalsolimitthetimeperiodfromwhichyouwilldrawresources.Doyouonlywantarticleswritteninthepasttenortwentyyears?Doyouwantthemfromaspecificspanoftime?Again,mostsearchengineswillallowyoutolimitresultstoanythingwrittenwithintheyearsyouspecify,andthechoicetolimitthetimeperiodwilldependonyourtopic.Determiningthesefactorswillhelpyouformaspecificresearchplantoguideyourprocess.
ExampleofaResearchProcessAgoodresearchprocessshouldgothroughthesesteps:
1. Decideonthetopic.2. Narrowthetopicinordertonarrowsearchparameters.3. Createaquestionthatyourresearchwilladdress.4. Generatesub-questionsfromyourmainquestion.5. Determinewhatkindofsourcesarebestforyourargument.6. Createabibliographyasyougatherandreferencesources.
Forexample,instepone,youmightdecidethatyourtopicwillbe19th-centuryliterature.Theninsteptwoyoumaynarrowitdownto19th-centuryBritishsciencefiction,andthennarrowitdownevenfurthertoMaryShelley’sFrankenstein.
Then,instepthree,youwouldcomeupwitharesearchquestion.Agoodresearchquestionforthisexamplemightbe,“Howdoesthenovel’svisionofgenerativeliferelatetothescientifictheoriesoflifethatweredevelopedinthe19thcentury?”Posingahistoricalquestionopensupresearchtomorereferencepossibilities.
Next,instepfour,yougeneratesub-questionsfromyourmainquestion.Forinstance,“Duringthe19thcentury,whatweresomeofthecompetingtheoriesabouthowlifeiscreated?,”and“DidanyofMaryShelley’sotherworksrelatetothecreationoflife?”Afteryouknowwhatsub-questionsyouwanttopursue,you’llbeabletomovetostepfive—determinewhatkindofsourcesarebestforyourargument.Ourexamplewouldleadustopossiblylookatnewspapersormagazinesprintedinthelate18thorearly19thcentury.In
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addition,booksoressaysonthetopic,bothcontemporaryandolder,couldbesources.Itislikelythatsomeonehasresearchedyourtopicbefore,andevenpossiblyaquestionsimilartoyours.Bookswrittensinceyourtimeperiodonyourspecifictopiccouldbeagreatsourceforfurtherreferences.Whenyoufindabookthatiswrittenaboutyourtopic,checkthebibliographyforreferencesthatyoucantrytofindyourself.
Asyouaccumulatesources,makesureyoucreateabibliography,oralistofsourcesthatyou’veusedinyourresearchandwritingprocess.Andfinally,havefundoingtheresearch!
Attributions
OrganizingYourResearchPlan
“Boundless.”http://www.boundless.com/.BoundlessLearningCCBY-SA3.0.
“research.”http://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/research.WiktionaryCCBY-SA3.0.
“JenniferStidham,FLIPItwithWeb2.0-FreeOnlineToolstoEnhancetheStudentResearchProcess.September17,2013.”http://cnx.org/content/col11175/latest/.OpenStaxCNXCCBY3.0.
“StillLifewithPlato|Flickr-PhotoSharing!.”http://www.flickr.com/photos/chefranden/2048731275/.FlickrCCBY.
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3.3:FindingYourSources3.3.1:TheImportanceofReliability
Usingreliablesourcesinresearchpapersstrengthensyourownvoiceandargument.
LearningObjective
Recognizesourcesthatmaybebiased
KeyPoints
Whileresearchingforsourcesrelevanttoyourtopic,youneedtocriticallyreadasourcetoidentifypossiblepoliticalorotherformsofbias,toconsidertheeffectsofhistoricalcontext,andtodiscoverpossiblebiasonthepartoftheauthor.Theageofasourceisanotherfactortoconsider,theimportanceofwhichwilldifferdependingonthetopic.Considerthepossiblebiasesoftheauthor.Websites,unlikebooks,donotnecessarilyhavepublishers.Therefore,youshouldbeattentivetowhoisbehindthewebsitesyoufind.
KeyTerms
research
Diligentinquiryorexaminationtoseekorrevisefacts,principles,theories,applications,etcetera;laboriousorcontinuedsearchaftertruth.
source
Theperson,placeorthingfromwhichsomething(information,goods,etc.)comesorisacquired.
Example
Ifyou’reworkingonanessayaboutcurrentdevelopmentsinend-of-lifecareforterminallyillpatients,anoutdatedsource,suchasa1997DetroitFreePressarticleaboutJackKevorkian,willlikelynotberelevantfor
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yourdiscussion,exceptaspartofahistoricaloverviewofthepoliticsofphysicianaid-in-dying.NorwouldtheWikipediaentryfor“euthanasia”beanappropriateplacetolookforinformation,since,whileitcanbeusefulforcollectingcolloquialinformation,Wikipediaiscertainlynotascholarlysource.Variousreligiousorothernon-medicalinterest-groupsourcescouldlikelycropupinyoursearch,butinthosecasesyou’dneedtotakespecialcaretoidentifypotentialbiasesandconsidertheirimpactontheinformationyoufind.
Usingsourcesinresearchpapersstrengthensyourownvoiceandargument,buttodosoeffectivelyyoumustunderstandyoursourcesandvettheirreliability.
Whenresearching,itisimportanttodeterminethepositionandthereliabilityofeverysource/author.Thiswillensurethatyoursourceisbothcredibleandrelevant,andthatthesourcewillenhanceyourpaperratherthanundermineit.Thefollowingareafewrecommendationstoapproachsourcesinwhateverformtheytake.
HowOldIstheSource?Theguidelinesforassessingtheusabilityofprintsourcesanddigitalsources(i.e.,sourcesaccessedthroughtheInternet)aresimilar.Onepointtokeepinmindforbothdigitalandprintsourcesisage:Howoldisthesource?Examiningthesource’sagehelpsyoudeterminewhethertheinformationisrelevanttoyourpapertopic.Dependingonyourtopic,differentdegreesofagewillbeappropriate.Forexample,ifyouarewritingon17th-centuryBritishpoetry,itisnotenoughtosimplyfindsourcesfromtheera,norisadequatetoreferenceonlyearly20th-centuryscholarlysources.Instead,itwillbehelpfultocombinetheolder,primarysourceswithmorerecent,secondaryscholarship.Doingsowillmakeaconvincingcaseforyourparticularargument.Ifyouareresearchingpublic-healththeories,however,yourargumentwilldependonmoremodernscholarlysources.Olderarticlesmayincludebeliefsorfactsthatareoutdatedorhavebeenprovenwrongbymorecontemporaryresearch.
Withdigitalsources,bewaryofsiteswithold,outdatedinformation.Thepointistoavoidpresentinginaccurateoroutdatedinformationthatwillnegativelyimpactyourpaper.
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AuthorBiasesAuthorbiasisanotherconsiderationinchoosingasource.“Authorbias”meansthattheauthorfeelsstronglyaboutthetopiconewayoranother,whichpreventstheauthorfromtakinganeutralapproachtopresentingfindings.Forprintsources,youcanassessbiasbyconsideringthepublisherofthebook.Bookspublishedbyauniversitypressundergosignificanteditingandreviewtoincreasetheirvalidityandaccuracy.Becautiousaboutself-publishedbooksorbookspublishedbyspecificorganizationslikecorporationsornonprofitgroups.Unlikeuniversitypresses,thesesourcesmayhavedifferentguidelinesandcouldbeputtingoutinformationthatisintentionallymisleadingoruninformed.Similarly,periodicalslikescholarlyjournalsormagazinesmayalsohavebias.However,scholarlyjournalstendtobepeer-reviewedandcontaincitationsofsources,whereasamagazinearticlemaycontaininformationwithoutprovidinganysourcestosubstantiatepurportedclaims.
Whileyouwanttosupportyourargumentwithyourresearch,youdon’twanttodosoattheexpenseofaccuracyorvalidity.
OnlineResourcesWebsites,unlikebooks,donotnecessarilyhavepublishers.Instead,youshouldconsiderwhoisbehindthewebsitesyoufind.Toavoidusinginformationthatcomesfromanunreliablesource,sticktoscholarlydatabases.Whileyoucanfindsomearticleswithgeneralsearchengines,asearchenginewillonlyfindnon-scholarlyarticles.IfyouusebroaderInternetsearches,lookcloselyatdomainnames.Domainnamescantellyouwhosponsorsthesiteandthepurposeofthatsponsorship.Someexamplesincludeeducational(.edu),commercial(.com),nonprofit(.org),military(.mil),ornetwork(.net).
Dependingonyourtopic,youmaywanttoavoiddot-comwebsitesbecausetheirprimarypurposetendstobecommerce,whichcansignificantlyaffectthecontentthattheypublish.Additionally,considerthepurposethatthewebsiteserves.Isanycontactinformationprovidedforthewebsite’sauthor?Doesthewebsiteprovidereferencestosupporttheclaimsthatitmakes?Iftheanswerstothesetypesofquestionsarenotreadilyavailable,itmaybebesttolookinotherplacesforareliablesource.
Thereareincreasingnumbersofnon-scholarlysitesthatpertaintoparticulartopics,butarenotscholarlysources.Blogs,forexample,maycatertoa
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particulartopicorniche,buttheyaretypicallycreatedandmanagedbyanindividualorpartywithaninterestinpromotingthecontentoftheblog.Someblogwritersmayhavevalidcredentials,butbecausetheirwritingisnotpeer-reviewedorheldtoanacademicstandard,sitessuchasthesearetypicallyunreliablesources.
Remember,whenresearching,thegoalisnotonlytogathersources,buttogatherreliableresources.Todothis,youshouldbeabletonotonlytracktheclaimscontainedwithinasource,butalsoconsiderthestakesthatmaybeinvolvedfortheauthormakingthoseclaims.Whilepersonalmotivationmaynotalwaysbeaccessibleinadocument,insomecasestherecanbecontextualclues,likethetypeofpublisherorsponsor.Thesemayleadyoutodecidethatonesourceismorereliablethananother.
Moneyandmagnifyingglass
Whenyouevaluatescholarlysources,lookoutforpotentialconflictsofinterestandhiddenagendas.Forexample,thesourcesoffundingforresearchareveryimportant,astheymayinfluencethewriters’interpretationofresults.
3.3.2:ScholarlySources
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Inacademicwriting,thesourcesyouusemustbereliable;therefore,youshouldrelymainlyonscholarlysourcesasthefoundationforyourresearch.
LearningObjective
Listthedifferenttypesofscholarlysourcesavailabletoresearchers
KeyPoints
Notallsourcesareequal.OnewaytofindreputablescholarlysourcesistoavoidusinggeneralsearchenginessuchasGoogleorWikipedia.UseacademicsearchdatabaseslikeJStor,EBSCO,orAcademicSearchPremier.Primarysourcesgivetheresearcheraglimpseintothetimeperiodunderreviewandprovideopportunitiesfornewanalysis.Inaddition,donothesitatetovisityourlibraryinordertoaskyourlibrarianaboutaccessingthesedatabases,andalsoinordertosearchforprintmaterials.
KeyTerms
secondarysource
Anydocumentthatdrawsononeormoreprimarysourcesandinterpretsoranalysesthem;also,sourcessuchasnewspapers,whoseaccuracyisopentoquestion.
primarysource
Ahistoricaldocumentthatwascreatedatornearthetimeoftheeventsstudied,byaknownperson,foraknownpurpose.
database
Acollectionof(usually)organizedinformationinaregularstructure,usuallybutnotnecessarilyinamachine-readableformataccessiblebyacomputer.
ReliabilityResearchisthefoundationofastrongargument,theory,oranalysis.Whenconstructingyourresearchpaper,itisimportanttoincludereliablesourcesinyourresearch.Withoutreliablesources,readersmayquestionthevalidityof
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yourargumentandyourpaperwillnotachieveitspurpose.
Academicresearchpapersaretypicallybasedonscholarlysourcesandprimarysources.Scholarlysourcesincludearangeofdocuments,sourcetypes,andformats,buttheyshareanimportantquality:credibility.Morethananyothersourceyouarelikelytoencounterduringyourresearch,ascholarlysourceismostlikelytobereliableandaccurate.Primarysourcesaredocumentsthatwerewrittenorcreatedduringthetimeperiodunderstudy.Theyincludeletters,newspaperarticles,photographs,andotherartifactsthatcomedirectlyfromaparticulartimeperiod.
ScholarlySourcesAscholarlysourcecanbeanarticleorbookthatwaswrittenbyanexpertintheacademicfield.Mostarebyprofessorsordoctoralstudentsforpublicationinpeer-reviewedacademicjournals.Sincethelevelofexpertiseandscrutinyissohighforthesearticles,theyareconsideredtobeamongthebestandmosttrustworthysources.Mostofthesearticleswilllistanauthor’scredentials,suchasrelevantdegrees,otherpublications,oremploymentatauniversityorresearchinstitution.Ifanarticledoesnot,trysearchingfortheauthoronlinetoseehowmuchexpertiseheorshehasinthefield.
Youmaydecidetousesourcesthatarenotscholarlyarticles,suchasinterviewsornewspaperarticles.Thesesourcesshouldalsobewrittenbyanexpertinthefieldandpublishedbyareputablesource.AninvestigativeessayintheNewYorkerwouldbefine;aninvestigativeessayintheNationalEnquirerwouldnot.
Othertypesofscholarlysourcesincludenon-printmediasuchasvideos,documentaries,andradiobroadcasts.Othersourcesmayincludetangibleitemssuchasartifacts,art,orarchitecture.It’slikelythatyouwillfindsecondarysourcesthatprovideanalysisofthesesources,butyoushouldalsoexaminethemtoconductyourownanalysis.
PrimaryandSecondarySourcesAprimarysourceisanoriginaldocument.Primarysourcescancomeinmanydifferentforms.InanEnglishpaper,aprimarysourcemightbethepoem,play,ornovelyouarestudying.Inahistorypaper,itmaybeahistoricaldocumentsuchasaletter,ajournal,amap,thetranscriptionofanewsbroadcast,ortheoriginalresultsofastudyconductedduringthetimeperiod
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underreview.Ifyouconductyourownfieldresearch,suchassurveys,interviews,orexperiments,yourresultswouldalsobeconsideredaprimarysource.Primarysourcesarevaluablebecausetheyprovidetheresearcherwiththeinformationclosesttothetimeperiodortopicathand.Theyalsoallowthewritertoconductanoriginalanalysisofthesourceandtodrawnewconclusions.
Secondarysources,bycontrast,arebooksandarticlesthatanalyzeprimarysources.Theyarevaluablebecausetheyprovideotherscholars’perspectivesonprimarysources.Youcanalsoanalyzethemtoseeifyouagreewiththeirconclusionsornot.
Mostessayswilluseacombinationofprimaryandsecondarysources.
WheretoFindScholarlySourcesThefirststepinfindinggoodresourcesistolookintherightplace.Ifyouwantreliablesources,avoidgeneralsearchengines.SiteslikeGoogle,Yahoo,andWikipediamaybegoodforgeneralsearches,butifyouwantsomethingyoucanciteinascholarlypaper,youneedtofinditfromascholarlydatabase.
PopularscholarlydatabasesincludeJStor,ProjectMuse,theMLAInternationalBibliography,AcademicSearchPremier,andProQuest.Thesedatabasesdochargeafeetoviewarticles,butmostuniversitieswillpayforstudentstoviewthearticlesfreeofcharge.Askalibrarianatyourcollegeaboutthedatabasestowhichtheyofferaccess.
Mostjournalswillallowyoutoaccesselectroniccopiesofarticlesifyoufindthemthroughadatabase.Thiswillnotalwaysbethecase,however.Ifanarticleislistedinadatabasebutcan’tbedownloadedtoyourcomputer,writedownthecitationanyway.Manylibrarieswillhavehardcopiesofjournals,soifyouknowtheauthor,dateofpublication,andpagenumbers,youcanprobablyfindaprinteditionofthesource.
Atthecollegeoruniversitylevel,youhaveanotherincredibleresourceatyourfingertips:yourcollege’slibrarians!Forhelplocatingresources,youwillfindthatlibrariansareextremelyknowledgeableandmayhelpyouuncoversourcesyouwouldneverhavefoundonyourown—maybeyourschoolhasamicrofilmcollection,anextensivegenealogydatabase,oraccesstoanotherlibrary’scatalog.Youwillnotknowunlessyouutilizethevaluableskillsavailabletoyou,sobesuretofindouthowtogetintouchwitharesearchlibrarianforsupport!
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ExamplesofScholarlySourcesTheexactcombinationorsourcesyouuseinyourpaperwilldependonthedisciplineinwhichyouareconductingresearchandthetopicofyouressay.Herearesomeexamplesofthetypesofsourcesyoumightincludeinavarietyofacademicfields.
Politics/Law:YoucouldincludetextfromtheConstitutionoraSupremeCourtdecisionasaprimarysource,andyoumayincludeascholarlyarticlethatdiscussesthatdecisionasasecondarysource.Science:Youmayincludefindingsfromascientificresearchstudyasaprimarysource,andyoumayincludeanarticlefromamedicaljournalasasecondarysource.Arts/humanities:Youmayincludeapieceofartworkorwritingasaprimarysource,andyoumayincludeascholar’scriticalanalysisofthatworkasasecondarysource.History:Youmayincludecorrespondencebetweenhistoricalfiguresasaprimarysource,andyoumayincludeinformationfromatextbookasasecondarysource.
Theselistofexamplesismeanttoillustratetherangeofapproachesyoumaytakewhendeterminingwhatsourcestoincludeinyourpaper,butitisnotanexhaustivelistofthepossibilitiesavailabletoyou!Theresearcher’sabilitytodrawconnectionsbetweenavarietyofsourcesispartoftheartofresearch-paperwriting,soyoumustdecideonthebestcombinationofscholarlysourcesforyouressay.
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Research
Lookslikehe’sfoundagoodprintsource—thoughitmaybetoooldforustousetoday.
3.3.3:ChoosingSearchTermsforSources
Conductingsearchesrelatedtothekeywordsorsubheadingsofyourtopicwillhelpsystematizeyourresearch.
LearningObjective
Identifyusefulsearchtermsgivenaresearchtopic
KeyPoints
Inthecourseofyourresearch,yourinitialkeywordsmayrevealotheravenuesthatcouldhelpfurtheryourresearch,especiallyinsituationswherethekeywordsarestillvague.Youcansearchbothonlinedatabasesandactuallibrarycatalogsforsources.Catalogsanddatabasesallowyoutoorganizesearchesbysubjectheadingsand/orkeyterms.Thetwooptionsfornarrowingyoursearcharetousekeytermsorsubjectheadings.Keytermsarewordsthatwillappearfrequentlyinthe
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article.Subjectheadingsarecategoriesofarticlesgroupedbytheme.
KeyTerms
librarycatalog
Aregisterofallbibliographicitemsfoundinalibraryorgroupoflibraries,suchasanetworkoflibrariesatseverallocations.
database
Acollectionof(typically)organizedinformationinaregularstructure,usuallybutnotnecessarilyinamachine-readableformataccessiblebyacomputer.
Example
Ifyou’restudying19th-centurytheoriesoflife,inthecourseofreadingyoumightfind“spontaneousgeneration,”whichwasapopular19th-centurytheoryofhowlifewasformed.Thiscouldhelpopennewavenuesforsearchingfurthersources.Ifthetopicofyourpaperis19th-centuryscientifictheoriesoflifeandMaryShelley’sFrankenstein,somekeywordsthatmightberelevantforyoursearchwouldinclude“science,”“Frankenstein,”and“life”.
Beforeyoustartconductingyourresearch,youshouldhavecreatedaresearchplanwithaspecificresearchquestion.Inadditiontothisplan,youshouldbeginyoursearchwithanobjectiveinmind.Whatexactlyareyoulookingfor?Doyouwantfacts,opinions,statistics,quotations?Isthepurposeofyourresearchtofindanewidea,findfactualinformationtosupportaposition,orsomethingelse?Onceyoudecidewhatyouarelookingfor,itismucheasiertolookforsourcesinthecorrectplacesandwiththecorrectwordsandphrases.
Onceyouhaveyourresearchtopicandyouknowwhichdatabasesyouwanttosearchforarticles,youneedtodeterminethebestwaytogoaboutsearching.Forstarters,youcan’tjusttypeinaquestionlike,“WhatweremedicalpracticeslikeduringtheBattleofGettysburg?”Instead,youshouldsearchoneoftwoways.Thefirstoptionistousekeyterms,orwordsthatwillappearfrequentlyinthearticle.Thesecondistousesubjectheadings—categoriesofarticlesgroupedbytheme.
Tosearchkeyterms,thinkaboutimportantwordsthatwilloccurinsourcesyoucoulduse.Then,typeoneortwoofthosetermsintothesearchbar.Most
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searchengineswillgenerateresultsbasedonhowfrequentlythosewordsappearinarticlesandtheirabstracts.
Let’suseourtopicfromtheprevioussection,medicalpracticesattheBattleofGettysburg,asanexample.Youmightchoosekeywordslike“amputation,”“fieldmedicine,”and“Gettysburg.”ThisshouldyieldarticlesthatdiscussamputationsonthefieldduringtheBattleofGettysburg.Youcouldalsosearchsomethinglike“anesthesia”and“CivilWar,”whichwouldleadyoutoarticlesaboutanestheticsduringthewar.
Whilesearchingwithkeyterms,youmayneedtogetcreative.Somearticleswillusedifferentlanguagethanyoumightexpect,sotryavarietyofrelatedtermstomakesureyou’regettingbackallthepossibleresults.
Alotofoptions
Phraseyoursearchtermsasspecificallyaspossible,sothatyouonlyfindrelevantsources.
Attributions
TheImportanceofReliability
“Boundless.”http://www.boundless.com/.BoundlessLearningCCBY-SA3.0.
“source.”http://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/source.WiktionaryCCBY-SA3.0.
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“research.”http://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/research.WiktionaryCCBY-SA3.0.
“RhetoricandComposition/Researching.”http://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/Rhetoric_and_Composition/ResearchingWikibooksCCBY-SA3.0.
“MoneyandMagnifyingGlass|Flickr-PhotoSharing!.”http://www.flickr.com/photos/59937401@N07/5858011914/.FlickrCCBY2.0.
ScholarlySources
“Boundless.”http://www.boundless.com/.BoundlessLearningCCBY-SA3.0.
“database.”http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/database.WikipediaCCBY-SA3.0.
“secondarysource.”http://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/secondary_source.WiktionaryCCBY-SA3.0.
“primarysource.”http://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/primary_source.WiktionaryCCBY-SA3.0.
“RhetoricandComposition/Researching.”http://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/Rhetoric_and_Composition/Researching%23Finding_Scholarly_SourcesWikibooksCCBY-SA3.0.
cehwiedel.http://www.cehwiedel.com/booklists/2006/01/Booklist.20060120.htmCCBY-SA.
ChoosingSearchTermsforSources
“Boundless.”http://www.boundless.com/.BoundlessLearningCCBY-SA3.0.
“database.”http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/database.WikipediaCCBY-SA3.0.
“librarycatalog.”http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/library%20catalog.WikipediaCCBY-SA3.0.
“JenniferStidham,FLIPItwithWeb2.0-FreeOnlineToolstoEnhancetheStudentResearchProcess.September17,2013.”http://cnx.org/content/m33413/latest/?collection=col11175/latest.OpenStaxCNXCCBY3.0.
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“PublicDomainImageshomepublic.”http://www.public-domain-image.com/cache/objects-public-domain-images-pictures/books-public-domain-images-pictures/books-writing-ms-dos-device-drivers-assembly-language_w725_h544.jpg.PublicDomainImagesPublicdomain.
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3.4:UnderstandingYourSources3.4.1:UnderstandingYourSources
Whenresearching,readthroughyoursourcestwice:oncetounderstandtheauthor’spurposeandargument,andasecondtimetoevaluatetheargument.
LearningObjective
Outlinetheprocessforreadinganacademicsource
KeyPoints
Typically,youwillneedtoreadsourcestwicetogetacompletepictureofwhattheysayandhowyoucanusethem.Yourfirstreadingshouldfocusonunderstandingthesource’sargument.Startbylookingforthetopicandthethesis,thenconsidertheauthor’sstatedpurposeandtheevidenceheorsheusestosupporttheargument.Yoursecondreadingshouldfocusonwhetheryouagreeordisagreewiththesource,andwhetheryouhaveanycommentarythatyouwouldliketomakeabouttheauthor’sargument.Readingscientificarticlesrequiresadifferentstrategythanreadinganewspaperarticleortextbook:youshouldskimthetext,comparethehypothesistotheconclusion,identifykeytermsandvisualaids,andthenreadthearticlecloselyforcontent.Takenotesasyoureadtounderstandyoursourcesandthequestionstheyraise.Whilereadingcritically,askyourselfquestionstobetterunderstandthecontent,theauthor’sposition,andthevalueofthesource.
KeyTerms
thesis
Astatementsupportedbyarguments.
audience
Thereadershipofabookorotherwrittenpublication.
purpose
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Anobjecttobereached;atarget;anaim;agoal.
ReadingYourSourcesOnceyou’vefoundsourcestohelpyourresearch,youmustreadeachsourcecarefully.Todevelopasufficientunderstandingofthesource,youwilltypicallyneedtoreadittwicebeforeincludingitinyouressay.Thefirsttimeshouldbedevotedtounderstandingtheargumentthesourceismaking.Thesecondreadingshouldfocusonhowtheargumentismade.Atthisstage,youshouldalsodeterminewhetheryouagreeordisagreewiththeargumentthatthesourceismaking,andwhetheritwouldsupporttheargumentyouwillmakeinyourpaper.
TheFirstReading
Startbylookingforthetopicandthethesis.Whatistheauthor’sstatedpurpose?Whatkindofevidencedoesheorsheusetosupporttheargument?Whatistheauthorsaying?Whatisherpurpose?Theauthorcouldbetryingtoexplain,inform,anger,persuade,amuse,motivate,sadden,ridicule,attack,ordefend.Onceyouunderstandtheargumentandpurpose,youcanbegintoevaluatetheargument.
TheSecondReading
Thisisthetimetothinkaboutwhetheryouagreeordisagreewiththesource,andwhetheryouhaveanycommentarythatyouwouldliketomakeabouttheauthor’sargument.Duringyoursecondreadingyoushouldconsiderthewriter’sreputationandtheirintendedaudience.Determinewhetheryoufindtheauthorcredibleornot.Ifyoudo,andiftheauthor’spurposeandargumentsupportyourown,youcanbeginincorporatingthesourceintoyourownwriting.Ifyoufindtheauthorcrediblebutdisagreewithhispurpose,itcanstillbevaluabletoconsiderthesourceinyourownwritingsothatyoucananticipateandacknowledgecounterargumentslaterinyouressay.
Finally,remembertopayattentiontoquotationmarksasyouread.It’simportanttonotewhethertheauthorofatextiswriting,oriftheyarequotingsomeoneelse.Quotationmarksareahelpfultoolthatauthorsusetohelpreadersindistinguishingtheirvoicefromthoseofothers.Bypayingattentiontoquotationsandothercitedmaterial,youmayalsogainleadsonothersourcesandauthorsyoucanincorporateinyourpaper.
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ReadingScientificArticlesDonotreadascientificarticleasthoughyou’rereadingatextbook.Unlikeacademicarticles,sciencetextbooksorganizeinformationinchronologicalorderandhighlightimportantterms,definitions,andconclusionswithboldtextandgraphics.Academicarticlesrequireamoreproactivereadingstrategy.
Followthesefourstepsforreadingscientificarticles:
1.Beforeyoureadtheentirearticle,skimitquicklyforanoverviewofitsstructure.
2.Returntothebeginningforaselectivereading.Readtheabstract,whichwillsummarizethearticle.Readthebeginningandendoftheintroduction,whichwillpresentthemainpointsandexplaintheirimportance.Skimtheconclusiontoseehowtheresultscorrespondtothehypothesis.Asyouread,lookforkeywordsthatsignalimportantinformation,suchasthefollowing:surprising,unexpected,incontrastwithpreviouswork,wehypothesizethat,wepropose,weintroduce,wedevelop,thedatasuggest.
3.Skimtheentirearticleforcommonkeywordsandalsovisualaids(suchasdiagramsandcharts),whicharegoodindicatorsofimportantinformation.
4.Atthispoint,youcanreadthearticleclosely,attemptingtodrawinferencesbeyondwhatitstatesexplicitly.Asyouread,takenotesinaseparatenotebook,orinacomputerdocument.
QuestionsforGuidedReading
Ifyouwanttomakesureyoucatchthemostimportantfeaturesofthearticle,askpointedquestionswhileyouread.Thefollowingquestionsareessentialtoathoroughsummaryofascientificarticle:
1. Whatisthetopicofthearticle?2. Howistheproblem,question,orissuedefined?3. Whatisthepurposeoftheresearch?Whatquestion,problem,orissue
didthearticleaddressinrelationtothetopic?4. Areanyassumptionsunusualorquestionable?5. Whyisthequestion,problem,orissueimportant?Whatsituationexists
thatmotivatedtheresearch?6. Whatexperimentaldesignisused?Whatmethodsareused?7. Whataretheresults?Howweretheyinterpreted?Whatdidthe
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researcherconclude?8. Whyisthearticlevaluableornoteworthy?Doesitanswerapreviously
unansweredquestion,orcontradictearlierresearch?Doesitintroducesanewmethodortechnique?Doesittestanoldconclusioninanewway?Doesitproveanoldassumptionfalse?
TakingNotesNomatterwhatyouarereading,thefollowingstrategiesareeffective:
Highlightimportantpassages.Drawlinesbetweenthehighlightedpartsandbrieflydescribetheirconnection.Maptherelationshipsbetweenkeyconcepts.Makealistofkeywords.Lookforwordsthatsignalanimportantpieceofinformation.Lookforfamiliarconceptsappliedtonewpopulationsorsituations.Trytofindevidencethatmightcontradictsomethingthatwasestablishedinyourclass.
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Thinkaboutit…
Onceyouhavescannedasourcetoknowwhatitisabout,rereaditwhilethinkingcriticallyaboutitsargument.
Attributions
UnderstandingYourSources
“Boundless.”http://www.boundless.com/.BoundlessLearningCCBY-SA3.0.
“thesis.”http://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/thesis.WiktionaryCCBY-SA3.0.
“purpose.”http://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/purpose.WiktionaryCCBY-SA3.0.
“audience.”http://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/audience.WiktionaryCCBY-SA3.0.
“RhetoricandComposition/RhetoricalAnalysis.”http://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/Rhetoric_and_Composition/Rhetorical_AnalysisWikibooksCCBY-SA3.0.
“Allsizes|BeardedPhilosopher|Flickr-PhotoSharing!.”http://www.flickr.com/photos/ian-w-scott/4870567608/sizes/l/in/photostream/.FlickrCCBY-SA.
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3.5:UsingYourSources3.5.1:TakingUsefulNotesonYourSources
Takingorganizednotesonyoursourcesasyoudoresearchwillbehelpfulwhenyoubeginwriting.
LearningObjective
Describeusefulnote-takingstrategies
KeyPoints
Notesshouldnotonlyincludebibliographicinformation,butalsorelevantarguments,quotes,andpagenumbers.Systematizingyournote-takingwhiledoingresearchwillreducetheneedtoaimlesslysearchthroughallyoursourceswhenyoutransitionintowriting.Takingnotesnow,eventhoughitmayfeelfrustrating,isinyourbestinterestinthelongrun.Usethefullcitationasyourheadingforeachsegmentofnotesyoutake.Thatway,youcanbesuretohavethecitationreadywhenyoustartwritingyourpaper.
KeyTerm
citation
Aparaphraseofapassagefromabook,orfromanotherperson,forthepurposesofascholarlypaper.
Example
Considerthefollowingsource:Aldiss,BrianW.“OntheOriginofSpecies:MaryShelley.”SpeculationsonSpeculation:TheoriesofScienceFiction.Eds.JamesGunnandMatthewCandelaria.Lanham,Maryland:Scarecrow,2005.Notesforthissourcemightlooklikethis:“AldissdiscussestherelationshipbetweenErasmusDarwin,CharlesDarwin’sgrandfather,andthetextofFrankenstein.SeeespeciallypagefivewhereAldisspointsoutthattheintroductionincludesreferencesto
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galvanismandelectricity.”
WhyTakeNotesWhileResearching?Whilemostofyourresearchwilltakeplacebeforeyoubeginwriting,youwillstillrefertoyourresourcesthroughoutthewritingprocess.Thiswillbemucheasierifyoutakethoroughnoteswhilereadingthroughyoursourcesduringtheinitialresearchphase.
Thegoalofnote-takingistokeeparecordofwhateverinformationyoumightwanttouselater.Yournotesshouldbeasthoroughastheyneedtobe,butnottoolongthattheyarenolongerusefultoyou.Ifyousummarizeinformation,makesureyouincludewhateveryoumightwanttoincorporateinyourpaper.Ifyouthinkaquotewillbeuseful,writeitdowninfull.Avoidcopyingwholeparagraphsorpages,though;instead,decideexactlywhatisusefultoyouonthatpageandwriteonlythatdown.Youwanttobeabletolookthroughyournoteslateronandeasilyseewhatinformationyoufounduseful.
OrganizingYourNotesOrganizingyournotesisjustasimportantastakingqualitynotes.Youwillneedtotrackexactlywhichsourceeachnotecamefromsothatyoucanproperlyciteyoursourcesthroughoutyourwriting.Thus,thefirstthingyoushoulddowhentakingnotesistowritedownthefullcitationforthesourceonwhichyouaretakingnotes.Thiswillhelpyoufindthesourcelateronifyouneedto,andwillensurethatyoustillhavethecompletecitationevenifyoulosethesourceorhavetoreturnittothelibrary.Organizingnotesbysourcealsoensuresthatyouwillneverlosetrackofhowyouneedtocitetheminyourpaper,sobeginningwithcitationinformationprovidesausefulheading.
Inadditiontolabelingeachsource,alwaysbesuretowritedownthepagenumberswhereyoufoundwhateverinformationyou’vewrittendown.Youwillneedtoknowthepagenumberwhenyoucitethatinformationinyourpaper.
Thereareseveralmethodsfororganizingyournoteswhileresearching,suchasthefollowing:
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Indexcards:Youmaywanttocreateanindexcardorsetofcardsforeachsourceyouuse.Youcanthenstorethecardsinorderandcaneasilysortthroughthemtofindthenotesyouneed.OnlinesourcessuchasMicrosoftOneNote:OneNoteisadigitalnotebookthatallowsyoutocreatenewpages,tabs,andnotebooksforyournotes.Youcanquicklynavigatebetweenpages,andyouwillhavetheadvantageofalreadyhavingimportantquotationsandcitationinformationintypedform.Thismakesiteasytoincorporatenotesintoyourpaperduringthewritingprocess.Organizebysubtopic:Somesourcesmayprovideinformationonseveralsubtopicsthatrelatetoyourargument.Youcanchoosetoorganizeyournotesforeachsourcebysubtopicsothatwhenyougettothattopicinyouressay,youcaneasilyfindthenotesonit.Youcandothisbycreatingheadingsorsubheadingswithinyournotes.
Takingnotes
Somepeopleuseindexcardstoorganizetheirnoteswhileresearching.
3.5.2:MaintaininganAnnotatedBibliography
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Anannotatedbibliographyisalistofallyoursources,includingfullcitationinformationandnotesonhowyouwillusethesources.
LearningObjective
Listtheelementsofanannotatedbibliography
KeyPoints
Ifyoukeepanannotatedbibliographywhileyouresearch,itwillfunctionasausefulguide.Itwillbeeasierforyoutorevisitsourceslaterbecauseyouwillalreadyhavenotesexplaininghowyouwanttousethem.Ifyoufindanannotatedbibliographyattachedtooneofthesourcesyouareusing,youcanlookatittofindotherpossibleresources.Itisimportantthatyouusetheproperformatwhencitingsources.Consultthestylemanualforwhicheverformatyourprofessorasksthatyouuse.Whenyoumakenotesonyoursources,includeasummaryofthesource,anevaluationofitsreliabilityandpotentialbias,andareflectiononhowthesourcecouldbeusedintheessay.
KeyTerms
bibliography
Alistofbooksordocumentsrelevanttoaparticularsubjectorauthor.
annotation
Anotethatismadewhilereadinganyformoftextthatmaybeassimpleasunderliningorhighlightingpassages.
citation
Aparaphraseofapassagefromabook,orfromanotherperson,forthepurposesofascholarlypaper.
ThePurposeoftheAnnotatedBibliographyAnannotatedbibliographyisalistofallthesourcesyouhaveresearched,
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includingboththeirfullbibliographiccitationsandsomenotesonhowyoumightwanttouseeachresourceinyourwork.
Annotatedbibliographiesareusefulforseveralreasons.Ifyoukeeponewhileyouresearch,theannotatedbibliographywillfunctionasausefulguide.Itwillbeeasierforyoutorevisitsourceslaterbecauseyouwillalreadyhavenotesexplaininghowyouwanttouseeachsource.Ifyoufindanannotatedbibliographyattachedtooneofthesourcesyouareusing,youcanlookatittofindotherpossibleresources.
Understandyournotes
Annotatedbibliographiesincludenotesthatexplainwhatyoufoundusefulineachsource,makingiteasierforyoutoreferbacktoappropriatesourceslater.
ConstructingYourCitations
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Thefirstpartofeachentryinanannotatedbibliographyisthesource’sfullcitation.Adescriptionofcommoncitationpracticescanbefoundinthesectionentitled“CitingSourcesFully,Accurately,andAppropriately,”anddetailedinstructionscanbefoundinthestylemanualforwhateverformatyourprofessorwantsyoutouse.
WhattoIncludeinEachAnnotationAgoodannotationhasthreeparts,inadditiontothecompletebibliographicinformationforthesource:
1. abriefsummaryofthesource2. acritiqueandevaluationofcredibility,and3. anexplanationofhowyouwillusethesourceinyouressay
Startbystatingthemainideaofthesource.Ifyouhavespace,notethespecificinformationthatyouwanttousefromthesource,suchasquotations,chapters,orpagenumbers.Thenexplainifthesourceiscredible,andnoteanypotentialbiasyouobserve.Finally,explainhowthatinformationisusefultoyourownwork.
Youmayalsoconsiderincluding:shouldalsoincludesomeorallofthefollowing:
Anexplanationabouttheauthorityand/orqualificationsoftheauthorThescopeormainpurposeoftheworkAnydetectablebiasorinterpretivestanceTheintendedaudienceandlevelofreading
ExampleAnnotationSource:Farley,John.“TheSpontaneous-GenerationControversy(1700–1860):TheOriginofParasiticWorms.”JournaloftheHistoryofBiology,5(Spring1972),95–125.
Notes:ThisessaydiscussestheconversationaboutspontaneousgenerationthatwastakingplacearoundthetimethatFrankensteinwaswritten.Inaddition,itintroducesadistinctionbetweenabiogenesisandheterogenesis.Theauthorarguesthattheaccountsofspontaneousgenerationfromthistimeperiodwereoftenbasedonincorrect
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assumptions:thatthediscussionwasfocusedprimarilyonmicro-organisms,andthatspontaneous-generationtheoriesweredisprovedbyexperiments.Theauthortakesascientificapproachtoevaluatingtheoriesofspontaneousgeneration,andthepresentationofhisargumentissupportedwithsources.Itisareliableandcrediblesource.Theessaywillbehelpfulinformingapictureoftheearly19th-centuryconversationabouthowlifeisformed,aswellasexplainingthecriticalperceptionofspontaneous-generationtheoriesduringthe19thcentury.
3.5.3:WritingWhileYouResearch
Onceyouhaveenoughnotes,youshouldstartwriting,evenifyouintendtokeepresearching.
LearningObjective
Explaintheuseofbeginningtowriteyourpaperduringtheresearchprocess
KeyPoints
Asyouresearch,letyourselfdosomepreliminarywriting.Provideyourselfwithaspacetothinkthroughideasandconsiderhowyourideasarerelatedtoeachother.Thiscanbeaveryhelpfulpracticeasyoumoveintothewritingphase.Writingasyoureadisawaytoavoidgettingboggeddowninresearching,whichcanfeelendlessasyoutrytodeterminewhatisandisnotarelevantsource.Bycausingyoutothinkthroughyourresearchmaterials,preliminarywritingisagoodwaytobuildthespecificsofyourargument.Takenotesasyoureadyoursources,sincerelyingonmemorywillleadtolosinginformation.Similarly,startcomingupwiththeorganizationalstructureandargumentofyourpaperasyougatherresearch.
KeyTerms
drafting
Thepreliminarystageofawritingprojectinwhichtheauthorbeginstodevelopamorecohesiveproduct.
note
Amark,orsign,madetocallattentiontosomething.
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idea
Theconceptionofsomeoneorsomethingasrepresentingaperfectexample;anideal.
Weoftenthinkofthewritingprocessasaseriesofdiscretesteps.Wefirstresearch,thentakenotes,thenoutline,thenwrite.However,inpractice,thedifferentphasesofwritingapaperoftenoverlap.Asyouresearch,youbegintakingnotes.Asyoutakenotes,youbegintoseehowyouwanttoputyourargumenttogetherandmayevenstartdevelopinganin-depthanalysisofsomeofyoursources.Evenifyouarenotofficiallyatthedraftingstageofyourpaper,that’sokay.Theresearchyoudowilloftenprovideyouwithinsightsthatyou’llwanttoincludeinyourargument.
Ifyouhaveanideaforyouressaywhiletakingnotes,don’twaittowriteitdown—startdevelopingit!Whiletheideaisstillfreshandclear,takeabreakfromresearchandstartworkingonyourpaper’sstructureorargument.Writingaboutissuesyoudiscoverinyourresearchthatyoufindinterestingwilltakethetediumoutofresearchingandoutliningandwillhelpyoubetterunderstandtheformatyouressaywilltake.
Onceyouhaveenoughnotes,youshouldstartwriting,evenifyouintendtokeepresearching.Itcanbetemptingtogetboggeddownintheresearchprocessandavoidmovingontoactuallywritingafirstdraft.Avoidthisimpulsebystartingtowritewhilestillresearching.Atthisearlystage,itwillstillbeeasytoincludenewresearchasyoufindit.
Youmayonlybeabletowriteonesectionatatime,oryoumaystartwritingasectionandrealizethatyouneedmoresupportfromyoursources.Beginningtoconstructyourpaperduringtheresearchprocesshelpsyouidentifyholesinyourargument,weaknessesinyourevidenceorsupport,andmayrevealaneedtochangethestructureorformatofyouressay.Itisofteneasiertoaddresstheseissuesinanongoingmannerthanitistowaituntiltheendofeithertheresearchorwritingprocess.
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Activeresearch
Don’tjustreadpassively—takenotesthroughouttheresearchprocess.
3.5.4:IncorporatingYourSourcesIntoYourPaper
Thereareseveralwaystoproperlyincorporateandgivecredittothesourcesyoucitewithinyourpaper.
LearningObjective
Namethewaysofincorporatingoutsidesourcesintoyourpaper
KeyPoints
Therearethreemethodsforreferencingasourceinthetextofyourpaper:quoting,summarizing,andparaphrasing.Directquotationsarewordsandphrasesthataretakendirectlyfromanothersource,andthenusedword-for-wordinyourpaper.Asummaryistypicallyashortdescriptionthatoutlinesthemostimportantpointsandgeneralpositionofthesource.Aparaphraseiswhenyouputanothersourceorpartofasource(suchasachapter,paragraph,orpage)intoyourownwords.Youshouldfollowquoteswithadescription,inyourownterms,ofwhatthequotesaysandwhyitisrelevanttothepurposeofyourpaper.Followthestyleguideyouareusingtoproperlyformatandciteyourquotationsandborrowedinformation.
KeyTerms
quotation
Afragmentofahumanexpressionthatisbeingreferredtobysomebodyelse.
paraphrase
Arewordingofsomethingwrittenorspokenbysomeoneelse.
summary
Ashortdescriptionthatoutlinesthemostimportantpointsandgeneralpositionofthesource.
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HowtoUseYourSourcesinYourPaperWithinthepagesofyourpaper,itisimportanttoproperlyreferenceandciteyoursourcestoavoidplagiarismandtogivecreditfororiginalideas.Dependingonwhichstyleguideyouareusing(e.g.,APA,MLA),youwillfollowdifferentmethodstoformatyourtexttorefertoothers’work.
Therearethreemethodsforreferencingasourceinthetextofyourpaper:quoting,summarizing,andparaphrasing.
Quoting
Directquotationsarewordsandphrasesthataretakendirectlyfromanothersource,andthenusedword-for-wordinyourpaper.Ifyouincorporateadirectquotationfromanotherauthor’stext,youmustputthatquotationorphraseinquotationmarkstoindicatethatitisnotyourlanguage.Whenwritingdirectquotations,youcanusethesourceauthor’snameinthesamesentenceasthequotationtointroducethequotedtextandtoindicatethesourceinwhichyoufoundthetext.Youshouldthenincludethepagenumberorotherrelevantinformationinparenthesesattheendofthephrase(theexactformatwilldependontheformattingstyleofyouressay).
Summarizing
Summarizinginvolvesdistillingthemainideaofasourceintoamuchshorteroverview.Asummaryoutlinesasource’smostimportantpointsandgeneralposition.Whensummarizingasource,itisstillnecessarytouseacitationtogivecredittotheoriginalauthor.Youmustreferencetheauthororsourceintheappropriateparentheticalcitationattheendofthesummary.
Paraphrasing
Whenparaphrasing,youmayputanypartofasource(suchasaphrase,sentence,paragraph,orchapter)intoyourownwords.Youmayfindthattheoriginalsourceuseslanguagethatismoreclear,concise,orspecificthanyourownlanguage,inwhichcaseyoushoulduseadirectquotation,puttingquotationmarksaroundthoseuniquewordsorphrasesyoudon’tchange.Itiscommontouseamixtureofparaphrasedtextandquotedwordsorphrases,as
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longasthedirectquotationsareinsideofquotationmarks.
ProvidingContextforYourSourcesWhetheryouuseadirectquotation,asummary,oraparaphrase,itisimportanttodistinguishtheoriginalsourcefromyourideas,andtoexplainhowthecitedsourcefitsintoyourargument.Whiletheuseofquotationmarksorparentheticalcitationstellsyourreaderthatthesearenotyourownwordsorideas,youshouldfollowthequotewithadescription,inyourownterms,ofwhatthequotesaysandwhyitisrelevanttothepurposeofyourpaper.Youshouldnotletquotedorparaphrasedtextstandaloneinyourpaper,butrather,shouldintegratethesourcesintoyourargumentbyprovidingcontextandexplanationsabouthoweachsourcesupportsyourargument.
Thewritingprocess
Signalingwhoissayingwhatisanimportantpartofthewritingprocess.
Attributions
TakingUsefulNotesonYourSources
“Boundless.”http://www.boundless.com/.BoundlessLearningCCBY-SA3.0.
“citation.”http://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/citation.WiktionaryCCBY-SA3.0.
“HowtoWriteaResearchPaperinHistory/Doingresearch.”
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http://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/How_to_Write_a_Research_Paper_in_History/Doing_researchWikibooksCCBY-SA3.0.
“Allsizes|IndexCardSystem|Flickr-PhotoSharing!.”http://www.flickr.com/photos/koalazymonkey/3331704619/sizes/l/in/photostream/FlickrCCBY.
MaintaininganAnnotatedBibliography
“Boundless.”http://www.boundless.com/.BoundlessLearningCCBY-SA3.0.
“annotation.”http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/annotation.WikipediaCCBY-SA3.0.
“bibliography.”http://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/bibliography.WiktionaryCCBY-SA3.0.
“Annotatedbibliography.”http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Annotated_bibliography.WikipediaCCBY-SA3.0.
“RhetoricandComposition/AnnotatedBibliography.”http://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/Rhetoric_and_Composition/Annotated_BibliographyWikibooksCCBY-SA3.0.
“citation.”http://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/citation.WiktionaryCCBY-SA3.0.
“Allsizes|Bibliography|Flickr-PhotoSharing!.”http://www.flickr.com/photos/quinnanya/5124103273/sizes/l/in/photostream/FlickrCCBY-SA.
WritingWhileYouResearch
“Boundless.”http://www.boundless.com/.BoundlessLearningCCBY-SA3.0.
“drafting.”http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/drafting.WikipediaCCBY-SA3.0.
“idea.”http://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/idea.WiktionaryCCBY-SA3.0.
“note.”http://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/note.WiktionaryCCBY-SA3.0.
“HowtoWriteaResearchPaperinHistory/Organizingyourwork.”http://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/How_to_Write_a_Research_Paper_in_History/Organizing_your_workWikibooksCCBY-SA3.0.
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“MacBookwritingbyHåkanDahlströminWritingonFotopedia-ImagesforHumanity.”http://www.fotopedia.com/items/flickr-3022965984.FotopediaCCBY.
IncorporatingYourSourcesIntoYourPaper
“Boundless.”http://www.boundless.com/.BoundlessLearningCCBY-SA3.0.
“TheCainProjectinEngineeringandProfessionalCommunication,WhatIsaThesis?WhatShouldBeinIt?.September17,2013.”http://cnx.org/content/m15923/latest/.OpenStaxCNXCCBY3.0.
“citation.”http://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/citation.WiktionaryCCBY-SA3.0.
“quotation.”http://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/quotation.WiktionaryCCBY-SA3.0.
“MissAWritesaSong|Flickr-PhotoSharing!.”http://www.flickr.com/photos/mrsdkrebs/6812988187/.FlickrCCBY2.0.
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3.6:CitingYourSources3.6.1:TheImportanceofCitingYourSources
Toavoidplagiarism,onemustprovideanaccuratecitationeverytimeinformationisusedfromanoutsidesource.
LearningObjective
Identifythedifferenttypesofcitationsandwheretheyshouldappearinapaper.
KeyPoints
Anaccuratecitationincludescompletereferenceinformationwritteninaregulatedformat.Thisshouldallowthereadertofindthecompleteresourcethatwascited.Typesofcitationsincludeparenthetical(in-text)citation,footnote,endnote,andfullcitationofallsources.Acompletereferencesection(oftentitled“References”or“WorksCited”dependingoncitationstyle)comesattheendofyourpaperandlistsallcitedsourcesinalphabeticalorder.Thereareseveraldifferentformatsforcitations,includingMLA,APA,andTurabianstyle(alsoknownasChicagostyleorCMS).Rulesforeachofthesestylesaregiveninstylemanuals;theyincludedetailedexplanationsandexamplesofhowtocitesourcescorrectly.Askyourteacherwhatspecificstyletheywantyoutofollowforyourcitations;typicallytheywillwantonestyleforallworksubmitted.
KeyTerms
plagiarism
Thecopyingofanotherperson’sideas,text,orothercreativework,andpresentingitasone’sown,especiallywithoutpermission.
in-textcitation
Referenceinformationforaparticularsourcepresentedwithinaparagraph,eitherasaparentheticalorintegratedintoasentence.
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footnote
Ashortpieceoftext,oftennumbered,placedatthebottomofaprintedpage,thataddsacomment,citation,reference,etc.,toadesignatedpartofthemaintext.
WhatDoYouNeedtoCite?Anytimeyouusespecificmaterialfromanoutsideresource,youneedtoprovideacitationthatsaysexactlywhereyoufoundthatinformation.“Specificmaterial”referstoquotations,detailedparaphrases,summaries,andimagesorgraphs.Ifyouuseanyoftheabovesourceswithoutcitingthem,youarecommittingplagiarism.Ifyouareeverunsurewhethertociteasourceornot,youshouldcitethesource.Itisbesttoerronthesideofcautiontoavoidplagiarism.
Atthecollegelevel,plagiarismisanextremelyseriousoffense.Studentswhoplagiarize,whetherintentionallyorunintentionally,riskacademicconsequencesthatrangefromfailinganassignmentoraclasstoexpulsion.Learninghowtociteyoursourcesismorethanastylisticrequirement—itisamatterofacademicintegrity.
Youwillciteresourcesintwoplaces:abriefcitationinthetextofyourpaper(in-textcitation),andafullcitationinareferencepageattheendofyouressay.
In-TextCitationsIn-textcitationscomeintwoforms:theparenthetical,andthefootnote(orendnote).
Parentheticals
Parentheticalcitationsincludethenecessaryinformationinparenthesesafterasentence.Parentheticalcitationsshouldincludeonlyenoughinformationtodirectthereadertothespecificinformationyouareciting.Mostcitationswillrequireonlythelastnameoftheauthorandthepagenumberwheretheinformationcomesfrom,butthiswillvaryaccordingtothestylemanualyouaredirectedtousebyyourprofessor.Thefollowingisanexampleofaparentheticalcitation:
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AldissclaimsErasmusDarwinwasaninfluenceontheRomanticpoetswhosurroundedMaryShelley,describinghisthoughtas“seminal”(Aldiss,13).
FootnotesandEndnotes
Footnotesincludeanumberattheendofthesentencethatdirectsthereadertotheappropriatenoteatthebottomofthepage.Endnotesareexactlylikefootnotes,exceptthenotesareattheendofthepaperratherthanatthebottomofthepage.Footnotesandendnotescanbeusedbothtociteasource,toprovideadditionalinformation,ortoprovidecontextforawordorconceptinyourtext.
Formoredetailedinstructions,aswellasinformationonwhattodoinexceptionalcircumstances,consultastylemanualforwhicheverformatisrequired.
ReferenceSectionSincein-textcitationsarekeptbrief,youwillneedtoprovidethefullbibliographicdetailsofyoursourcesoutsideofthetextofyourpaper.Thisisdoneinareferencesectionattheendofyourpaper.Thenameofthispagediffersdependingonthestyle(MLAcallsittheWorksCitedsection;APAcallsittheReferencessection).Thispageservesthesamepurposeforeachstyle:itcomesattheendofyourpaperandlistsallyourcitedsourcesinalphabeticalorder(typicallybytheauthor’slastname).
CitationStyleManualsWritingcitationsrequiresthatyoufollowdetailedformattingrules.Thereareseveraldifferentformats,includingMLA,APA,andTurabianstyle(alsoknownasChicagoManuscriptStyle).Rulesforeachofthesestylesareexplainedinstylemanuals,whichincludedetailedexplanationsandmanyspecificexamplesofhowtocitethingscorrectly.Moststyleguidesincludesectionsoncitingonlinesources;writersshouldpayextraattentiontotherulesforverifyingandcitingsourcesfromtheweb.Manypublicationsandprofessorsnowrequireauthorstoruntheirpapersthroughonlineplagiarismtoolstoensurewritingisoriginal.
Yourprofessorwillmostlikelyindicatethespecificstylethatyoushouldfollowdependingonthesubjectforwhichyouarewriting,sobesureto
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followthecorrectstyleguide!Youshouldfindacopyofastylemanual,eitheronlineorinprint,andconsultitfrequently.Itmayseemtediousandfussy,butaccuratecitationsareanecessarycomponentofanyreputableessay.
Understandyournotes
Annotatedbibliographiesincludenotesthatexplainwhatyoufoundusefulinasource,makingiteasierforyoutoreferbacktoasourcelater.
Attributions
TheImportanceofCitingYourSources
“Boundless.”http://www.boundless.com/.BoundlessLearningCCBY-SA3.0.
“Chicago-StyleCitationQuickGuide.”http://www.chicagomanualofstyle.org/tools_citationguide.html.The
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ChicagoManualofStyleOnlinePublicdomain.
“APAStyle.”https://owl.english.purdue.edu/owl/section/2/10/.PurdueOnlineWritingLabPublicdomain.
“MLAFormattingandStyleGuide.”https://owl.english.purdue.edu/owl/resource/747/01/.PurdueOnlineWritingLabPublicdomain.
“in-textcitation.”http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/in-text%20citation.WikipediaCCBY-SA3.0.
“footnote.”http://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/footnote.WiktionaryCCBY-SA3.0.
“plagiarism.”http://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/plagiarism.WiktionaryCCBY-SA3.0.
“RhetoricandComposition/Citation.”http://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/Rhetoric_and_Composition/Citation.WikibooksCCBY-SA3.0.
“Allsizes|Bibliography|Flickr-PhotoSharing!.”http://www.flickr.com/photos/quinnanya/5124103273/sizes/l/in/photostream/FlickrCCBY-SA.
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4:OverviewofEnglishGrammar:PartsofSpeech
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4.1:IntroductiontoEnglishGrammarandMechanics4.1.1:ComponentsofaSentence
Englishfeaturesfourcoresentenceelements(subjects,predicates,objects,andmodifiers)thatmakeupphrasesandclauses,whichinturnmakeupsentences.
LearningObjective
Recognizeacompletesentencebyidentifyingitssubjectandpredicate
KeyPoints
Withinasentence,thesubjectisthenoun(orpronoun)thatperformstheaction.Withinasentence,thepredicateistheverborverbphrasethattellswhatactionisbeingperformedbythesubject.Withinasentence,thedirectobjectisthepersonorobjectuponwhichthesubjectisacting.Withinasentence,theindirectobjectanswersthequestion“towhom/what?”or“forwhom/what?”Amodifiergivesmoreinformationaboutasentenceelement.Aphraseisagroupofwordsthatdoesnotcontainbothasubjectandaverb.Sentencesaremadeupofclauses.Aclausecontainsatleastasubjectandafiniteverb.
KeyTerms
complement
Aword,phrase,orclausethatisnecessarytocompletethemeaningofagivenexpression.
phrase
Agroupofwordsthatcannotstandonitsownbecauseitdoesnothave
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bothasubjectandaverb.
fragment
Anincompletesentence,lackingasubjectorapredicate.
subject
Inaclause,thewordorwordgroup(usuallyanounphrase)thatrepresentsaperson,placeorthing.Inactiveclauseswithverbsdenotinganaction,thesubjectandtheactorareusuallythesame.
predicate
Thepartofthesentence(orclause)thatstatessomethingaboutthesubjectortheobjectofthesentence.
sentencefragment
Anincompletesentence;aphraseorclausethatispunctuatedandcapitalizedasasentencebutdoesnotconstituteacompletegrammaticalsentence.Itisusuallycausedeitherbythefailuretoincludeasubjectandaverbinasentenceorbybeginningasentencewithasubordinateconjunctionorrelativepronoun.
simplepredicate
Theverborverbphraseofasentence.
object
Thenounorpronounwhichisbeingactedupon,oratwhichtheactionisdirected.Therearetwotypes:directandindirect.
modifier
Aword,phrase,orclausethatlimitsorqualifiesthesenseofanotherwordorphrase.
clause
Typicallycontainsatleastasubjectnounphraseandafiniteverb.Thetwomaincategoriesareindependentandsubordinate(ordependent).
CompleteSentencesInordertosuccessfullycraftsentences,onemustfirstunderstandthecoreelementsofcompleteEnglishsentences:subjects,objects,predicates,andmodifiers.Themostimportantofthesearesubjectsandpredicates:inorder
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forasentencetobe“complete,”itmustcontainanactionandsomeone(orsomething)doingit.Theactionisthepredicate,andtheperson(orthing)doingitisthesubject.
Anincompletesentenceiscalledafragment.Compareandcontrastthesentencesbelow:
1. Ilikepizza.Becauseittastesdelicious.2. Ilikepizzabecauseittastesdelicious.
Ofthetwoexamplesabove,thefirstcontainsafragment:“Becauseittastesdelicious”isafragment,oranincompletethought.Ithasan“action”(tastingdelicious)butnosubject.
Thesecondexampleiscorrect;ithasallthenecessarycomponentsofafullsentence—asubjectandapredicate.
ItisimportanttounderstandthattherearemanygrayareasofdefinitionandusagewhenitcomestoEnglish-languagesentenceconstruction.Forthepurposesofunderstanding,wewillstartwithbasicideasandsimpleexamples.Whenyouhaveastronggraspofthese,youwillfeelmoreabletohandlethegrayareas.
SubjectsThesubjectofasentenceisanounorpronoun(anditsarticle,ifithasone).Inactive-voicesentences,itisthenounorpronounperformingtheactioninthesentence.Seetheitalicizedsubjectsintheexamplesbelow:
1. Theboycrossedthestreet.2. Sheworksinthecity.3. Markisagoodathlete.
Inexample1,thesubject,“theboy,”isbothanounanditsarticle.Inexample2,thesubjectisapronoun.Inexample3,thesubjectisanoun(noarticle).
PredicatesThepredicateexplainstheactionofthesentence.Thesimplepredicatereferstojusttheverborverbphrase,linkedtothesubject,whichtellswhatactionisbeingperformedbythatsubject.Intheexamplesabove,“crossed,”“works,”
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and“is”areallsimplepredicates.
Therearemorecomplexdefinitionsof“predicate.”Sometimes“predicate”cansimplymean“everythingexceptthesubject.”Butjustremember:thesimplepredicateistheaction(verborverbphrase)ofasentence.
Intheexamplesbelow,thepredicatesareitalicized:
Thehouseisgreen.Sheseemsangry.Theburdenbecameexcessive.
ObjectsTheobjectofasentenceisthenounorpronounwhichisbeingactedupon,oratwhichtheactionisdirected.Therearetwotypesofobjects:directobjectsandindirectobjects.
DirectObject
Thedirectobjectistheobjectwhichisbeingacteduponinthesentence.Seetheitalicizeddirectobjectsintheexamplesbelow:
Johnnythrowstheball.Jillcutsthecake.Billridesthebike.
IndirectObject
Theindirectobjectanswersthequestions“towhom/what?”or“forwhom/what?”inasentence.Itisnotactedupon.Seetheitalicizedindirectobjectsintheexamplesbelow:
Johnnythrowstheballtome.Jillcutsthecakeforherfriends.Billridesthebiketoschool.
NoObject
Somesentencesdonotneedanobjectandconsistofonlyasubjectandaverb
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predicate.Forexample:
Marysmiled.Fredsneezed.
Thiscanhappenbecausesomeverbs(liketheonesabove)don’trequireanobject.Whenaverbdoesn’tneedanobject,itiscalledanintransitiveverb.(We’lltalkmoreaboutthislater.)
ModifiersAmodifierisaphraseinasentencethatprovidesadditionalinformationaboutanelementwithinthatsentence.Therearethreebasickindsofmodifyingconstructions:
Single-wordmodifiers(adjectivesandadverbs):Itwasanicehouse.Modifyingphrases(e.g.,prepositional,participial,infinitive,andappositivephrases):BarryGoldwater,thejuniorsenatorfromArizona,receivedtheRepublicannominationin1964.(appositivephrase)Modifyingclauses(aclauseisanygroupofwordswithitsownsubjectandpredicate):TheonlyoneofthesevendwarfswhodoesnothaveabeardisDopey.(adjectiveclause)
CompoundElementsInagivensentence,theremaybemorethanoneofanyofthefourcoresentenceelements.Compoundelementscaninclude:
Compoundsubject:MaryandTomwenttothedance.Compoundpredicate:Herantothehouseandknockedonthedoor.Compoundmodifier:Herodeasmallwhitepony.
PhrasesAphraseisacollectionofwordsthatmayhavenounsorverbals,butitdoesnothaveasubjectdoingaverb.Thefollowingareexamplesofphrases:
leavingbehindthedog
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smashingintoafencebeforethefirsttestafterthedevastationbetweenignoranceandintelligencebrokenintothousandsofpiecesbecauseofherglitteringsmile
Intheseexamples,youwillfindnouns(dog,fence,test,devastation,ignorance,intelligence,thousands,pieces).Youalsohavesomeverbals(leaving,smashing),butinnocaseisthenounfunctioningasasubjectdoingapredicateverb.Theyareallphrases.
ClausesAclauseisacollectionofwordsthathasasubjectthatisactivelydoingaverb.Thefollowingareexamplesofclauses:
sinceshelaughsatmenIdespiseindividualsoflowcharacterwhenthesaintsgomarchinginbecauseshesmiledathim
Notethatintheexamplesabove,wefindeitheranounorapronounthatisasubject(italicized)attachedtoaverbphrase(alsoitalicized).
IndependentandDependentClauses
Iftheclausecouldstandbyitself—thatis,formacompletesentencewithpunctuation—wecallitanindependentclause.Thefollowingareindependentclauses:
IdespiseindividualsoflowcharacterHelenlovesCanadiangeese
Wecouldeasilyturnindependentclausesintocompletesentencesbyaddingappropriatepunctuationmarks.Wemightsay,“Idespiseindividualsoflowcharacter.”Orwemightwrite,“HelenlovesCanadiangeese!”Wecallthemindependentbecausethesetypesofclausescanstandbythemselves,withoutanyextrawordsattached,andbecompletesentences.
Bycontrast,dependent(alsocalledsubordinating)clausescannotstandon
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theirown.Thefollowingaredependentclauses:
whenthesaintsgomarchinginbecauseshesmiledathim
Sentencediagram1
Thisdiagramshowssomeofthecomponentpartsofasentence,anddemonstrateshowtheyrelatetoeachother.
4.1.2:StructureofaSentence
Differenttypesofsentencesareusedfordifferentpurposesandindifferentpartsofapaper,butthefoundationofallgoodsentencesisastrongsubjectandverb.
LearningObjective
Classifysentencesbasedonsentencestructureandpurpose
KeyPoints
Tocreateastrongsentence,beginwithaspecificsubjectandastrongverb.Sentencescanbeclassifiedbytheirstructureorbytheirpurpose.Structuralclassificationsforsentencesinclude:simplesentences,compoundsentences,complexsentences,andcompound-complexsentences.Particularconnectorsareusedtoimpartparticularmeaningsincompoundandcomplexsentences.Classificationcategoriesforsentencesbypurposeincludedeclarations,interrogatives,exclamations,andimperatives.Intherevisionstageofwriting,it’susefultogooverthepaperwithaneyetowardtheappropriatenessandvarietyofsentenceconstruction.
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KeyTerms
imperativesentence
Astatementthattellsthereader,intheformofarequest,suggestion,ordemand,todosomething.
exclamatorysentence
Anemphaticformofstatementthatexpressesemotion.
declarativesentence
Astatementordeclarationaboutsomething.
compound-complexsentence
Multipleindependentclauses,atleastoneofwhichhasatleastonesubordinateclause.
complexsentence
Atleastoneindependentclauseandonesubordinateclause.
simplesentences
Asingleindependentclausewithnosubordinateclauses.
compoundsentence
Multipleindependentclauseswithnosubordinateclauses.
interrogativesentence
Alsocalledaquestion,itiscommonlyusedtorequestinformation.
Likeanarchitectcancreatewalls,bridges,arches,androadswiththesamebricks,youcancreatesentencesthatservevaryingfunctionsusingthebuildingblocksofwords.Justasanarchitectplansdifferentfeaturesinanedificetocreateastrongandbeautifulbuilding,awritermustuseavarietyofsentencestructurestocapturereaders’interest.Andlikeabuildermustbeginwithasolidfoundation,yoursentencesneedtobeginwithclear,strongwords.Themorepracticeyouhaveputtingsentencestogether,themoreinterestingyourwritingwillbecome.
First,let’sworkonclaritythroughspecificity.“Lebonmot,”or“therightword,”iskey,anditbeginswithnounsandverbs.
SubjectsandVerbs
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Despitecontrarytrendsinthepopularpress,formalwritingstillrequiresofasentencebothasubjectandaverb.Gettingthosetwothingsrightwillputyouwellonthewaytowritingwell.
Jesuswept.Theschoonercapsized.Shedied.Theywon.Parisseduces.Itis.Theseareallsentences.
Youalreadyknowthatyouneedasubjectandaverbtocreateasentence.Whatyoumaynotknowisthatthesearethetwomostimportantpartsofasentencetogetright.Themorespecificthenoun,themoreyourreaderwillbeabletopicturewhatitisyou’retalkingabout(“schooner”ismorespecificthan“boat,”“Paris”morespecificthan“France”).Pronounsworkwellwhentheantecedentisclear.Whilerepeatinganouncangetponderous,unidentifiablepronounsconfusethereader.
Verbs,too,captivatewhenthey’reexact.Adjectivesandadverbs,it’ssaid,wereinventedforthosewhodon’tknowenoughverbs.Takethesentence“Parisseduces,”forexample.Youcouldjustaseasilysay,“Parisisseductive,”buttheuseoftheverb“tobe”makesthesentencelessactiveandalive.
Fromthissolidbase,youcanbeginaddingyourobjectsandclausestocreatemorecomplexsentences.
ClassifyingSentencesbyStructureSentencescanbeclassifiedbytheirstructureorbytheirpurpose.You’llwanttokeepbothinmindasyouwrite.
Structuralclassificationsforsentencesincludesimplesentences,compoundsentences,complexsentences,andcompound-complexsentences.
You’llwanttohaveamixofsentencetypesinalmostanythingyouwrite,asvaryinglengthandcomplexitykeepsthereader’sattention.Thesing-songnatureofsame-lengthsentencesseemstotriggeralullabyresponseinourbrains,andoureyescan’thelpbutdroop.Inadditiontotherhythmofit,though,you’llcommunicatemoresubstancewithvaryingsentencelengths.
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SimpleSentences
Asimplesentenceconsistsofasingleindependentclausewithnosubordinateclauses.Forexample:
Ilovechocolatecakewithrainbowsprinkles.“Withoutlove,lifewouldbeempty.”Thissentencecontainsasubject(life),averb(wouldbe)andtwotypesofmodifiers(withoutloveandempty).
Simplesentencesareoftenusedtointroduceatopicorpresentanewthoughtinanargument—forexample,“Juriesarechargedwithrenderingimpartialverdicts,”or“IncometaxesarehighinScandinaviancountries.”Youmaynoticethatwithboththeseexamples,thereaderislikelytostartformulatingobjectionsoropinionsaboutthetopicrightaway.Asawriter,youcanusesimplesentencesinthisway.Writingasimplesentencetobeginaparagraphcanhavethereadermakingyourargumentforyoubeforeyou’veevenbeguntostateyourpoint.
CompoundSentences
Acompoundsentenceconsistsofmultipleindependentclauseswithnosubordinateclauses.Theseclausesarejoinedtogetherusingconjunctions,punctuation,orboth.Forexample:
Ilovechocolatecakewithrainbowsprinkles,andIeatitallthetimeforbreakfast.Togetherwestand;unitedwefall.
Youcanfeelthepowerofthatsecondexample.Usingasemicolonwithoutaconjunctionaddsdramatoacompoundsentence,especiallywhenyou’recomparingtwoconceptsandtheindependentclausesareofapproximatelyequallength.
Compoundsentencesconnectedwith“and”makeconnectionsbetweenideas.Thesentence,“It’sclearthatwedohavethemeanstoendpovertyworldwide,andeverymomentwehesitatemeansonemorechilddiesofhunger,”exposestheconnectionbetweenhavingthemeanstoendpovertyandtheconsequencesofnotemployingthosemeans.
Using“but”takesexceptionwiththefirstclause:“Eileentreatsherboyfriendlikeaservant,butheisn’tgoingtostandforthatforlong.”
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Youcanuseasemicolontoshowarelationshipbetweenclauses:“Batsarenocturnal;theyareactiveonlyatnight.”
“However,”“nonetheless,”and“still”areoftenusedasqualifiersbetweenindependentclauses.Forexample,“Therewerenoluxurieslikepillowsintheconvent;however,someresidentsdidfindwaystocreatecomfort.”
Youcanshowcausationusing“therefore”and“thus,”—forexample,“Thecountriesthatareleastcommittedtoreducingfossilfuelusearethelargest;therefore,weareunlikelytostavethecrisis.
Youcanshowemphasisusingconnectorslike,“moreover,”and“furthermore.”“Hildahasnotdoneherchoresinaweek;moreover,shehasbeeneatingtwicehershareatdinner.”
ComplexSentences
Acomplexsentenceconsistsofatleastoneindependentclauseandonesubordinateclause.Forexample:
“WhileIlovehimdearly,Iwillgetridofmypterodactylforthesakeofthecommunity.”“Thosewhoeatchocolatecakewillbehappy.”Inthiscase,thesubordinateclause,“whoeatchocolatecake”isinthemiddleofthesentence.“If-then”sentencesarecomplexsentences:“IfAmericansdon’tchangetheirdietaryhabits,themedicalsystemwillsoonbebankrupt.”(Noticethatthe“then”isimplied.)
Otherconnectorsforcomplexsentencesinclude“because,”“although,”“sothat,”“since.”
“IhavehadstrongconvictionssinceIwasoldenoughtoreason.”
Compound-ComplexSentences
Acompound-complexsentence(orcomplex-compoundsentence)consistsofmultipleindependentclauses,atleastoneofwhichhasatleastonesubordinateclause.Forexample:
“Ilovemypetpterodactyl,butsincehe’sbeeneatingneighborhoodcats,Iwilldonatehimtothecityzoo.”Here,thesubordinateclauseis,“sincehe’sbeeneatingneighborhoodcats.”
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“Tellmewhatyoueat,andIwilltellyouwhatyouare.”Thissentencecontainstwoindependentclauses(onebeforeandoneafterthecomma),andeachindependentclausecontainsasubordinateclause(“whatyoueat”and“whatyouare”).
Therearecountlessvariationsofcompound-complexsentences,andwhiletheycanbecomplicated,theyareoftennecessaryinordertomakecompleteconnectionsbetweenideas.Don’tmakethemistake,though,ofusingthemunnecessarily.Breakthoughtsintonewsentenceswhenyoucan.Whenyoudouseone,trytoinsertasimplesentenceafterit.Yourreadermayneedarest.
SelectingSentenceConstructionNorthAmericanseatalotoffastfood.Theyalsohaveahighrateofdisease.NorthAmericanseatalotoffastfood,andtheyhaveahighrateofdisease.IfNorthAmericanscontinuetoeatalotoffastfood,theywillcontinuetohaveahighrateofdisease.IfNorthAmericans,whoeatalotoffastfood,continuetodoso,theywilllikelycontinuetohaveahighrateofdisease,aspropernutritionisvitaltoimmunefunction.
Inlookingatthevarioussentenceformsabove,youcanseethateachsentencegivesyouadifferentfeel.Canyouseehoweachmightbeappropriateindifferentcontexts?Thesimplesentencesmightworkinanintroductiontobegintodrawtheparallel.Thecompoundsentencemakestheconnectionclear.Thecomplexsentencesoundsmorelikealessoninits“if-then”format,andthecompound-complexsentencepacksalltheinformationintooneconclusivesentence.Whichofthesesoundsmostconvincingasanargument?Whichallowsyoutodrawyourownconclusion?
ClassifyingSentencesbyPurposeEnglishsentencescanalsobeclassifiedbasedontheirpurpose:declarations,interrogatives,exclamations,andimperatives.Whenyou’recomposingapaper,you’llwanttoclarifythepurposeofyoursentencestobesureyou’reselectingtheappropriateform.
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Declarations
Adeclarativesentence,ordeclaration,isthemostcommontypeofsentence.Itmakesastatement.Forexample:
“MostAmericansmustworktosurvive.”“Ilovewatchingtheparrotsmigrate.”
Becauseyou’llberelyingonstatementsmostofthetime,you’llwanttovarythestructureofyourdeclarativesentences,usingtheformsabove,tobesureyourparagraphsdon’tfeelplodding.Onedeclarationafterthenextcanlullthereaderintocomplacency(or,worse,sleep).
Interrogatives
Aninterrogativesentence,orquestion,iscommonlyusedtorequestinformation.Forexample:
“Doyouknowwhatit’sliketohavetogotoworktobeabletoeat?”“Whyhastheskysuddenlyturnedgreen?”
Whileyoudon’twanttooverusetheinterrogativeinanessay,itdoesservetowakethereaderupabit.You’reaskingthereadertofindtheanswerwithinhim-orherself,ratherthansimplydigestingfactafterfact.Helpingthereaderformulatequestionsaboutthetopicearlycanengagereadersbyaccessingtheircuriosity.
Exclamations
Anexclamatorysentence,orexclamation,isamoreemphaticformofstatementthatexpressesemotion.Forexample:
Ihavetogotowork!Getawayfromme!
“Showsomerestraint!”isthegeneralguidelineforusingexclamationsinapaper.Andyet,therearetimeswhenitwon’tseemamateurishoroverlyhard-hitting.Whenyou’reexposingacontradictioninyouropposition’sviews,forexample,oraninconsistencybetweenviewsandbehaviors,youcansignaltheimportanceofthisdiversionwithanexclamation.Recognize,though,thatusingexclamationsonlysparinglywillbolsteryourcredibility.Liketheboy
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whocriedwolf,ifyougetareputationforyellingallthetime,peoplewillbegintoignoreyou,evenwhenitreallymatters.
Imperatives
Animperativesentencetellssomeonetodosomething(andmaybeconsideredbothimperativeandexclamatory).Thismaybeintheformofarequest,asuggestion,orademand,andtheintendedaudienceisthereader.
Gotowork.Trustme!
Imperativescanbeeffectiveinmakinganargument.Youcanintroduceevidencewithanimperative(e.g.,“ConsiderthecurrentimmigrantcrisisinEurope”).Youcanuseanimperativetotransitionfromacounter-argument:“Don’tbefooledbythisfaultylogic.”Youmightincludeanimperativeinyourconclusion,ifyou’reincludingacalltoaction:“Actnowtoendhumantrafficking.”
CheckingforAppropriateSentenceStructureandPurposeIntherevisionstageofwriting,makesuretomakeapassoverthepaperwithaneyetowardsentenceconstruction.Aretheretoomanyinterrogativesorexclamations?DoestheprosesoundconvolutedbecauseIusetoomanycompound-complexsentences?DoIsoundcondescendingbecauseI’musingtoomanysimplesentences?DotheconnectorsI’musingfitwiththisparticularsentence?
Enjoyconstructingyourargumentusingtheformssentencescantake.Designingapaperusingyourskillwithsentencestructurecanfeelthoroughlysatisfying.
4.1.3:IntroductiontoInflection
Inthecontextofgrammar,inflectionisalteringawordtochangeitsform,usuallybyaddingletters.
LearningObjective
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Definegrammaticalinflection
KeyPoints
InEnglishgrammar,“inflection”referstochangingawordtosuititsgrammaticalcontext(e.g.,makinganounpluralwhenyou’retalkingaboutmorethanone,makingaverbpasttensewhenyou’retalkingaboutsomethingthathasalreadyhappened).InEnglish,therearemanyrulesthattellyouhowtochangewordstosuitcontext,buttherearealsoquiteafewexceptionsthatyou’lljusthavetomemorize.Pronounsandnounschangeformdependingonwhethertheyarethesubject(i.e.,theactor)orthedirectorindirectobject(i.e.,thethingbeingactedupon)ofasentence.
KeyTerms
conjugation
Thecreationofderivedformsofaverbfromitsprincipalpartsbyinflection.
declension
Theinflectionofnouns,pronouns,articles,andadjectives.
inflection
Inthegrammaticalsense,modifyingaword,usuallybyaddingletters,tocreateadifferentformofthatword.
InEnglishgrammar,“inflection”isthebroadumbrellatermforchangingawordtosuititsgrammaticalcontext.You’veprobablyneverheardthiswordbefore,butyouactuallydoitallthetimewithouteventhinkingaboutit.Forexample,youknowtosay“Callmetomorrow”insteadof“CallItomorrow”;you’vechangedthenoun“I”tofitthecontext(i.e.,soitcanbeusedasadirectobjectinsteadofasubject).
Awordyoumighthaveheardbefore,especiallyifyou’vetakenaforeignlanguagelikeSpanish,is“conjugation.”Conjugationisthespecifictypeofinflectionthathastodowithverbs.Forexample,youchangeaverbbasedonwhoisperformingtheverb:youwouldsay“Youcallme,”but“Shecallsme.”Again,youknowtodothisautomatically.
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NounsandPronounsWeoftenneedtochangenounsbasedongrammaticalcontext.Forexample,ifyouchangefromsingulartoplural(e.g.,from“cat”to“cats,”orfrom“syllabus”to“syllabi”),you’re“inflecting”thenoun.Similarly,ifyou’rechangingthepronoun“I”to“me,”or“she”to“her,”thepersonyou’rereferringtoisn’tchanging,butthewordyouusedoes,becauseofcontext.“ShecallsI”isincorrect,asis“Hercallsme”;youknowtoinsteadsay“Shecallsme.”
VerbsTorecap,“conjugation”referstochangingaverbtosuititsgrammaticalcontext.Thiscanmeanchangingtheverbbasedonwhoisperformingtheverb(e.g.,“youread,”but“shereads”)orbasedonthetimetheactionisoccurring,alsoknownastheverb’s“tense”(e.g.,“youwalk”forthepresent,and“youwalked”forthepast).
AdjectivesYoualsomightneedtochangesomeadjectivesbasedonthegrammaticalcontextoftherestofyoursentence.Forexample,ifyou’retryingtocomparehowsunnytoday’sweatheristoyesterday’sweather,youwouldchangetheadjective“sunny”to“sunnier”:“Todayissunnierthanyesterday.”
AdverbsInflectingadverbsisverysimilartohowyouchangeadjectives.Forexample,ifyouwanttocomparehowquicklytwostudentsarelearningmath,youwouldchangetheadverb“easily”to“moreeasily”:“HuckislearninghisfractionsmuchmoreeasilythanTomis.”
Attributions
ComponentsofaSentence
“Boundless.”http://www.boundless.com/.BoundlessLearningCC
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BY-SA3.0.
“Appositive.”http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Appositive.WikipediaCCBY-SA3.0.
“Grammaticalmodifier.”http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Grammatical_modifier.WikipediaCCBY-SA3.0.
“Verbphrase.”http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Verb_phrase.WikipediaCCBY-SA3.0.
“subject.”http://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/subject.WiktionaryCCBY-SA3.0.
“sentencefragment.”http://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/sentence_fragment.WiktionaryCCBY-SA3.0.
“predicate.”http://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/predicate.WiktionaryCCBY-SA3.0.
“modifier.”http://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/modifier.WiktionaryCCBY-SA3.0.
“Adjectivalclause.”http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Adjectival_clause%23Adjective_clause.WikipediaCCBY-SA3.0.
“RhetoricandComposition/PartsoftheSentence.”http://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/Rhetoric_and_Composition/Parts_of_the_SentenceWikibooksCCBY-SA3.0.
“Thedifferencebetweenaclauseandaphrase.”http://english.stackexchange.com/questions/133853/the-difference-between-a-clause-and-a-phrase.EnglishLanguageCCBY-SA3.0.
“Sentencediagram.”http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sentence_diagram.WikipediaCCBY.
StructureofaSentence
“UsingVariedSentenceLengthsandStyles..”https://www.boundless.com/users/268747/textbooks/fremont-college-english-composition/style-structure-grammar-5/sentence-style-29/using-varied-sentence-lengths-and-styles-128-8088/.BoundlessLicense:Other.
IntroductiontoInflection
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“Declension.”https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Declension.WikipediaCCBY-SA3.0.
“Inflection.”https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Inflection.WikipediaCCBY-SA3.0.
“GrammaticalConjugation.”https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Grammatical_conjugation.WikipediaCCBY-SA3.0.
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4.2:Nouns4.2.1:NounsasSubjectsandObjects
Nounscanbeeitherthesubjectorobjectofsentences.
LearningObjective
Identifywhetheranounfunctionsasasubjectorobject
KeyPoints
Thesubjectofasentencecompletestheactionofthesentence.Thedirectobjectofthesentencereceivestheactionofthesentence.Theindirectobjectofthesentenceanswersthequestion“towhom/what?”or“forwhom/what?”fortheactionofthesentence.Forsentencesinactivevoice,thesubjectcomesbeforetheverb.Forsentencesinpassivevoice,thesubjectcomesaftertheverb.
KeyTerms
subjectnoun
Completestheaction(s)inasentence.
objectnoun
Receivestheactioninasentenceoranswersthequestion“towhom/what?”or“forwhom/what?”
Nounscantakeontwodifferentrolesinasentence:theycanbesubjectsorobjects.Understandingsubjectsandobjectssimplymeansunderstandingwho(orwhat)performedanaction,andwho(orwhat)wasaffectedbythataction.
IdentifyingSubjectsInasentence,thesubjectcompletestheaction.Thesubjectsareitalicizedintheexamplesbelow:
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Marydrewapictureforhermother.Lionseatmanyanimals,suchasrabbits.
Thesubjectdoesnothavetobeapersonoranimal—itcanalsobeaninanimateobject:
Thecoffeeletoffsteam.Thecupisonthetable.
Notethatthesubjectincludesnotjustthenoun,butalsothearticle(e.g.,the,a,an)thatgoesalongwithit.
IdentifyingObjectsAnobjectistherecipientofanaction.Therearetwotypesofobject:directandindirect.
DirectObjects
Inasentence,thedirectobjectreceivestheactionofthesubject.Seetheitalicizeddirectobjectsintheexamplesbelow:
Marydrewapicture.Thetigerchasedthebunny.
IndirectObjects
Inasentence,theindirectobjectanswersthequestion“towhomorwhat?”or“forwhomorwhat?”Seetheitalicizedindirectobjectsintheexamplesbelow.
Marydrewapictureforhermother.Billthrewtheballtohissister.
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Sign
Inthissignsaying“Donotfeedthecoyotes”,arecoyotesthesubject,theobject,ortheindirectobject?(Answer:Theyarethedirectobject.)
IdentifyingIndirectObjectswithoutaPreposition
Sometimesdirectobjectandindirectobjectcannotbeidentifiedbywordorderalone—andthereisnotalwaysa“to”or“for”tomakeitclear:
Theboyfedthedogabone.
Tocorrectlyidentifytheindirectobject,askyourselfwhichpartofthesentencewouldanswerthequestion“to/forwhomorwhat?”
“Theboyfedabonetothedog.”
Phrasedthisway,itbecomesclearthatthedogistheindirectobjectandtheboneisthedirectobject.
IdentifyingSubjectandObjectintheActiveVoiceIfasentenceiswrittenintheactivevoice,itmeansthatthesubjectcomesbeforetheverb,andtheobjectfollowstheverb.Alloftheexamplesabovearewrittenintheactivevoice.
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Asimplewaytoidentifywhetheranounisasubjectoranobjectinanactive-voicesentenceistonotewhereitisinthesentence.Ifthenounprecedestheverb,itisthesubject.Ifitfollowstheverb,itistheobject.Seetheexamplesbelow:
Thealienlandedthespaceship.(“Thealien”isthesubjectand“thespaceship”isthedirectobject.)Mathildaatethesandwich.(“Mathilda”isthesubjectand“thesandwich”isthedirectobject.)
IdentifyingSubjectandObjectinthePassiveVoiceInpassive-voicesentences,theusualrulesdonotapply.Rather,weneedtolookatwordordertofindthesubjectandobject.Inapassive-voicesentence,keepinmindthattheorderwillbesubject–verbphrase–object.Seethefollowingexamples.
ThesandwichwaseatenbyMathilda.(“Thesandwich”isthesubjectand“Mathilda”istheobject.)Thespaceshipwassteeredbythealien.(“Thespaceship”isthesubjectand“thealien”istheobject.)
Inthepassivevoice,anouncomingaftertheword“by”isanobject,whileanouncomingbeforeaformoftheverb“tobe”(e.g.,“was”)isthesubject.Notetheitalicizedwordsintheexamplesabove.
VerbTypesandObjectsNotallverbsrequireobjects.Averbthatrequiresanobjectiscalledatransitiveverb:
Shewantscake.
Withouttheobject“cake,”thesentenceisincompleteanddoesn’tmakesense.Whatdoesshewant?
Averbthatdoesnotrequireanobjectiscalledanintransitiveverb:
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Islept.
Withanintransitiveverb,thesentenceiscompletewiththesubjectandverbalone.
Attributions
NounsasSubjectsandObjects
“Boundless.”http://www.boundless.com/.BoundlessLearningCCBY-SA3.0.
“subjectpronoun.”http://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/subject_pronoun.WiktionaryCCBY-SA3.0.
“Objectpronoun.”http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/object%20pronoun.WikipediaCCBY-SA3.0.
“No_Feeding.jpg.”https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coyote%23/media/File:No_Feeding.jpgWikipediaCCBY2.0.
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4.3:Pronouns4.3.1:IntroductiontoPronouns
Pronounsreplacenounstoreduceredundancyandlinkphrasestogethertoprovidemoreinformation.
LearningObjective
Identifypronounsbytype
KeyPoints
Pronounstaketheplaceofnounstoreduceredundancy.Thenounapronounreplacesisknownasthatpronoun’santecedent.Itiscrucialtoensurethateachpronounhasaclearantecedentsothereaderdoesnotgetconfused.Relativepronouns(“who,”“whom,”“whose,”“that,”“which”)areusedtolinksubordinateclausestothesubjecttheydescribe.Interrogativepronounsintroducequestionsofidentification(“who,”“whom,”“whose,”“what,”“which”).Demonstrativepronounsidentifyspecificpeople,places,things,orideas(e.g.,“this,”“that,”“these,”“those”).Indefinitepronounsrefertonon-specificpeopleorthings(e.g.,“anyone,”“most”).
KeyTerms
subordinateclause
Aclausethatcannotstandaloneasasentencebutthatfunctionsasanoun,adjective,oradverbinalargersentence.
relativeclause
Asubordinateclausethatmodifiesanoun.
antecedent
Thenounbeingreplacedbyapronoun.
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PronounsandAntecedentsPronounscanbeveryusefulwhenstandinginforothernounsornounphrases.Theymakesentenceslessrepetitivebyeliminatingtheneedtorepeatthesamenounsoverandoveragain.However,theyareonlyusefulifthereaderalwaysknowswhatwordthepronounisreplacing—thepronoun’santecedent.Thiscanpartlybedonethroughwordorder.Don’tseparateapronountoofarfromitsantecedent,anddon’tuseapronoununlessitsantecedenthasalreadybeenestablished.
Thedifferenttypesofpronounsincludethefollowing:
personalpronounspossessivepronounsintensiveandreflexivepronounsrelativepronounsinterrogativepronounsdemonstrativepronounsindefinitepronouns
PersonalPronounsPersonalpronounsrefertoaspecificgrammaticalperson.“Grammaticalperson”meanseitherthefirst-person,second-person,orthird-person.Thefirst-personreferstoyourselfandthereforeusesthepronoun“I.”Thesecond-personpronounis“you,”andthethird-personpronounsare“he,”“she,”“it.”
Iamgoingtotheconcert.Youcancomewithme.Shedidnotgetaticketbeforetheysoldout.
PossessivePronounsPossessivepronounsshowownershipinrelationtothepronoun.Possessivepronounsare“my,”“your,”“his,”“hers,”“its,”“ours,”“your,”and“their.”Forexample:
Marvinwasnervousmeetingwiththeinterviewerbutshookherhandwhenintroduced.
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Reflexive/IntensivePronounsReflexiveandintensivepronounstakethesameformbuthavedifferentuses.Theyinclude“myself,”“yourself,”“himself,”“herself,”“itself,”“ourselves,”“yourselves,”and“themselves.”Reflexivepronouns“reflect”backtothesubject.Youknowa“-self”pronounisreflexiveifthesentencewouldn’tmakesensewithoutit.Forexample:
(Reflexive)Themodelcouldseehimselfinthereflectionofthecameralens.
Incontrast,anintensivepronounsprovidesextraemphasis,butthesentencewouldstillmakesensewithoutit.Forexample:
Shefinishedthepaperherself.
RelativePronounsRelativepronounslinkdifferentphraseswithinasentencetogivemoreinformationaboutthepeopleorthingsinvolved.Theyallowyoutocombineconnectedideasinthesamesentenceratherthanbreakingthemdownintomultipleones.
Considerthedifferencebetweenthefollowingsentences:
Thatmanyelledatustogetoffhislawn.Hedidnotevenowntheproperty.Themanwhoyelledatustogetoffhislawndidnotevenowntheproperty.
Bothsentencescommunicatethesamething,buttheseconddoesabetterjobofconnectingthetwoevents.Similarly:
Ruthisthestoremanager.Sherangupmygroceries.Ruthisthestoremanagerwhorangupmygroceries.
Asyoucansee,relativeclausescanbeusefulinstreamliningyourwritingandimprovingyourflow.Becarefulnottousetoomanyofthematonce,though;sentencesthataretoolongmayconfuseyourreader.Besuretoaskyourselfwhethertheclauseactuallyclarifiesasentenceormakesittoolongandcomplicated.
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TypesofRelativePronouns
Themainrelativepronounsdealingwithpeopleare“who”(usedtorelatetopeopleorcreaturesassubjects),“whom”(usedtorelatetopeopleorcreaturesassubjects),and“whose”(usedtorelatetoapossessionofapersonorcreature).
Person(subject):ThegirlwhoworeayellowdressPerson(object):ThegirlwhomIcomplimentedaboutheryellowdressCreature(subject):Thecatwholivednextdoor
Themainrelativepronounsdealingwiththingsare“that”and“which.”“That”isusedtorelatetothings(asbothsubjectsandobjects)whenthereismorethanonethingyoucouldbereferringto:
Thing(object):ThedeskthatmymotherboughtThing(subject):Thedeskthatfellapart
Thesesentencesimplythatthereareseveraldifferentdesks,andtheadditionalinformationyouprovide—thedeskthatyourmotherbought,thedeskthatfellapart—iscrucialtoidentifywhichofthoseseveraldesksyou’retalkingabout.
Similarly,“which”isalsousedtorelatetothings(asbothsubjectsandobjects)—butitscrucialdifferenceisthatitisusedwhenthereisonlyonethingyoucouldbereferringto.Thatistosay,thereaderalreadyknowsexactlywhichitemyou’rereferringto;you’rejusttellingthemmoredetailaboutthatitem:
Thing(object):Thedesk,whichmymotherboughtThing(subject):Thedesk,whichfellapart
Inthesephrases,therearenotseveraldesksthatthewritercouldbetalkingabout;thereisonlyonedesk,period.Thewriterisgivingthereadertheinformationthatthedeskwasboughtbyhermother,orthatitfellapart—butthatinformationisn’tnecessaryforidentifyingthethinginthefirstplace.
Itisimportanttonotethatinsentencesusing“which”asarelativepronoun,acommaisneededbeforetheword“which”forthephrasetobegrammaticallycorrect.
SubordinateClauses
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Relativepronounsintroducewhatarecalledsubordinateclauses.Subordinateclausesarephraseswithinasentencethatmodifythesubjectofthesentence.Forexample,inthephrase“Thegirlwhoworeayellowdress,”thesubordinateclause“whoworeayellowdress”helpstomodifythesubjectof“thegirl.”Thatistosay,ithelpsanswerthequestion,“whichgirl?”Similarly,inthephrase“Thedeskthatfellapart,”thesubordinateclause“thatfellapart”helpstoidentifywhichdeskthewriteristalkingabout.
InterrogativePronounsInterrogativepronounsintroducequestions.Themainformsare“who/whom”(forpeopleandbeings),“whose”(forpossessivepronouns),“what”(tointroducegeneralquestions),and“which”(foridentificationandcomparison):
Personorbeing(assubject):Whowantstogotothemovieswithme?Personorbeing(asobject):Towhomwastheletteraddressed?Possessive:Whoseisthatbookonthetable?Generalquestion:Whattimeisit?Whatdoyouthinkoftheweathertoday?Identification:Whichdeskareyoutalkingabout?Comparison:Whichplaydoyouthinkisbetter,HamletorKingLear?
DemonstrativePronounsDemonstrativepronounspointoutspecificpeople,places,things,andideas.Themainformsare“this/that”(singular)and“these/those”(plural).Thesepronounscaneitherbeusedforcomparisonsorontheirown.Theyarealsocalleddeterminersandcanfunctionasadjectivesfortheirantecedents:
Comparison:Iwouldrathergotothatrestaurantthanthisone.Alone:Ithinkthisbookisreallygood.
IndefinitePronounsIndefinitepronounsrefertonon-specificpeopleorthings.Indefinitepronounsinclude:
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allbothanyfeweveryoneeachnobodysomeseveralneither
Chooseyourindefinitepronounbasedonthenumberoramountofpeopleorthingsyou’retalkingabout.Asalways,remembertomakesurethattheantecedentisclear;avoidambiguoussentenceconstructionsinwhichpronounscouldrefertomultipledifferentwords.
4.3.2:PronounsasSubjectsandObjects
Pronounscanbethesubjectortheobjectofasentence.
LearningObjective
Identifywhetherapronounfunctionsasasubjectorobject
KeyPoints
Pronounstaketheplaceofanounandcanbepersonal,possessive,reflexive,orintensive.Pronounscanbethesubjectortheobjectofasentence.Usingthevarioustypesofpronounsappropriatelyinsentenceswillimproveyourwriting.
KeyTerms
possessivepronoun
Awordthatshowsownership.
intensivepronoun
Awordthatemphasizesthenoun.
objectpronoun
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Awordthatistypicallyusedasthedirectorindirectobjectofaverb,ortheobjectofapreposition.
subjectpronoun
Awordthatisusedasthesubjectofaverb.
reflexivepronoun
Awordthatrefersbacktothesubject.
PronounsasSubjectsandObjectsInasentence,thesubjectcompletestheactionwhereastheobjectistherecipientofthataction.Pronounscanactasbothsubjectsandobjects.
Example:Janicehasayellowcar.Shedrivesiteveryday.Explanation:“She”isthesubjectpronounreferringtoJaniceand“it”istheobjectpronounreferringtothecar.
Aslongastheirantecedentsareclear,usingpronounsassubjectsandobjectsinyouracademicwritinggreatlysimplifiesyourwordingandcommunicatesyourideasmuchmorepowerfully.
PersonalPronounsPersonalSubjectPronouns
Personalsubjectpronounsrefertotheoneoronescompletinganaction.PersonalsubjectpronounsareI,he,she,it,we,you,they.Forexample:
Iamgoingtothemall.Youcangotothegame.
Both“I”and“you”arepronouns.Intheseexamplestheyaresubjectpronounsbecausetheyarecompletinganaction.
PersonalObjectPronouns
Personalobjectpronounsrefertooneoroneswhoreceivetheaction.Personalobjectpronounsareme,you,him,her,it,us,them.Forexample:
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Janeiscomingwithme.I’mgivinghimthecartonight.
Intheseexamples,“me”and“him”arereceivingtheactionoftheverb.Therefore,theyareobjectpronouns.
PossessivesPossessivePronouns
Possessivepronounsshowownershipinrelationtothepronoun.Possessivepronounsaremine,yours,his,hers,it,ours,yours,andtheirs.Forexample:
Thehouseonthecornerishis.
PossessiveAdjectives
Possessiveadjectivesshowownership.Possessiveadjectivesaremy,your,his,her,its,our,andtheir.Forexample,whenpairedwiththenounschoolinasentence,hisbecomesapossessiveadjective.
Hisschoolisafewmilesaway.
Intensive/ReflexiveReflexivepronounsreferbackto,or“reflect”(hencethename),thesubject.Intensivepronounsemphasizethenoun.Intensiveandreflexivepronounsaremyself,yourself,himself,herself,itself,ourselves,yourselves,andthemselves.
Intensiveexample:Ididitmyself.
“Myself”emphasizes“I”andisthereforeanintensivepronoun.Also,if“myself”wereremoved,themeaningofthesentencewouldnotchange.
Janeboughtherselfacar.
“Herself”isthereflexivepronounbecauseit“reflects”backtothesubject:Jane.
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Othercategoriesofpronounsdonothaveformsforeverysinglecategoryonthelistsabove.Theirformsaredeterminedprimarilybytheirgrammaticalfunctionorantecedentratherthanbyperson.Somedohaveformsthatdependonnumber.
Attributions
IntroductiontoPronouns
“Boundless.”http://www.boundless.com/.BoundlessLearningCCBY-SA3.0.
“PersonalPronoun.”https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Personal_pronoun%23Antecedents.WikipediaCCBY-SA3.0.
“Pronoun.”http://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/pronoun.WikitionaryCCBY-SA3.0.
“DemonstrativePronoun.”http://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/demonstrative_pronoun.WikitionaryCCBY-SA3.0.
“subordinateclause.”http://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/subordinate_clause.WiktionaryCCBY-SA3.0.
“Antecendent.”http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/antecedent.WikipediaCCBY-SA3.0.
“relativepronoun.”http://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/relative_pronoun.WiktionaryCCBY-SA3.0.
“relativeclause.”http://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/relative_clause.WiktionaryCCBY-SA3.0.
“RhetoricandComposition/Sentences.”http://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/Rhetoric_and_Composition/Sentences.WikibooksCCBY-SA3.0.
“RhetoricandComposition/PartsofSpeech.”http://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/Rhetoric_and_Composition/Parts_of_Speech%23PronounsWikibooksCCBY-SA3.0.
“RhetoricandComposition/PartsofSpeech.”http://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/Rhetoric_and_Composition/Parts_of_Speech%23PronounsWikibooksCCBY-SA3.0.
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“ProjectGutenberg.”http://www.gutenberg.org/files/39235/39235-h/39235-h.htm.Publicdomain.
PronounsasSubjectsandObjects
“SubjectPronoun.”https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Subject_pronoun.WikipediaCCBY-SA3.0.
“Possessive.”https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Possessive.WikipediaCCBY-SA3.0.
“ReflexivePronouns.”https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reflexive_pronoun.WikipediaCCBY-SA3.0.
“ObjectPronoun.”https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Object_pronoun.WikipediaCCBY-SA3.0.
“IntensivePronoun.”https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Intensive_pronoun.WikipediaCCBY-SA3.0.
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4.4:Verbs4.4.1:IntroductiontoVerbs:Tense,Aspect,andMood
Verbsarecrucialtoexpressingasentence’smeaning,soitisimportanttousethemcorrectly.
LearningObjective
Identifytransitive,intransitive,andlinkingverbs
KeyPoints
Everysentenceneedsaverb.Verbsexpressaction,describeanevent,orestablishastateofbeing.Verbsareinfluencedbytense,aspect,andmood.“Verbtense”referstowhentheactionoccurred.Themostcommontensesarepast,present,orfuture.“Verbaspect”referstotheflowoftime.Aspectaddresseswhetherornottheactiontakesplaceinasingleblockoftimeoriftheactioniscontinuousorrepeated.“Verbmood”referstothe“attitude”oftheaction.Istheverbactuallyhappening,possiblyhappening,orbeingcommandedtohappen?
KeyTerms
verb
Awordthatexpressesanaction,describesanoccurrence,orestablishesastateofbeing.
directobject
Awordthatanswersthequestion,“Whatisbeingactedupon?”In“Danielleatefruit,”fruitisadirectobjectoftheverbate.
aspect
Describestheaction’sdegreeofprogressorcompletion.Thethreemainaspectsareindefinite,progressive,andperfect.
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tense
Anyoftheformsofaverbthatdistinguishwhenanactionorstateofbeingoccursorexists.Thethreesimpletensesarepast,present,andfuture.
Averbisawordthatexpressesanaction,describesanoccurrence,orestablishesastateofbeing.Everysentenceneedsatleastoneverb,whichispairedwiththesubject.Allverbshavetense,aspect,andmood,ofwhichthereisawidevarietyofcombinations.Theseconceptsarepartofthefoundationofaccuratelyexpressingyourthoughtsinwriting.
VerbTenseTenseindicateswhentheactionexpressedbyaverbtakesplace.Thethreesimpletensesarepast,present,andfuture.
Differenttensestakedifferentverbforms,eitherbychangingtheworditselforbyaddinghelpingverbs.Thereisnosingleformulaforhowtochangeverbtenses.Hereareafewexamples:
PresentTense
Presenttenseexpressesunchangingactionsandstatesofbeing.Itisalsousedwithrecurringactionsandwithuniversalorwidespreadtruths.
IwalkSheruns
PastTense
Pasttenseisusedforactionsthatstartedandfinishedinthepast.
IwalkedSheran
FutureTense
Futuretenseexpressesanactionoreventthatwilltakeplaceinthefuture.
Iwillwalk
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Shewillrun
VerbalAspect“Verbalaspect”referstothetimingoftheverb.Morespecifically,itaddresseswhethertheactionoccursinasingleblockoftime,continuously,orrepetitively.Allverbshavebothtenseandaspect.Verbalaspectconsistsofsimple,progressive,perfect,orperfectprogressive,whereeachreferstoadifferentfabricoftime.
Simple
Thesimpleaspectisusedtoexpressasingleaction,arepeatedaction,orapermanentstate.
Permanentstate:DavidlivesinRaleigh,NorthCarolina.Repeatedorhabitualaction:Herunseverymorning.Singleaction:HegraduatedfromtheUniversityofNorthCarolina.
Progressive
Theprogressiveaspectisusedtotalkaboutcontinuousevents.
Dr.Joneswaslecturingaboutgrammar.Janeisreadinganovel.
Perfect
Theperfectaspectisusedtodiscusscompletedactions.Itisoftenformedbytheverbhavecombinedwithapasttenseverb.
Myfamilyhadleftbeforethefloodingreachedourhome.Shehasvisitedtheirmountainhome.
PerfectProgressive
Theperfectprogressivecombinestheperfectandtheprogressivetorefertothecompletedportionofacontinuousaction.
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Thenewscrewhadbeenworkingformorethantwelvehourstoprovidefullcoverageoftheevent.Iwillhavebeensleepingformanyhoursbythen.
VerbalMoodVerbmoodistothe“attitude”oftheverb.Morespecifically,“mood”referstothedegreeofnecessity,obligation,orprobability.Isitastatementoffact?Isitacommand?Moodcanbeexpressedinanyverbtense.ThethreemainmoodsusedinEnglishareindicative,subjunctive,imperative.
Indicative
Theindicativemoodisusedforfactualstatements.
Sallyisdrinkingcoffee.Sallydrinkscoffee.Sallydrankcoffee.
Subjunctive
Thesubjunctivemoodisforhypotheticalsituations,emotions,ormakingrequests.Itisoften(butnotalways)pairedwithaclausecontainingwould,should,orcould,oranif-thenstatement.
IfIwereapilot,Iwouldflythroughtheclouds.Thecarouselclosed.Iwishitwerestillinuse.
Imperative
Theimperativemoodisusedtogivecommands.
Gofinishyourhomework.Pleasehangyourcoat.Don’teatasnacknoworyou’llruinyoursupper.
SpecialTypesofVerbs
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LinkingVerbs
Linkingverbsareusedtoconnectsubjectswiththeircomplements.Theymaybethemainverbinasentence,eveniftheyexpressadescriptionratherthananaction.Themostcommonlinkingverbistobe,whichtakesmanydifferentforms:
Thisteaishot.Therearemanybooksinhislibrary.
Othercommonlinkingverbsincludethefollowing:
appearbecomeseemtastecontinueremain
Linkingverbstakenodirectobjects.Consequently,ifasentence’smainverbisalinkingverb,itcannotbewritteninthepassivevoice.
TransitiveVerbs
Transitiveverbsdescribeactionsthataredonetoaspecificthing,calledtheverb’sdirectobject.
Shecutherhair.(Subject:She.Transitiveverb:cut.Directobject:herhair.)RomeokissedJuliet.(Subject:Romeo.Verb:kissed.Object:Juliet.)
Alloftheverbsareperformedbythesubject,tosomethingorsomeoneelse.
IntransitiveVerbs
Intransitiveverbsareactionsthatarecompleteontheirown,anddonotrequireanyobject:
Sallyranfast.Thebirdflew.
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Mostverbscanbeclassifiedastransitiveorintransitive,dependingontheircontext.Justremember,ifyourverbhasanobject,makesureit’scleartothereader:Don’tsay“Sallykissedher”ifyoudon’tknowwho“her”is!
Hewalkedthewire
Theverbtenseinthetitlesignalsthatthisactiontookplaceinthepast.Itisnotonlyimportanttohavesubjectandverbagreement,butalsotoutilizethecorrectverbtensetoensurethatasentencecontainsitsintendedmeaning.
4.4.2:VerbTense:Past,Present,andFuture
Verbtenseindicateswhethertheactionofasentenceoccurredinthepast,present,orfuture.
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LearningObjective
Identifythetenseofaverb
KeyPoints
InEnglish,thethreebasicverbtensesarepast,present,andfuture.Verbsinpasttenseexpresswhathappenedinthepast.Verbsinpresenttenseexpressactionsthatarecurrentlyhappening,oroccuroveraperiodoftimethatincludesthepresent.Verbsinfuturetenseexpressactionsthatwillhappeninthefuture.Allverbshavebothtenseandaspect.Becausetherearethreeverbtensesandfourverbaspects,therearetwelvepossiblecombinationsoftenseandaspect.
KeyTerms
tense
Anyoftheformsofaverbthatdistinguishwhenanactionorstateofbeingoccursorexists.Thethreesimpletensesarepast,present,andfuture.
verb
Awordthatindicatesanaction,event,orstate.
aspect
Agrammaticalcategorythatexpresseshowaverbrelatestotheflowoftime.
VerbTensesTheverbcontainstheactionofthesentence.Withoutverbs,wecouldn’ttalkaboutrunning,orjumping,oreating.Andwithoutverbtenses,wecouldn’ttalkaboutwhenwedidthosethings.Didweeatdinneryesterday?Willwegoforaruntomorrow?Weneedverbtensestotalkabouttime.
PresentTenses
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Thepresenttensereferstocircumstancesthatexistnow,orthathaveoccurredoveraperiodoftimethatincludesthepresent.Presenttensecanalsobeusedtoexpressbasicfactsorcircumstancesthatarecontinuous.
SimplePresent
Thesimplepresentexpressescurrentevents,recurringevents,andgeneralfacts.
Thereisashadyparkdowntheblock.Ipaintaportraitofmycateveryweek.Maryhearsanoiseintheattic.
Theverbsis,paint,andhearsareinthesimplepresenttense.Theyrefertoactionsthatareoccurringinthepresent.
PresentProgressive
Thepresentprogressiveexpressescontinuousactions.
Iamreadingaletter.Thecarisrunningathighspeed.MichaelandAnnaarealwaysworkinginthelibrary.
Toshowthattheactioniscontinuoustheverbsreading,running,andworkingarepairedwiththeappropriateformoftheverbtobe(am,is,are).
PresentPerfect
Thepresentperfectexpressesacompletedeventthatisstillrelevanttothepresent.
IhavereadseveralofShaw’snovels.ShehasseenhimeverySaturdaythismonth.Jedhassampledsixicecreamflavorssofar.
Intheseexamples,haveandhasarepairedwithread,seen,andsampledtoshowreadersthattheseactionsbeganinthepastandarestilloccurringinthepresent.
PresentPerfectProgressive
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Finally,thepresentperfectprogressiveexpressesacontinuousactionthatbeganinthepastandcontinuesintothepresent.
Ihavebeenstandingonthiscornerforsixhours.Shehasbeendreamingofbecominganactresssinceshewasten.Eventhoughit’sraining,thatGirlScouthasbeensellingcookiesallday.
Thepresentperfectprogressivetensecombineshave/haswithbeenandtheverbtoshowthattheactionbeganinthepastandisstilloccurringinthepresent.
PastTensesThepasttensereferstoeventsthathaveoccurredinthepastoraneventthatoccurredcontinuallyinthepast.Itcanalsobeusedwhendiscussinghypotheticalsituations.Thetypesofpasttensearesimplepast,pastprogressive,pastperfect,andthepastperfectprogressive.
SimplePast
First,thesimplepastexpressesapastevent:
Lastweek,IreadseveralofShaw’snovels.Themothertookhersontothebeacheverydaylastsummer.Thebooksatontheshelf,collectingdust.
Theverbsread,took,andsatareinthepasttensetoshowtheseactionshavealreadyoccurred.
PastProgressive
Thepastprogressiveexpressesacontinuousactioninthepast:
Shewasgivingapresentationwhenthemicrophonebroke.Thecomputerwasdownloadingthefilefor20minutes.Duringtheirfirstyear,thepuppiesweregrowingatanalarmingrate.
Inthepastprogressivetense,theprimaryactionverbs(inthiscasegiving,downloading,andgrowing)arepairedwiththepasttenseoftheverbtobe(was/were)toshowthattheactionoccurredcontinuallyinthepast.
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PastPerfect
Thepastperfectexpressesacompletedactionfromthepast.
Ihadalreadyseenhimthatmorning.Assoonasmycarhadbeenrepaired,Icontinuedmytrip.Thepowerhadgoneoutbythen.
Thisverbtenseuseshad,pairedwithaverb,toshowthattheverbisacompletedaction.
PastPerfectProgressive
Thepastperfectprogressiveexpressesacontinuous,completedactionthathadtakenplaceinthepast.
Ihadbeenlisteningtotheradiowhenshedroppedin.Thecarhadbeenrunningsmoothlyuntiltheexhaustpipefelloff.Sherealizedshehadbeenstandingonhisfootwhenhegentlyshovedher.
Thepastperfectprogressivetensecombineshave/haswithbeenandthepasttenseoftheverb(listening,running,standing)toshowthattheactionoccurredcontinuallyinthepastuntiltheactionwascompleted.
FutureTensesThefuturetenseisusedtoexpresscircumstancesthatwilloccurinthefuture.Thefuturetenseisdifferentfromthepresentandpasttensesinthatthereisnotusuallyatypeofverbconjugationthatshowsthefuturetense.Instead,futureverbsareformedbycombiningthemwithwordslikewillorshall,orthephrasegoingto.Thedifferentfuturetensesaresimplefuture,futureprogressive,futureperfect,andfutureperfectprogressive.
SimpleFuture
Thesimplefutureexpressesanactionthatwilltakeplaceinthefuture.
Nextweek,herunclewillbeintown.Willyoucarrythisbagforme?
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Toshowthattheseactionstakeplaceinthefuture,theverbsarepairedwithwill.
FutureProgressive
Thefutureprogressiveexpressesacontinuousactionwhichwilltakeplaceinthefuture.
Hewillbeconductingameetingbetweennoonandoneo’clockeverydaythisweek.Nextsummer,JakewillbetravelingthroughSouthAmerica.
Toshowthattheactioniscontinuousandinthefuture,theverbsarepairedwithwillbe,andtoshowthattheyareprogressive,themainverbendsin-ing.
FuturePerfect
Thefutureperfectexpressesacompletedactionthatwillhavetakenplaceinthefuture.
Wewillhavefinishedcookingbythetimeyouarrive.MargaretwillhavedroppedoffhernieceattheairportbeforemeetingJoe.
Intheseexamples,willandhavearepairedwiththemainverbtoshowreadersthattheseactionswilltakeplaceinthefuture,butwillhavealreadyoccurred.
FuturePerfectProgressive
Lastly,thefutureperfectprogressivetenseexpressesacontinuous,completedactionthatwillhavetakenplaceinthefuture.
Iwillhavebeenexercisingforhoursbythetimeyouwakeuptomorrow.Whentheyarrive,theywillhavebeentravelingfor12hoursstraight.
Theverbhaswilltoshowthatittakesplaceinthefuture,havebeentoshowthatitiscompleted,andan-ingverbtoshowthatitisprogressiveorcontinuous.
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Verbtense
Thetableshowshowtocorrectlyformatverbsinagiventense.The“continuous”aspectisanothernamefortheprogressiveaspect.
4.4.3:VerbalAspect:Simple,Progressive,Perfect,andPerfectProgressive
“Aspect”referstowhetheraverbiscontinuous,completed,bothcontinuousandcompleted,orneithercontinuousnorcompleted.
LearningObjective
Identifytheaspectofaverb
KeyPoints
Aspectgivesusadditionalinformationaboutaverbbytellinguswhethertheactionwascompleted,continuous,neither,orboth.Thesimpleaspectisforactionsthatareneithercompletednorcontinuous.Theperfectaspectisforactionsthatarecompleted,butnotcontinuous.Theprogressiveaspectisforactionsthatarecontinuous,butnotcompleted.Theperfectprogressiveaspectisforactionsthatarebothcontinuousandcompleted.Allverbshavebothtenseandaspect.Becausetherearethreeverbtensesandfourverbaspects,therearetwelvepossiblecombinationsoftense
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andaspect.
KeyTerms
tense
Aqualityofverbswhichindicateswhethertheverboccurredinthepast,present,orfuture.
aspect
Aqualityofverbswhichindicateswhethertheverbiscontinuous,completed,bothofthose,orneither.
VerbAspectWeneedtensetoknowifaneventtookplaceinthepast,present,orfuture,butthat’snotallweneedinordertoknowwhathappened.Aspectgivesusadditionalinformationaboutaverbbytellinguswhethertheactionwascompleted,continuous,neither,orboth.
“Aspect”referstotheflowoftime.Doestheactiontakeplaceinasingleblockoftime,doestheactionoccurcontinuously,oristheactionarepetitiveoccurrence?Therearefourmainaspects:simple,progressive,perfect,andperfectprogressive.
Sinceallverbshavebothtenseandaspect,allcombinationsoftensesandaspects,suchaspastprogressiveandfutureperfect,arepossible.Thinkaboutitthisway:tensetellsuswhenanactionbegan,andaspecttellsuswhetherthatactionwascontinuous,completed,orsomethingelse.
SimpleThesimpleaspectdescribesageneralaction,onethatisneithercontinuousnorcompleted.Itisusuallyusedtodescribeanactionthattakesplacehabitually.
SimplePast
Verbsinsimplepastdescribeanormalorhabitualactionthatbeganinthepast,andusedtohappenbutnolongerdoes.
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Junerodeherbiketoworkeverydaythatyear.Youhadadogwhenyouwereyoung,right?
SimplePresent
Verbsinsimplepresentdescribeahabitualactionthatstilloccursinthepresent.
Mydadalwaysenjoysnovelsaboutbakeries.Grandmadropsmeoffatthebusstopeverymorning.
SimpleFuture
Verbsinsimplefuturedescribeanactionthatwillbegininthefuture,andoccurwithregularityorcertainty.Todescribeanactionthatwillhappeninthefuture,precedeyourmainverbwith“will,”“shall,”oranotherwordorphraseindicatingthattheactionoccursinthefuture.
Thesunwillriseat6:38AMtomorrow.Shewillcallyoubackafterdinner.
ProgressiveTheprogressiveformexpressescontinuousactionsthathappenoveraperiodoftime.Theyalmostalwaysinvolvesomecombinationoftheverb“tobe”pairedwiththemainverbendingin-ing.
PastProgressive
Pastprogressiveverbsexpressactionsthatbeganinthepastandwerecontinuous,butdidnotcontinueintothepresent.Inthepastprogressivetense,themainverbispairedwiththepasttenseoftheverb“tobe”(was/were)toshowthattheactionoccurredcontinuallyinthepast.
Shewasalwayssayingstufflikethat.Iwasrunninglateallmorning.
PresentProgressive
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Presentprogressiveverbsexpressactionsthatarecontinuous,andarestillhappeningatthepresentmoment.Inpresentprogressive,themainverbispairedwiththepresenttenseoftheverb“tobe”(is/are)toshowthattheactionishappeningcurrently.
Philisrunningaroundtheblock.Areyouenjoyingyourtacos?
FutureProgressive
Futureprogressiveverbsexpressactionsthatwillbegininthefutureandbecontinuous.Infutureprogressive,themainverbispairedwiththefuturetenseoftheverb“tobe”(willbe)toshowthattheactionwillbegininthefuture.
Iwillbeheadinghomearoundnineo’clock.HewillbetravelingaroundtheYukonlaterthisyear.
PerfectTheperfectformreferstoeventsthathavebeencompleted,butarestillrelevanttothespeakerinthepresentmoment.Italmostalwaysinvolvessomeformoftheverb“have”combinedwithanotherverb.
PastPerfect
Verbsinpastperfectexpressanactionthatbothbeganandwascompletedinthepast.Use“had”pairedwiththemainverbinsimplepasttense.
Wehadleftbeforethestadiumgotcrowded.Don’tworry,Emmetthadalreadyruinedthesurprise.
PresentPerfect
Verbsinpresentperfectexpressactionsthatbeganinthepast,andhavejustnowbeencompleted.Use“has”or“have”pairedwiththemainverbinsimplepasttense.
Omarhasfinishedhisdinner.LauraandTomikahavearrangedthememorial.
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FuturePerfect
Verbsinfutureperfectexpressactionsthatwillbecompletedinthefuture.Use“willhave”pairedwiththemainverbinsimplepasttense.
Ihopeyouwillhavecompletedyourreportbythen!Theywillhavewonoverhalftheirgamesbytheendoftheseason.
PerfectProgressiveTheperfectprogressive,justasyouwouldexpect,isacombinationoftheperfectandprogressiveaspects.Perfectprogressivereferstothecompletedportionofanongoingaction.Italmostalwaysinvolvesaformoftheverb“have”andaformoftheverb“tobe”combinedwithaverbendingin-ing.
PastPerfectProgressive
Verbsinpastperfectprogressiveexpressacontinuous,completedactionthathadtakenplaceinthepast.Use“hadbeen”combinedwiththe-ingformofthemainverb.
Shewastiredbecauseshehadbeenrunning.Ihadbeenlyingawakeforhourswhenthealarmwentoff.
PresentPerfectProgressive
Verbsinpresentperfectprogressiveexpressacontinuousactionthatbeganinthepastandcontinuesintothepresent.Use“hasbeen”or“havebeen”combinedwiththe-ingformofthemainverb.
Hehasbeenworkingonhispaperallmorning.Thelibrarianshavebeenhelpingmewithmyresearch.
FuturePerfectProgressive
Verbsinfutureperfectprogressiveexpressacontinuous,completedactionthatwillhavetakenplaceinthefuture.Use“willhavebeen”combinedwiththe-ingformofthemainverb.
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Bythetimethewinterends,wewillhavebeengettingafootofsnoweveryweek.Thisspring,IwillhavebeenworkingforCoolStuff,Inc.fortwentyyears!
4.4.4:VerbMood:Indicative,Subjunctive,andImperative
Grammaticalmoodisaverbfeaturethatallowsspeakerstoexpresstheirattitudetowardwhattheyaresaying.
LearningObjective
Identifythemoodofaverb
KeyPoints
Grammaticalmoodisaverbfeaturethatallowswriterstoexpresstheirattitudetowardwhattheyaresaying.Themostcommonlyusedmoodistheindicativemood,whichisusedtoexpressfactualstatements.Thesubjunctivemoodreferstohypotheticalsituations.Theimperativemoodgivescommandsormakesrequests.
KeyTerms
grammaticalmood
Afeatureofverbswhichexpressesthespeaker’sattitudetowardthesubject.
imperativemood
Givescommandsormakesrequests.
indicativemood
Expressesfactualstatements.
subjunctivemood
Expressessituationsthatarehypotheticalorconditional.
Grammaticalmoodallowsspeakersandwriterstoexpresstheirattitudes
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towardwhattheyaresaying(forexample,whetheritisintendedasastatementoffact,ofdesire,orofcommand).InEnglish,therearemanygrammaticalmoods,butbyfarthemostcommonaretheindicative,theimperative,thesubjunctive,andtheconditional.
Youcanchangetenseandaspectofaverbbychangingsomethingabouttheverbitself:Forexample,tomaketheverb“enjoy”pasttense,youadd-edtotheend.InEnglish,moodisalittledifferent.Youdon’tchangeanythingabouttheverbitself.Instead,youchangethesentencestructuretoexpressacertainmood.
TheIndicativeMoodInEnglish,theindicativemoodisthemostcommonlyused.Itisusedtoexpressfactualstatements.
AtlantaisthecapitalofGeorgia.Penguinscannotfly.Jebediahlikesthebeach.
TheImperativeMoodTheimperativemoodexpressesdirectcommands,prohibitions,andrequests.Inotherwords,itisusedtotellsomeonetodosomething.Intheimperativemood,thesubjectisalmostalwaysimpliedtobe“you.”
Doyourhomeworknow.Pleasedon’tleaveyourbagthere.
However,sometimesthesubjectcanbeimpliedtobe“we.”
Let’sgo!
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Let’sgo
Theimperativemoodexpressesdirectcommandsandprohibitions.
TheSubjunctiveMoodThesubjunctivemoodisnotcommonlyusedinEnglish.Itisusedfordiscussingimaginaryorhypotheticaleventsandsituations,expressingopinionsoremotions,ormakingpoliterequests.Usually,thesubjunctivemoodisusedinadependentclause.Subjunctivesentencesareoftenofthefollowingform:[Indicativeverbphrasesettingupahypotheticalscenariosuchas“Iwish,”“Ibelieve,”“Ihope”]+[Subjunctivephrasedescribinghypotheticalscenario].
IwishPaulwouldeatmorehealthfully.[Mainclause“Iwish”isfactualandinindicativemood;dependentclause“Paulwouldeat”ishypotheticalandinsubjunctivemood.]Isuggestthatwewaituntilafterdinnertoeatthecake.[Mainclause“Isuggest”isfactualandinindicativemood;dependentclause“wewaituntil”ishypotheticalandinsubjunctivemood.]
TheConditionalMoodTheconditionalmoodisusedforspeakingofaneventwhosecompletiondependsonanotherevent.InEnglish,theconditionalmoodisusuallyoftheform“would”+bareverbwithnotenseoraspectmarkers.
Iwouldgoswimmingifitweren’tsorainy.Hewouldbakemoreoftenifhehadabetteroven.
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Attributions
IntroductiontoVerbs:Tense,Aspect,andMood
“Perfectaspect.”http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Perfect_aspect.WikipediaCCBY-SA3.0.
“UsesofEnglishVerbForms.”https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uses_of_English_verb_forms%23Simple_futureWikipediaCCBY-SA3.0.
“directobject.”http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/direct%20object.WikipediaCCBY-SA3.0.
“Gerund.”http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gerund.WikipediaCCBY-SA3.0.
“tense.”http://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/tense.WiktionaryCCBY-SA3.0.
“RhetoricandComposition/PartsofSpeech.”http://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/Rhetoric_and_Composition/Parts_of_Speech%23VerbsWikibooksCCBY-SA3.0.
“Verb.”https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Verb%23Tense.2C_aspect.2C_and_modalityWikipediaCCBY-SA3.0.
ProjectGutenberg.http://www.gutenberg.org/files/15229/15229-h/15229-h.htm.Publicdomain.
VerbTense:Past,Present,andFuture
“Boundless.”http://www.boundless.com/.BoundlessLearningCCBY-SA3.0.
“GrammaticalTense.”https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Grammatical_tense.WikipediaCCBY-SA3.0.
“ContinuosandProgressiveAspects.”https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Continuous_and_progressive_aspects.WikipediaCCBY-SA3.0.
“GrammaticalAspect.”https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Grammatical_aspect.WikipediaCCBY-SA3.0.
“verb.”http://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/verb.WiktionaryCCBY-SA
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3.0.
“EnglishinUse/Verbs.”http://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/English_in_Use/Verbs%23Tenses.WikibooksCCBY-SA3.0.
“tense.”http://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/tense.WiktionaryCCBY-SA3.0.
“VerbTense.”https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Grammatical_tense.WikipediaCCBY-SA3.0.
VerbalAspect:Simple,Progressive,Perfect,andPerfectProgressive
“UsesofEnglishVerbForms.”https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uses_of_English_verb_forms.WikipediaCCBY-SA3.0.
“Grammaticalaspect.”https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Grammatical_aspect.WikipediaCCBY-SA3.0.
“Tense-Aspect-Mood.”https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tense%E2%80%93aspect%E2%80%93moodWikipediaCCBY-SA3.0.
VerbMood:Indicative,Subjunctive,andImperative
“Boundless.”http://www.boundless.com/.BoundlessLearningCCBY-SA3.0.
“Grammaticalmood.”http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Grammatical_mood.WikipediaCCBY-SA3.0.
“EnglishinUse/Verbs.”http://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/English_in_Use/Verbs%23Moods.WikibooksCCBY-SA3.0.
ProjectGutenberg.http://www.gutenberg.org/files/39329/39329-h/39329-h.htm.Publicdomain.
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4.5:Modifiers:AdjectivesandAdverbs4.5.1:IntroductiontoAdjectivesandAdverbs
Adjectivesmodifynounsandpronouns;adverbsmodifyverbs,adjectives,andotheradverbs.
LearningObjective
Distinguishbetweenadjectivesandadverbs
KeyPoints
Adjectivesdescribe,quantify,oridentifypronounsandnouns.Adjectivestypicallyanswerthequestionshowmany?;Howmuch?;Whatkind?;orWhichone?Adverbsmodifyverbs,adjectives,andotheradverbs.Adverbscommonlydescribehow,when,orwheretheactionofaverbtookplace.
KeyTerms
adjectives
Apartofspeechthatdescribes,quantifies,oridentifiesanounorpronoun.
adverb
Apartofspeechthatdescribes,quantifies,oridentifiesaverb,adjective,orotheradverb.
AdjectivesandAdverbsHaveyoueverseenaphotooftheGreatWallofChina?It’ssimplyenormous.It’sincrediblylong,snakingitsstonywayacrossthemountainsandvalleysofAsia,withbeautifultowersstandingtalleverycoupleofhundredfeet.But
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withoutmodifiers,“theGreatWall”wouldsimplybe“theWall.”Weneedadverbsandadjectivesinordertobedescriptiveinourwriting.
Adjectives,like“great,”“enormous,”“stony,”“long,”and“beautiful,”modifynounsandpronouns.Adverbs,like“simply”and“incredibly,”modifyverbs,adjectives,andotheradverbs.
GreatWallofChina
Withoutadjectives,“theGreatWall”wouldjustbe“theWall.”
Descriptivewordscansignificantlyimproveyourwriting.Theyenhancethequalityofinformationyouprovide,makingyourworkmoreprecise.However,youdon’twanttooverwhelmyourreaderwithunnecessaryorexcessivedescription.Trytostrikeabalance.
Adjectives
Adjectivesdescribe,quantify,oridentifypronounsandnouns.Remember,anounisaperson,place,orthing.Pronouns,suchasI,me,we,he,she,it,you,andthey,taketheplaceofnouns.Adjectivesalsoanswerthefollowingquestions:Whatkind?Howmany?Howmuch?Whichone?
DescriptionsconcerningWhatkind?offerdescriptivedetailsaboutthenounorpronoun.Itmaydescribephysicalcharacteristicsoremotions.Hereareafewexamples:theblackcar,theangrycustomer,thefashionableteen.
ThequestionsHowmany?andHowmuch?refertoquantityofthenounorpronounbeingdescribedbytheadjective.Quantitycanbespecific(fourducks)orgeneral(someducks).Herearesomemoreexamples:fourteencents,afewpuppies,severalkittens,adozenbooks.
Whichone?specificallydescribeswhichobjectisbeingreferredto.Theseare
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workhorsewordslike“this,”“that,”“these,”andotherwordslike“them”:thatcar,thisletter,thosevolunteers.
Adjectivesarehelpfulwhenadditionaldescriptionisneededforanounorpronoun.Likeadjectives,adverbscanalsohelpadddetailstoyourwriting.
Adverbs
Adverbsmodifyverbs,adjectives,andotheradverbs.Theycommonlydescribehow,when,orwheretheactionofaverbtookplace.Howreferstothemannerinwhichanactionoccurred.Whenaddressesthetimeoftheaction.Whereinvestigatestheplaceorlocationtheactiontookplace.Herearesomeexamples:
Theboysranloudlydownthestairs.[Howdidtheboysrun?Loudly.]Wewentdownlater.[Whendidwego?Later.]Hedeliveredpizzalocally.[Wheredidhedeliver?Locally.]
Adverbscanalsobeusedtomodifyadjectivesandotheradverbs.
Thetrainleavesatareasonablyearlyhour.[Theadverbreasonablymodifiestheadjectiveearly.]Shespokequitepassionatelyaboutpolitics.[Theadverbquitemodifiestheadverbpassionately.]
WhichShouldYouUse:AdjectivesorAdverbs?Writersoftenhaveachoiceinwordingasentencetouseeitheranadjectiveoranadverb:
Adjective:Wehadaquicklunch.Adverb:Weatelunchquickly.
So,howdoyouchoosewhentouseanadjectiveandwhentouseanadverb?Onewaytochooseissimplytofigureoutwhetherthewordyouwanttomodifyisanounoraverb.Inthefirstsentence,youaredescribingthelunch;inthesecondsentence,youaredescribingthemannerofeating.
Abetterapproach,though,isnottothinkaboutthewordsyoucouldmodifybuttheinformationyouwanttoconvey.Youdonotneedtodescribeevery
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nounorverb—justtheoneswhosedetailsareimportanttothesentence.Ifyouwanttoemphasizethemeal,youwouldpickthefirstsentence;ifyouwanttoemphasizetheactofeating,youwouldpickthesecond.
Remember,adjectivesandadverbscanbeseparatedbywhichtypesofinformationtheyprovide.Thinkaboutthedetailsthatarenecessarytoinclude,andthenchooseyourmodifiersaccordingly.
4.5.2:Adjectives
Adjectivesmodifynounsandpronouns.
LearningObjective
Identifyadjectives
KeyPoints
Adjectivesareusedtodescribe,quantify,oridentifypronounsandnouns.Theyanswerthesequestions:Whatkind?Howmany?Howmuch?Whichone?Compoundadjectivesareusedwhentwoadjectivesareneededtodescribeanoun.Adjectivescanbeusedtocomparetwodifferentthings.
KeyTerms
adjective
Awordthatmodifiesanounorpronoun.
compoundadjective
Onewordformedwithtwohyphenatedwordsandusedtodescribeanoun.
AdjectivesAdjectivesdescribe,quantify,oridentifypronounsandnouns.Theyalsoanswerthefollowingquestions:Whatkind?Howmany?Howmuch?Whichone?
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Descriptionsabout“Whatkind?”adddetailaboutthequalitiesofthenounorpronounbeingdescribed.Thisrangesfromdetailsregardingphysicalcharacteristicstoemotionalstates.Herearesomeexamples:theyellowdress,thesadclown,thesmartpupil.
Descriptionsanswering“Howmany?”and“Howmuch?”specifytheamountofwhatevernounorpronounyouaremodifying.Quantifyingadjectivescanbespecific(tencandles,threehundredpages)orgeneral(severalminutes,afewpeople,somecandy).
Descriptionsanswering“Whichone?”confirmexactlywhichobjectthewriterisreferringto.Examplesincludephrasessuchas“thatnovel,”“thiswriter,”or“thosestudents.”Mostadjectivesthatservethispurposearecalleddeterminersordemonstrativepronouns.
CompoundAdjectivesInsomesituations,twoadjectivesmaybeusedtodescribeanoun.Sometimesthesetwoadjectivesremainseparate,astwodistinctivewordsdescribingthenoun.Butothertimes,theadjectivescombinetobecomeoneadjectivejoinedbyahyphen.
Thephraseaheavymetaldetectorreferstoametaldetectorthatisheavyinweight.Heavyandmetalareseparateadjectivesdescribingthedetectorinthissituation.Thephraseaheavy-metaldetectorreferstoadetectorofheavymetals.Heavy-metalisthecompoundadjectivedescribingthedetector.
Asyoucansee,thehyphencompletelychangesthemeaningofthephrasebycombiningtwowordsintoone.Here’sanotherexample:
Thephrasemaneatingsharkreferstoamanwhoiseatingashark.Thephraseman-eatingsharkreferstoasharkthateatsmen.
AdjectivesforComparisonAdjectivesarealsousedtocompareitems:
Thisyear’sgraduatingclasswassmallerthanlastyear’sclass.Thisbookisthebestonewe’vereadsofar.
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Thestandardformforusingadjectivesforcomparisonistoadd-ertotheendofanadjectivebeingusedtocomparetwoitems(brighter,cooler)and-esttotheendofanadjectiveusedtocomparemorethantwoitems(brightest,coolest).However,someadjectives—forexample,onesthatarethreeormoresyllables—likebeautifularechangedtosay“morebeautiful”and“mostbeautiful”ratherthanaddingtheseendings.
PronounsasAdjectivesSometimes,pronounscanbeusedasadjectives.Inadditiontodemonstrativepronouns,possessivepronounslike“his”or“their”canalsoidentifyspecificobjectswithinaset.Forexample:
Whichcarshouldwedrive?Weshoulddrivehercar.Whosehouseisclosest?Yourhouseisclosest.
PrepositionalPhrasesasAdjectivalPhrasesPrepositionalphrasescanactasadjectives,normallymodifyingthenounthatprecedesthem.
Whichbooksshouldweread?Thebooksonthecurriculum.Whosestoriesdidwelistentoinclass?Thoseoftheteacher.
Lastly,inadditiontosinglewords,youcanuseadjectivalphrases.Thesearephrasesthatbeginwithanadjectivebutthenhaveanounthataddsfurtherdetail,suchas“fulloftoys”insteadofjust“full.”Theyaremostfrequentlyusedasamodifierplacedrightafteranounorasapredicatetoaverb.Forexample,youcouldsay“Thechildlovedhisbinfulloftoys,”or“Thatbinisfulloftoys.”
4.5.3:Adverbs
Adverbsmodifyverbs,adjectives,andotheradverbs.
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LearningObjective
Identifyadverbs
KeyPoints
Anadverbisusedtomodifyverbs,adjectives,andotheradverbs.Adverbsanswerthesequestions:Whendidsomethinghappen?Howoftendiditoccur?Howwastheactionperformed?Wheredidittakeplace?Sometimes,adverbsandadjectivesarehyphenatedtobetterdescribeanoun.
KeyTerm
adverb
Apartofspeechwhichmodifiesverbs,adjectives,andadverbs.
AdverbsJustasadjectivesmodifynounsandpronouns,adverbsmodifyverbs,adjectives,andotheradverbs.Howslimywasthatswamp?Extremelyslimy.Howdidsherun?Sheranquickly.Howquicklydidsherun?Veryquickly.
Adverbsareusedtoanswerhow,when,andwhereanactiontookplace.Morespecifically,consider:Whendidsomethinghappen?Howoftendiditoccur?Howwastheactionperformed?Wheredidittakeplace?Let’sexploresomeexamples:
Describingwhen:ThelasttimeIwentshoppingwasawhileago.Describinghowoften:Ivisitmyfriendsfrequently.Describinghow:Heranquicklyintherace.Describingwhere:Shesatdownnearby.
Manyadjectivescanbemadeintoadverbssimplybyadding-lytotheend.However,thereareotheradverbsthatdonotendin-ly:very,quite,somewhat,most,least,andmanyothers.
PrepositionalPhrasesasAdverbs
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Youcanuseprepositionalphrasesasadverbsiftheymodifyaverb,adjective,oradverb.Forexample:
Don’tjudgeabookbyitscover.[Thephrase“byitscover”describestheverb“judge.”]Iamtiredofthisdiet.[“Ofthisdiet”describestheadjective“tired.”]
TheHyphenatedAdverbHyphenscanbeusedtocombineanadverbandadjectivetodescribeanoun.Inthissituation,theadverbisdescribingtheadjective,andtheadjectiveisdescribingthenoun.However,whentheadverbendswith-ly,ahyphenshouldnotbeused.Let’sreviewsomeexamples.
beautiful-lookingflowersbest-knownauthorwell-roundedstudentbest-paidjob
Ifthehyphenwasremovedfromanyoftheseexamplesthephrasewouldtakeonadifferentmeaning.Forexample,“best-knownauthor”describestheauthorwhoisknownthebest,whereas“bestknownauthor”woulddescribeanauthorwhois,separately,bothbestandknown.Thehypheniswhatmakessurethat“best”describes“known”ratherthan“author.”
4.5.4:MisplacedandDanglingModifiers
Amodifierisawordorgroupofwordsthatdescribesanotherwordorgroupofwords.
LearningObjective
Identifyincorrectlyusedmodifiers
KeyPoints
Amodifierisawordorphrasethatdescribes,limits,orqualifiesanotherword.Adjectivesandadverbsaretwotypesofmodifiersastheyareusedtodescribeotherwords.
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Itisimportanttousemodifierscorrectlysoreadersunderstandyourintendedmeaning.Incorrectmodifierscomeintheformofdanglingmodifiers,misplacedmodifiers,andsquintingmodifiers.Thebestwaytofixanincorrectmodifieristorestructurethesentence.
KeyTerms
modifier
Awordorphrasethatdescribes,limits,orqualifiesthesenseofanotherwordorphrase.
misplacedmodifier
Occurswhenitisunclearwhatwordorwordsamodifierisreferencing.
squintingmodifier
Awordthatisplacedrightnexttotheworditrefersto,butisalsonearanotherwordthatitmightbemodifying.
danglingmodifier
Anerrorinthesentenceinwhichamodifierisassociatedwithawordorphrasethatitisnotsupposedtodescribe.
ModifiersAmodifierisawordorphrasethatdescribesanotherwordorphrase.Twocommontypesofmodifiersaretheadverb(awordthatdescribesanadjective,averb,oranotheradverb)andtheadjective(awordthatdescribesanounorpronoun).However,thoughalladjectivesandadverbsaremodifiers,notallmodifiersareadjectivesandadverbs.Manymodifiersareentirephrases.Forexample:
Responsibleforrepresentingstudentstothefacultyandoverseeingstudentorganizations,theStudentCouncilplaysanimportantroleincampuslife.
Themodifyingphrase(initalics)providesadditionalinformationaboutthesubjectofthesentence:theStudentCouncil.
ClaritywithModifiers
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Aboveall,itshouldalwaysbecleartothereaderwhichwordanadjective,adverb,ormodifyingphraseisdescribing.Bypayingattentiontoplacementandmakingsurethatifyouwanttomodifyaverbyouuseanadverbinsteadofanadjective,youwillmakeitmucheasierforyourreadertopickuponyourintendedmeaning.Insituationswheremodifiersareusedincorrectly,theresultisadanglingmodifier,amisplacedmodifier,orasquintingmodifier.
DanglingModifiersAdanglingmodifieroccurswhenthemodifyingphraseistoofarawayfromtheworditissupposedtodescribe.Asaresult,themodifierappearstorefertosomethingelse,causingconfusionforthereader.Danglingmodifierscanbecorrectedbyrestructuringthesentence.Forexample:
GiantIllustration?
Dangling:CoveringmostofMinnesota,theillustrationshowedtheglaciercreatedthousandsoflakes.[ThisphrasingmakesitseemliketheillustrationcoversmostofMinnesota!]Corrected:CoveringmostofMinnesota,theglaciercreatedthousandsoflakes,asdepictedontheillustration.[Here,themodifyingphraseclearlyreferstoglacierasitisintended.]
WalkingWinds?
Dangling:Walkingacrossthedesert,fiercewindsswirledaroundtheriders.[Here,thedanglingmodifiermakesitseemlikethewindsarewalkingacrossthedesert!]Corrected:Fiercewindsswirledaroundtheridersastheywalkedacrossthedesert.[Thesentencehasbeenrephrasedsothattheridersaretheoneswalkingacrossthedesert.]
StrollingSquirrels?
Dangling:Strollingthroughthepark,thesquirrelsscamperedacrossourfeet.[Thisdanglingmodifiermakesitsoundlikethesquirrelsareenjoyinganicestrollinthepark!]Corrected:Aswestrolledthroughthepark,squirrelsscamperedacrossourfeet.[Thesentencehasbeenclarifiedsothatthespeakerandhis
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companionaretheoneswhoarestrolling.]
MisplacedModifiersSimilartoadanglingmodifier,amisplacedmodifieroccurswhenitisunclearwhatword(s)themodifierisreferencing.Mostmisplacedmodifierscanbecorrectedbyplacingthemodifyingphrasenexttothesubjectitrefersto.Forexample:
HurtBicycle
Misplaced:Erikcouldn’tridehisbicyclewithabrokenleg.[Here,itsoundslikethebicyclehasabrokenleg!]Corrected:Withhisbrokenleg,Ericcouldn’tridehisbike.[Nowthatthemodifierisintherightplace,thesentencemakesitclearthatEricistheonewithabrokenleg.]
BallerinaDog
Misplaced:Thelittlegirlwalkedthedogwearingatutu.[Isshewalkingadogthatiswearingatutu?]Corrected:Stillwearingatutu,thelittlegirlwalkedthedog.[No,theyoungladyistheoneinthetutu!]
SquintingModifiersAsquintingmodifierisamodifierthatisplacedrightnexttotheworditrefersto,butisalsonearanotherwordthatitmightbemodifying.Thiscanalsobecorrectedbyrestructuringthesentence.Forexample:
AGreatExercise
Squinting:Cyclinguphillquicklystrengthensthelegmuscles.[Here,“quickly”couldmodifyeither“cyclinguphill”or“strengthensthelegmuscles.”]Corrected:Quicklycyclinguphillstrengthensthelegmuscles.[Nowit’sclearthatit’sthecyclingthathastobequick!]
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Peter,I’mSureWeCouldFindYouaChair
Misplaced:Peteratethepiesittingonthewindowsill.[IsPetersittingonawindowsilloristhepie?]Corrected:Peteratethepiethatwassittingonthewindowsill.[Itwasthepie.]
Dangling
Toavoiddanglingandmisplacedmodifiersinyourwriting,makesurethewordorphrasebeingmodifiedisclearlyidentified.
Attributions
IntroductiontoAdjectivesandAdverbs
“Adverb.”https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Adverb.WikipediaCCBY-SA3.0.
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“Adjective.”https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Adjective.WikipediaCCBY-SA3.0.
“DirectDepositAuthorization.jpg.”https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:20090529_Great_Wall_8216.jpgWikimediaCommonsCCBY-SA4.0.
Adjectives
“adjectivalphrase.”http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/adjectival%20phrase.WikipediaCCBY-SA3.0.
“adjective.”http://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/adjective.WiktionaryCCBY-SA3.0.
“CompoundModifier.”https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Compound_modifier.WikipediaCCBY-SA3.0.
“adverb.”http://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/adverb.WiktionaryCCBY-SA3.0.
“RhetoricandComposition/PartsofSpeech.”http://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/Rhetoric_and_Composition/Parts_of_Speech%23AdjectivesWikibooksCCBY-SA3.0.
“RhetoricandComposition/PartsofSpeech.”http://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/Rhetoric_and_Composition/Parts_of_Speech%23AdverbsWikibooksCCBY-SA3.0.
Adverbs
“Adverb.”https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Adverb.WikipediaCCBY-SA3.0.
MisplacedandDanglingModifiers
“Boundless.”http://www.boundless.com/.BoundlessLearningCCBY-SA3.0.
“danglingmodifier.”http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/dangling%20modifier.WikipediaCCBY-SA3.0.
“modifier.”http://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/modifier.WiktionaryCCBY-SA3.0.
“RhetoricandComposition/Danglingmodifier.”http://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/Rhetoric_and_Composition/Dangling_modifier
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WikibooksCCBY-SA3.0.
“Statueofmandangling|Flickr-PhotoSharing!.”http://www.flickr.com/photos/vironevaeh/2703259723/.FlickrCCBY-SA2.0.
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4.6:Conjunctions4.6.1:Conjunctions:Coordination,Correlation,Conjunction,andSubordination
Aconjunctionisapartofspeechthatconnectswordsorphrases.
LearningObjective
Choosethecorrectconjunctiontoconnecttwoclauses
KeyPoints
Aconjunctionisapartofspeechthatconnectstwowords,sentences,phrases,orclauses.Conjunctionshelpaddvarietytoyourwritingbecausetheycanbeusedtocreatesentenceswithdifferentstylesandmeanings.Thedifferentkindsofconjunctionsarecoordinatingconjunctions,subordinatingconjunctions,correlativeconjunctions,andconjunctiveadverbs.
KeyTerms
coordinatingconjunction
Awordthatjoinswordsandphrasesofequalsyntacticimportance.
conjunction
Apartofspeechthatconnectswordsorphrases.
subordinatingconjunction
Awordthatjoinstogethertheseparatesectionsofacomplexsentence.
InEnglishgrammar,aconjunctionisapartofspeechthatconnectstwowords,sentences,phrases,orclauses.Thereareseveraldifferenttypesofconjunctions.
CoordinatingConjunctions
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Coordinatingconjunctionsareconjunctionsthatjoin,or“coordinate,”twoormoreitems(suchaswords,clauses,orsentences)ofequalimportance.Themajorcoordinatingconjunctionsarefor,and,nor,but,or,yet,andso.(YoucanusetheacronymFANBOYStorememberthese!)Themostcommoncoordinatingconjunctionsoutoftheseareand,or,andbut.
And
“And”connectsnon-contrastingitemsorideas:
Theywanthamburgersandhotdogs.Shelikesswimmingatthepoolandintheriver.Iwillgotothegrocerystoreandpickupthekids.
Or
“Or”presentsanalternativeitemoridea.
Theywanteitherhamburgersorhotdogs.Shelikesswimmingatthepoolorintheriverdependingonhowhotitis.Iwilleithergotothegrocerystoreorpickupthekids.
But
“But”presentsacontrastorexception.
Theywanthamburgers,butnothotdogs.Shelikesswimmingatthepool,butnotintheriver.Iwillgotothegrocerystore,butIwon’tpickupthekids.
Nor
“Nor”presentsanon-contrastingnegativeidea.
Theywantneitherhamburgersnorhotdogs.Shedoesn’tlikeswimmingatthepool,norintheriver.Iwillneithergotothegrocerystorenorpickupthekids.
Yet
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“Yet”presentsacontrastorexception(usually,onemoresurprisingthan“but”).
Theywanthamburgers,yettheydon’twanthotdogs.Shelikesswimmingatthepool,yetnotintheriver.Icangotothegrocerystore,andyetIsomehowdon’thavetimetopickupthekids.
So
“So”presentsaconsequence.
Theyatehamburgers,sothey’retoofullforhotdogs.Shelikesswimmingatthepoolsoshedoesn’thavetodrivetotheriver.Iamgoingtothegrocerystore,soIcanpickupthekidsonthewayhome.
For
“For”presentsarationale.
Theywanthamburgers,fortheyarehungry.Shelikesswimmingatthepool,forshewantstostaycool.Iwillgotothegrocerystore,forweneedtobuyingredients.
SubordinatingConjunctionsSubordinatingconjunctionsareconjunctionsthatjointwoseparateclauses.ThemostcommonsubordinatingconjunctionsintheEnglishlanguageincludeafter,although,as,asfaras,asif,aslongas,assoonas,asthough,because,before,evenif,eventhough,everytime,if,inorderthat,since,so,sothat,than,though,unless,until,when,whenever,where,whereas,wherever,andwhile.
Joewenttothestorebecauseheneededsomeorangejuice.Afterthemovieisover,wecanhavedinneratmyhouse.Helikeshorses,eventhoughaponybithimonce.
CorrelativeConjunctions
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Correlativeconjunctionsworkinpairsinordertojoinwordsandgroupsofwordsofequalweightinasentence.Therearemanypairsofcorrelativeconjunctions,including:either/or;notonly/butalso;neither/nor;both/and;whether/or.
Youeitherdoyourworkorprepareforatriptotheoffice.Notonlyishehandsome,butheisalsobrilliant.Neitherthebasketballteamnorthefootballteamisdoingwell.Boththecross-countryteamandtheswimmingteamaredoingwell.Whetheryoustayorgoisyourdecision.
NotonlyistheSphinxinthepicture,butthePyramidsaretoo.
Thetitlecontainsanexampleofacorrelativeconjunction:“notonly…butalso.”Acorrelativeconjunctionisjustonetypeofconjunction,whichisapartofspeechthatconnectstwowords,sentences,phrases,orclauses.Conjunctionscanassistincreatingsentencesofvariousstylesandemphases.
ConjunctiveAdverbsConjunctiveadverbsexpressarelationshiportransitionbetweentwoseparatepartsofacomplexsentence.Commonconjunctiveadverbsincludeso,otherwise,also,consequently,forexample,furthermore,however,inaddition,incontrast,infact,instead,likewise,moreover,nevertheless,otherwise,still,then,andtherefore.Forexample:
TheCEOwillbeattendingthelecture;accordingly,thevicepresidentwillbeavailablefortheluncheonatnoon.JaimewantedtoseeBillyMadison;however,NickwantedtoseeHappy
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Gilmore.
Attributions
Conjunctions:Coordination,Correlation,Conjunction,andSubordination
“Coordination(linguistics).”http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coordination_(linguistics).WikipediaCCBY-SA3.0.
“CoordinatingandSubordinatingConjunctions.”http://valenciacommunicationscenter.wikispaces.com/Coordinating+and+Subordinating+ConjunctionsvalenciacommunicationscenterWikispaceCCBY-SA3.0.
“Subordinateconjunction.”http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Subordinate%20conjunction.WikipediaCCBY-SA3.0.
“coordinator.”http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/coordinator.WikipediaCCBY-SA3.0.
“Conjunction(grammar).”http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Conjunction_(grammar).WikipediaCCBY-SA3.0.
“Subordination(linguistics).”http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Subordination_(linguistics).WikipediaCCBY-SA3.0.
“RhetoricandComposition/Punctuation.”http://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/Rhetoric_and_Composition/Punctuation%23OK.2C_which_terms_do_I_need_to_know.3FWikibooksCCBY-SA3.0.
“coordinatingconjunction.”http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/coordinating%20conjunction.WikipediaCCBY-SA3.0.
ProjectGutenberg.http://www.gutenberg.org/files/29507/29507-h/29507-h.htm.Publicdomain.
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4.7:AgreementandParallelism4.7.1:Subject-VerbAgreement
Verbsneedtoagreewiththesubjectinbothpersonandnumber.
LearningObjective
Recognizeerrorsinsubject-verbagreement
KeyPoints
Verbsmustagreewiththeirsubjectinpersonandnumber.Afirst-personsubjectisIorwe.Secondpersonisyouoryouall.Thirdpersonisshe,he,it,orthey.Asingularsubjectisasubjectwherethereisonlyonepersonorthing;apluralsubjectismorethanonepersonorthing.It’sgoodtodouble-checkwhetheryourverbagreeswithyoursubject,astherearesituationswhereitmaybeunclear.
KeyTerms
collectivenoun
Anumberofpeopleorthingstakentogetherandspokenofasawhole.
massnoun
Athingorconceptusuallyreferredtoasawhole,ratherthancountedindividually(e.g.adviceorwater).
plural
Morethanoneinnumber.
verb
Awordthatindicatesanaction,anevent,orastateofbeing.
Subject-VerbAgreement
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Inorderforsentencestosoundright,theirverbsandsubjectsneedtomeshwelltogether.Sincethesubjectistheoneperformingtheaction,theverbneedstomatchitinpersonandnumber.
“Person”isawayofsayingwhothesubjectis.Therearethreelevelsof“person”inEnglish:firstperson,secondperson,andthirdperson.Toputitsimply:Infirstperson,thesubjectisIorwe.Secondpersonisyouoryouall.Thirdpersonisshe,he,it,orthey.
“Number”isawayofsayinghowmanypeople(orobjects)areinthesubject.Ifonlyonepersonisinthesubject,it’ssingular.Otherwise,it’splural.
Thus,asubjecthasbothpersonandnumber,andtheverbtakesontheappropriateform.Taketheexamplesbelow:
Singularfirstperson:Iwork.Singularsecondperson:Youwork.Singularthirdperson:Heworks.Pluralfirstperson:Wework.Pluralsecondperson:Youwork.Pluralthirdperson:Theywork.
Theverb“work”hastwodifferentforms,“work”and“works,”dependingonthesubject.
UnusualSituationsAsclearasthisallseems,somesituationsareabittrickierthanothers.Forexample,takeanirregularverblike“be.”
Singularfirstperson:Iam.Singularsecondperson:Youare.Singularthirdperson:Heis.Pluralfirstperson:Weare.Pluralsecondperson:Youare.Pluralthirdperson:Theyare.
Thisverbishighlyirregular,andsoitcanbetrickiertomakesurethatthesubjectandverbmatchintenseandnumber.
Thisisnottheonlyunusualsituation,however.Subject-verbagreementcanbecomealittlemorecomplicatedwhenthesubjectisverylongandcomplex.Whenfacedwithsituationslikethese,itisgenerallybesttoconsiderthe
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entirecomplexsubjectphraseasonesubject,andthenthinkaboutwhatkindofthingitrepresents.
CompoundSentences
Compoundsentences(twosentencesjoinedbyaclause)haveasubjectandverbineachclause.Makesurethesubjectofeachclauseagreeswiththeverbofeachclause.
Thepeanutbutterisonthecounterandthebeansareinthebag.Thechildrenhaveasnowday,soIamgoinghomeearly.
ModifyingPhrases
Sometimesmodifyingphrasescancomebetweenthesubjectandverbofasentence.Thisshouldnotaffectthesubject-verbagreement.
Theideaofservingfrankfurtersisagoodone.Thechildren,alongwiththeirfather,aretakingacabtothestation.
VerbPrecedesSubject
Sometimesthesubjectofasentencecancomeafteritsverb.Eveninthesecases,theverbshouldstillagreewiththesubject.
Wherearethecandlesforthecake?Thereisaquietspotbythepond.
CompoundSubjects
Compoundsubjects(twosubjectsjoinedbyaconjunction)takepluralverbsiftheyarejoinedby“and.”Thinkofitthisway:you’vegotmorethanonesubject,soyourverbhastobeplural.
Thepresidentandthechildrenareattheparty.MybrothersandIareattheparty.
PositiveandNegativeSubjects
Whenapositivesubjectandanegativesubjectarecompoundedandhave
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differentnumbers,theverbshouldagreewiththepositivesubject.
Itisnottheassistantcoachesbuttheheadcoachwhocallstheplays.Itisthesoup,butnottheappetizers,thathaspoisonedthequeen.
Or
Whentwonounsdifferinginnumberarejoinedbytheword“or,”theverbshouldtaketheformofthenounclosesttoit.Forexample:
Mostviewersofthepaintingassumethateitherthemonkey’santicsorthehandler’schagrincausestheyoungmen’slaughter.
“Chagrin”isclosertotheverbthan“antics,”sotheverb“causes”takesthesingularform.Notethatthisisthecasespecificallybecauseoftheword“or.”
IndefinitePronouns
Fiveindefinitepronounsalwaystakepluralverbs:others,both,many,few,andseveral.
Botharearrivingatthesametime.Manypeopleloveparties.
However,mostindefinitepronounstakesingularverbs.
Everybodyisattheparty.Eitherrestaurantsoundsgood.
Someindefinitepronounscantakeasingularorpluralverbbasedonwhetherthenountowhichtheyarereferringisuncountable(singular)orcountable(plural).
Some(sand)isinmyshoe.Some(pebbles)areinmyshoe.
CollectiveNouns
Collectivenouns(whichrefertoagroupofbeingsorthingsasasingleunit)aresingular,andsotakesingularverbs.
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Theaudiencewassilentattheendoftheplay.Theclasshasplentyofhomeworkfortheweekend.
MassNouns
Massnouns,like“water”or“mud”areneithersingularnorplural.Youcan’tsay“onewater”or“twowaters”becauseit’salljustacontinuousobject(unlessyouaretalkingabouttwodistinctcontainersofwater).Massnounsrepresentageneric,unknownamountofwhatevertheyare.Theytakeasingularverbform.
Mybaggagewasleftattheairport.[Thesubjectbaggageisamassnoun,sotheverbwasissingular.]Mybagswereleftattheairport.[Thesubjectbagsisapluralnoun,sotheverbwereisalsopluraltoagreewiththesubject.]
Amounts
Amountstakesingularverbsbecausetheyaretreatedasunits,whicharesingularnouns.
Tendollarsisenoughtobuythebook.AllIneedisfifteenminutestofinishtheexam.
Somenon-amountwordsendin“s”butalsotakesingularverbsbecausetheyrefertounitsorsingleentities.
Economicsisaninterestingsubject.Thenewsairsatsixo’clock.
PairWords
Somewordsendingin“s”refertosingleobjectsbutareconsideredpluralandsoshouldtakepluralverbs,unlesstheyareprecededby“pairof”(inwhichcase“pair”wouldbethesubject).
Yourshoesarebrightyellow.Myfavoritepairofpantsisinthewash.
Titles
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Thetitleofabookorworkofartisalwayssingularevenifanouninthetitleisplural.
TheThreeMusketeersissittingontheshelfbythewindow.
Sumsandproductstakesingularverbsinmathematicalequations.Fractionalexpressionsvarydependingonthemeaning.
Threeplusfourequalsseven.Three-fourthsoftheprofessorsvoteRepublican.
Thechildstandsnearthedoor.
Thetitledemonstratesthenecessityofsubject-verbagreement.Thethirdpersonsubject,“Thechild,”requiresthattheverbalsotakeathirdpersonsingularform,“stands.”
Revising
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Mostofthetime,writersusesubject-verbagreementautomatically.Mostofusaresousedtodoingitthatwedonotneedtothinkabouttheruleinordertofollowit.Nevertheless,youshouldbeawareofsubject-verbagreementwheneditingyourpapers,especiallyiftheyhavegonethroughmanyrevisions.Thisisonethingwritersmayforgettoedit.Mostmistakeshappenbecausewritersarenotpayingcarefulattentiontothenumberandpersonoftheirsubjects.
Tofigureoutwhichnountheverbshouldagreewith,beginbycrossingoutanyprepositionalphrasesorotherdescriptiveclauses.Thenfocusontheverbandaskyourself,“Whoorwhatisperformingthisaction?”Pareitdowntojustasubjectandverb,andseeifitsoundsright.Writersneedtoconsiderwhetherthesubjectofthesentenceissingularorplural,andwhetherthesubjectisfirstperson,secondperson,orthirdperson.Oncethishasbeendetermined,thecorrectconjugationoftheverbcanbeused.
4.7.2:Pronoun-AntecedentAgreement
Allpronounsmustagreewiththeirantecedentinnumberandgender.
LearningObjective
Recognizeerrorsinpronoun-antecedentagreement
KeyPoints
Apronounisawordthatreplacesanounoragroupofnounsinasentence.Apronounshouldagreeinnumberandgenderwiththenounorphraseitrefersto.Thenounorphraseapronounreferstoiscalledtheantecedent.Usingproperpronoun-antecedentagreementisimportanttoproperlyexpressingyourideasinwriting.
KeyTerms
pronoun
Awordthatreplacesanounorgroupofnounsinasentence.
antecedent
Anounornounphrasetowhichapronounrefers.
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PronounsandAntecedentsApronounisawordthatreplacesanoun,oragroupofnouns,inasentenceorsentences.Apronounshouldagreeinnumberandgenderwiththenounorphraseitrefersto,whichisknownastheantecedent.Correctpronoun-antecedentagreementiscrucialtowritingprofessionally.
Apronounmighthaveanantecedentfromtheprevioussentence:
Carolinahatescats.Shehasterribleallergies.[ThepronounshereferstotheantecedentCarolina.]
Butpronounsandantecedentscanalsooccurinthesamesentence:
Jimsaidhedoesn’tlikecoffee.[ThepronounhereferstotheantecedentJim.]
Thetwinshelpedbybringingtheirtruck.[Thepronountheirreferstotheantecedenttwins.]
QuantityAgreement“Singular”means“oneofsomething,”whereas“plural”means“morethanone.”ThesingularpronounsincludeI,me,he,she,it,andmore.Theirantecedentwillalwaysbesingular:justonepersonorobject.
Jamilwasnotashungry.Hestayedattheoffice.[ThesingularpronounhereferstotheantecedentJamil.]
Examplesofpluralpronounsincludewe,us,they,andothers.Thesepronounsmusthaveanantecedentthatismorethanonepersonorobject.
George,Omar,andPhilwerestarvingforlunch.TheywenttoaChinesebuffet.[ThepluralpronountheyreferstotheantecedentGeorge,Omar,andPhil.]
Onetrickyexceptionis“you.”InEnglish,thepronoun“you”isthesamewhetheritissingularorplural.Sometimesyoucandistinguishbetweenthetwobysaying“youall”ifyouarespeakingtomorethanoneperson.
GenderAgreement
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Insomesituations,pronounsneedtobegenderspecific.Thepronounshe,his,andhimaremasculine,whereasshe,her,andhersarefeminine.
Janicewantedtogotothemall.ShewantedScotttojoinher.Hewasnotinterestedingoingtothemall.[ThepronounssheandherrefertotheantecedentJanice.ThepronounhereferstotheantecedentScott.]MydogFranklinisveryskittish.Hedoesn’tenjoythedogpark.[ThepronounhereferstotheantecedentFranklin.]
Gender-NeutralPronouns
Gender-neutralpronounsincludeyou,they,their,theirs,we,us,our,ours,your,andyours.Inthecasewherethegenderoftheantecedentisunknown,thepronounshouldbegender-neutraloravoidedaltogether.
Forexample,takethegeneralstatement,“Astudentshouldhandhispapersinpromptly.”Inthissentence,thewordstudentdoesnotindicateanygender,becauseit’sjustageneral,anonymousstudent.Therefore,ratherthansaying“hispapers,”useoneofthefollowing:
Astudentshouldhandpapersinpromptly.[Here,thegenderedpronounhasbeendropped,butthesentenceisstillgrammaticallycorrect.]Studentsshouldhandtheirpapersinpromptly.[Bymakingtheantecedentplural,youcanusethegender-neutralpluralpronountheir.]
4.7.3:StructuralParallelismWithinaSentence
Parallelismrequiresthatsimilarideasbepresentedinsimilarform.
LearningObjective
Giveexamplesofparallelstructure
KeyPoints
Parallelismiswhentwoormoreelementsofthesamesentencehaveasimilarstructure.Themostimportantparallelmarkersarethethreemostcommonconjunctions:and,but,andor.Parallelismrequiresthatanarticle(a,an,orthe)oraprepositionapplyingtoallmembersofaseriesmusteitherappearbeforethefirst
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itemonlyorberepeatedbeforeeachitem.
KeyTerm
parallelism
Whentwoormoreelementsofthesamesentencehaveasimilarstructure.
ParallelismAnunclearsentencerambles,driftingamongunrelatedtopicsinahaphazardandconfusingfashion.Parallelismhelpspromotebalance,emphasis,clarity,andreadability.Butwhatisparallelism?
Parallelismiswhenelementsofasentence“echo”eachotherbecausetheyhavesimilarformorstructure.Repeatingkeywordscancontributetounitywithinanessay.Parallelismcanbeusefulinmanysituations,butoftenweknowthatitwillcomeinhandywhenweusewordsthatlinkorcontrastitems,suchasand,or,andbut.
BasicFormofParallelismNonparallel:Studentsspendtheirtimegoingtoclasses,studying,working,andtheywishtheyhadtimeforasociallife.Parallel:Studentsspendtheirtimegoingtoclasses,studying,working,andwishingforasociallife.Nonparallel:High-schoolstudentshopeforshortschooldays,orfour-dayweekswouldbegreat,too.Parallel:High-schoolstudentshopeforshortschooldaysorfour-dayweeks.
UsingArticleswithParallelismParallelismrequiresthatanarticle(a,an,orthe)oraprepositionapplyingtoallitemsinalisteitherappearbeforethefirstitemonlyorberepeatedbeforeeachitem.Hereareafewexamplesoftheruleinaction:
Nonparallel:Wecanpaywithamark,ayen,buck,orpound.
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Parallel:Wecanpaywithamark,ayen,abuck,orapound.Nonparallel:IwenttothestoreonMonday,Wednesday,andonFriday.Parallel:IwenttothestoreonMonday,Wednesday,andFriday.
PrepositionsinParallelismSomewordsrequirethatcertainprepositionsprecedethem.Whensuchwordsappearinparallelstructure,itisimportanttoincludealloftheappropriateprepositions,sincethefirstonemaynotapplytothewholeseriesofitems.Hereareafewexamplesoftheruleinaction:
Nonparallel:Hisspeechwasmarkedbydisagreementandscornforhisopponent’sposition.Parallel:Hisspeechwasmarkedbydisagreementwithandscornforhisopponent’sposition.Nonparallel:Thisisatimenotforwordsbutaction.Parallel:Thisisatimenotforwordsbutforaction.
CorrelativeExpressionsCorrelativeexpressionsarewordsthattendtoshowupinpairs.Sentenceswithcorrelativeexpressions(both/and;not/but;notonly/butalso;either/or;first,second,third…)shouldemployparallelstructureaswell.Simplerewritingcanoftenremedyerrorsinthesetypesofsentences.Hereareafewexamplesoftheruleinaction:
Nonparallel:Eitheryoumustgrantherrequestorincurherillwill.Parallel:Youmusteithergrantherrequestorincurherillwill.Nonparallel:Myobjectionsarefirst,theinjusticeofthemeasure,andsecond,thatitisunconstitutional.Parallel:Myobjectionsarefirst,thatthemeasureisunjust,andsecond,thatitisunconstitutional.
UsingLogictoDetermineStructureInsomeinstances,youmustfigureoutwhichpartsofthesentenceareparallelinmeaningbeforemakingthemparallelinstructure.Hereisanexample:
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Correct:Salappliedhimselfinhisnewjob,arrivingearlyeveryday,skippinglunchregularly,andleavinglateeverynight.
Inthesentenceabove,the-ingparticiplephrases(“arrivingearlyeveryday,”“skippinglunchregularly,”and“leavinglateeverynight”)areparallel.Themainclause—“appliedhimselfinhisnewjob”—isnotparalleltotheseparticiplephrases.Thisisbecausethemainverbis“applied.”The-ingphrasessimplyprovideadditionalinformationabouthowSalappliedhimself.Itwoulddistortthemeaningtochangethesentencetothissuperficiallyparallelversion:
Incorrect:Salappliedhimselfinhisnewjob,arrivedearlyeveryday,skippedlunchregularly,andleftlateeverynight.
Thisversiongivesalltheactivitiesequalemphasis,insteadofmakingthelastthreeactivitiessubordinatetothemainactivity(“appliedhimselfinhisnewjob”).
Attributions
Subject-VerbAgreement
“Boundless.”http://www.boundless.com/.BoundlessLearningCCBY-SA3.0.
“collectivenoun.”http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/collective%20noun.WikipediaCCBY-SA3.0.
“verb.”http://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/verb.WiktionaryCCBY-SA3.0.
“JoffreMeyer,Subject-VerbAgreement.September17,2013.”http://cnx.org/content/m34353/latest/.OpenStaxCNXCCBY3.0.
“EnglishinUse/Subject-verbAgreement.”http://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/English_in_Use/Subject-verb_Agreement.WikibooksCCBY-SA3.0.
“MassNoun.”http://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/mass_noun.WikitionaryCCBY-SA3.0.
“plural.”http://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/plural.WiktionaryCCBY-SA3.0.
“RhetoricandComposition/Lackofagreementbetweensubjectandverb.”http://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/Rhetoric_and_Composition/Parts_of_Speech%23Verbs
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WikibooksCCBY-SA3.0.
ProjectGutenberg.http://www.gutenberg.org/files/28024/28024-h/28024-h.html.Publicdomain.
Pronoun-AntecedentAgreement
“Boundless.”http://www.boundless.com/.BoundlessLearningCCBY-SA3.0.
“pronoun.”http://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/pronoun.WiktionaryCCBY-SA3.0.
“antecedent.”http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/antecedent.WikipediaCCBY-SA3.0.
“RhetoricandComposition/PartsofSpeech.”http://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/Rhetoric_and_Composition/Parts_of_Speech%23PronounsWikibooksCCBY-SA3.0.
StructuralParallelismWithinaSentence
“Boundless.”http://www.boundless.com/.BoundlessLearningCCBY-SA3.0.
“Parallelism.”http://xiamenwriting.wikispaces.com/Parallelism.xiamenwritingWikispaceCCBY-SA3.0.
“Parallelism.”http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Parallelism.WikipediaCCBY-SA3.0.
“parallelstructure.”https://writingguide.wikispaces.com/parallel+structure.writingguideWikispaceCCBY-SA3.0.
“RhetoricandComposition/TheStagesoftheWritingProcess.”http://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/Rhetoric_and_Composition/The_Stages_of_the_Writing_ProcessWikibooksCCBY-SA3.0.
ProjectGutenberg.http://www.gutenberg.org/files/28501/28501-h/28501-h.htm.Publicdomain.
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5:OverviewofEnglishGrammar:PunctuationandMechanics
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5.1:Commas5.1.1:IntroductiontoCommas
Thecommaisapunctuationmarkthatindicatesaslightbreak,pause,ortransition.
LearningObjective
Identifysituationsthatrequirecommas
KeyPoints
Thecommaisapunctuationmarkthatindicatesaslightbreak,pause,ortransition.Commasarenecessarybeforeacoordinatingconjunction(for,and,nor,but,or,yet,so)thatseparatestwoindependentclauses.Commasarenecessaryafterintroductorywords,phrases,orclausesinasentence.Commasarenecessarytosetoffelementsthatinterruptoraddinformationinasentence.
KeyTerms
participle
Aformofaverbthatmayfunctionasanadjectiveornoun.Englishhastwotypesofparticiples:thepresentparticipleandthepastparticiple.
preposition
Anyofaclosedclassofnon-inflectingwordstypicallyemployedtoconnectanounorapronoun,inanadjectivaloradverbialsense,withsomeotherword:aparticleusedwithanounorpronoun(inEnglishalwaysintheobjectivecase)tomakeaphraselimitingsomeotherword.
adverb
Awordthatmodifiesaverb,adjective,anotheradverb,orvariousothertypesofwords,phrases,orclauses.
adjective
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Awordthatmodifiesanounordescribesanoun’sreferent.
infinitive
Theuninflectedformofaverb.InEnglish,thisisusuallyformedwiththeverbstemprecededby“to.”ForExample:“tosit.”
nonrestrictive
Describesamodifierthatcanbedroppedfromasentencewithoutchangingthemeaning.
Thecommaisapunctuationmarkthatindicatesaslightpauseoratransitionofsomekind.Itservesmanydifferentgrammaticalfunctionsandprovidesclarityforreaders.Commashavemanyuses,butthesituationsinwhichtheyareusedcanbebrokendownintofourmajorcategories:
1. Putacommabeforeacoordinatingconjunction(for,and,nor,but,or,yet,so)thatseparatestwoindependentclauses.
2. Putacommaafterintroductorywords,phrases,orclausesinasentence.3. Usecommastosetoffelementsthatinterruptoraddinformationina
sentence.4. Usecommastovisuallyseparatedistinctbutrelateditems.
CoordinatingConjunctionsCoordinatingconjunctionsareconjunctions,orjoiningwords,thatareplacedbetweenwordsandphrasesofequalimportance.Usedwithcoordinatingconjunctions,commasallowwriterstoexpresshowtheircompletethoughtsrelatetooneanother.Theyalsohelpavoidthechoppy,flatstylethatariseswheneverythoughtstandsasaseparatesentence.
Whenjoiningtwoindependentclauses,orclausesthatcouldstandontheirownasfullsentences,placeacommabeforetheconjunction.Ifthesecondindependentclauseisveryshort,orifitisanimperative,thecommacanbeomitted.
Example:Hewaslookingforwardtothedance,buthewasnotsurewhathewouldwear.
Bothclausesareindependentandcouldstandontheirownascompletesentences.Whentheyarejoinedinthesamesentence,however,theymustbeconnectedwithacommaandacoordinatingconjunction.
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IntroductoryPhrasesandClausesPutacommaafterintroductorywords,phrases,orclausesthatintroduceasentence.
DependentClauses
Adependentclauseisagroupofwordsthatcan’tstandonitsownasasentencebecauseitdoesnotexpressacompletethought.Sometimesadependentclausecanbeusedtointroduceasentence.Inthissituation,useacommaafterthedependentclause.
Example:BecauseIwasrunninglate,Ididnothavetimetoeatbreakfast.
Thefirstphrasecouldnotstandonitsownasasentence,butwhenjoinedtotheindependentclausebythecomma,thesentenceiscomplete.
Notethatadependentclausecancomelaterinthesentence,butinthatcase,youwouldnotuseacomma:
Example:IdidnothavetimetoeatbreakfastbecauseIwasrunninglate.
Onlyuseacommatoseparateadependentandindependentclauseifthedependentclauseisfirst!
IntroductoryWordsandPhrases
Writerscangivereadersinformationthatlimitsorotherwisemodifiesamainideathatfollows.Todoso,writerscanuseintroductorywordsorintroductoryphrases.Theseintroductoryelementscanbeonewordorseveral.Commonintroductoryelementsincludetransitionwordsandstatementsabouttime,place,manner,orcondition.
Often,introductorywordsarealsoadverbs.Commasarealwaysusedtosetoffcertainadverbs,includingthefollowing:
howeverinfactthereforeneverthelessmoreoverfurthermorestill
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Example:Therefore,itisobviousthatweshouldfundthedam-buildingproject.
Ifoneoftheseadverbsappearsinthemiddleofasentence,withinoneclause,itshouldbesetoffbyapairofcommas.
Example:Thedam,however,willtakesevenyearstoconstruct.
Forsomeadverbs,usingacommaisoptional.Inthesesituations,saythesentencetoyourself.Ifyouthinkapausemakesyoursentencemoreclearoremphasizeswhatyouwanttoemphasize,usethecomma;otherwise,dropit.
thensoyetinsteadtoofirst,second,etc.
Example:Firstwe’llgotothemall.Thenwe’llgotothepetstore.
Example:First,we’llgotothemall.Then,we’llgotothepetstore.
Bothofthosesentencepairsarecorrect!
AddingInformation:ModifiersandAppositivesModifiersarewordsorphrasesthatareaddedtosentencesinordertomaketheirmeaningmorespecific.Inordertounderstandwhatkindofmodifiersrequirecommas,firstwehavetounderstandtheconceptof“restrictiveness.”
NonrestrictiveModifiers
Somemodifiersarenonrestrictive,meaningthatthesentencewouldstillhaveessentiallythesamemeaning,topic,andstructurewithoutthem.Theysimplyaddalittleextrainformation.
Example:Katy’snewfishbowlisgrowingsomeweirdalgae.
Inthissentence,“new”and“weird”arenonrestrictive.Thesentencewithoutthemwouldbegrammaticallycorrectandhaveessentiallythesamemeaning.Theydonotrequireanycommas.
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RestrictiveModifiers
Restrictivemodifiers,ontheotherhand,arethosewhoseuseisessentialtotheoverallmeaningofthesentence.Inotherwords,ifyoudroppedarestrictivemodifierfromasentence,themeaningofthesentencewouldchange.
Example:Themanwhoscratchedyourcarleftanoteonyourwindshield.
Thephrase“whoscratchedyourcar”isarestrictivemodifierbecauseitexplainswhichmanthesentencerefersto,andbecausethesentencewouldbeunclearwithoutit.
Appositives
Anappositiveisagrammaticalconstructioninwhichtwonounphrasesareplacedsidebyside,withoneidentifyingtheother.
Example:Mysister,AliceSmith,likesjellybeans.
Inthissentence,“AliceSmith”isanappositivemodifyingthenounphrase“mysister.”BecausethenameAliceSmithisjustaddinginformation,andthesentencewouldstillhavethesamebasicmeaningwithoutit,thisisanexampleofanonrestrictiveappositive.Nonrestrictiveappositivesdorequirecommas.
Ontheotherhand,arestrictiveappositiveprovidesinformationessentialtoidentifyingthenounbeingdescribed.Itlimitsorclarifiesthatnounphraseinsomecrucialway,andthemeaningofthesentencewouldchangeiftheappositivewereremoved.InEnglish,restrictiveappositivesarenotsetoffbycommas.
Example:HelovesthetelevisionshowIronChef.
Inthissentence,“IronChef”isanappositivemodifyingthenounphrase“televisionshow.”Becausethemeaningofthesentencewouldbeunclearwithout“IronChef,”itisconsideredrestrictiveandthusdoesnotrequireacomma.
SeparatingRelatedButDistinctInformation
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Attribution
Useacommatosetofftheattribution(i.e.,whosaidorwroteaquotation)fromthequotationitself.Iftheattributioncomesattheendofthequotation,thenthecommashouldgoinsidethequotationmarks,evenifthequotationisacompletesentence.
Example:“Wereallymessedupthistime,”hesaid.
Apairofcommasshouldbeusedtosetofftheattributionwhenitappearsinthemiddleofthequotation.
Example:“Well,”shesaid,“IthinkIwouldprefertohavehamburgerstonight.”
Donotreplaceaquestionmarkorexclamationpointinaquotationwithacomma.
Example:“Wherearewegoingnow?”Eugeneasked.
Lists
Whentherearethreeormoreitemsinalist,commasshouldbeusedbetweentheitems.
Example:Buyapples,bananas,andgrapefruitatthestore.
Thefinalcomma,theonebeforeandoror,isknownasaserialcomma(alsocalledtheOxfordorHarvardcomma).Theserialcommashouldalwaysbeusedwhereitisneededtoavoidconfusion.Canyouseetheambiguityintheexamplebelow?
Example:“Thankyoufortheaward.I’dliketothankmyparents,CharlesDarwinandLindsayLohan.”
Itlookslikethespeaker’sparentsareDarwinandLohan,wheninreality,thespeakermeanttothankherparentsandCharlesDarwinandLindsayLohan.Inthissituation,theserialcommaneedstobeused.
Otherwise,dependingonthechosenstyleguide,itisconsideredoptional.Still,notusingtheserialcommaisrelativelyuncommoninAmericanEnglish,exceptinnewspapersandmagazines.
Accumulation
Anothertypeofrelationshipbetweenideasthatwriterssignaltoreaderswith
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acommaisthatofaccumulation.Occurringattheendofasentence,cumulativeclauseshookuptoamainclauseandaddfurtherinformation.Theyoftenincludeadditionaldescriptivedetails.
Example,“Thesunroseslowlyoverthemountains,warmingthefacesoftheminersinthevalley,invitingthejaysoutfromtheirnests,shimmeringinthemorningdew,inchingthedayforwardoneshadowatatime.”
Asinthisexample,accumulativephrasesshouldbeseparatedbycommas.
Dates
Commasshouldalsobeusedwhenwritingdates.Thereshouldalwaysbeacommabetweenthedayandtheyearandbetweentheyearandtherestofthesentence.
Example:“OnDecember7,1941,JapaneseplanesattackedtheU.S.NavalbaseinHawaii.”
Evenwhenthedateisnotadependentclause,asitisinthepreviousexample,thelastiteminthedateshouldbefollowedbyacomma.
Callinginsickforwork,Bethhopedherbosswouldnotsuspectanything
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Thetitlecontainsaverbinitsintroductoryphrase,whichwarrantsacommabeforethefinalclause.Thecommaservesavarietyofgrammaticalfunctions,includingtoindicatepausesorsetoffintroductoryphrases,asinthetitleexample.
5.1.2:CommonCommaMistakes
Byunderstandingtherulesofcorrectcommausage,youcanavoidcommoncommaerrors.
LearningObjective
Recognizecommonmistakeswhenusingcommas
KeyPoints
Avoidingunnecessarycommasissimplyamatterofunderstandingtherulesofcorrectcommausage.Acommaspliceoccurswhentwoindependentclausesarejoinedonlybyacommainsteadofanacceptableformofpunctuation,suchasacommawithacoordinatingconjunction,asemicolon,oraperiod.Arun-onsentenceoccurswhentwoormoreindependentclausesfusetogetherwithoutpunctuationtoseparatethem.
KeyTerms
preposition
Anyofaclosedclassofnon-inflectingwordstypicallyemployedtoconnectanounorapronoun,inanadjectivaloradverbialsense,withsomeotherword:aparticleusedwithanounorpronoun(inEnglishalwaysintheobjectivecase)tomakeaphraselimitingsomeotherword.
participle
Aformofaverbthatmayfunctionasanadjectiveornoun.Englishhastwotypesofparticiples:thepresentparticipleandthepastparticiple.
comma
Punctuationmark,usuallyindicatingapausebetweenpartsofasentenceorbetweenelementsinalist.
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RulesofThumbCommausageerrorsfallintotwocategories:usingunnecessarycommasandfailingtousenecessarycommas.Toavoidmakingerrorswhenusingcommasinyourwriting,youmustunderstandwhencommasbelong(andwhentheydon’t).
Keepthefollowingrulesofthumbinmindforwhentonotusecommas.
Donotuseacommatoseparateasubjectfromitspredicate.
Incorrect:RegisteringforourfitnessprogramsbeforeSeptember15,willsaveyouthirtypercentofthemembershipcost.Correct:RegisteringforourfitnessprogramsbeforeSeptember15willsaveyouthirtypercentofthemembershipcost.
Donotuseacommatoseparateaverbfromitsobject,oraprepositionfromitsobject.
Incorrect:IhopetomailtoyoubeforeChristmas,acurrentsnapshotofmydogBenji.Incorrect:Shetraveledaroundtheworldwith,asmallbackpack,abedroll,apuptent,andacamera.Correct:IhopetomailtoyoubeforeChristmasacurrentsnapshotofmydogBenji.Correct:Shetraveledaroundtheworldwithasmallbackpack,abedroll,apuptent,andacamera.
Donotmisuseacommaafteracoordinatingconjunction.
Incorrect:Sleetfellheavilyonthetinroofbut,thefamilywasusedtothenoiseandpaiditnoattention.Correct:Sleetfellheavilyonthetinroof,butthefamilywasusedtothenoiseandpaiditnoattention.
Donotusecommastointroducerestrictive(i.e.,
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necessary)modifiers.
Incorrect:Thefingers,onhislefthand,arebiggerthanthoseonhisright.Correct:Thefingersonhislefthandarebiggerthanthoseonhisright.
Donotuseacommabeforeadependentclausethatcomesafteranindependentclause.Thisiscalledadisruptivecomma.
Incorrect:Thefutureofprintnewspapersappearsuncertain,duetorisingproductioncostsandtheincreasingpopularityofonlinenewssources.Incorrect:Somearguethatprintnewspaperswillneverdisappear,becauseoftheirmanyreaders.Correct:Thefutureofprintnewspapersappearsuncertainduetorisingproductioncostsandtheincreasingpopularityofonlinenewssources.Correct:Somearguethatprintnewspaperswillneverdisappearbecauseoftheirmanyreaders.
Donotuseacommaafterashortintroductoryprepositionalphraseunlessyoumeantoaddextraemphasis.
Incorrect:Beforetheparade,Iwanttoeatpizza.Correct:BeforetheparadeIwanttoeatpizza.
Donotuseacommabetweenadjectivesthatworktogethertomodifyanoun.
Incorrect:Ilikeyourdancing,catt-shirt.Correct:Ilikeyourdancingcatt-shirt.
Donotuseacommatosetoffquotationsthatoccupyasubordinatepositioninasentence,oftensignaledbythewords“that,”“which,”or“because.”
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Incorrect:Participatinginademocracytakesastrongstomachbecause,“itrequiresacertainrelishforconfusion,”writesMollyIvins.Correct:Participatinginademocracytakesastrongstomachbecause“itrequiresacertainrelishforconfusion,”writesMollyIvins.
Donotuseacommawhennamingonlyamonthandayear.
Incorrect:ThenextpresidentialelectionwilltakeplaceinNovember,2016.Correct:ThenextpresidentialelectionwilltakeplaceinNovember2016.
Donotuseacommainstreetaddressesorpagenumbers,orbeforeaZIPorotherpostalcode.
Correct:Thetableappearsonpage1397.Correct:Thefireoccurredat5509AvenidaValencia.Correct:Writetotheprogramadvisorat6455thStreet,Minerton,Indiana55555.
CommaSpliceErrorsAcommaspliceoccurswhentwoindependentclauses(thatis,twocompletesentences)arejoinedonlybyacomma.Inthosesituations,anacceptableformofpunctuationwouldbeasemicolonoraperiod.Forexample:
Incorrect:Everyday,millionsofchildrengotodaycarewithmillionsofotherkids,thereisnoguaranteethatnoneofthemareharboringinfectiousconditions.Incorrect:Manydaycareshavestrictrulesaboutsickchildrenneedingtostayawayuntiltheyarenolongerinfectious,enforcingthoserulescanbeverydifficult.Incorrect:Daycareprovidersoftenundergoextremepressuretoacceptasickchild“justthisonce,”theparenthasnoothercareoptionsandcannotmisswork.
Onceyoudiscoverwherethetwoindependentclausesare“spliced,”thereareseveralwaystoseparatethem.Youcanmaketwocompletesentencesby
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insertingaperiod.Thisisthestrongestlevelofseparation.Youcanuseasemicolonbetweenthetwoclausesiftheyareofequalimportance;thisallowsyourreadertoconsiderthepointstogether.Youcanuseasemicolonwithatransitionwordtoindicateaspecificrelationbetweenthetwoclauses;however,youshouldusethissparingly.Youcanuseacoordinatingconjunctionfollowingthecomma,andthisalsowillindicatearelationship.Or,youcanaddawordtooneclausetomakeitdependent.
Forexample:
Correct:Everyday,millionsofchildrengotodaycarewithmillionsofotherkids.Thereisnoguaranteethatnoneofthemareharboringinfectiousconditions.Correct:Manydaycareshavestrictrulesaboutsickchildrenneedingtostayawayuntiltheyarenolongerinfectious;enforcingthoserulescanbeverydifficult.Correct:Manydaycareshavestrictrulesaboutsickchildrenneedingtostayawayuntiltheyarenolongerinfectious,butenforcingthoserulescanbeverydifficult.Correct:Daycareprovidersoftenundergoextremepressuretoacceptasickchild“justthisonce”becausetheparenthasnoothercareoptionsandcannotmisswork.
Run-OnErrorsWhilearun-onsentence,alsoknownasafusedsentence,mightjustseemlikeatypeofsentencethatgoesonandonwithoutaclearpoint,thetechnicalgrammaticaldefinitionofarun-onsentenceisonethatfuses,or“runstogether,”twoormoreindependentclauseswithoutusingpunctuationtoseparatethem.Theindependentclausesmaynothaveanypunctuationseparatingthem,ortheymayhaveacoordinatingconjunctionbetweenthem,butwithoutthecommathatneedstoaccompanyittoseparatetheindependentclauses.Forexample:
Incorrect:Everyday,millionsofchildrengotodaycarewithmillionsofotherkidsthereisnoguaranteethatnoneofthemareharboringinfectiousconditions.Incorrect:Manydaycarecentershavestrictrulesaboutsickchildrenneedingtostayawayuntiltheyarenolongerinfectiousbutenforcingthoserulescanbeverydifficult.Incorrect:Daycareprovidersoftenundergoextremepressuretoaccepta
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sickchild“justthisonce”theparenthasnoothercareoptionsandcannotmisswork.
Ifyoulocatearun-onsentenceandfindwherethetwoindependentclauses“collide,”youcandecidehowbesttoseparatetheclauses.Fixingrun-onsentencesisverysimilartofixingcommasplices.Youcanmaketwocompletesentencesbyinsertingaperiod.Thisisthestrongestlevelofseparation.Youcanuseasemicolonbetweenthetwoclausesiftheyareofequalimportance;thisallowsyourreadertoconsiderthepointstogether.Youcanuseasemicolonwithatransitionwordtoindicateaspecificrelationbetweenthetwoclauses;however,youshouldusethissparingly.Youcanuseacoordinatingconjunctionandacomma,andthisalsowillindicatearelationship.Or,youcanaddawordtooneclausetomakeitdependent.
Forexample:
Correct:Everyday,millionsofchildrengotodaycarewithmillionsofotherkids.Thereisnoguaranteethatnoneofthemareharboringinfectiousconditions.Correct:Manydaycareshavestrictrulesaboutsickchildrenneedingtostayawayuntiltheyarenolongerinfectious;however,enforcingthoserulescanbeverydifficult.Correct:Manydaycareshavestrictrulesaboutsickchildrenneedingtostayawayuntiltheyarenolongerinfectious,butenforcingthoserulescanbeverydifficult.Correct:Daycareprovidersoftenundergoextremepressuretoacceptasickchild“justthisonce”becausetheparenthasnoothercareoptionsandcannotmisswork.
Attributions
IntroductiontoCommas
“Boundless.”http://www.boundless.com/.BoundlessLearningCCBY-SA3.0.
“Apposition.”https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Apposition.WikipediaCCBY-SA3.0.
“Restrictiveness.”https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Restrictiveness.WikipediaCCBY-SA3.0.
“Comma.”http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comma.WikipediaCCBY-SA3.0.
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“adjective.”http://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/adjective.WiktionaryCCBY-SA3.0.
“infinitive.”http://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/infinitive.WiktionaryCCBY-SA3.0.
“preposition.”http://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/preposition.WiktionaryCCBY-SA3.0.
“participle.”http://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/participle.WiktionaryCCBY-SA3.0.
“TheComma.”https://writingguide.wikispaces.com/The+Comma+(.writingguideWikispaceCCBY-SA3.0.
“RhetoricandComposition/Commas.”http://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/Rhetoric_and_Composition/Commas.WikibooksCCBY-SA3.0.
“EnglishinUse/Commas.”http://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/English_in_Use/Commas.WikibooksCCBY-SA3.0.
“adverb.”http://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/adverb.WiktionaryCCBY-SA3.0.
ProjectGutenberg.http://www.gutenberg.org/files/33437/33437-h/33437-h.htm.Publicdomain.
CommonCommaMistakes
“Boundless.”http://www.boundless.com/.BoundlessLearningCCBY-SA3.0.
“Comma.”http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comma.WikipediaCCBY-SA3.0.
“preposition.”http://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/preposition.WiktionaryCCBY-SA3.0.
“participle.”http://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/participle.WiktionaryCCBY-SA3.0.
“TheComma.”https://writingguide.wikispaces.com/The+Comma.writingguideWikispaceCCBY-SA3.0.
“RhetoricandComposition/Commas.”http://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/Rhetoric_and_Composition/Commas.WikibooksCCBY-SA3.0.
“EnglishinUse/Commas.”
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http://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/English_in_Use/Commas.WikibooksCCBY-SA3.0.
“comma.”http://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/comma.WiktionaryCCBY-SA3.0.
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5.2:ColonsandSemicolons5.2.1:Colons
Colonsareusedtointroducedetailedlistsorphrasesandtoshowrelationshipsbetweennumbers,facts,words,andlists.
LearningObjective
Identifysentencesthatrequirecolons
KeyPoints
Acoloncanintroducethelogicalconsequence,oreffect,ofapreviouslystatedfact.Acoloncanintroducetheelementsofasetorlist.Colonsseparatechapterandversenumbersincitationsofpassagesinwidelystudiedtexts,suchasepicpoetry,religioustexts,andtheplaysofWilliamShakespeare.Acoloncanalsoseparatethesubtitleofaworkfromitsprincipaltitle.Colonsmayalsoseparatethenumbersindicatinghours,minutes,andsecondsinabbreviatedmeasuresoftime.Sometimes,acoloncanintroducespeechordialogue.
KeyTerms
enumeration
Adetailedaccountinwhicheachthingisnoted.
appositive
Awordorphrasethatisplacedwithanotherasanexplanatoryequivalent.
UsingColonsinSentencesSomepunctuationmarks,suchasperiods,questionmarks,andexclamationpoints,indicatetheendofasentence.However,commas,semicolons,and
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colonsallcanappearwithinasentencewithoutendingit.
Thecolonhasawiderangeofuses.Themostcommonuseistoinformthereaderthatwhateverfollowsthecolonproves,explains,defines,describes,orlistselementsofwhatprecededthecolon.Essentially,sentencesthataredividedbycolonsareoftheform,“Sentenceaboutsomething:listordefinitionrelatedtothatsentence.”
InmodernAmericanEnglishusage,acolonmustbeprecededbyacompletesentencewithalist,adescription,anexplanation,oradefinitionfollowingit.Theelementsthatfollowthecolonmayormaynotbecompletesentences.Becausethecolonisprecededbyasentence,itisacompletesentencewhetherwhatfollowsthecolonisanothersentenceornot.
InAmericanEnglish,manywriterscapitalizethewordfollowingacolonifitbeginsanindependentclause—thatis,aclausethatcanstandasacompletesentence.TheChicagoManualofStyle,however,requirescapitalizationonlywhenthecolonintroducesspeechoraquotation,adirectquestion,ortwoormorecompletesentences.
OtherUsesoftheColonInadditiontobeingusedinthemiddleofsentences,colonscanalsobeusedtovisuallyseparateinformation.
SeparatingChaptersandVerses
Acolonshouldbeusedtoseparatechapterandversenumbersincitationsofpassagesinwidelystudiedtexts,suchasepicpoetry,religioustexts,andtheplaysofWilliamShakespeare.
Example:John3:14–16referstoverses14through16ofchapterthreeoftheGospelofJohn.
SeparatingNumbersinTimeAbbreviations
Example:Theconcertbeginsat11:45PM.Example:Therocketlaunchedat09:15:05AM.
SeparatingTitlesandSubtitles
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Anappositivecolonalsoseparatesthesubtitleofaworkfromitsprincipaltitle.
Example:StarWarsEpisodeIV:ANewHope
IntroducingSpeech
Similartoadashandaquotationmark,asegmentalcoloncanintroducespeech.
Example:BenjaminFranklinproclaimedthevirtueoffrugality:“Apennysavedisapennyearned.”
Thisformcanalsobeusedinwrittendialogues,suchasplays.Thecolonindicatesthatthewordsfollowinganindividual’snamearespokenbythatindividual.
Example:
Patient:Doctor,Ifeellikeapairofcurtains.
Doctor:Pullyourselftogether!
5.2.2:Semicolons
Semicolonsareusedtolinkrelatedclausesandtoseparateinformationinliststhatcontainadditionalpunctuation.
LearningObjective
Identifywhenandhowtousesemicolonsproperly
KeyPoints
Semicolonsconnecttwocloselyrelated,independentclauses(completesentences)andturnthemintoasinglesentence.Semicolonstaketheplaceofperiodsorcommasfollowedbycoordinatingconjunctions(FANBOYS:for,and,nor,but,or,yet,so).Semicolonsshouldbeusedbeforeconjunctiveadverbs(however,meanwhile,therefore,otherwise,inaddition,andothers)tolinktogethersentences.Followconjunctiveadverbswithacomma.Semicolonscanbeusedinliststhatincludelotsofcommas.
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KeyTerms
coordinatingconjunction
Simplewordsthatconnecttwoindependentclausestogetherorconnectanindependentclausetoadependentclause(sentencefragment).TheyarerememberedbytheacronymFANBOYS.
dependentclause
Thisgroupofwordsalsocontainsasubjectand/orverb,butdonotcreateacomplete,stand-alonesentence.
conjunctiveadverbs
Thesewordsareprecededbyasemicolonandfollowedbyacomma.Thereisalonglist,butherearesomeexamples:however,meanwhile,inaddition,andtherefore.
independentclause
Agroupofwordsthatcontainsasubject(noun)andaverbandcanstandasacompletesentence.
Semicolonslinktogetherindependentclausesthatarecloselyrelated,makingthemflowintoasinglesentence.Often,usingaperiodtoseparaterelatedsentencesmakesthemseemchoppy.Asemicolonisanalternativetousingaperiodoracommapluscoordinatingconjunction.Semicolonsusedbeforeconjunctiveadverbsalsoreplaceperiods.Itisimportanttounderstandthatusingasemicoloninplaceofaperiodfusestwoindependentclausesintoone;therefore,makesureyoudon’tstartthesecondindependentclausewithacapitalletter.Thefinaluseofsemicolonsistoseparateitemsinalistorserieswithlotsofcommasorotherpunctuation.
LinkingIndependentClausesSemicolonscanbeusedtojoincloselyrelated,independentclauses.Therearethreewaystolinkindependentclauses:withaperiod,asemicolon,oracommapluscoordinatingconjunction(FANBOYS).
Withaperiod:Johnfinishedhishomework.Heforgottopassitin.Withasemicolon:Johnfinishedhishomework;heforgottopassitin.Withacommaplusacoordinatingconjunction:Johnfinishedhishomework,butheforgottopassitin.
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Remember,useofasemicolonisonlyappropriateifthesentenceshaveastrongrelationshiptoeachother.
IndependentClausesLinkedwithConjunctiveAdverbs
Semicolonscanalsobeusedbetweenindependentclauseslinkedwithaconjunctiveadverb.Followtheconjunctiveadverbswithacomma.Thisusageisveryformal,andistypicallyfoundinacademictests.
Example:Everyoneknowshecommittedthecrime;accordingly,weexpectthejurytoagreeonaguiltyverdict.Example:Thestudentsfailedtofinishtheirin-classassignment;therefore,theyarerequiredtoremainafterschool.
ListingItemsinaSeriesSemicolonsareusedbetweenitemsinalistorserieswhenthoseitemsthemselvescontaininternalpunctuation.
Example:Severalfast-foodrestaurantscanbefoundwithinthefollowingcities:London,England;Paris,France;Dublin,Ireland;andMadrid,Spain.Example:Herearethreeexamplesoffamiliarsequences:one,two,three;a,b,c;first,second,third.Example:Dentalhygienistsperformclericaljobssuchasbookkeeping,answeringphones,andfiling;administrativejobssuchasfilingoutinsuranceclaimsandmaintainingpatientfiles;andclinicaljobssuchasmakingimpressionsoftheteethandgums,takingx-rays,andremovingsutures.
FormattingwithSemicolonsCapitalization
Semicolonsaretypicallyfollowedbyalowercaseletter,unlessthatletteristhefirstletterofapropernounlike“I”or“Paris.”Insomestyleguides,suchasAPA,however,thefirstwordofthejoinedindependentclauseshouldbe
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capitalized.
Spacing
Modernstyleguidesrecommendnospacebeforesemicolonsandonespaceafter.Modernstyleguidesalsotypicallyrecommendplacingsemicolonsoutsideofendingquotationmarks.
Attributions
Colons
“Colon.”http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Colon_(punctuation).WikipediaCCBY-SA3.0.
“appositive.”http://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/appositive.WiktionaryCCBY-SA3.0.
“enumeration.”http://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/enumeration.WiktionaryCCBY-SA3.0.
Semicolons
“Boundless.”http://www.boundless.com/.BoundlessLearningCCBY-SA3.0.
“Semicolon.”http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Semicolon.WikipediaCCBY-SA3.0.
“IndependentClauses.”https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/independent_clause.WiktionaryCCBY-SA3.0.
“CoordinatingConjunctions.”https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/coordinating_conjunction.WiktionaryCCBY-SA3.0.
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5.3:ApostrophesandQuotationMarks5.3.1:Apostrophes
Apostrophesareusedtomarkcontractions,possessives,andsomeplurals.
LearningObjective
Identifywordswhichrequireapostrophes
KeyPoints
Apostrophescanbeusedtoindicatepossessives(forexample,“mydad’srecipe.”)Apostrophescanbeusedtoformcontractions,wheretheyindicatetheomissionofcharacters(forexample,“don’t”insteadof“donot.”)Apostrophescanalsobeusedtoformpluralsforabbreviations,acronyms,andsymbolsincaseswhereformingapluralintheconventionalwaywouldmakethesentenceambiguous.
KeyTerm
apostrophe
Apunctuationmark,andsometimesadiacriticmark,inlanguagesthatusetheLatinalphabetorcertainotheralphabets.
UsingApostrophestoShowPossessionApostrophescanbeusedtoshowwhoownsorpossessessomething.
ForNounsNotEndingin-s
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Thebasicruleisthattoindicatepossession,addanapostrophefollowedbyan“s”totheendoftheword.
Thecarbelongingtothedriver=thedriver’scar.ThesandwichbelongingtoLois=Lois’ssandwich.Hatsbelongingtochildren=children’shats.
ForNounsEndingin-s
However,ifthewordalreadyendswith“s,”justusetheapostrophewithnoadded“s.”Forexample:
ThehousebelongingtoMs.Peters=Ms.Peters’house.(EventhoughMs.Petersissingular.)
Thesameholdstrueforpluralnouns,iftheirpluralendsin“s.”Justuseanapostropheforthese!
Threecats’toysareonthefloor.Thetwoships’lightsshonethroughthedark.
ForMoreThanOneNoun
Insentenceswheretwoindividualsownonethingjointly,addthepossessiveapostrophetothelastnoun.If,however,twoindividualspossesstwoseparatethings,addtheapostrophetobothnouns.Forexample:
Joint:IwenttoseeAnthonyandAnders’newapartment.(TheapartmentbelongstobothAnthonyandAnders.)Individual:Anders’andAnthony’ssensesofstylewerequitedifferent.(AndersandAnthonyhaveindividualsensesofstyle.)
ForCompoundNouns
Incasesofcompoundnounscomposedofmorethanoneword,placetheapostropheafterthelastnoun.Forexample:
Dashes:Mybrother-in-law’shouseisdowntheblock.Multi-word:TheMinisterforJustice’sinterventionwasrequired.Pluralcompound:Allmybrothers-in-law’swivesaremysisters.
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ForWordsEndinginPunctuation
Ifthewordorcompoundincludes,orevenendswith,apunctuationmark,anapostropheandan“s”arestilladdedintheusualway.Forexample:
WestwardHo!‘srailwaystationLouisC.K.‘sHBOspecial
ForWordsEndingin-‘s
Ifanoriginalapostrophe,orapostrophewiths,isalreadyincludedattheendofanoun,itisleftbyitselftoperformdoubleduty.Forexample:
OuremployeesarebetterpaidthanMcDonald’semployees.Standard&Poor’sindexesarewidelyused.
Thefixed,non-possessiveformsofMcDonald’sandStandard&Poor’salreadyincludepossessiveapostrophes.
Don’tUseApostrophesFor…
Nounsthatarenotpossessive.Forexample:
Incorrect:Someparent’saremorestrictthanmine.
Possessivepronounssuchasits,whose,his,hers,ours,yours,andtheirs.Thesearetheonlywordsthatareabletobepossessivewithoutapostrophes.Forexample:
Incorrect:Thatparakeetisher’s.
UsingApostrophestoFormContractionsInadditiontoservingasamarkerforpossession,apostrophesarealsocommonlyusedtoindicateomittedcharacters.Forexample:
can’t(fromcannot)it’s(fromithasoritis)
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you’ve(fromyouhave)gov’t(fromgovernment)’70s,(from1970s)‘bout(fromabout)
Anapostropheisalsosometimesusedwhenthenormalformofaninflectionseemsawkwardorunnatural.Forexample:
K.O.‘dratherthanK.O.ed(whereK.O.isusedasaverbmeaning“toknockout”)
UsingApostrophestoFormPluralsApostrophesaresometimesusedtoformpluralsforabbreviations,acronyms,andsymbolswhereaddingjustsasopposedto‘smayleavethingsambiguousorinelegant.Forexample,whenyouarepluralizingasingleletter:
Allofyoursentencesendwitha’s.(Asopposedto“Allofyoursentencesendwithas.”)Shetopsallofheri’swithhearts.(Asopposedto“Shetopsallofheriswithhearts.”)
Insuchcaseswherethereislittleornochanceofmisreading,however,itisgenerallypreferabletoomittheapostrophe.Forexample:
Hescoredthree8sforhisfloorroutine.(Asopposedto“three8’s.”)SheholdstwoMAs,bothfromPrinceton.(Asopposedto“twoMA’s.”)
5.3.2:QuotationMarks
Quotationmarksaremostoftenusedtomarkdirectspeechorwordsfromanotherauthororspeaker.
LearningObjective
Identifysituationswhichrequirequotationmarks
KeyPoints
Quotationmarksindicatewordsthatarespokenbysomeonewhoisnot
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theauthor.Quotationmarksarealsousedtotitleshortliteraryworkssuchaspoems,shortstories,essays,andnewspaperandmagazinearticles.Quotationmarkscanalsobeusedtoshowironyorhighlightspecificwords.Inresearchpapers,itisimportanttousequotationmarkstohighlighttheworkofanotherauthorwhendirectlyquotingthatauthor.
KeyTerm
quotationmark
Apunctuationmarkusedtodenotespeechorwhenwordsarecopiedfromanotherauthororspeaker;canbedoublequotations(“)orsinglequotations(‘).
Quotationmarksaremostcommonlyusedtomarkdirectspeechoridentifythewordsofanotherauthororspeaker.Quotationmarkscanalsobeusedtohighlightspecificwords,expressthetitleofashortliterarywork,ortoemphasizeirony.
SpeechSingleordoublequotationmarksdenoteeitherspeechoraquotation.DoublequotesarepreferredintheUnitedStates.Regardless,thestyleofopeningandclosingquotationmarksmustmatch.Forexample:
Singlequotationmarks:‘Goodmorning,Frank,’saidHal.Doublequotationmarks:“Goodmorning,Frank,”saidHal.
Forspeechwithinspeech,usedoublequotationmarksontheoutside,andsinglemarksontheinnerquotation.Forexample:
“Halsaid,‘Goodmorning,Dave,’”recalledFrank.
Whenquotedtextisinterrupted,aclosingquotationmarkisusedbeforetheinterruption,andanopeningquotationmarkisusedaftertheinterruption.Commasareoftenusedbeforeandafterthephraseaswell.Forexample:
“Halsaideverythingwasgoingwell,”notedFrank,“butalsothathecouldusealittlehelp.”
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Quotationmarksarenotusedforparaphrasedspeechbecauseaparaphraseisnotadirectquote.Quotationmarksrepresentanotherperson’sexactwords.
QuotingLiteratureandResearchInmostcases,quotationsthatspanmultipleparagraphsshouldbesetasblockquotations,andthusdonotrequirequotationmarks.Whenquotationmarksareusedformultiple-paragraphquotations,theconventioninEnglishistogiveopeningquotationmarkstothefirstandeachsubsequentparagraph,usingclosingquotationmarksonlyforthefinalparagraphofthequotation.
Inresearchpapersandliteraryanalyseswritersoftenneedtoquoteasentenceoraphrase.Onewillneedtousequotationmarkswhenquotingauthorstoshowwhichwordsarefromtheotherwork.Hereisanexamplesentence:
WhenJ.K.RowlingbeganwritingtheHarryPotterseries,sheneverexpected“theboywholived”tobecomeknownworldwide.
Inthisexample,itisclearthatthephrase“theboywholived”isfromJ.K.Rowling’sbook.
TitlesAsarule,awholepublicationshouldbeitalicized.Forexample,HarryPotterandtheSorcerer’sStoneisitalicizedbecauseitisabook.Thetitlesofsectionswithinalargerpublicationorofsmallerworks(suchaspoems,shortstories,namedchapters,journalpapers,newspaperarticles,TVshowepisodes,editorialsectionsofwebsites,etc.)shouldbewrittenwithinquotationmarks.Thus,whenreferencingachapterfromthebookonewouldusequotationmarks:HarryPotterandtheSorcerer’sStonebeginswiththechapterentitled“TheChosenOne.”
Let’sexploresomeotherexamples.
Shakespeare’sRomeoandJulietDahl’s“Taste”inCompletelyUnexpectedTalesArthurC.Clarke’s“TheSentinel”Thefirstchapterof3001:TheFinalOdysseyis“CometCowboy”“Extra-TerrestrialRelays,”WirelessWorld,October1945DavidBowie’ssong“SpaceOddity”fromthealbumDavidBowie
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NicknamesQuotationmarkscanalsooffsetanicknameembeddedinanactualname,orafalseorironictitleembeddedinanactualtitle.Forexample:
Nat“King”ColeMiles“Tails”ProwerDwayne“TheRock”Johnson
Use-MentionDistinctionsEitherquotationmarksoritalicscanindicatewhenawordreferstotheworditselfratherthanitsassociatedconcept(i.e.,whenthewordis“mentioned”ratherthan“used”).
Cheeseisderivedfrommilk.[Use]Cheesehascalcium,protein,andphosphorus.[Use]“Cheese”isderivedfromawordinOldEnglish.[Mention]Cheesehasthreee’s.[Mention]
IronyQuotesindicatingverbalironyoranotherspecialusearesometimescalledscarequotes.Forexample:
Hesharedhis“wisdom”withme.Thelunchladyploppedaglobof“food”ontomytray.
Quotationmarksarealsosometimesusedtoindicatethatthewriterrealizesthatawordisnotbeingusedinitscurrentcommonlyacceptedsense.Inthesecases,thequotationmarkscancallattentiontoslang,specialterminology,aneologism,ortheycanindicatewordsorphrasesthatareunusual,colloquial,folksy,startling,humorous,metaphoric,orthatcontainapun.Forexample:
Crystalssomehow“know”whichshapetogrowinto.Ihopeyourdivingmeetgoes“swimmingly”!
Usingquotationmarksinthesewaysshouldbeavoidedwhenpossible.
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PunctuatingQuotationsInEnglish,questionmarksandexclamationmarksareplacedinsideoroutsidequotedmaterialdependingonwhethertheyapplytothewholesentenceorjustthequotedportion.Commonly,theyapplytothequotedportionandwillbeincludedinsidethequotationmarks.Insomesituations,however,theexclamationmarkorquestionmarkwillapplytothesentenceasawholeandwillcomeafterthequotationmark.Incontrast,colonsandsemicolonsarealwaysplacedoutsideofthequotationmarks.Let’sexplorethispunctuationrulefurtherwithsomeexamples.
Didhesay,“Goodmorning,Dave”?(Thequestionmarkdoesnotrefertothephrasewithinthequotationmarkssothequestionmarkisplacedoutsideofthequotationmarks.)No,hesaid,“Whereareyou,Dave?”(Here,thequestionmarkispartofthequestionposedwithinthequotationmarks.)Therearethreemajordefinitionsoftheword“gender”:vernacular,sociological,andlinguistic.(Colonsandsemicolonsalwayscomeafterthequotationmark.)
InAmericanEnglish,commasandperiodsareusuallyplacedinsidequotationmarks,exceptinthefewcaseswheretheymaycauseseriousambiguity.Forexample:
“Carefree,”ingeneral,means“freefromcareoranxiety.”Thenameofthesongwas“Gloria,”whichmanyalreadyknew.Shesaidshefelt“freefromcareandanxiety.”“Today,”saidthePrimeMinister,“Ifeelfreefromcareandanxiety.”TousealongdashonWikipedia,typein“—”.(Here,theperiodcomesafterthequotationmarkbecausequotationmarksareusedtohighlightspecificallywhatshouldbetyped.)
ThestyleusedintheUKcontainsonlypunctuationusedbytheoriginalsource,placingcommas,periods,questionmarks,andexclamationmarksinsideoroutsidequotationmarksdependingonwheretheywereplacedinthematerialthatisbeingquoted.
“Carefree”means“freefromcareoranxiety.”(Americanstyle)“Carefree”means“freefromcareoranxiety”.(Britishstyle)
Attributions
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Apostrophes
“Boundless.”http://www.boundless.com/.BoundlessLearningCCBY-SA3.0.
“EnglishinUse/Punctuation.”http://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/English_in_Use/Punctuation%23ApostropheWikibooksCCBY-SA3.0.
“apostrophe.”http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/apostrophe.WikipediaCCBY-SA3.0.
“elision.”http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/elision.WikipediaCCBY-SA3.0.
“Apostrophe.”http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Apostrophe.WikipediaCCBY-SA3.0.
“RhetoricandComposition/Apostrophes.”http://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/Rhetoric_and_Composition/ApostrophesWikibooksCCBY-SA3.0.
QuotationMarks
“Quotationmark.”http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quotation%20mark.WikipediaCCBY-SA3.0.
“Quotationmarks.”http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quotation_marks.WikipediaCCBY-SA3.0.
“EnglishinUse/Punctuation.”http://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/English_in_Use/Punctuation%23Quotation_pointsWikibooksCCBY-SA3.0.
“RhetoricandComposition/QuotationMarks.”http://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/Rhetoric_and_Composition/Quotation_MarksWikibooksCCBY-SA3.0.
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5.4:HyphensandDashes5.4.1:Hyphens
Hyphensareoftenusedtoconnecttwowordsintoasingleterm.
LearningObjective
Identifysituationswhichrequireahyphen
KeyPoints
Hyphensconnecttwowordstomakeasingleword.Hyphensarealsousedtoattachaprefixtoaword.Insomesituations,hyphensconnectadverbsandadjectivestodescribeanoun.Thiscanbeavoidedbyrewordingthesentence.Theplacementofahyphencangreatlychangethemeaningofawordandthustheentiresentence.
KeyTerms
hyphen
Thesymbol“-“,typicallyusedtojointwoormorewordstoformanewword.
homograph
Awordthatisspelledthesameasanotherbuthasadifferentmeaningandusuallysoundsdifferent.
Hyphens(“-“)connecttwowordstomakeasingleword.Thoughtheylooksimilartodashes(“–”and“—”),theyserveadifferentpurpose.Thedashisaformofpunctuationthatcomesinbetweenwordswhereashyphenscombinewords.LikemostcomponentsofEnglishpunctuation,hyphenshavegeneralrulesregardinghowtheyshouldbeused.Hyphensareoftenusedtoconnectadverbsandadjectiveswhendescribinganoun.Let’sexploretheseconceptsingreaterdetail.
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LinkingPrefixesHyphenscanbeusedtolinkprefixessuchasnon-,sub-,andsuper-totheirmainwords.Whileitispossible(especiallyinAmericanEnglish)toattachtheseprefixeswithouthyphens,itisgenerallyhelpfultohyphenatewhenthelettersbroughtintocontactarethesame.It’salsohelpfulwhenthelettersarevowels,whenawordisuncommon,orwhenthewordcouldeasilybemisread.Forexample:
Non-negotiableSub-basementPre-industrial
UnitsIngeneral,valuesandunitsarehyphenatedwhentheunitisgivenasawholeword:
30-year-oldmanOnehalf-dose
HomographsHomographsarewordsthatarespelledthesame,butmeandifferentthingsandmaybepronounceddifferently.Topreventconfusion,hyphenscanbeusedtodistinguishbetweenhomographs.Forexample:
Re-dress(todressagain)Redress(toremedyorsetright)
CombiningAdverbsandAdjectivesHyphenscanbeusedtocombineanadverbandadjectivetodescribeanoun.Inthissituation,theadverbisdescribingtheadjective,andtheadjectiveisdescribingthenoun.However,whentheadverbendswith-ly,ahyphenshouldnotbeused.
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Disease-causingnutritionBeautiful-lookingflowersAwell-meaninggesture
Itisnotalwaysnecessarytouseahyphenatedword.Sentencescanberearrangedtoavoidtheneedforahyphen.Iftheadverbandadjectivecomeafterthenounbeingdescribed,ahyphenisnotneeded.Forexample:
Alight-bluehandbagsatonthebench.Thehandbagwaslightblue.
Rememberthatusinghyphenstocombineadverbsandadjectivesinthiswaycreatesanewword.Theplacementofhyphenscangreatlychangethemeaningofaword,thuschangingtheentiresentence.Let’slookatsomeexamplesofhowremovingahyphenchangesthemeaning.
Disease-causingpoornutrition.(Poornutritionthatcausesdisease.)Diseasecausingpoornutrition.(Adiseasethatcausespoornutrition.)Little-celebratedpaintings(Paintingsthatareunderappreciated.)Littlecelebratedpaintings(Small,appreciatedpaintings.)Government-monitoringprogram(Aprogramthatmonitorsthegovernment.)Governmentmonitoringprogram(Aprogramthegovernmentmonitors.)
Usinghyphenscorrectlyisimportanttoclarifyingthesephrases.
5.4.2:EmDashesandEnDashes
Dashesareoftenusedtomarkinterruptionswithinsentencesandshowrelationshipsbetweenwords.
LearningObjective
Useemdashesandendashescorrectlyinyourwriting
KeyPoints
Dashesarecommonlyusedtoindicateanunexpectedoremphaticpause,buttheyserveotherspecificfunctionsaswell.Dashesareoftenusedtomarkinterruptionswithinsentences,illustrate
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relationshipsbetweenwords,anddemarcatevalueranges.Therearetwokindsofdashes:emdashes(—)andshorterendashes(–).Dashesshouldnotbeconfusedwithhyphens(-).
DashesTherearetwokindsofdashes:emdashes(—)andshorterendashes(–).
TheEmDashEmdashesareoftenusedtomarkinterruptionswithinsentences.Theycanbeusedwithorwithoutspacing.
Forexample:
Threeunlikelycompanions—acanary,aneagle,andaparrot—flewbymywindowinanoddflock.(ChicagoStyle)
Threeunlikelycompanions—acanary,aneagleandaparrot—flewbymywindowinanoddflock.(APStyle)
Emdashesarealsousedtoindicatethatasentenceisunfinishedbecausethespeakerhasbeeninterrupted.Similarly,theycanbeusedinplaceofanellipsistoillustrateaninstancewhereasentenceisstoppedshortbecausethespeakeristooemotionaltocontinue.
Forexample:
“Hey,”saidPaul,“wheredoyouthink—”“Ineverunderstoodwhyyou—”Cesartrailedoff.
Emdashesaresometimesusedtosummarizeordefinepriorinformationinasentence.
Forexample:
Whenhesawhisbrother—hislong-lostbrotherwhodisappearedsixyearsprior—hebrokedownintears.(ChicagoStyle)TodayisSt.Patrick’sDay—adayforfamily.(APStyle)
TheEnDash
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Endashesareusedtodemonstratedefiniterangesofvalues.Inthesecases,thereshouldnotbeanyspacesaroundtheendash.
Forexample:
June–July19671:00–2:00p.m.Forages3–5pp.38–55PresidentJimmyCarter(1977–1981)
Theendashcanalsobeusedtocontrastvalues,orillustratearelationshipbetweentwothings.Therearenospacesaroundtheendashesintheseinstances.
Forexample:
Radical–UnionistcoalitionNewYork–LondonflightMother–daughterrelationshipTheSupremeCourtvoted5–4toupholdthedecisionTheMcCain–Feingoldbill
Anexceptiontotheuseofendashesismade,however,whencombinedwithanalreadyhyphenatedcompound.Inthesecases,usinganendashisdistracting.Useahypheninstead.
Forexample:
Non-English-speakingairtrafficcontrollersSemi-labor-intensiveindustries
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Whenhesawhisbrother—hislong-lostbrotherwhodisappearedsixyearsprior—hebrokedownintears.
Thetitlecontainsanexampleofemdashusage,which,inthiscase,showsabreakinthesentence.
Attributions
Hyphens
“Wikipedia:ManualofStyle.”http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Manual_of_Style%23HyphensWikipediaCCBY-SA3.0.
“Hyphen.”http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hyphen.WikipediaCCBY-SA3.0.
“homograph.”http://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/homograph.WiktionaryCCBY-SA3.0.
“hyphen.”http://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/hyphen.WiktionaryCCBY-SA3.0.
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“compound.”http://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/compound.WiktionaryCCBY-SA3.0.
EmDashesandEnDashes
“Boundless.”http://www.boundless.com/.BoundlessLearningCCBY-SA3.0.
“Parantheses.”http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Parantheses.WikipediaCCBY-SA3.0.
“Parentheses.”http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Parentheses%23Parentheses_.28_.29.WikipediaCCBY-SA3.0.
“Dash.”http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dash.WikipediaCCBY-SA3.0.
“RhetoricandComposition/HyphensandDashes.”http://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/Rhetoric_and_Composition/Hyphens_and_DashesWikibooksCCBY-SA3.0.
“dash.”http://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/dash.WiktionaryCCBY-SA3.0.
“EnglishinUse/Punctuation.”http://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/English_in_Use/Punctuation%23Dash.WikibooksCCBY-SA3.0.
“RhetoricandComposition/Parentheses.”http://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/Rhetoric_and_Composition/ParenthesesWikibooksCCBY-SA3.0.
ProjectGutenberg.http://www.gutenberg.org/files/19642/19642-h/19642-h.htm.Publicdomain.
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5.5:OtherPunctuation5.5.1:Parentheses
Parenthesescanbeusedtointerjectremarksorotherinformationintoasentence.
LearningObjective
Listtheusesofparentheses
KeyPoints
Parenthesescanbeusedtosetoffsupplementary,interjected,explanatoryorillustrativeremarks.Thewordsplacedinsidetheparenthesesarenotnecessarytounderstandingorcompletingthesentence.Squarebracketsaremainlyusedtoencloseexplanatoryormissingmaterial,whichisusuallyaddedbysomeoneotherthantheoriginalauthor.Parenthesesaresometimesusedtoenclosenumberswithinasentence.
KeyTerm
parentheses
Punctuationmarksusedinmatchedpairstosetapartorinterjectadditionaltextintoasentence.
Example
ParenthesesParenthesescanbeusedtosetoffsupplementary,interjected,explanatory,orillustrativeremarks.Theyaretallpunctuationmarks“()”usedinmatched
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pairswithintext,tosetapartorinterjectothertext.
Thewordsplacedinsidetheparenthesesarenotnecessarytounderstandingorcompletingthesentence.Thewordswithintheparenthesescouldberemovedandacompletesentencewouldstillexists.
Parenthesesmayalsobenested(usuallywithoneset(suchasthis)insideanotherset).Thisisnotcommoninformalwriting(thoughsometimesotherbrackets[especiallysquarebrackets]willbeusedforoneormoreinnersetofparentheses[inotherwords,secondary{oreventertiary}phrasescanbefoundwithinthemainparentheticalsentence]).
Therearemanywaystouseparentheses.
InterruptedSentence
Jimmy(whoweallknowissmart)saidweshouldkeepsearching.Besuretocallme(extension2104)whenyougetthismessage.Copyrightaffectshowmuchregulationisenforced(Lessig2004).Sen.JohnMcCain(R.,Arizona)ranforpresidentin2008.
Anypunctuationinsideparenthesesorotherbracketsisindependentoftherestofthetext.Whenseveralsentencesofsupplementalmaterialareusedinparentheses,theendingpunctuationisplacedwithintheparentheses.Forexample:
Mrs.Pennyfarthing(What?Yes,thatwashername!)wasmylandlady.
Enumeration
Parenthesesaresometimesusedtoenclosenumberswithinasentence.Thepurposeofusingnumberswithinparenthesesistohighlightmultiplepointsinonesentence.
Allapplicantsmustsubmit(1)acoverletter,(2)aresume,(3)alistofreferences,(4)anessay,and(5)lettersofrecommendation.
Thenumberswithinparentheseshighlighttheitemsapplicantsneedtoinclude.Theyareintendedtoaddclaritytothesentence.
SquareBrackets
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Squarebracketsaremainlyusedtoencloseexplanatoryormissingmaterial,whichisusuallyaddedbysomeoneotherthantheoriginalauthor.Thisisespeciallyprevalentinquotedtext.Forexample:
“Iappreciateit[i.e.,thehonor],butImustrefuse.“
“Thefutureofpsionics[i.e.,mentalpowersthataffectphysicalmatter]isindoubt.”
ModifyingQuotations
Squarebracketsmayalsobeusedtomodifyquotations.Forexample,ifreferringtosomeone’sstatement“Ihatetodolaundry,”onecouldwrite:He“hate[s]todolaundry.”
Thebracketedexpression“[sic]”isusedafteraquoteorreprintedtexttoindicatethepassageappearsexactlyasintheoriginalsource;abracketedellipsis“[…]”isoftenusedtoindicatedeletedmaterial;bracketedcommentsindicatewhenoriginaltexthasbeenmodifiedforclarity.Forexample:
“I’dliketothank[severalunimportantpeople]andmyparentals[sic]fortheirlove,tolerance[…]andassistance[emphasisadded].”
5.5.2:EndingPunctuation
Endingpunctuationidentifiestheendofasentence,andmostcommonlyincludesperiods,questionmarks,andexclamationmarks.
LearningObjective
Identifythecorrectpunctuationtoendagivensentence
KeyPoints
Endingpunctuationcomprisessymbolsthatindicatetheendofasentence,suchasperiods,questionmarks,andexclamationpoints.Periodsareusedattheendofdeclarativeorimperativesentences.Questionmarkscomeattheendofsentencesthatmakearequestoraskadirectquestion.Declarativesentencessometimescontaindirectquestions.Asentenceendinginanexclamationmarkmaybeanexclamation,animperative,ormayindicateastonishment.
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KeyTerms
exclamationmark
Apunctuationmarkusuallyusedafteraninterjectionorexclamationtoindicatestrongfeelingsorhighvolume(shouting).
questionmark
Punctuationattheendofasentencethatasksadirectquestion.
period
Thepunctuationmarkthatindicatestheendofasentence.
Endingpunctuationcomprisessymbolsthatindicatetheendofasentence.Mostcommonly,theseareperiods,questionmarks,andexclamationpoints.Endingpunctuationcanalsobereferredtoasendmarks,stops,orterminalpunctuation.
Therearethreemaintypesofendingpunctuation:theperiod,thequestionmark,andtheexclamationmark.Aperiod(.)isthepunctuationmarkthatindicatestheendofasentence.Thequestionmark(?)replacesaperiodattheendofasentencethatasksadirectquestion.Theexclamationmark(!)isapunctuationmarkusuallyusedafteraninterjectionorexclamationtoindicatestrongfeelingsorhighvolume(shouting),andoftenmarkstheendofasentence.
PeriodPeriodsareusedattheendofdeclarativeorimperativesentences.Recallthatdeclarativesentencesmakestatementsandimperativesentencesgivecommands.Periodscanalsobeusedattheendofanindirectquestion.Indirectquestionsaredesignedtoaskforinformationwithoutactuallyaskingaquestion.Let’sreviewsomeexamples.
Mydogisagoldenretriever.(declarativesentence)Gogetyourdogandbringhiminsidethehouse.(imperativesentence)Janet’smomanddadwanttoknowwhatsheisdoing.(indirectquestion)“Getsomepapertowels,”sheordered.(declarativesentencecontaininganimperativestatement)
Periodsarealsousedinabbreviations.Forexample,“doctor”isabbreviated“Dr.”and“junior”isabbreviated“Jr.”Rememberthatifanabbreviationthat
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usesaperiodcomesattheendofasentenceyoudonotaddaperiod—theperiodwiththeabbreviationservesastheendingpunctuationaswell.
QuestionMarkQuestionmarkscomeattheendofsentencesthatmakearequestoraskadirectquestion.Declarativesentencessometimescontaindirectquestions.
WhatisJanetdoing?(directquestion)Hermotherasked,“Whatareyoudoing,Janet?”(declarativesentencewithadirectquestion)
ExclamationMarkAsentenceendinginanexclamationmarkmaybeanexclamation,animperative,ormayindicateastonishment.Likequestionmarks,exclamationmarkscanbeincludedwithindeclarativesentences.Let’sreviewsomeexamples.
Wow!(exclamation)Boo!(exclamation)Stop!(imperative)Theywerethefootprintsofagiganticduck!(astonishment)Heyelled,“Stayoffthegrass!”(declarativesentencethatincludesanexclamation)
Exclamationmarksareoccasionallyplacedmid-sentencewithafunctionsimilartoacomma,fordramaticeffect,althoughthisusageisobsolescent:“Onthewalk,oh!therewasafrightfulnoise.”
Informally,exclamationmarksmayberepeatedforadditionalemphasis(“That’sgreat!!!”),butthispracticeisgenerallyconsideredunacceptableinformalprose.Theexclamationmarkissometimesusedinconjunctionwiththequestionmark.Thiscanbeinprotestorastonishment(“Outofallplaces,thesquatter-camp?!”);again,thisisinformal.Overlyfrequentuseoftheexclamationmarkisgenerallyconsideredpoorstyle,foritdistractsthereaderanddevaluesthemark’ssignificance.
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Cutoutallthoseexclamationpoints.
ThefamousauthorF.ScottFitzgeraldwasnotafanofexclamationpoints;inhiswords:“Cutoutallthoseexclamationpoints.Anexclamationpointislikelaughingatyourownjokes.”
Attributions
Parentheses
“psionics.”https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/psionics.WiktionaryCCBY-SA3.0.
EndingPunctuation
“Boundless.”http://www.boundless.com/.BoundlessLearningCCBY-SA3.0.
“Punctuation.”http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Punctuation.WikipediaCCBY-SA3.0.
“Terminalpunctuation.”http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Terminal_punctuation.WikipediaCCBY-SA3.0.
“Questionmark.”http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Question_mark.
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WikipediaCCBY-SA3.0.
“FullStop.”https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Full_stop.WikpediaCCBY-SA4.0.
“Exclamationmark.”http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Exclamation_mark.WikipediaCCBY-SA3.0.
“interrogative.”http://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/interrogative.WiktionaryCCBY-SA3.0.
“Period(punctuation).”http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Period_(punctuation).WikipediaCCBY-SA3.0.
“Period(punctuation).”http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Period_(punctuation).WikipediaCCBY-SA3.0.
“FScottFitzgerald.”http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:F_Scott_Fitzgerald.jpg.WikimediaPublicdomain.
ProjectGutenberg.http://www.gutenberg.org/files/12415/12415-h/12415-h.htm.Publicdomain.
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5.6:GeneralMechanics5.6.1:CommonSpellingErrors
Itisimportanttobefamiliarwithcommonspellingerrorstoavoidtheminyourownwriting.
LearningObjective
Recognizecommonspellingerrors
KeyPoints
Itisimportanttobefamiliarwithspellingerrorsthatwritersfrequentlymakesoyoucanavoidtheminyourownwriting.Knowingwhythesemistakesoccurwillhelpyouwritewithbetterawareness.Word-processingprogramsusuallyhaveaspell-checker,butyoushouldstillcarefullycheckforcorrectchangesinyourwords.Thisisbecauseautomaticspell-checkersmaynotalwaysunderstandthecontextofaword.
KeyTerms
phonetics
Thestudyofthephysicalsoundsofhumanspeech(phones)andtheprocessesoftheirphysiologicalproduction,auditoryreception,andneurophysiologicalperception,aswellastheirrepresentationbywrittensymbols.
typo
Aspellingerror.
homophone
Awordwhichispronouncedthesameasanotherwordbutdiffersinspellingormeaningororigin,forexample:carat,caret,carrot,andkarat.
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TheImportanceofSpellingMisspellingawordmightseemlikeaminormistake,butitcanreflectverypoorlyonawriter.Itsuggestsoneoftwothings:eitherthewriterdoesnotcareenoughabouthisworktoproofreadit,orhedoesnotknowhistopicwellenoughtoproperlyspellwordsrelatedtoit.Eitherway,spellingerrorswillmakeareaderlesslikelytotrustawriter’sauthority.
Thebestwaytoensurethatapaperhasnospellingerrorsistolookforthemduringtheproofreadingstageofthewritingprocess.Beingfamiliarwiththemostcommonerrorswillhelpyoufind(andfix)themduringthewritingandproofreadingstage.
Sometimes,awriterjustdoesn’tknowhowtospellthewordshewantstouse.Thismaybebecausethewordistechnicaljargonorcomesfromalanguageotherthanherown.Othertimes,itmaybeapropernamethatshehasnotencounteredbefore.Anytimeyouwanttouseawordbutareunsureofhowtospellit,donotguess.Instead,checkadictionaryorotherreferenceworktofinditsproperspelling.
CommonSpellingErrorsPhoneticErrors
Phoneticsisafieldthatstudiesthesoundsofalanguage.However,Englishphoneticscanbetricky:InEnglish,thepronunciationofaworddoesnotalwaysrelatetothewayitisspelled.Thiscanmakespellingachallenge.Herearesomecommonphoneticirregularities:
Awordcansoundlikeitcouldbespelledmultipleways.Forexample:“concede”and“conceed”arethesamephonetically,butonly“concede”istheproperspelling.Awordhassilentlettersthatthewritermayforgettoinclude.Youcannothearthe“a”in“realize,”butyouneedittospellthewordcorrectly.Awordhasdoublelettersthatthewritermayforgettoinclude.“Accommodate,”forexample,isfrequentlymisspelledas“acommodate”or“accomodate.”Thewritermayusedoubleletterswhentheyarenotneeded.Theword“amend”hasonlyone“m,”butitiscommonlymisspelledwithtwo.
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Sometimes,wordsjustaren’tspelledthewaytheysound.“Right,”forexample,doesnotresembleitsphoneticspellingwhatsoever.Trytobecomefamiliarwithwordsthathaveunusualornon-phoneticspellingssoyoucanbeonthelookoutfortheminyourwriting.Butagain,thebestwaytoavoidthesemisspellingsistoconsultadictionarywheneveryou’reunsureofthecorrectspelling.
Homophones
“Bread”and“bred”soundthesame,buttheyarespelleddifferently,andtheymeancompletelydifferentthings.Twowordswithdifferentmeaningsbutthesamepronunciationarehomophones.Ifyoudon’tknowwhichhomophoneistherightonetouse,lookbothupinthedictionarytoseewhichmeaning(andspelling)youwant.Commonhomophonesinclude:
right,rite,wright,andwriteread(mosttensesoftheverb)andreedread(past,pastparticiple)andredrose(flower)androse(pasttenseofrise)carat,caret,andcarrotto,two,andtoothere,their,andthey’reitsandit’s
TypographicalErrors
Somespellingerrorsarecausedbythewriteraccidentallytypingthewrongthing.Commontyposinclude:
Omittinglettersfromaword(typing“brthday”insteadof“birthday,”forexample)Addingextraletters(typing“birthdayy”)Transposingtwolettersinaword(typing“brithday”)Spacingwordsimproperly(suchas“mybirthday”insteadof“mybirthday”)
Beingawareofthesecommonmistakeswhenwritingwillhelpyouavoidspellingerrors.
5.6.2:CapitalLetters
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Capitallettersareusedtomakecertainwordsstandout.
LearningObjective
Identifywordsthatmustbecapitalized
KeyPoints
Threesituationsinwhichacapitallettershouldalwaysbeusedareatthestartofsentences,propernouns,andforthepronoun“I.”Namesandnicknames,languages,geographicalnames,religions,daysoftheweek,months,holidays,andsomeorganizationsareconsideredpropernouns.Intitledworks(suchasbooks,articles,orartwork)themajorityofthewordsarecapitalized.
KeyTerms
capitalization
Writingawordwithitsfirstletterasacapitalletter(upper-caseletter)andtheremaininglettersinlowercase.
propernoun
Aworddenotingaparticularperson,place,organization,ship,animal,event,idea,orotherindividualentity.
Capitallettersidentifypropernames,peopleandtheirlanguages,geographicalnames,andcertaingovernmentagencies.Differentstylemanualshavedifferentrulesforcapitalization,soit’simportanttohaveastyleguideonhandwhileyouwriteincaseyouhaveaquestionaboutcapitalization.TherearemanualsforMLA,APA,Chicago/Turabian,andotherstyles.
However,therearegeneralrulesforcapitalizationwhichapplytoallwriting.
StartingaSentenceAlwayscapitalizetheveryfirstwordofasentence,nomatterwhatitis.
Experiencedcooksusuallyenjoyexperimentingwithfood.
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ThePronoun“I”Alwayscapitalizethefirst-personsingularpronoun“I.”
Sometimes,IwishIcouldcookwiththem.
QuotingOthersDirectlyquotedspeechiscapitalizedifitisafullsentence.
Theheadchefsaidtome,“Anyonecanbecomeagoodcookiftheyarewillingtolearn.”
ProperNounsNamesornicknames,people,languages,geographicalnames,religions,daysoftheweek,months,holidays,andsomeorganizationsareconsideredpropernouns.Propernounsshouldalwaysbecapitalized.
NamesandNicknames
Anameornicknameshouldalwaysbecapitalized.Thisincludesbrandnames.
JohnPaulIICindyParkerBuffaloBillPepsiNikeScotchtape
PeopleandLanguages
Namesreferringtoaperson’scultureshouldbecapitalized.Languagesarealsocapitalized.
AfricanAmericans
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CaucasianEskimosFrenchEnglishJapanese
GeographicalNames
Thenamesofcities,states,countries,continents,andotherspecificgeographiclocationsarecapitalized.
ArcticCircleChinaNewYorkEurope
Organizations
Governmentagencies,institutions,andcompaniescapitalizetheirnames.
FordMotorCompanyInternationalRedCrossInternalRevenueServiceUniversityofSouthCarolina
Days,Months,andHolidays
Daysoftheweek,months,andholidaysarealwayscapitalized.However,seasons(fall,spring,summer,andwinter)arenotcapitalized.
TuesdayOctoberIndependenceDay
Religions
Religionsandtheiradherents,holybooks,holydays,andwordsreferencingreligiousfiguresarecapitalized.
ChristianityandChristian
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HinduismandHinduIslamandMuslimJudaismandJewBible,Koran,Talmud,BookofMormonEaster,Ramadan,YomKippurGod,Allah,Buddha
TitledWorkIntitledworks(suchasbooks,articles,orartwork)themajorityofthewordsarecapitalized.Afewexceptionsarea,an,the,and,but,or,nor,for,so,andyet.Thesewordsareonlycapitalizediftheycomeatthebeginningofthetitle.Thiscanvarybasedonstyle,sobesuretocheckyourmanualforspecifics.
TheScarletLetterFromHeretoEternityHarryPotterandtheChamberofSecretsGirlwithaPearlEarring
5.6.3:AbbreviationsandAcronyms
Anabbreviationistheshortenedformofawordorphrase.
LearningObjective
Useabbreviationsappropriatelyinanacademiccontext
KeyPoints
Therearerulesthatexplainhowawritermayshortenalongwordorphraseintoanabbreviationoracronym.Followingabbreviationandacronymrulesensuresthatthereaderalwaysunderstandswhattheseabbreviationsmean.Phraseslike“lol”or“brb”areconsideredinappropriateforformalpapers.
KeyTerms
acronym
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Abbreviationsformedfromtheinitialcomponentsinaphraseoraword.Thesecomponentsmaybeindividualletters(asinCEO)orpartsofwords(asinBeneluxandAmeslan).
abbreviation
Ashortenedformofawordorphrase,usedtorepresentthewhole.
AbbreviationsAnabbreviationistheshortenedformofawordorphrase.Mostabbreviationsareformedfromaletterorgroupofletterstakenfromtheoriginalword.Inanacademicpaper,abbreviationsarerarelyusedtostandinformajorconceptsorterms.Instead,theyareusuallyshortenedformsofcommonlyusedbutrelativelyminorwords,suchas“km”for“kilometer”or“Dr.”for“doctor.”Mostarecommonenoughthatawriterdoesnotneedtoprovidethereaderwithanexpandeddefinition.Ifanabbreviationisnotparticularlywell-known,considerwhetheryoushoulduseitorusethelonger(buteasiertounderstand)word.
StyleConventionsforAbbreviationsStyleguidesmaydiffersomewhatonhowtopunctuateabbreviations.Listedbelowarethemostcommonguidelines,whichcovermostofthescenariosforusingabbreviations.However,thisisnotacompletelycomprehensivelist.Iftoldtouseaspecificstylemanual,suchasMLAorTurabian,besuretocheckwhatitsaysaboutspecificusagerules.Andwhateverstyleyoudecidetouse,remembertobeconsistentwithhowyouuseandpunctuateabbreviations.
Abbreviationsshouldbecapitalizedjustliketheirexpandedformswouldbe.Iftheoriginalwordorphraseiscapitalized,thenyoushouldcapitalizetheabbreviation.Iftheoriginalislowercase,thentheabbreviationshouldbetoo.Abbreviationsusuallyendwithaperiod,particularlyiftheywereformedbydroppingtheendofaword(themajorexceptionbeingtheuseofacronyms).Whenasentenceendswithanabbreviation,useonlyoneperiodforboththeabbreviationandthesentence.
ShelivesinN.Y.(NewYorkisabbreviatedas“N.Y.”Inthisexample,itcomesattheendofthesentencebutthereisonlyoneperiod.)Hegotaticketforgoing70mphwhenthespeedlimitwas55.(Milesperhourisabbreviated“mph.”Notethatitisnotcapitalized.)
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TheCIAisdepictedinmanyactionmoviesashighlysecretive.(CIAisalwayscapitalizedbecauseCentralIntelligenceAgencyisalwayscapitalized.)
AcronymsAcronymsareabbreviationsthatformanotherword.Laserissofrequentlyusedasawordthatfewpeopleknowitisanacronym.Laserstandsfor“lightamplificationbystimulatedemissionofradiation.”Scubaisalsoanacronymstandingfor“self-containedunderwaterbreathingapparatus.”Althoughthiswasthefoundationforacronyms,theydonotalwaysformanotherword.Moreoftenthannot,acronymsareformedfromtheinitialcomponentsofaseriesofwords.Thesecomponentsareusuallyindividualletters,butsomemayusethefirstsyllablesofwords.Themainpurposeofacronymsistoactasshorthandforlongerterms,particularlythoseawriterwantstoreferencefrequently.Intherightcircumstances,acronymscanmakethesetermsmoremanageableforthewritertouseandforthereadertounderstand.
UsingAcronymsinAcademicWritingWhileacronymscanbeveryuseful,onlysomeofthemareconsideredappropriateforuseinscholarlywriting.Ingeneral,acronymscanbeusedtostandinforjobtitles(suchasCEO),statisticalcategories(suchasRBI)orthenamesofcompaniesandorganizations(suchasFBI).Otherinstancesmayarisedependingonthetypeofpaperyouarewriting—ascientificessay,forexample,mighthaveacronymsforthenamesofchemicalcompoundsorscientificterms.Inmostcases,youwillbeabletojudgewhetherornotanacronymisappropriatebasedonthecontextofwhatyouarewriting.Theonlycategoryofacronymthatyoushouldneveruseisslang,especiallytermsderivedfromtexting.Phraseslike“lol”and“brb”maybefineincasualconversation,butwouldmakeawriterseemunprofessionalinaseriouspaper.Forallacronymsyouchoosetouse,makingsurethatthereaderknowswhattheymeanisessential.Thefirsttimeyouuseanyacronym,makesuretouseitsexpandedformfirst.Forexample:
JohnathanrecentlyjoinedtheAmericanAssociationofRetiredPersons(AARP).
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MothersAgainstDrunkDriving(MADD)isknownforfightingfortheNationalMinimumDrinkingAgeAct.TheFamilyResearchCouncil(FRC)wasfoundedin1981.
Oncetheabbreviationhasbeenidentified,asshownintheseexamples,youcanusetheabbreviatedversionintherestofyourdocument.
StyleConventionsforAcronymsMostacronymsarewritteninall-uppercasewithnopunctuationbetweenletters.Thisdiffersfromabbreviations,whicharenormallywrittenwithperiodsinordertonotethedeletedpartsofwords.Asmallnumberofacronymsuseslashestoshowanellipsis,asin“w/o”for“without.”Spacesarenotusedbetweenthedifferentlettersofacronyms.Apostrophesaregenerallynotusedtopluralizeabbreviations.Theyare,however,usedtoformpossessives.
5.6.4:Numbers
Sometimesitisappropriatetowritenumbersasnumerals;othertimestheyshouldbespelledout.
LearningObjective
Listtherulesforusingnumbersindifferentkindsofwriting
KeyPoints
Inacademicwriting,numbersthatcanbeexpressedinoneortwowordsshouldbespelledout.Numbersthataremorethantwowordslongshouldbewrittenasnumerals.Theproperusageofnumbersintechnicalwritingvariesconsiderably.
KeyTerm
numeral
Asymbolthatisnotawordandrepresentsanumber,suchastheArabicnumerals1,2,3andtheRomannumeralsI,V,X,L.
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Stylerulesforinsertingnumbersintotextvaryconsiderably.Whethernumbersshouldbewrittenout(e.g.two,twohundred)orwrittenasnumerals(e.g.2,200)dependsonwhatkindofwritingisbeingdone.
NumbersasWordsInstrictlyacademicwriting,numbersofoneortwowordsshouldbespelledoutwithletters.Forexample:
Anthonywasabletobikefivemilesinlessthananhour.
Noticethat5iswrittenoutas“five”becauseitisoneword.
Mariaboughtfivebananas,twobunchesofgrapes,andsixorangesforherfruitsalad.Sheneededtwenty-oneservingsfortheluncheon.
Noticethateachnumberiswrittenout,including21,becauseallofthemareoneortwowords.
NumbersasNumeralsNumbersthataremorethantwowordslongshouldbewrittenasnumerals.Forexample:“OurvacationtoNorthCarolinaendedupbeing728miles,asaroundtrip.”Or,inthecaseofyears:“Tonywasborninthefallof1966.”
Also,thefollowingnumbersarewrittenasnumerals:
Dates:December7,1941,32BC,AD1066Addresses:119LakewoodLane,1600PennsylvaniaAvenuePercentages:45percentor45%Fractionsanddecimals:1/3and0.25Scores:20to13or15–18Statistics:averageage25Surveys:2outof5Exactamountsofmoney:$861.34or$0.67Divisionsofbooks:volume6orchapter5Divisionsofplays:act2,scene4Timeofday:12:00AMor4:35PM
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TechnicalWritingIntechnicalwriting(i.e.,researchwritingorotherwritingthatincludesmeasurementsorstatistics),theproperusageofnumbersvariessubstantially.Typicalrulestofollowintechnicalwritinginclude:
Technicalquantitiesofanyamountareexpressedinnumerals(3feet,12grams,etcetera).Nontechnicalquantitiesoffewerthan10areexpressedinwords(threepeople,sixwhales).Nontechnicalquantitiesof10ormoreareexpressedinnumerals(300people,12whales).Approximationsarewrittenoutasletters(approximatelytenthousandpeople).Decimalsareexpressedinnumerals(3.14).Decimalsoflessthanoneareusuallyprecededbyzero(0.146);however,thismayvarydependingonthestyleyouareaskedtowritein.Fractionsarewrittenout,unlesstheyarelinkedtotechnicalunits(two-thirdsofthemembers,31/2hp).Pagenumbersandthetitlesoffiguresandtablesareexpressedinnumerals.Back-to-backnumbersarewrittenusingbothwordsandnumerals(six3-inchscrews).
SpecialCasesTherearemanyspecialcasesforwritingnumbers.Anumberatthebeginningofasentenceshouldbespelledoutaswords.Withinasentence,thesameunitofmeasurementshouldbeexpressedconsistentlyineithernumeralsorwords.Ingeneral,monthsshouldnotbeexpressedintermsofnumbers.
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Numbersinthenews
Whennumbersareusedintext,manybasicformattingrulesapply.
5.6.5:Italics
Writersuseitalicstoemphasisecertainwordssuchastitles,scientificwords,andforeignwords.
LearningObjective
Identifysituationsinwhichitalicsshouldbeused
KeyPoints
Italicsareatypefacefeaturedesignedtomakewordsstandout.Therearegeneralrulestousingitalicsproperly.Titlesoftextbooks,fictionornonfictionbooks,newspapers,magazines,academicjournals,films,epicpoems,plays,operas,musicalalbums,televisionshows,movies,worksofart,andthenamesoflegalcasesshouldallbeitalicized.Italicscanalsobeusedtoemphasizecertainwords.Italicsshouldalwaysbeusedwithscientificterms,algebraicequations,andforeign-languagewords.
KeyTerm
italics
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Atypefacestylethatisusedtoaddemphasistowords.
Italicsarelettersthatslantslightlytotheright.Whenusingawordprocessor(likeMicrosoftWord)italicizedwordsgenerallylooklikethis:
Thissentenceisinitalics.
Italicsshouldbeusedconsistentlyinyourwriting.Ingeneral,italicsareusedtoidentifythetitleofamajorpublication(suchasabook,newspaper,ormagazine),foremphasis,forscientificortechnicalwords,andforforeignwords.
TitlesThetitlesofmajorliteraryworksshouldbeitalicized.Thisincludestextbooks,fictionornonfictionbooks,newspapers,magazines,academicjournals,films,epicpoems,plays,operas,musicalalbums,televisionshows,movies,worksofart,andthenamesoflegalcases.
MyfavoritebookisJuly’sPeoplebyNadineGordimer.IreadTheNewYorkTimestokeepupwiththepoliticaldebates.IhaveeveryTaylorSwiftalbumexceptTodayWasaFairytale.The1976versionofthemovieCarriewasmuchscarierthanthenewerversion.Homer’sTheIliadandTheOdysseyaremytwofavoriteepicpoems.TheScreambyEdvardMunchisawell-knownpainting.
Keepinmindthatsmallerpublishedworks,suchasanindividualarticlefromanewspaper/magazine/journal,orasinglepoem,shouldbesetinquotationmarks.Forexample:
ThemagazineSouthernLivingpublishedaninterestingarticleontravelingintheU.S.called“TheSouth’sBestRoadsideAttractions”intheNovember,2015edition.
EmphasisWhenyouneedtoemphasizeawordyoucanuseitalicstomakeitstandout.Sometimes,emphasizingcertainwordsgivesthesentenceasarcastictone.Itcanalsoemphasizeafactastrue.Let’sreviewsomeexamples.
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Sheonlywantstomake100%oneverytest.Iftheyareoffended,thenthat’stheirproblem.Thesearethefilesweneed.
ScientificorTechnicalTermsItalicsareoftenusedinscientificandmathematicalwriting.Algebraicequationsareusuallyitalicized.Thescientific(Latin)namesofspeciesarealsoitalicized.Herearesomeexamples.
Slopeisfoundbycalculatingy=mx+b.SeveralmoreHomosapiensfossilswerediscoveredrecently.ThescientificnameforthehousesparrowisPasserdomesticus.
ForeignLanguagesWordsinforeignlanguagesshouldalsobeitalicized.Hereareacoupleofexamples.
Inaninterview,JuliaAlvarezoncesaid,“WhatIcan’tpushassuccessfullyoutofsightaremyownimmigrantchildhoodfearsofhavingagringastepmotherwithforeigntastesinourhouse.”Iwasatthecoffeeshopwhenamanapproachedmeandsaid,“Comoesta?”likeheknewme,butIdon’tspeakSpanish.
TheonlyexceptionsarewordsthathavebeenintegratedintoEnglishlikecliché,patio,andkarate.Otherwise,foreignwordsshouldbeitalicized.
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Buboscandiacus
ThespeciesnameisitalicizedbecausespeciesnamesareinLatin.
Attributions
CommonSpellingErrors
“Boundless.”http://www.boundless.com/.BoundlessLearningCCBY-SA3.0.
“Homophone.”http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Homophone.WikipediaCCBY-SA3.0.
“Commonlymisspelledwords.”http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Commonly_misspelled_words.WikipediaCCBY-SA3.0.
“typo.”http://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/typo.WiktionaryCCBY-SA3.0.
“phonetics.”http://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/phonetics.WiktionaryCCBY-SA3.0.
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“homophone.”http://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/homophone.WiktionaryCCBY-SA3.0.
CapitalLetters
“Boundless.”http://www.boundless.com/.BoundlessLearningCCBY-SA3.0.
“propernoun.”http://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/proper_noun.WiktionaryCCBY-SA3.0.
AbbreviationsandAcronyms
“Boundless.”http://www.boundless.com/.BoundlessLearningCCBY-SA3.0.
“Abbreviation.”http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abbreviation.WikipediaCCBY-SA3.0.
“acronym.”http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/acronym.WikipediaCCBY-SA3.0.
“Acronymandinitialism.”http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Acronym_and_initialism.WikipediaCCBY-SA3.0.
“abbreviation.”http://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/abbreviation.WiktionaryCCBY-SA3.0.
Numbers
“Boundless.”http://www.boundless.com/.BoundlessLearningCCBY-SA3.0.
“numeral.”http://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/numeral.WiktionaryCCBY-SA3.0.
“Numbers.”http://grammartips.wikispaces.com/Numbers.grammartipsWikispaceCCBY-SA3.0.
ProjectGutenberg.http://www.gutenberg.org/files/14979/14979-h/14979-h.htm.Publicdomain.
“CrunchingNumbers|Flickr-PhotoSharing!.”http://www.flickr.com/photos/psd/74176687/.FlickrCCBY.
Italics
“Boundless.”http://www.boundless.com/.BoundlessLearningCCBY-SA3.0.
“TheOnionSpirit:Typography:Italics-WhenYouShouldUse
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Them.”http://onionspirit.blogspot.com/2009/06/typography-italics-when-you-should-use.html.BlogspotCCBY-SA.
“Italictype.”http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Italic_type%23When_to_use.WikipediaCCBY-SA3.0.
“emphasis.”http://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/emphasis.WiktionaryCCBY-SA3.0.
“italics.”http://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/italics.WiktionaryCCBY-SA3.0.
ProjectGutenberg.http://www.gutenberg.org/files/30666/30666-h/30666-h.htm%23Page_210.Publicdomain.
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6:WritingEffectiveSentences
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6.1:TheImportanceofWording6.1.1:TheImportanceofWording
Establishingthepropertone,choosingappropriatewords,andusingvariedsentencestructureimprovesacademicwriting.
LearningObjective
Distinguishbetweenanobjectiveandasubjectivetoneinwriting.
KeyPoints
Toneisimportantinallwriting.Itconveystheauthor’sattitudetowardsthetopic.Diction(wordchoice)andsyntax(writingstyle)influencetone.Inacademicwriting,thetoneshouldbeformalandobjective.Thepurposeofacademicwritingistoengageinaneutralratherthanasubjective(orpersonal)dialogwiththereader.Theaudienceforapieceofwritingshouldalwaysbeconsideredwhenestablishingtone.Inacademicwriting,theaudienceisassumedtobeageneralunknownreaderwhodoesnotnecessarilyhaveanin-depthknowledgeofthetopic.Therefore,allinformationmustbeclearlyexplainedsothatageneralreadercanfollowit.
KeyTerms
denotation
Theliteralordictionarymeaningofawordorphrase.
connotation
Thewidearrayofpositiveandnegativeassociationsawordorphraseevokeinthereader.
diction
Awriter’sdistinctivechoiceofwords.
syntax
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Thewayinwhichwordsandphrasesareputtogether.
tone
Thewriter’sattitudetowardsthesubjectandtheaudience,especiallyasinfluencedbydictionandsyntax.
Examples
Objectivetone:“Abasicknowledgeofwoodanatomyandstructureisvitaltoanyoneseriouslyworkingwithwood.Afamiliaritywiththecellularstructureofthetreeleadstoabetterunderstandingofwoodpropertiesandbehavior.Whatcausescolor,taste,andodor,andhowdoesitaffectwood’sintendeduse?Whatisthedifferencebetweendensityandspecificgravity,andhowdoesthisrelatetotheweightandhardnessofwood?Anin-depthunderstandingleadstoamoreintelligentuseofthisversatilematerial.”—fromWiththeGrain,byChristianBecksvoort,2015.[Doesthispassagereflectafactual,informativetone,communicatingquestionsandanswersaboutwood?]Subjectivetone:“Ialwaystellpeopleifyouwanttoworkwithwood,you’vegottoknowwhatitis.Youneedtounderstandatree’scellsbeforeyoucanknowmoreaboutwhatwoodisandhowitacts.Believeitornot,Ididn’tknowwherethoseweirdcolors,tastes,andsmellscamefromuntilIlearnedhowallthosethingsaffectedhowweusewood.Ididn’tthinkdensityandspecificgravitywereimportantuntilIgothowtheyrelatedtowood’sweightandhardness.Themoreyouknow,thesmarteryou’llbeabletousethisneatstuffcalledwood.”[Doesthispassagerefermostlytotheauthorandreflectaconversationaltone,includinghisorheropinions?]
SyntaxWritingwithvarietycanmakeyourwritingdistinctiveandinteresting.Thiscanbeachievedbyusingvariedsyntax,orsentencestructure.Writingconsistentlyshortsentencescanmakeyourwritingsoundchoppy.Usinglonger,morecomplexsentencescanmakeyourwritingdifficulttoreadandmaybogthereaderdown.Additionally,sentencestructurewithinasentencecanimpactyourreader’sresponse.Whileyoudon’twanttousetoomuchvarietyinyoursentences,knowingdifferentwaystostructuresentencesisimportant.Forexample,hereareafewdifferentwaystobeginyoursentences:
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Prepositionalphrase:Outofnecessity,thenonprofitanimalsocietyhelditsfirstfundraisingeventthisyear.Sentenceconnective:Manyorganizationsstrugglewithattendanceforanewfundraisingevent.Butthenonprofitanimalsocietyhadtremendoussuccesswiththeirfirstpetshow.Appositive:Anotedbotanist,JaneDoewasnamedaDistinguishedFellowoftheBotanicalSocietyofAmericain2013.Adverbialclause:Suddenly,JaneDoefoundherselfamongthemostfamousbotanistsofhergeneration.
Academicwritingshoulddemonstrateanunderstandingofhowtowriteeffectively.Whendonecorrectly,usingshortandlongsentencesthatstartdifferentlyaddsprofessionalismtoyourwriting.
DictionSyntaxfocusesprimarilyonsentencestructure,whiledictionconcernsthewordscontainedinsentences.Inacademicwriting,choosingtheproperwordsimpactsyourargumentaswellasyourcredibility.Knowingthedifferencebetweenthedenotation,orliteralmeaningofwords,andconnotation,orthewiderangeofthoughtsandimpressionsmadebywordsorphrases,willimproveacademicwriting.Youmaybeunawareoftheconnotationofsomewordsinadditiontotheirliteralmeaning.Strengthenyourdictionbyensuringyouknowthefullrangeofmeaningofthewordsyouuse.Avoidoverlyinformaldictionaswell,asthesewordsareoftenlessspecificorsimplynotappropriateforacademicwriting.
Example:
Thedenotationofhomeisalocationwhereapersonorgroupresides.
Theconnotationofhomevariesfrompersontoperson.Mostpeopleviewhomewithcomfort,security,fondmemoriesoraffection.
Thinkofthedifferenceinthewords“domicile”vs.“home.”Bothwordsmean“placeofresidence”inthedictionarybuttheycommunicateverydifferentfeelings.Domicilemightbethebestchoiceoftermforapaperinlaworrealestateclasses.Homemightbeabetterchoiceforasociologyorchildhoodeducationpaper.
Tone
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Writingwithvarietycanaidindevelopingtheappropriatetoneandholdyourreader’sattention.Toneshowsthewriter’sattitudetowardsthesubjectandtheaudience.Thewriter’stonecaninfluencethereader’sresponsetothewriting.Inacademicwriting,it’simportanttomaintainanappropriatetonethroughout.Writerscandothisbypayingattentiontosyntaxanddiction.
Attributions
TheImportanceofWording
“TheDenotationandConnotationofaWord.”http://www.lavc.edu/0-Kentico-Training/document-library/docs/Denotation-and-Connotation-of-a-Word-(2).aspx.AcademicResourceCenterLosAngelesValleyCollegeCCBY-SA.
“Style,Diction,ToneandVoice.”http://www.wheaton.edu/Academics/Services/Writing-Center/Writing-Resources/Style-Diction-Tone-and-Voice.WheatonCollegeWritingResourcesCCBY-SA.
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6.2:WordChoice6.2.1:Precision
Youcanincreasetheclarityofyourwritingbyusingconcrete,specificwordsratherthanabstract,generalones.
LearningObjective
Classifywordsasspecificorgeneral
KeyPoints
Whenpossible,replacevaguegeneralizationswithmorespecificandconcisewording.Thisclarifiesforyourreaderthetopicofyourpaperandtheconceptualplaneofyourensuingargument.Youcanincreasetheclarityofyourwritingbyusingspecificwordsratherthangeneralones.Yourobjectivewhenchoosingwordsisnottoavoidgeneralwordsaltogether,butrathertoavoidusingthemwhenyourreaderswillwantmorespecificones.
KeyTerms
generalwords
All-inclusivewordsfromabroaderscope.
specificwords
Precisewordsfromanarrowerscope.
Throughprecisewordselection,youcanincreasetheclarityofyourargumentbyenablingyourreaderstograspyourintendedmeaningquicklyandaccurately.Atthesametime,itisimportanttokeepinmindthatyourwordchoicesaffectareader’sattitudestowardyourpresentationandyoursubjectmatter.Therefore,youalsoneedtochoosewordsthatwillconveyyourideasclearlytoyourreaders.Thiskindofprecisewritingwillhelpyouraudienceunderstandyourargument.
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Generalvs.SpecificWordsAlmostanythingcanbedescribedeitheringeneralwordsorinspecificones.Generalwordsandspecificwordsarenotopposites.Generalwordscoverabroaderspectrumwithasinglewordthanspecificwords.Specificwordsnarrowthescopeofyourwritingbyprovidingmoredetails.Forexample,“car”isageneraltermthatcouldbemademorespecificbywriting“HondaAccord.”Specificwordsareasubsetofgeneralwords.Youcanincreasetheclarityofyourwritingbychoosingspecificwordsovergeneralwords.Specificwordshelpyourreadersunderstandpreciselywhatyoumeaninyourwriting.Here’sanexampleofgeneralandspecificwordsinasentence:
General:Shesaid,“Idon’twantyoutogo.”Specific:Shemurmured,“Idon’twantyoutogo.”
Thewords“said”and“murmured”aresimilar.Theybothareaformofverbalcommunication.However,“murmured”givesthesentenceadifferentfeelingfrom“said.”Thus,asawriter,choosingspecificwordsovergeneralwordscanadddescriptiontoandchangethemoodofyourwriting.
Inacademicwriting,itisimportanttofindabalancebetweengeneralandspecificwords.Alwaysusingspecifictermscanoverwhelmthereaderanddetractfromyourargument.Also,dependingonwhatyouarewriting,generaltermsmaybemoreappropriatethanspecificwords.Inscientific,technical,andotherspecializedfields,writersoftenneedtomakegeneralpoints,describegeneralcircumstances,orprovidegeneralguidanceforaction.Forexample,ifyouarewritingapaperonbestpracticesinbusiness,youmaywriteoneofthefollowingsentences:
Inthenormalcourseofprocedure,itisadvisedtoavoidmodificationsinhiringproceduresaftertheyhavebeenestablished.Normally,itisbesttoavoidchanginghiringprocessesaftertheyhavebeenestablished.
Bothofthesesentencesmakethesamestatement,buttheymaynotbothbeappropriateforyourpaper.Writingwithprecisionhelpsholdyouraudience’sattention.Makingstatementstoowordyinanargumentcanbedullforyourreaders.Thinkofyouraudiencewhilewriting.Sometimesitisbesttokeepyourwritingsimpleandprecise.Themorepreciseyourwritingis,theeasieritwillbeforyourreadertounderstandyourargument.Yourobjectivewhenchoosingwordsistoblendgeneralandspecificwordstogetherwithinyourwritingwhenappropriate,ensuringyoukeepyourreader’sattentionwhile
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conveyingyourmessage.
6.2.2:UsingtheDictionaryandThesaurusEffectively
Becausewordscandifferdependingontheircontext,itisagoodideatocheckthedefinitionandspellingofanytrickywordsinadictionary.
LearningObjective
Selectappropriatetoolstohelpwithwordchoice
KeyPoints
Spell-checkfeaturesinwordprocessorsarehelpfultools,buttheywillnotcatchallmistakes.Athesauruscanaddvarietytodryprosebyhelpingyouidentifywordswithsimilarmeanings.Alwaysuseadictionarytoconfirmthemeaningofanywordaboutwhichyouareunsure.Dictionisimportantbecauseitreferstothewriter’sorspeaker’sdistinctivevocabularychoicesandstyle,anditimpactswordchoiceandsyntax.
KeyTerms
thesaurus
Apublication,usuallyintheformofabook,thatprovidessynonyms(andsometimesantonyms)forthewordsofagivenlanguage.
dictionary
Areferenceworkwithalistofwordsfromoneormorelanguages,normallyorderedalphabeticallyandexplainingeachword’smeaningandsometimescontaininginformationonitsetymology,usage,translations,andotherdata.
UsingtheDictionaryandThesaurusEffectively
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Alwaysuseadictionarytoconfirmthemeaningofanywordaboutwhichyouareunsure.Althoughthebuilt-indictionarythatcomeswithyourwordprocessorisagreattime-saver,itfallsfarshortofcollege-editiondictionaries,ortheOxfordEnglishDictionary(OED).Ifthespell-checktoolsuggestsbizarrecorrectionsforoneofyourwords,itcouldbethatyouknowaworditdoesnot.Whenindoubt,alwayscheckadictionarytobesure.
VocabularyChoiceandStyleIfitfeelslikeyoukeeprepeatingawordthroughoutyourwriting,pulloutathesaurusforideasondifferent,morecreativechoices.Athesauruscanaddsomecoloranddepthtoapiecethatmayotherwiseseemrepetitiveandmundane.However,makesurethatthewordyousubstitutehasthemeaningyouintendtoconvey.Thesaurusesprovidewordswithsimilarmeanings,notidenticalmeanings.Ifyouareunsureabouttheprecisemeaningofareplacementword,lookupthenewwordinadictionary.
WordAccuracyRegardlessofthewordsyouuse,youmustusethemaccurately.Usageerrorscandistractreadersfromyourargument.Howcanyouensurethatwordsareusedaccurately?Unfortunately,thereisnoeasyway,buttherearesomesolutions.Youcanrevisitatextthatusesthewordandobservehowthewordisusedinthatinstance.Additionally,youcanconsultadictionarywheneveryouareuncertain.Beespeciallycarefulwhenusingwordsthatarenotyetpartofyourusualvocabulary.
ConnotationConnotationistheextendedorsuggestedmeaningofawordbeyonditsliteralmeaning.Forexample,“flatfoot”and“policedetective”areoftenthoughttobesynonyms,buttheyconnoteverydifferentthings:“flatfoot”suggestsaplodding,perhapsnotverybrightcop,while“policedetective”suggestsanintelligentprofessional.
Verbs,too,haveconnotations.Forinstance,to“suggest”thatsomeonehasoverlookedakeyfactisnotthesameasto“insinuate”it.To“devote”yourtimetoworkingonaclient’sprojectisnotthesameasto“spend”yourtime
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onit.Theconnotationsofyourwordscanshapeyouraudience’sperceptionofyourargument.Forexample:
Oursalesteamisconstantlytryingtolocatenewmarketsforourvariousproductlines.Oursalesteamisconstantlydrivingtolocatenewmarketsforourvariousproductlines.
Register“Register”referstoaword’sassociationwithcertainsituationsorcontexts.Inarestaurantad,forexample,wemightexpecttoseetheclaimthatitoffers“amazinglydeliciousfood.”However,wewouldnotexpecttoseearesearchcompanyboastinaproposalforagovernmentcontractthatitiscapableofconducting“amazinglygoodstudies.”Here,theword“amazingly”isintheregisterofconsumeradvertising,butnotintheregisterofresearchproposals.
Beingawareoftheconnotationandregisterofthewordsyouchooseinyourwritingwillhelpincreaseyourwriting’sclarity.
Attributions
Precision
“Boundless.”http://www.boundless.com/.BoundlessLearningCCBY-SA3.0.
“ProfessionalandTechnicalWriting/Rhetoric/Author/Style.”http://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/Professional_and_Technical_Writing/Rhetoric/Author/Style%23Selecting_WordsWikibooksCCBY-SA3.0.
UsingtheDictionaryandThesaurusEffectively
“abstract.”http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/abstract.WikipediaCCBY-SA3.0.
“Diction.”http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Diction.WikipediaCCBY-SA3.0.
“connotation.”http://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/connotation.WiktionaryCCBY-SA3.0.
“thesaurus.”http://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/thesaurus.WiktionaryCCBY-SA3.0.
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“dictionary.”http://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/dictionary.WiktionaryCCBY-SA3.0.
“BasicWriting/Proofreading.”http://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/Basic_Writing/Proofreading%23Common_Errors_and_Correction_StrategiesWikibooksCCBY-SA3.0.
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6.3:Tone6.3.1:AppropriateLanguage
Thegoalofacademicwritingistopresentandarticulateanargumenttoyourreaders.
LearningObjective
Distinguishbetweensimpleandcomplexlanguage
KeyPoints
Avoidwritingthatispretentiousandjargonheavy.Inyourwriting,striveforclaritybyusingappropriateandconciselanguage.Thiswillmakeyouroverallargumentmuchclearerforyourreader.Longerwordsandsentencesmayconfuseyourreaders,orcanmakethewritingsoundarrogant.
KeyTerms
cliché
Anexpression,idea,orelementofanartisticworkwhich,althoughconsideredmeaningfulatsomeearliertime,hasnowbecomeoverusedtothepointoflosingitsoriginalmeaningoreffect,eventothepointofbeingtriteorirritating.
colloquial
Denotingamannerofspeakingorwritingthatischaracteristicoffamiliarconversation;informal.
firstperson
Aformofnarrativewritingusingwordsinawaythatgivestheimpressionthattheactionishappeningtothenarrator.
jargon
Technicalterminologyuniquetoaparticularsubject.
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argument
Anattempttopersuadesomeoneofsomethingbygivingreasonsorevidenceforacceptingaparticularconclusion.
Basedonthekindoflanguagethatreadersencounterinagivenpieceofwriting,areaderwilldrawconclusionsaboutthewriterthatcanenhanceordistractfromthepersuasivenessoftheargument.Thewriter’stone,whichisconveyedthroughwordchoiceandsentencestructure,impactsthereader’sresponse.Thewriter’stoneshouldbecontingentonthetypeofwriting.Academicwritingshouldbemoreformalthanpersonalwriting.Thisformalityisoftenconveyedthroughtone.Formalwritingrequireschoosingwordsthataremeaningfultothemembersofyouraudience.Theabilitytocraftandcontrollanguageisessentialtowritingeffectively.Effectivelanguagematchesthereader’ssenseofwhatisappropriateforagiventopic.Giventhatreadersofacademicpapersexpectamoreformallevelofinteractionwithatopicthandoreadersofpopularwriting,theyexpectacertainleveloftechnicalprose.Nonetheless,oneshouldavoidunnecessarilycomplicatedlanguage,jargon,andclichés.Itisimportanttorememberthatcomplicatedideascanbeexpressedclearly.Additionally,theuseoffirstpersoninacademicwritingcanbeappropriateincertainsituations.
TheUseofSimpleLanguageThegoalofacademicwritingistopresentandarticulateanargument.Whileutilizingalargevocabularycanbehelpfulintermsofexplainingcomplicatedideasindifferentways,onedoesnotwanttocomplicatethelanguageofatext.Whilecontractionsandcolloquialwordsandphrasesoftenmakewritingsoundinformal,theuseofshorterwordsdoesnotnecessarilyindicateaninformalstyle.Infact,manywritersprefersimplerlanguageasitcanhelptoclearlyconveydifficultideasorconcepts.Longerwordsandsentencesmayconfuseyourreaders,orcanmakethewritingsoundarrogant.Hereisanexample:
Overlycomplicated:Theprocessofnarrativizationmakespresent,withinarealmoftheimaginary,asocialandhistoricalawarenessthatisunavailablewithinsimple,materialfacticity.
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Theprocessofnarrativizationmakespresent,withinarealmoftheimaginary,asocialandhistoricalawarenessthatisunavailablewithinsimple,materialfacticity
Thetitledemonstratesanexampleofasentencethatispretentiousandjargonheavy.Avoidingpretentiouswritinganddefininganytechnicaljargonwillendowyourwritingwithaclaritythatreaderswillappreciate.
Simplified:Narrativesdemonstratesomethingabouttheworldfromwhichtheyemerge,despitebeingclassifiedasfiction.
It’sagoodruleofthumb,eveninacademicwork,toerronthesideofsimplicityratherthanlinguisticornamentation.Inotherwords,avoidusingneedlesslyinflatedwordsthatbloatyourproseanddistractyourreadersfromyourcentralargument.Thegoalisformalwriting,notextravagantandflowerywriting.
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JargonJargonislanguagethatisusedinaparticularcontextandmaynotbewellunderstoodoutsideofthatcontext(e.g.languagespecifictoaparticularprofession).Insomesituations,specializedtermscanhelpyoucommunicateeffectively.Theyconveyprecise,technicalmeaningseconomicallyinsofarasmanyspecializedtermshavenoexactequivalentineverydayspeech.Theycanalsohelpyouestablishcredibilityinyourfieldbyshowingthatyouarefamiliarwithestablishedconventions.
Still,whiletherearesituationswheretheuseofjargonisappropriate,inacademicwriting,it’sbesttoconsidertheaudiencefirst.
DefiningTermsforNewAudiencesFormalwritingmayrequireusingspecializedtermseventhoughsomepeopleinyouraudiencemaynotunderstandthem.Forinstance,youmaybewritingtoagroupofreadersthatincludespeopleinyourfieldandothersoutsideofit,oryoumaybeexplaininganentirelynewsubjecttoyourreaders.Insuchcases,thereareseveralwaystodefinethetermsforreaderswhoarenotfamiliarwiththem:
1.Giveasynonym:
Onaboat,aropeorcordiscalledaline.
2.Giveadescription:
Theexitgateconsistsoftowarmsthatholdajugwhileitisbeingpaintedandthenallowittoproceeddowntheproductionline.
3.Makeananalogy:
Anatomislikeaminiaturesolarsysteminwhichthenucleusisthesunandtheelectronsaretheplanetsthatrevolvearoundit.
4.Giveaclassicaldefinition,whereinyoudefinethetermbynamingsomefamiliargroupofthingstowhichitbelongsandthenidentifyingthekeydistinctionbetweentheobjectbeingdefinedandtheothermembersofthegroup.
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Aburrowisaholeinthegrounddugbyananimalforshelterorhabitation.
ClichésAclichéisanexpression,idea,orelementofanartisticworkwhichhasbecomeoverusedtothepointoflosingitsoriginalmeaning,oreffect,andeventothepointofbeingtriteorirritating,especiallywhenatsomeearliertimeitwasconsideredmeaningfulornovel.Whileclichéshaveacertainusefulnessinsofarastheycanquicklycommunicatefamiliarideas,theyarerarelyappropriateinformalwriting.Thereasonwewanttoavoidusingclichésinacademicwritingisthattheytendtobeambiguousandcancomeoffasoverlycolloquialandinformal.
UsingtheFirstPersoninAcademicWritingTeachersorprofessorsmayhavetoldyoutotakeoutanyfirst-personreferencestoyourselfinformalwriting,particularlywithinpersuasivepaperswhereyouaretryingtoconvinceareadertotakeaspecificpositiononagiventopic.Whilethisisnotanabsoluterule,itisimportanttounderstandwhyyouhavebeentoldtoavoidusingsubjectivelanguage,suchas“I,”“me,”or“my.”
Theprimaryreasonthatsubjectivelanguageshouldbeavoidedistoimprovehowareaderperceivestheargumentyouarepresenting.Someformsofnonfictionwriting,suchasessayisticwriting,areenhancedbytheuseofsubjectivelanguage,whichintroducestheauthorasapresencewithinthetext.Frequently,thisuseofsubjectivelanguagecanimbuethewritingwithaqualitythatmanyfeelshouldbeabsentfromargumentativepapers.Theuseoffirst-personpronounsdemonstrateshowtheauthor’sbiographicalparticularsenhanceorexposesomethingsignificantaboutthetopicthattheyarewritingabout.However,formalpapers,suchasthosewrittenforcollegeorgraduatecourses,tendtocontainanargumentativestructureinwhichobjectivelanguageisusedtomakeclaimswithevidenceleadingtoaparticularconclusion.
Usingobjectivelanguagehelpsshiftyourpresenceasawriterintothebackgroundinordertoforegroundtheparticularsoftheargumentthatyouare
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presenting.Thiscanassistreadersinsmoothlyfollowingthetrajectoryofyourargumenttowardaparticularconclusion,asopposedtobeingconstantlyinterruptedinordertoberemindedthattheseareyourthoughtsoropinions.Omittingfirst-personpronounsfromyourwritingaidsindevelopingaformaltonewithinyourargument.
Attributions
AppropriateLanguage
“Boundless.”http://www.boundless.com/.BoundlessLearningCCBY-SA3.0.
“cliche.”http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/cliche.WikipediaCCBY-SA3.0.
“colloquial.”http://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/colloquial.WiktionaryCCBY-SA3.0.
“jargon.”http://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/jargon.WiktionaryCCBY-SA3.0.
“ProfessionalandTechnicalWriting/Rhetoric/Author/Style.”http://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/Professional_and_Technical_Writing/Rhetoric/Author/StyleWikibooksCCBY-SA3.0.
ProjectGutenberg.http://www.gutenberg.org/files/29607/29607-h/29607-h.htm.Publicdomain.
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6.4:Diction6.4.1:Gender-NeutralLanguage
Genderneutralityinlanguageminimizesassumptionsaboutthegenderorsexofpeoplereferredtoinwritingorspeech.
LearningObjective
Giveexamplesofgender-neutrallanguage
KeyPoints
GenderneutralityinEnglishaimstominimizeassumptionsaboutthegenderorbiologicalsexofpeoplereferredtoinspeech.Proponentsofgender-neutrallanguagearguethattheuseofgender-specificlanguageoftenimpliesmalesuperiorityorreflectsanunequalstateofsociety.Proponentsofgender-neutrallanguageclaimthatlinguisticclarity,aswellasequality,wouldbebetterservedbyhaving“man”referunambiguouslytomales,and“human”toallpersons.Proposedalternativestothegeneric“he”include“heorshe,”“s/he,”ortheuseof“they”inthesingular.Insomecases,whenwritingorspeakingaboutapersonwhosegenderisunknown,ambiguous,orunimportant,gender-neutrallanguagemaybeachievedbyusinggender-inclusive,gender-neutral,orepicenewordsinplaceofgender-specificones.Gender-neutrallanguagemayalsobeachievedbyparallelusageofexistinggender-specificterms.
KeyTerms
gender-neutrallanguage
Usedtoeliminate(orneutralize)referencestogenderwhendescribingpeople.
epicene
Referstothelossofgenderdistinction,oftenspecificallythelossof
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masculinity.
singularthey
Apronounthatisgenderneutralandreferstoasinglepersonwhenpairedappropriatelywithagender-neutralantecedent.
Gender-neutrallanguageisneithermasculinenorfeminineandavoidsusinggenderspecificpronounssuchas“he”or“she.”Thepurposeofgenderneutralityinwritingistominimizeassumptionsaboutthegenderorsexofpeople.
TheImportanceofGender-NeutralLanguageProponentsofgender-neutrallanguagearguethatgender-specificlanguage(suchaspolicemanorwaitress)oftenimpliesmalesuperiorityorreflectsanunequalstateofsociety.AccordingtoTheHandbookofEnglishLinguistics,genericmasculinepronouns(suchashe)andgender-specificlanguageserveasexamplesofhow,historically,societyhastreatedmenasthestandardforallhumans.Wordsreferringtowomenoftendevolveinmeaning,andfrequentlytakeonsexualovertones.Inessence,theuseofmasculinepronounswhenreferringtosubjectsofmixedorindeterminategenderisfrowneduponinacademicwriting.Thefollowingsentenceisagoodillustrationofavoidingsexistlanguagebyusingthegenderneutral“humanity”and“human”ratherthanthegender-specific“mankind”:“Sincethen,humanityhasenteredanewphaseofspiritualdevelopment,anevolutionofhighfaculties,theveryexistenceofwhichinhumannatureourancestorsscarcelysuspected.”Usinggender-neutralpronounsavoidspresumptionsofmalesuperiority.
GuidelinesforGender-NeutralLanguageInmostcasesofwritingorspeakingaboutapersonwhosegenderisunknown,ambiguous,orirrelevant,gender-neutrallanguagemaybeachievedthroughtheuseofgender-inclusive,gender-neutral,orepicenewords(havingcharacteristicsofbothsexes)inplaceofgender-specificones.Ifnogender-
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inclusivetermsexist,newonesmaybecoined.Itisalsoimportanttoconsiderparallelusageofexistinggender-specificterms.
Whenpossibleandcontextuallyappropriate,usenounsandpronounsthataregender-neutralratherthangender-specific.
Insteadof:waitress;businessman;workman;mailmanUse:server;businessperson;worker;mailcarrierInsteadof:mankind;man-made;manhours;man-sizedjobUse:humankind;synthetic;workinghours;largejob
Whenreferringtopeopleingeneral,usepluralpronouns“s/he”or“heorshe”insteadofgender-linkedpronouns.
Insteadof:Shelooksforpremiumproductsandappreciatesastylishdesign.Use:Theylookforpremiumproductsandappreciateastylishdesign.Insteadof:Beforeanewbusiness-ownerfilestaxreturns,heshouldseekadvicefromacertifiedpublicaccountant.Use:Beforeanewbusiness-ownerfilestaxreturns,sheorheshouldseekadvicefromacertifiedpublicaccountant.
Whenasingularpronounisneeded,usethe“singularthey”withasingularantecedent.Intheseexamples,theantecedentsare“thepatient”and“someone.”
Insteadof:Thepatientshouldbeinformedofhowmuchhewillneedtopaypriortotheprocedure.Use:Thepatientshouldbeinformedofhowmuchtheywillneedtopaypriortotheprocedure.Insteadof:Someonelefthislunchinthebreak-roommicrowave.Use:Someonelefttheirlunchinthebreak-roommicrowave.
Whenindoubt,usegender-neutralsalutations.
Insteadof:DearSir;DearGentlemenUse:DearPersonnelDepartment;DearSwitzerPlasticsCorporation;DearDirectorofResearch
Additionally,manyeditinghouses,corporations,andgovernmentbodieshaveofficialpoliciesfavoringin-houseuseofgender-neutrallanguage.Insomecases,lawsexisttoenforcetheuseofgender-neutrallanguageincertainsituations,suchasjobadvertisements.Differentauthoritieshavepresented
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guidelinesonwhenandhowtousegender-neutral,or“non-sexist”language.Severalarelistedbelow:
ThePublicationManualoftheAmericanPsychologicalAssociationhasanoft-citedsectionon“GuidelinestoReduceBiasinLanguage.”AmericanPhilosophicalAssociation—publishedin1986TheGuardian—seesectioncalled“genderissues”“AvoidingHeterosexualBiasinLanguage,”publishedbytheCommitteeonLesbianandGayConcerns,AmericanPsychologicalAssociation.
6.4.2:ActiveVoicevs.PassiveVoice
Ingrammar,“voice”referstotherelationshipbetweenthesubjectandtheverb—thatistosay,howtheactionisperformed.
LearningObjective
Classifysentencesasactiveorpassive
KeyPoints
Inactivevoice,thesubjectperformstheactionoftheverb.Aclausewithanactive,transitiveverbwillfollowapatternofsubject-verb-object—forexample,“Thedog[subject]eats[verb]thefood[object].”Asentenceinactivevoicewillhavedifferentemphasis,andthusaslightlydifferenttone,thanifthesamesentencewerewritteninpassivevoice.Trytouseactivevoiceunlessthereisareasontousepassivevoice.
KeyTerms
passivevoice
Asentenceconstructioninwhichtheverb’sactionisperformed,insomecases“by”asubject.
activevoice
Asentenceconstructioninwhichasubjectperformstheactionoftheverb.
voice
Ingrammar,therelationshipbetweenthesubjectandtheverb—i.e.,how
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theactionisperformed.
Ingrammar,“voice”referstotherelationshipbetweenthesubjectandtheverb—thatistosay,howtheactionisperformed.Activevoiceemphasizesthesubjectastheoneperformingtheaction.Incontrast,passivevoicedeemphasizesthesubjectasperformerandinsteadframesthesubjectasreceivingtheaction.
Whichvoiceyouchoosetouseshoulddependonthetypeofwritingandyouraudience.Theactivevoiceismorefrequentlyusedinnon-scientificwriting.Sinceitusuallyusesfewerwords,itismoresuccinctandclearerthanthepassivevoice.However,onlyusingthepassivevoiceinscientificwritingcanmakeitdryandbogdownthereader.Choosingthepropervoicewillsetthetoneforyourwriting,butkeepinmindthatmostwritingwillincludebothactiveandpassivevoice.
Let’stakealookatsomeexamples.
ActiveandPassiveVoiceInasentencewritteninactivevoice,thesubject’sroleinperformingtheactionoftheverbisemphasized.Thesesentenceswillgenerallyfollowthepatternofsubject–verb–object(orsimplysubject–verb,forintransitiveverbs—i.e.,forverbsthatdon’tneedanobject):
Thestudent[subject]finishes[verb]theexercise[object].Fred[subject]ate[verb]hissandwich[object].Eve[subject]survived[verb,noobjectneeded].
Inasentencewritteninpassivevoice,thesubject’sroleinperformingtheactionoftheverbisdeemphasized.Instead,passivevoiceframesthesubjectasreceivingtheaction.Passivevoiceistheoppositeofactivevoice,sosentencesinpassivevoicetendtofollowthereversepatternofobject–verb–subject,andtheword“by”oftenshowsupbetweentheverbandthesubject:
Theexercise[object]wasfinished[verb]bythestudent[subject].Thesandwich[object]waseaten[verb]byFred[subject].
Inmostsentencesinpassivevoice,youwillseetheword“by”betweentheverbandthesubject.Infact,aruleofthumbforrecognizingpassivevoiceifyouseetheconstruction“was/is[verb]edby”(forverbslikefinishedorstarted)or“was/is[verb]enby”(forverbslikeeatenandforgotten).
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Mostsentencescanbephrasedtobeineitheractiveorpassivevoice.Forexample:
Activevoice:Theteachersentthestudenttotheprincipal’soffice.Passivevoice:Thestudentwassenttotheprincipal’sofficebytheteacher.
Whichoneyouchoosemaynotsignificantlychangethemeaningofthesentence,butitwilllikelychangeitstoneandemphasis.Itisimportanttounderstandtheconnotationsofbothactiveandpassivevoice,therefore,soyoursentencesdon’tsoundoddoroutofcontext.
Thatsaid,sentenceswithintransitiveverbs—verbsthatdonottakedirectobjects—cannotbepassivizedbecausethereisnoobjecttoputbeforetheverb.Forexample:
Millionsofpeoplelived.Wearrivedyesterday.Shellywillbeasleep.
Trytoputtheseinpassivevoice(intheorderobject–verb–subject):“[Blank]waslivedbymillionsofpeople.”Itdoesn’tmakesense!Intransitiveverbscanneverbeusedinpassivevoice.
MostoftheTime,UseActiveVoiceActivevoiceisgenerallymoredirectandneutralthanpassivevoice.Passivevoicetendstosoundevasive,likethewriteristryingtoavoidblameforwhoeverperformedanaction,oracademic,likeadrysciencereport.Activevoiceisgenerallymoreeffectiveatcapturingthereader’sattention.Forexample,
Passivevoice:TheballwashitbyLinda.Activevoice:Lindahittheball.Passive:Thethemethatwasmostcommonlyaddressedby17th-centurywriterswas…Active:17th-centurywritersmostcommonlyaddressedthethemeof…
Theuseofactivevoiceismoredirectandprovidesinformationaboutwhoperformedtheaction.
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GuidelinesforAvoidingPassiveVoice
1. Avoidsentencesthatusetheverb“tobe”oritsvariations(is,was,willbe).Theverb“tobe”oftendescribeswhatsomethingisratherthanwhatitdoes.
2. Avoidbeginningsentenceswith“Itis…”or“Thereare…”3. Avoidsentenceswheretheactionisfrozeninawordthatendswithone
ofthefollowingsuffixes:-tion;-ment;-ing;-ion;-ance.Thesewordsmutetheactionthattheverbshouldcommunicatebyturningthemintonouns.
UsingPassiveVoiceEffectivelyAllthatsaid,passivevoicecertainlyhasitsuses—youjustneedtobesmartaboutwhenyouuseit!Forexample:
”HamletwaswrittenbyShakespeare.”Here,thepassivevoiceemphasizes“Shakespeare,”themostimportantpartofthesentence.“Jameywasfascinatedbylanguagearts.”Thepassive-voiceconstructionofthissentenceemphasizes“Jamey”moreeffectivelythantheactive-voiceequivalent.“Smokingisstrictlyprohibited.”Becauseapassiveverbconsistsoftwowords,anadverb(likestrictly)isaccentuatedwhenplacedbetween“tobe”andthepastparticiple.
WhenWritingaResearchPaper
Inparticular,scientificresearchwritingoftenrequiresthatthewriterdeemphasizethemselvesastheperformeroftheaction.Thismakesthelanguagemoreobjective;intheory,anexperimentshouldhappenthesamewayandhavethesameresultsnomatterwhoconductsit.Forexample:
Activevoice:Ifoundthatthefrogpopulationdecreasedby10%lastyear.Passivevoice:Itwasfoundthatthefrogpopulationdecreasedby10%lastyear.
WhenTalkingaboutGeneralRules
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Passivevoiceisalsooftenusedwhentalkingaboutgeneralrules,tomakeitclearthattheperformerislessimportantthantheaction.Forexample:
Activevoice:Thelandlordexpectstherentcheckonthefirstofthemonth.Passive:Therentcheckwillbecollectedonthefirstofthemonth.
Passivevoicecanalsobeusedtomakerulesorexpectationssoundlessharsh.Forexample:
Activevoice:Donotsmoke.Passivevoice:Smokingisprohibited.
Knowingthedifferentusesofvoiceisasimportantinwritingasinsinging
Themajorityofyoursentencesshouldbeinactivevoice.However,therearealsoeffectiveusesofpassivevoice;whenusedsparingly,itcangiveparticularsentencesspecialemphasis.
6.4.3:Concision
Itisimportanttokeepsentencesconcise;thelongerandmorecomplexasentencegets,theharderitisforareadertounderstand.
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LearningObjective
Distinguishbetweenconciseandwordysentences
KeyPoints
Makeyourwritingmoreforceful,memorable,andpersuasivebymakingitconcise.Concisewritingisclearandreader-friendly,increasingyourreader’sabilitytounderstandyourargument.Avoidpaddingyourwritingwithextrawordsorlengtheningsentencesandparagraphstomeetawordcountforanassignment.Matchyourvocabularytoyourreaderandyourwritingtask.Avoidusingelevatedorflowerylanguagetosoundimpressive.
KeyTerm
concision
Brevity,orthepracticeofusingnomorewordsthannecessarytodescribeanidea.
SimplifyingSentencesVaryingsentencelengthsandtypesofsentencescanhelptobreakupotherwisetediousproseblocks.However,itisimportanttokeepinmindthatthelongerandmorecomplexasentencegets,themoredifficultitcanbeforareadertointerpretthatsentence.Takethisparagraphasanexample:
Theauthorofthenovelillustratedvariousdifferencesbetweenthecharacters.Thenovel,whichwasaromanticnovel,portrayedcharactersindevioussortsofwaysinwhichtheydidthingsthatwereverydeceptive.Thetwomaincharacters,AprilandJamil,wereneverdefinitelyandcompletelyhonestwitheachother,whichledtothefinaloutcomeoftheirdivorce.Thisoutcome,whichleftthembothmiserableastheystilllovedoneanother,isdesignedinawaytoshowthereadersjustexactlyhowthenovelistfeelsaboutlyinginrelationships.
Thisparagraphisquitewordyandtakeslongerthannecessarytomakeitspoint.Let’sbreakitupintoshortersentencesandomitunnecessarywords:
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Theromanticnovelistportrayedthemaincharactersasdevious.AprilandJamilwereinlove,buttheywereneverhonestwitheachother,andultimatelytheygotadivorce.Thisshowsushowthenovelistfeelsaboutlying.
Thisismuchclearer!Studentsoftenmakethemistakeofusingmorewordsthannecessarybecausetheythinkitwillimpresstheirreaderorprofessor.However,instructorsandotherreaderseasilyseethroughthis,andtheyusuallyjustwantyoutogetyourpointacross!Alwaysconsideryourreader,andmakeyourwritingeasyforthemtograsp.
RevisingforConcisionConsiderthefollowinggeneralguidelines.Thesearegoodrulestokeepinmindwhenyouarerevisingyourpaperforconcision.
EliminateWords
Eliminateunnecessarywords.Keepaneyeoutforplaceswhereyoucanconveyyourmeaningmoredirectly.Forexample:
Original:Thephysicalsizeoftheworkroomistoosmalltoaccommodatethisequipment.Revised:Theworkroomistoosmallforthisequipment.
Thephysicalsizeoftheworkroomistoosmalltoaccommodatethisequipment
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Thoughthetitlecommunicatesthenecessaryinformationaboutthisimage,itusestoomanywordstodoso.Asimplifiedversionofthesentenceis:“Theworkroomistoosmallforthisequipment.”Lookforplacesinyourownwritingwhereyoucanremoveunnecessarywordstomakeyourwritingmoreconciseandefficient.Yourreaderswillappreciateit!
Also,trytoavoidthefollowingphrases,whichareredundantandhavemoreconcisealternatives:
absolutelyessentialinmypersonalopinionbasicfundamentalspastmemorieseachandeverysmallinsizefirstandforemostveryunique
CombineShort,ChoppySentences
Afteryoueliminateunnecessarywords,youmayfindyourselfwithmuchshortersentences,soyourpapermaynowfeelchoppy.Combinetheseshortsentencestoimproveflowandclarifyyourtrainofthought.Thesinglecombinedsentencemaybelongerthaneachofthetwooriginalsentences,butoverallyouareusingfewerwordsandcommunicatingyourpointmoreclearly.
Original:WaterqualityinFairfielddeclinedinMarch.Thisdeclineoccurredbecauseoftheheavyrainfallthatmonth.AlltheextrawateroverloadedTomlinCounty’swatertreatmentplant.Revised:WaterqualityinFairfielddeclinedinMarchbecauseheavyrainfalloverloadedTomlinCounty’swatertreatmentplant.
AdditionalExamplesExample1
Original:Accordingtooptimalquality-controlpracticesinmanufacturinganyproduct,itisimportantthateverycomponentpartthatisconstituentoftheproductbeexaminedandcheckedindividually
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afterbeingreceivedfromitssupplierorothersourcebutbeforethefinal,finishedproductisassembled.(45words)Revised:Effectivequalitycontrolrequiresthateverycomponentbecheckedindividuallybeforethefinalproductisassembled.(16words)
Example2
Original:Overthemostrecentmonthlyperiod,therehasbeenalargeincreaseinthenumberofcomplaintsthatcustomershavemadeaboutservicethathasbeenslow.(27words)Revised:Lastmonth,manymorecustomersthanusualcomplainedaboutslowservice.(11words)
Attributions
Gender-NeutralLanguage
“GenderneutralityinEnglish.”http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gender_neutrality_in_English.WikipediaCCBY-SA3.0.
“SingularThey.”https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Singular_they.WikipediaCCBY-SA3.0.
“Epicene.”http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Epicene.WikipediaCCBY-SA3.0.
“Gender-inclusivelanguage.”http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gender-inclusive%20language.WikipediaCCBY-SA3.0.
“ProfessionalandTechnicalWriting/Rhetoric/Author/Style.”http://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/Professional_and_Technical_Writing/Rhetoric/Author/Style%23Guideline_7:_Ethics_Guideline:_Use_Inclusive_LanguageWikibooksCCBY-SA3.0.
ActiveVoicevs.PassiveVoice
“voice.”http://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/voice.WiktionaryCCBY-SA3.0.
“activevoice.”http://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/active_voice.WiktionaryCCBY-SA3.0.
“ProfessionalandTechnicalWriting/Rhetoric/Author/Style.”http://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/Professional_and_Technical_Writing/Rhetoric/Author/Style%23Constructing_SentencesWikibooksCCBY-SA3.0.
“passivevoice.”http://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/passive_voice.
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WiktionaryCCBY-SA3.0.
“RhetoricandComposition/ActiveandPassiveVoice.”http://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/Rhetoric_and_Composition/Active_and_Passive_VoiceWikibooksCCBY-SA3.0.
“Allsizes|[PortraitofJuneChristyandRedRodney,ClubTroubadour,NewYork,N.Y.,ca.Sept.1947](LOC)|Flickr-PhotoSharing!.”http://www.flickr.com/photos/library_of_congress/4888673630/sizes/l/in/photostream/FlickrPublicdomain.
ProjectGutenberg.http://www.gutenberg.org/files/39691/39691-h/39691-h.htm.Publicdomain.
Concision
“Boundless.”http://www.boundless.com/.BoundlessLearningCCBY-SA3.0.
“ProfessionalandTechnicalWriting/Rhetoric/Author/Style.”http://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/Professional_and_Technical_Writing/Rhetoric/Author/Style%23Guideline_1:_Simplify_Your_SentencesWikibooksCCBY-SA3.0.
“concision.”http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/concision.WikipediaCCBY-SA3.0.
“modifier.”http://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/modifier.WiktionaryCCBY-SA3.0.
ProjectGutenberg.http://www.gutenberg.org/files/21660/21660-h/21660-h.htm.Publicdomain.
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7:WritingEffectiveParagraphs
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7.1:OrganizingYourIdeas7.1.1:TopicSentences
Separatingyourmainpointsintodifferentparagraphsallowsthereadertofeelthecumulativeeffectsofthemountingevidenceforyourclaim.
LearningObjective
Choosethebesttopicsentencetobeginaparagraph
KeyPoints
Introduceeachparagraphwithatopicsentencethattellsyouraudiencewhatyouwillargueinthatparagraph.Byprovidingreaderswithexpectationsatthebeginningoftheparagraph,youhelpthemunderstandandkeeptrackoftheoverallstructureofyourargument.Eachtopicsentenceshouldmakeadistinctpointinsupportofyourthesisstatement.Aparagraphshouldmakeonlyoneclaimandshouldcontainallthenecessaryevidenceforthatclaim.Thisiskeytomakinganargumentflowsmoothlyandthuspersuadingthereadertounderstandyourpoint.Evidenceandexamplesarebestusedassupportwithinaparagraphratherthanasatopicsentence.
KeyTerms
thesisstatement
Oftenfoundattheendofthefirstparagraphofanessayorsimilardocument,itsummarizesthemainpointsandargumentsoftheauthor.
paragraph
Apassageinatextaboutasubjectthatisdifferentfromthatoftheprecedingtext,markedbycommencingonanewline,withthefirstlinesometimesbeingindented.
claim
Anewstatementoftruthmadeaboutsomething,usuallywhenthe
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statementhasyettobeverified.
topicsentence
Astatementofthemainideaoftheparagraphinwhichitoccurs.
Whenyoucreatedtheoutline,youwroteathesisstatementandthenalltheclaimsyouareusingtosupportit.Youthenorganizedyourresearch,findingtheevidencetosupporteachclaim.You’llbeverygratefultohavedonethatsortingnowthatyou’rereadytowriteparagraphs.Eachoftheseclaimswillbecomeatopicsentence,andthatsentence,alongwiththeevidencesupportingit,willbecomeaparagraphinthebodyofthepaper.
ParagraphStructureEachparagraphisaself-containedportionofyourargument.Eachparagraphwillbeginbymakingaclaim(thetopicsentence)thatconnectsbacktothethesis.Thebodyoftheparagraphwillpresenttheevidence,reasoning,andconclusionsthatpertaintothatclaim.Usually,paragraphswillendbyconnectingtheirclaimtothelargerargumentorbysettinguptheclaimthatthenextparagraphwillcontain.
Topicsentence:summarizesthemainideaoftheparagraph;presentsaclaimthatsupportsyourthesis.Supportingsentences:provideexamples,details,andexplanationsthatsupportthetopicsentence(andclaim).Concludingsentence:givestheparagraphclosurebyrelatingtheclaimbacktothetopicsentenceandthesisstatement.
Paragraphsshouldbeusedtodeveloponeideaatatime.Ifyouhavealotofideasandclaimstoaddress,youmaybetemptedtocombinerelatedclaimsintothesameparagraph.Don’tdoit!Combiningdifferentpointsinthesameparagraphwilldivideyourreader’sattentionanddiluteyourargument.Ifyouhavetoomanyclaims,choosethestrongestonestoexpandintoparagraphs,orresearchthecounterargumentstoseewhichofyourclaimsspeakmostpowerfullytothose.
Bydedicatingeachparagraphtoonlyonepartofyourargument,youwillgivethereadertimetofullyevaluateandunderstandeachclaimbeforegoingontothenextone.Thinkofparagraphsaswaysofguidingyourreader’sattention—bygivingthemasingletopic,youforcethemtofocusonit.Whenyoudirecttheirfocus,theywillhaveamucheasiertimefollowingyour
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argument.
CreatingTopicSentencesEveryparagraphofyourargumentshouldbeginwithatopicsentencethattellsthereaderwhattheparagraphwilladdress—thatis,whatthatparagraph’sclaimis.Byprovidingthereaderwithexpectationsatthestartoftheparagraph,youhelphimorherunderstandwhereyouaregoingandhowtheparagraphfitsinwiththeoverallstructureofyourargument.Topicsentencesshouldalwaysconnectbacktoandsupportyourthesisstatement.
ThingstoAvoidDoinginYourTopicSentenceReferringtothePaperorParagraphItself
Youneedn’tsaydirectly,“Thisparagraphisabout…”Youdon’twantyourreaderremindedthatheorsheisreadingapaper.Thefocusshouldbeontheargument.ThiskindofannouncementislikeridingwithtrainingwheelsintheTourdeFrance.Youdon’treallyneedthiscrutch,andseeingitinapapercanbesomewhatstartlingtothereader,who’sexpectingaprofessionalpresentation.
OfferingEvidenceoranExample
“Ononeoccasion,anotherEMTandIwereheldatgunpoint.”Stickwithyourclaiminyourtopicsentence,andlettherestoftheparagraphaddresstheevidenceandofferexamples.Keepitclearbystatingthetopicandthemainidea.“Twenty-firstcenturyemergency-servicespersonnelfaceanever-increasingnumberofsecuritychallengescomparedtothoseworkingfiftytoahundredyearsago.”
NotBeingSpecificEnough
“Cookingisdifficult.”Thetopicmayrelatetoyourthesisstatement,butyou’llneedtobemorespecifichere.Forwhomiscookingdifficult,andwhy?
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“Whiletherearefoodpantriesinplaceinsomelow-incomeareas,manyrecipientsofthesegoodshaveneitherthetimenortheresourcestomakenutritionallysoundmealsfromwhattheyreceive.”(Stylisticallyspeaking,ifyouwantedtoinclude“Cookingisdifficult,”youcouldmakeitthefirstsentence,followedbythetopicsentence.Itjustshouldn’tbethetopicsentence.)
Papers
Well-structuredparagraphsmakeyourpapereasiertounderstandandmoreenjoyableforyourreaders.
Attributions
TopicSentences
“Boundless.”http://www.boundless.com/.BoundlessLearningCCBY-SA3.0.
“thesisstatement.”http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/thesis%20statement.WikipediaCCBY-SA3.0.
“paragraph.”http://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/paragraph.WiktionaryCCBY-SA3.0.
“claim.”http://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/claim.WiktionaryCCBY-SA3.0.
“HowtoWriteanEssay/Parts.”http://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/How_to_Write_an_Essay/Parts.WikibooksCCBY-SA3.0.
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“Allsizes|GradingPapersAtTheBar|Flickr-PhotoSharing!.”http://www.flickr.com/photos/rexroof/268845025/sizes/o/in/photostream/FlickrCCBY.
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7.2:ConnectingYourIdeas7.2.1:Transitions,SignalPhrases,andPointingWords
Transitionsconnectyourideasandmakeiteasierforyourreaderstofollowyourthoughtprocess.
LearningObjective
Identifysituationswheretransitionwordsareneeded
KeyPoints
Thefirststepinwritingaclearpaperiscreatingseparateparagraphsforeachideathatsupportsthepaper’smainthesis.Transitionscanmakeconnectionsbetweendifferentparagraphsorbetweensentenceswithinthesameparagraph.Pointingwordsconnectthecontentfromonepartofthepaperandrelateittoanotherpart.Asignalphrasealertsthereaderthatthewriterisabouttociteevidencefromanoutsidesource.
KeyTerms
signalphrases
Asentenceorphrasealertingthereaderthattheupcominginformationisnotthewriter’sbutisfromanoutsidesource.
pointingwords
Aterm,suchas“this”or“that,”referringbacksomethingorsomeonementionedearlierinthetext.
transition
Awordorphraseconnectingonepartofadiscoursetoanother.
Inexpositorywriting,eachparagraphshouldarticulateasinglemainideathatrelatesdirectlytothethesisstatement.Thisconstructioncreatesafeelingof
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unity,makingthepaperfeelcohesiveandpurposeful.Connectionsbetweenideas—bothbetweensentencesandbetweenparagraphs—shouldenhancethatsenseofcohesion.
Followingthepartsofapoorlyconstructedargumentcanfeellikeclimbingaricketyladder.Transitionwordsandphrasessupporttherungsandrails,smoothingthejourneyofreadingyourpapersoitfeelsmorelikeclimbingawide,comfortablestaircase.Remember,though,thattransitionsaremorethanjustwordsandphrases;ifyou’rehavingtroublecomingupwithtransitionsbetweenparagraphs,revisityouressay’soverallstructuretomakesureyourideasthemselvesarearrangedinalogicalorder,withnorepetitionsormissingsteps.
WhyUseTransitions?Usingtransitionswillmakeyourwritingeasiertounderstandbyprovidingconnectionsbetweenparagraphsorbetweensentenceswithinaparagraph.Atransitioncanbeaword,phrase,orsentence—inlongerworks,theycanevenbeawholeparagraph.Thegoalofatransitionistoclarifyforyourreadersexactlyhowyourideasareconnected.
Transitionsrefertoboththeprecedingandensuingsentence,paragraph,orsectionofawrittenwork.Theyremindyourreadersofwhattheyjustread,andtellthemwhatwillcomenext.Bydoingso,transitionshelpyourwritingfeellikeaunifiedwhole.
TransitionsBetweenParagraphsInTopicSentences
Usingtransitionsinyourtopicsentencescanexplaintothereaderhowoneparagraphrelatestothepreviousone.Considerthissetoftopicsentencesfromapaperaboutmetricalvariationinthepoem“CalibanUponSetebos”:
Paragraphone:“Browningbeginsthepoembyestablishingacorrespondencebetweenmetricalvariationandsubversivelanguage.”Paragraphtwo:“OnceCalibanbeginshisexplorationofthenatureofSetebos,though,thepatternestablishedearlierinthepoembeginstobreakdown.”Paragraphthree:“Browningfurthersubvertsthemetricalconventions
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establishedintheopeningstanzaby…switchingtoiambicpentameterwhenacknowledgingthatunmotivatedeventscananddooccur.”
Thetransitionshelpthereaderunderstandhowtheargumentisprogressingthroughoutthepaper,beginningwiththepoem’sbasicmeter,thenexplainingdifferentwaysinwhichthepatternshifts.Theword“though”inthesecondtopicsentenceletsthereaderknowthatthepatternexplainedinthefirstparagraphisgoingtochangeinthesecondparagraph.Theuseof“further”inthethirdtopicsentencealertsthereaderthatthepatternisshiftingagaininthethirdparagraph.Thesesimplewordsarethehandrailforthestepsthereaderisclimbing.
InConcludingSentences
Aparagraph’sconcludingsentencealsooffersanexcellentopportunitytobeginthetransitiontothenextparagraph—towrapuponeideaandhintatthenext.
Youcanuseaquestiontosignalashift:
It’sclear,then,thattheband’sbiggestsellingoriginalcompositionswerewrittenearlyintheircareer,butwhatdoweknowabouttheirlaterworks?
Alternatively,youcouldconcludebycomparingtheideainthecurrentparagraphwiththeideainthenext:
WhiletheDemocraticRepublicofCongoisrichinnaturalresources,ithasledatroubledpoliticalexistence.
An“if–then”structureisacommontransitiontechniqueinconcludingsentences:
Ifwearedecidedthatclimatechangeisnowunavoidable,thenstepsmustbetakentoavertcompletedisaster.
Here,you’rerelyingonthepointyou’vejustproveninthisparagraphtoserveasaspringboardforthenextparagraph’smainidea.
TransitionsWithinParagraphs
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Transitionswithinaparagraphhelpreaderstoanticipatewhatiscomingbeforetheyreadit.Withinparagraphs,transitionstendtobesinglewordsorshortphrases.Wordslikewhile,however,nevertheless,but,andsimilarly,aswellasphraseslikeontheotherhandandforexample,canserveastransitionsbetweensentencesandideas.Seethe“ListofCommonTransitionalDevices”belowformoreexamples.
PointingWords
Pointingwordsletyoureferbacktocomplexideasconcisely.Alsocalled“hooks,”thesewordsscoopuptheinformationjustofferedandlinkittootherinformationinthepaper.Let’slookatanexample:
Thereisnothingovertlydeviantaboutthepoem’sformalelements.Butuponcloseexamination,thoseintricaciesofformareevenmoresuggestiveofaproblemintheislandhierarchythanisthecontentofCaliban’sspeech.
Thisisaconcludingsentence,andtheword“those”referstothewriter’sargumentlaidoutinthepreviousparagraphs.Ifthewriterhadinsteadwritten“theintricacies,”wereadersmightnotknowtomentallylinkthepreviousargumentwiththisstatement.Usingtheword“those”isagesturetoincludeallthereferencestoformthatwentbeforethisparagraph.
Canyouseehowthepointingwords(this,that,these,those)inthefollowingexamplesservetolinkoneideatothenext,ortothemainideaofthepaper?
“Forthosereasons…”“Thissuggestionisfurtherbuoyedby…”“Thesefactsclearlypointto…”“Thatkindofreasoningonlymakessenseif…”
SignalPhrases
Alsowithinparagraphs,signalphrasesalertthereaderthatheorsheisabouttoreadreferencedmaterial,suchasaquotation,asummationofastudy,orstatisticsverifyingaclaim.Ideally,yoursignalphraseswillconnecttheideaoftheparagraphtotheinformationfromtheoutsidesource.
“JenniferAakeroftheGlobalBusinessSchoolatStanfordUniversitywrites,insupportofthisidea,that…”“Infact,theUnitedNationsEnvironmentalProgramfoundthat…”
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“However,‘Recyclingprograms,’theNorthernCaliforniaRecyclingAssociationretorts…”“Asgraph3.2illustrates,wecanbynomeansbecertainoftheoutcome.”
Suchphrasespreparethereadertoreceiveinformationfromanauthoritativesourceandsubconsciouslysignalthereadertoprocesswhatfollowsasevidenceinsupportofthepointbeingmade.
Herearesomecommonsignal-phraseverbs:acknowledges,adds,admits,argues,asserts,believes,claims,confirms,contends,declares,denies,disputes,emphasizes,grants,implies,insists,notes,observes,pointsout,reasons,refutes,rejects,reports,responds,suggests,thinks,writes.
TransitionParagraphsInlongerworks,youmightneedanentireparagraphtoconnecttheideaspresentedintwoseparatesections.Thepurposeofatransitionalparagraphistosummarizetheinformationinthepreviousparagraph,andtotellyourreaderhowitisrelatedtotheinformationinthenextparagraph.Transitionparagraphsaregoodplacestoreviewwhereyouhavebeenandhowitrelatestothenextstepofyourargument.
AppropriateUseofTransitionWordsandPhrasesBeforeusingaparticulartransitionalwordorphrase,besureyoucompletelyunderstanditsmeaningandusage.Forexample,ifyouuseawordorphrasethatindicatesaddition(“moreover,”“inaddition,”“further”),youmustactuallybeintroducinganewideaorpieceofevidence.Acommonmistakewithtransitionsisusingsuchawordwithoutactuallyaddinganideatothediscussion.Thatconfusesreadersandputsthembackonricketyfooting,wonderingiftheymissedsomething.
Wheneverpossible,stickwithtransitionwordsthatactuallyhavemeaningandpurpose.Overusingtransitionwords,orusingthemasfiller,isdistractingtothereader.“Itisfurtherconcludedthat,”forexample,soundsunnaturalandalittlegrandiosebecauseofthepassivevoice.“Also,”or“Furthermore”wouldbeclearerchoices,lesslikelytomakethereader’seyesroll.
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Withthatsaid,herearesomeexamplesoftransitionaldevicesthatmightbeusefulonceyou’veverifiedtheirappropriateness:
Toindicateaddition:and,again,andthen,besides,equallyimportant,finally,further,furthermore,nor,too,next,lastly,what’smore,moreover,inaddition,still,first(second,etc.).
“Strengthofideaisindeedafactorinentrepreneurialsuccess,butequallyimportantiseconomicviability.”
Toindicatecomparison:whereas,but,yet,ontheotherhand,however,nevertheless,onthecontrary,bycomparison,where,comparedto,upagainst,balancedagainst,although,conversely,incontrast,althoughthismaybetrue,likewise,while,whilst,although,eventhough,ontheonehand,ontheotherhand,incontrast,incomparisonwith,but,yet,alternatively,theformer,thelatter,respectively,allthesame.
“Incontrasttowhatwenowconsiderhispedanticprose,hispoetryseemedsetfreetoexpresswhatliesineveryhumanheart.”
Toindicatealogicalconnection:because,for,since,forthesamereason,obviously,evidently,furthermore,moreover,besides,indeed,infact,inaddition,inanycase,thatis.
“TheBuddhasatunderthebodhitreeforthesamereasonJesusmeditatedinthedesert:tovanquishtemptationonceandforall.”
Toshowexception:yet,still,however,nevertheless,inspiteof,despite,ofcourse,onceinawhile,sometimes.
“Advocatesofcorporatetaxincentivesciteincreasedjobsinruralareasasanoffset;still,isthatsufficientjustificationforremovingtheirfinancialresponsibilities?
Toshowtime:immediately,thereafter,soon,afterawhile,finally,then,later,previously,formerly,first(second,etc.),next,andthen.
“First,thefamilysufferedadevastatinghousefirethatleftthemwithoutanypossessions,andsoonthereafterlearnedthattheirpassagetotheNewWorldhadbeenrevokedduetoaclericalerror.”
Tosummarizeorindicaterepetition:inbrief,asIhavesaid,asIhavenoted,ashasbeennoted,aswehaveseen,tosummarize.
“Wehaveseen,then,thatnotonlyarerisingtemperaturesandincreasedweatheranomaliescorrelatedwithanincreaseinfoodandwatershortages,butanimal-migrationpatterns,too,appeartobeaffected.”
Toindicateemphasis:definitely,extremely,obviously,infact,indeed,inany
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case,absolutely,positively,naturally,surprisingly,notwithstanding,only,still,itcannotbedenied.
“Obviously,suchahighlyskilledarchitectwouldnotusuallybeinclinedtogivehisservicesaway,andyetthismanvolunteeredhisservicesoverandagaintoprojectsthatpaidhimonlythroughappreciation.”
Toindicatesequence:first,second,third,andsoforth,next,then,followingthis,atthistime,now,atthispoint,after,afterward,subsequently,finally,consequently,previously,beforethis,simultaneously,concurrently.
“So,finally,theauthoroffersonelasthintaboutthestory’struesubject:thewistfuldescriptionofthemountainsinthedistance.”
Toindicateanexample:forexample,forinstance,inthiscase,inanothercase,onthisoccasion,inthissituation,takethecaseof,todemonstrate,toillustrate,consider.
“Take,forexample,thefamoushucksterP.T.Barnum,whosereputationas‘ThePrinceofHumbugs’beliedhisloveandsupportofthefinerthingsoflife,likeopera.”
Toqualifyastatement:undernocircumstances,mainly,generally,predominantly,usually,themajority,mostof,almostall,anumberof,some,afew,alittle,fairly,very,quite,rather,almost.
“Generally,wecanassumethatthisstatementhasmerit,butinthisspecificcase,itbehoovesustodigdeeper.”
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Thetransitionofthesun
Transitionwordsandphrasesareusedtomaketheshiftfromoneideatothenextassmoothandseamlessasthearcofthesunovertheearth.
Attributions
Transitions,SignalPhrases,andPointingWords
“UsingSignalWordsThatFittheAction.”https://www.boundless.com/users/268747/textbooks/fremont-college-english-composition/academic-writing-3/summarizing-18/using-signal-verbs-that-fit-the-action-89-3254/.BoundlessCCBY4.0.
“UsingPointingWords.”https://www.boundless.com/users/364813/textbooks/professional-
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writing-ae312174-61d8-432f-9276-655b5a888adc/week-3-boundless-presentation-620/connecting-your-ideas-635/using-pointing-words-637-58/.BoundlessCCBY-SA4.0.
“transition.”http://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/transition.WiktionaryCCBY-SA3.0.
“TransitionsinEssays.”http://xiamenwriting.wikispaces.com/Transitions+in+Essays.xiamenwritingWikispaceCCBY-SA3.0.
ProjectGutenberg.http://www.gutenberg.org/files/19103/19103-h/19103-h.htm.Publicdomain.
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7.3:KeepingYourWritingEngaging7.3.1:VaryingYourSentenceStructureandVocabulary
Effectivewritingincludesvariationofsentencestructure,vocabulary,andotherelementstokeepthereaderinterestedandengagedwiththeargument.
LearningObjective
Usevariedsentencestructure
KeyPoints
Thetone,voice,andstyleofyourwritingareasimportantasthedetailsyouprovidetosupportathesis.Paperswillbeboringforthereaderifeverysentenceusesthesamestructure.Someofthebestwaystovarysentenceformatarebyaddingandrearrangingclauses.Sentencelength,sentencestructure,sentencetype,tone,vocabulary,transitionwords,andtypesofevidencecanallbevariedsothatyourargumentismoreconvincingandyourpointsmorecompellingtothereader.
KeyTerms
tone
Themannerinwhichspeechorwritingisexpressed.
clause
Thesmallestgrammaticalunitthatcanexpressacompleteproposition.
Argumentationisn’tjustaboutwhatyousaybuthowyousayit.Eventhemostsolidargumentwon’tgetfarwithareaderifthetextisn’tengaging.Buthowdowedothat?
Perhapsthebiggestsecrettocreatingcaptivatingwritingisvariation.Withoutit,yourreadermightfallasleepfromboredom.
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Ifyou’veeverbeeninavibrantdebatewithsomeoneyourespectedaboutbeliefsyouholddear,youhaveasenseofjustthekindoflifewewanttocapturewhenwe’rewriting.Learning,debatingideas,diggingforthetruth:thesethingsareallfun!Noneedfor“anyone”tobedroolingonhisdesk.
Ifvariationiskey,whatcanwevary?We’vediscussedtheimportanceofstructure.Readersneedtodependonthepaper’sstructuretobeabletofollowtheargument.Theintroduction,conclusion,bodyparagraphswithtopicsentencesandtransitionsareallessential.Withinthestructure,however,youcanvarythefollowing:
sentencelengthsentencestructuresentencetypetonevocabularytransitionwordsandcategoriestypesofevidence
You’llwanttohavereasonsforthechoicesyoumake.Addingrandomrhetoricalquestionswillsoundstrange,butifyouasktherightquestionattherighttime,itwillmakethereaderthink.Thesamewillbetrueofallvariation.Theremustbeagoodreasontochooseaparticularsentencestructureoranewtypeofevidence.
Therearenocodifiedrulesonhowtovarysentencestructure,noraretherelistsofallthedifferenttypesofphrasingyoucanuse.TheEnglishlanguageallowsforsomuchflexibilitythatsuchalistwouldbenever-ending.However,therearesomeaspectsofwritingthatyoushouldconsiderwhenlookingfordifferentsentenceformats.
Clauses:Theeasiestwaytovarysentencelengthandstructureiswithclauses.Multi-clausesentencescanconnectrelatedideas,provideadditionaldetail,andvarythepatternofyourlanguage.
Length:Longersentencesarebettersuitedforexpressingcomplexthoughts.Shortersentences,incontrast,areusefulwhenyouwanttoemphasizeaconcisepoint.Clausescanvaryinlength,too.
Interrogatives:Whenusedsparingly,questionscancatchyourreader’sattention.Theyalsoimplicateyourreaderasaparticipantinyourargumentbyaskingthemtothinkabouthowtheywouldanswerthequestion.
Tone:Ifyoureallywantasentencetostandout,youcanchangethetoneofyourwriting.Usingdifferenttonescancatchthereader’sattentionandliven
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upyourwork.Thatmeansyoucanbeplayfulwithyourreaderattimes,sounddemandingattimes,andcultivateempathywhenthatfeelsappropriate.Becarefulthatthetoneyouchooseisappropriateforthesubjectmatter.
Syntaxvariationcultivatesinterest.Startplayingwithstructure.Trychangingasentence’slanguagetomakeitsounddifferentfromtheonesaroundit.
SyntacticalVariationHereisanexampleofwhataparagraphwitharepetitivesyntaxcansoundlike:
”LookingBackwardwaspopularinthelatenineteenthcentury.Middle-classAmericanslikeditsvisionofsociety.Thevisionappealedtotheirconsumptionhabits.Also,theylikedthepossibilityofnotbeingbotheredbythepoor.”
Choppy?Uninteresting?Here’stherewrittenversion,withattentionpaidtosentencevariation:
“ThepopularityofLookingBackwardamongmiddle-classAmericansinthelatenineteenthcenturycanbetracedtoitsvisionofsociety.Thenovelpresentsasocietythateasilydispelsthenuisanceofpovertyandworking-classstrifewhilemaintainingthepleasureofmiddle-classconsumptivehabits.”
What’sdifferenthere?Therewritesimplycombinesthefirsttwoandthelasttwosentencesandaddsabitofvariationinvocabulary,butthedifferenceispowerful.Ofcourse,ifallthesentenceswerecompoundlikethese,thepaperwouldbegintosoundeitherpretentiousorexhausting.Ifthiswereyourpaper,youmightwanttomakethenextsentenceashortoneandgettoyourthesisstatementsoon.
VaryingVocabularyOnewaytoavoidappearingoverlyrepetitiveistoconsultathesaurusandusesynonyms.However,whenusingsynonyms,youshouldmakesurethatthewordyouchoosemeansexactlywhatyouthinkitmeans.(“Penultimate,”forexample,doesnotmean“thehighest,”andthere’sadifferencebetween“elicit”and“illicit.”)Checktheconnotationsofsynonymsbylookinguptheirdefinitions.
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VaryingTransitions,SignalWords,PointingWords,andPronounsWriterswhoarefamiliarwiththeirownhabitswillsometimesresearchawordorphrasetheytypicallyoveruse(“however,”“thatsaid,”“moreover”)andreplacesomeofthosewordswithanothertransition,ortheymightreworkasentencetoavoidusinganytransitionwordsinthatspotiftheyfeelthey’reoverdoingit.Nouns,too,oftengetoverusedwhenpronounswouldsoundmorenatural.Don’tworryaboutthistoomuchinthewritingphase.Youjustwanttogetyourthoughtsonthepage.Butasyourevise,keepaneyeoutforrepetitionandswitchthingsupabittokeepyourpaperinteresting.
Introducingvariationbenefitsnotonlyyourreaderbutalsoyou,thewriter.Conceivingofdifferentwaystocommunicateessentialelementsofyourargumentwillallowyoutorevisitwhatmakestheseelementsessentialandtoconsiderthecentralargumentyouaremaking.Eachvariationisachancetointroducenuanceintoyourwritingwhiledrivingyourpointhome.However,variationshouldneverbeyourmaingoal—don’tsacrificeaudiencecomprehensiontoachievestylisticvirtuosity.You’lljustsoundsilly.Theargumentisthepoint.
Engagingyourreaderindifferentways
Varythetypesofsentencesyouusetokeepyourpaperinteresting.
Attributions
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VaryingYourSentenceStructureandVocabulary
“Boundless.”http://www.boundless.com/.BoundlessLearningCCBY-SA3.0.
“AvoidingRepetitiveness.”https://www.boundless.com/users/364813/textbooks/professional-writing-ae312174-61d8-432f-9276-655b5a888adc/week-3-boundless-presentation-620/connecting-your-ideas-635/avoiding-repetitiveness-639-59/.BoundlessCCBY-SA4.0.
“clause.”http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/clause.WikipediaCCBY-SA3.0.
“rhetoricalquestion.”http://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/rhetorical_question.WiktionaryCCBY-SA3.0.
“tone.”http://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/tone.WiktionaryCCBY-SA3.0.
“TheCainProjectinEngineeringandProfessionalCommunication,SevenWaystoMotivatetheAudience.September17,2013.”http://cnx.org/content/m16190/latest/.OpenStaxCNXCCBY3.0.
ProjectGutenberg.http://www.gutenberg.org/files/27574/27574-h/27574-h.htm.Publicdomain.
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8:RhetoricalModes
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8.1:IntroductiontoRhetoricalModes8.1.1:IntroductiontoRhetoricalModes
Thejudicioususeofrhetoricalmodesinoralandwrittencommunicationcanstrategicallystrengthenthemessagebeingdelivered.
LearningObjective
Explainthemeaningof“rhetoric”asitrelatestowrittencommunicationstrategies.
KeyPoints
Theterm“rhetoric”referstotheartandstudyoftheeffectiveuseoflanguagetocommunicateamessage.Writersandspeakersemployspecifictechniquesinordertoeffectivelypersuadeoraffectanaudience.Rhetoricaldevicesareapplicabletobothexpositoryandcreativewriting.Whenthetechniqueoverpowersthemessage,theterm“rhetoric”canbecomederogatory.
KeyTerms
creative
Creativewritingistheimaginativeuseofwordstoconveymeaning,whetherthroughnarrative,poetry,orimagery,withtheintenttoelicitanemotionalresponse(ratherthantoinform).
expository
Writingistermed“expository”whenitisintendedtoinformandinstruct;presentingreasons,explanations,orstepinaprocess.Expositorywritingshouldcontainamainidea,supportingdetails,andaconclusion.
rhetoricalmodes
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Conventionsofwritingandspeakingusedstrategicallytopresentasubjectinaparticularmannertoanaudience
narrative
Narrativewritingisthetellingofastory;reportingconnectedevents,whetherrealorimagined.
rhetoric
Thestrategicartofinformingorpersuadinganaudiencewiththewrittenorspokenword;thestudyofthedesign,organization,andtechniquesassociatedwitheffectivewrittenandoralcommunication
ThePowerofRhetoricWe’veallhadthedualexperiencesofsittingspellbound,listeningtoamasterstorytellerweaveatalethatleavesusbreathless,andofenduringaspeechthatseemedtoolongfromthefirstsentence.Whenwewrite,wenaturallyhopetoemulatetheformer,ratherthanthelatter.Wewantourwordstosparkthereader’simaginationanddeeplyengagetheminourtopicofchoice.Noonewantstobeabore.
Theartofrhetoricbeganinancientcivilizationsaroundtheworldasbothanartandatool.Captivatingaudiencesisbothpoliticallyexpedientandsociallydesirable,andfromantiquitytopresentday,thosewhoholdthepeopleinthepalmoftheirhandalsoholdthepower.
Inexaminingrhetoricalmodes,we’llbetappingthesamecollectivewisdomusedbyAristotle,Confucious,Demosthenes,AbrahamLincoln,ElizabethCadyStanton,WinstonChurchill,CharlesdeGaulle,Dr.MartinLutherKing,Jr.,NelsonMandela,andyes,evenAdolfHitler,tobringanaudiencetoitsfeet.Whetheryourintentionistowriteastirringspeechorcomposeamovingpieceofprose,familiarizingyourselfwiththesetechniqueswillgiveyouthetoolsyouneedtomoveandinspire.
Butplease,beforewebegin,promisethatyou’lluseyournewfoundpowerforgood.
TwoTypesofWriting
Therearetwowritingenvironmentsinwhichyou’lluserhetoric:expositorywritingandcreative(ornarrative)writing.Thedifferenceliesinthepurposeofthepiece.Anexpositoryessayaimstoinformandinstruct,whilea
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narrativeessayisastorymeanttoentertain.
Differencesinformarisefromthesedifferencesinpurpose.Guidelinesforexpositorywritingemphasizeclarityandbrevityinordertomakeanemphaticpoint.Narratives,ontheotherhand,canwanderorgettothepoint,dependingonthetypeofstorybeingtoldandtheintentionofthestoryteller.
Arelianceonfactnecessitatesevidencetobackupassertions,whereasarelianceonstoryrequiresfaithfulnesstothespiritoftheeventormemorybeingrelayed.Bothtypesofwritingcanberiveting,buttheyrequiredifferentapproachesandtools.
RhetoricalModes
Hereisalistofcommonrhetoricalmodesalongwithbriefdefinitions.Asyoureadthroughthem,seeifyoucanimagineanexampleofeach.Whichdoyouthinkmightlikelyshowupinanexpositoryessay,andwhichwouldseemnaturalforcreativewriting?
ArgumentationandPersuasion-makingacaseforyouropinionortheperspectiveyouwishyouraudiencetotakebyofferingsupportingideasorfacts
Classification-breakingasubjectintoitsseparatepartsandgroupingthesebasedoncommontraits
CauseandEffect-connectingeventsbyshowinghowagivenstimuluscreatedaparticularresponse
ComparisonandContrast-illustratingthewaysinwhichthesubjectofchoiceislikeordifferentfromsomethingelse
Definition-apreciseexplanationofatermgiveninenoughdetailthatonewhoisnotatallfamiliarwithitwillunderstandit
Description-capturinginwordsaconcept,character,setting,idea,person,orobjectsothatthereaderorlistenercanvisualizethesubject
IllustrationandExemplification-offeringthereader/listenerexamplesinordertoclarifyaconceptoridea,“showing”whatismeantthroughinstancesofuse
Narration-sequencingeventsinorderoftime,oftenusingsensoryelementstohelpthereaderorlisteneridentifywiththestory
ProcessAnalysis-breakinganeventoractionintosmallerpartsandexplainingitsstepsfrombeginningtoend,oftenofferingreasonsforeach
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step
TheJudiciousUseofRhetoric
Theonecautionwithusingrhetoricaldevicesinwrittenorspokencommunicationisthattoomuch“technique”makesaspeech,anessay,orastorytedious,atbest,andmanipulative,atworst.
You’llneedtostudythetechniquesenoughtousethemskillfully,soasnottosoundinauthentic.Sincerityalwaysmakesforthebestwriting,sowhilethetechniquesyou’lllearnabouthereareinvaluablewhenusedwisely,theybecomedistastefulwhenoverused.
Attributions
IntroductiontoRhetoricalModes
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8.2:TypesofRhetoricalModes8.2.1:ArgumentationandPersuasion
Argumentationandpersuasionarerhetoricalmodesusedtoconvinceothersofanopinion,belief,orthemeritsofacourseofaction.
LearningObjective
Determinethepurposeandstructureofargumentationandpersuasion.
KeyPoints
Argumentationandpersuasionarebothusedtoconvinceothersofanopinion,belief,orthemeritsofacourseofaction.Argumentationuseslogicandobjectivesupporttoconvincetheaudienceoftheveracityofanargument.Persuasionappealstotheemotionsoftheaudiencetoconvincethemoftheinherentvalueofastance.Thereareappropriatesettingsinwhichtousebothargumentationandpersuasion.Thedecisiontouseeitherargumentationorpersuasion(orboth)willguidethewriterastothewritingprocessandtheselectionofprimaryliterarytools.Thereisagenerallyacceptedstructureforapersuasive/argumentativeessaythatallowswithinittheopportunityforcreativeexpression.
KeyTerms
pathos
Amethodofpersuadingothersbycreatinganemotionalresponseinthem.
ethos
Amethodofconvincingthereader/listenerthroughthecredibilityofthewriter/speaker.
logos
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Amethodofconvincingpeoplethroughlogicandreason.
Why,OhWhy?Whenwedecidetoputanopinionoutthere,we’redoingitforareason.Usually,thereasonisthatwewantpeopletoagreewithourperspectiveandeventakeupthecausethemselves.Thisiswhereyougiveyouraudiencethewhy:whyyourpointmakessense,whyyoursuggestedcourseofactionisthebest,whyotherideasarenotassound,andwhyyourthesisshouldbetattooedovertheirheart.Well,okay,maybethat’sgoingalittlefar.
Tattoosaren’tabadexample,though.Someoneorsomethinghadtobeprettyinspiringorconvincingtogetthemtoemblazonasymbolpermanentlyontheirbody.
Howcanyoubethatconvincing?Therearetwomajorstrategiesforansweringthe“why”ofyourthesis:arguingthroughlogicandconvincingthroughemotion.
ArgumentationWecanthinkofaconstructed“argument”notsomuchasanadversarialendeavor,butasearchforthetruthofamatter.JustasSupremeCourtjusticesarechargedwithlisteningtoallevidencebeforecomingtoaconclusionthatwillbestservetheRepublic,youmayassumethatyourreaderisseekingthemostreasonableperspectivetotake,basedonallthefacts.
Yourjob,then,asthewriterofanargument,istopresentthereaderwiththeargumentsandevidencesupportingboth(orall)perspectivesandreasonoutwhyyourthesisisthemostlogicalconclusion.Thetoneofsuchwritingisdispassionateandobjective;reasonisking.
Acommonmistakeaboutwritingargumentationispresentingonlytheargumentsthatsupporttheopinionyouwantyouraudiencetoadopt.Thatapproachislesseffective,becausethereader’smindnaturallyjumpstologicalobjectionsandcounter-arguments,andifthosedoubtsarenotaddressed,thereaderremainssuspiciousandthereforeunconvinced.Whenyoucontendwithallthepotentialobjections,however,thereader’smindissatisfiedandheorshecanrestcomfortablyinyourconclusion.
Anothercommonerrorinargumentationispresentingaweakenedargumentforopposingopinions,inhopesthatacursoryglanceatanddismissalofthe
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counter-argumentswillsatisfythereaders’doubts.Mostreaderswillseethroughthisstrategy,though,andloserespectforboththewriterandtheargumentasaresult.Youwantyourthesistobestrongenoughtostanduptostrictcriticalscrutinyanddemonstratethatstrengthinyourargument.
Forthesereasons,argumentationisarigorousendeavor.Youusuallywon’tevenbegintoformulateathesisforsuchapaperuntilyou’vedoneextensiveresearch,becauseyou’llwanttobewell-educatedonthetopicbeforecomingtoanyconclusionsyourself.Thegoodnewsisthatyourprocessindecidingwhatyoubelieveisfodderforinformingyouraudience:onceyou’vedonethediscovery,youcanleadyourreadersonthepathyouyourselffollowedtotheconclusionthatfeelsnaturaltoyou.Ifyourownsearchwasthoroughenough,andifyouexpressitclearly,youraudiencewillbemorelikelytoagreewithyou,oratleasttorespectyouropinion.
Consideranargument,then,asincereefforttofindthe“truth,”oratleastthebestoptionforthesituationinquestion.
ToolsforArgumentation
Themosteffectivetoolinargumentationissolidsupportforeachaspectoftheargument.Youwillcreateanethosofcredibilitytotheextentyourreaderfindsyoutrustworthy.Tothisend,youwillneedtoconsiderboththeeffectivenessofthesourceformakingyourpoint(whetheritisaquote,facts,ordata),aswellasthereader’sperceptionofthesourceofthatinformation.
Reliableresearchhascertainmarkersthatmakeitcredible.Inaquantitativestudy,forexample,samplesizeisimportanttoensurethedataistrulyrepresentative.Datasaturationisakeyinqualitativeresearch.Anexampleofunreliableresearchwouldbetheclaim,“Votedbestfishtacointheworldthreeyearsinarow!”Whovoted?Thekitchenstaff?Thoughyoudon’thavetobearesearcheryourselftomakequalityarguments,youneedtolearnwheretolooktofindstudiesthatare,infact,reliable.Whichbringsustothenextpoint.You’llalsoneedtoassesstheperceivedreliabilityofthesource.StudiesfundedbycigarettecompaniesontheeffectsofcigarettesmokearelesslikelytofinddeleteriouseffectsthanstudiescommissionedbytheNationalInstitutesofHealth,oratleastwemightlogicallyassumethat.You’llwanttoavoidanyappearanceofbias,alongwithanyactualbias.Ifyourreaderperceivesyoursourcesasobjectiveandreliable,heorshewilltrustyouandbewillingtofollowyourargumenttoitsconclusion.
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PersuasionIfyou’reless“Dr.Spock”andmore“CaptainKirk,”though,youmightbemoreinclinedtowardpersuadingyouraudiencetobelieveasyoudo.We’veallhadfriendswhocantalkusintoalmostanything.Howdotheydothat?Theygetusintroublebyeffectivelyproddingouremotions.
Yourintentions,ofcourse,willbenoble,butthetechniqueworkseitherway.
Persuasivewritingisaboutconvincingthereaderthatyouropinionistheoneheorsheshouldadopt.Thefocusisontheopinionitself,ratherthananycounter-arguments,andthereaderisled(orlured)stepbysteptofeelincreasinglymorecomfortablewiththethesis.Thetonecanbemoreaggressiveandpassionatethaninargumentation,becausethewriterisappealingtothereader’semotions,ratherthantothelogicalmind.
You’reinaplaneforthepurposeofskydivingwithyourdaredevilbuddy,butyou’veneverdoneitbeforeandyouarehesitanttojump.Yourfrienddoesn’tdiscussthepossibilityofyourlegbreakingorthechutenotopening.No,insteadyourfriendtalksofthethrillyou’llfeelasyousoarthroughtheair,theconfidenceitwillgiveyoutohavedonesomethingsodaring,andthebraggingrightsyou’llhaveonceyou’reontheground.Theremightbeastatisticortwothrowninabouthowfewpeoplegethurtskydiving,andtheremayevenbeawarningaboutwhatyou’llfeellikeifyoudon’tjump,butmostlyyourfriendistheretoinspire.
Naturally,youjump.
Howdoesonetranslatesuchproddingintowriting?It’sallaboutconvictionandanticipation.Yourfriendintuitedyourobjections,butratherthanmentioningthem,simplycounteredwithanaffirmationofthethesis(jumpingoutofairplanesisgreat).Thebenefitsofbelievingthiswayaregoingtomakeallcounterargumentsobsolete,soratherthanentertainthose,we’lljustkeepsteppinguptheemotionalpressuretoembracethethesis.
ToolsforPersuasion
Themosteffectivetoolsinpersuasivewritingareexamplesandsensoryimages.
Examples(illustrativestories)helpyourreaderidentifywithsomeoneexperiencingtheplightyoudescribe.Identificationwithanotherbeingisapowerfulpullontheemotions.“Thehomelessman,findingtheshelter
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closedonceagainduetoovercrowding,castshiseyestothebustlingsidewalk,hopingsomeone,anyone,willcatchhiseyeandofferhelp,evenifit’sonlythefeelingofconnectiontoanotherhumanbeing.”Sensoryimages,unlikelogic,appealtoouremotionalcenter.Readingorhearinghowsomethinglooks,tastes,smells,sounds,orfeelscancreateavisceralresponseinus.“Hesighsandshufflesofftothetatteredoldrefrigeratorboxthatprovideslittleinsulationfromtheicygroundandreeksofthegarbagepiledinchesfromhisface.”
ChooseYourMethodYoumayhavecometotheconclusionthatanargumentativeessayisamoresophisticatedwayofgettingsomeonetoseeaparticularperspective.It’struethattheargumentisusuallyconsideredthemoreformalwritingstyle,buttherearecasesinwhichpathosmaybemoreappropriatethanlogos.Howdoyouknowwhichtochoose?
Audience-Knowtowhomyourwordswillbedirected.Areyourreadersmorelikelytobeswayedbypeer-reviewedresearchoremotionalappeals?Occasion-There’ssomethingtobesaidforgaugingtherighttimeforfactsandtheappropriatetimeforconviction.AreyouwritingaStateoftheUnionaddress,whereyou’rehopingtheaudiencewillleaptoitsfeetwithapplauseeveryfewparagraphs,orareyouexplainingtoyourboardofdirectorswhyyourcompanyshouldgopublicinsixmonths?Purpose-Similarly,you’llwanttokeeptheend-gameinmind.Askingyourreaderstotakeanimmediateactionmightrequireadifferentapproachthanaskingthemtopermanentlyaltertheirbeliefsystem.
Hereisanexampleoftheuseofapersuasivepieceofwriting.Doyouthinkitwouldhavebeenmoreeffectiveasalogicalargument?
TheBlackPantherParty’s1966TenPointProgramoutlineddemandsandbeliefsthattheorganizationbelievedwouldbegintorepairsomeofthedamageofslaveryandracismintheUnitedStates.Hereis#5fromthe“WhatWeWantNow!”section(notethateventheexclamationpointhintsatthepersuasivenatureoftheargument):
“WewanteducationforourpeoplethatexposesthetruenatureofthisdecadentAmericansociety.Wewanteducationthatteachesusourtruehistoryandourroleinthepresentdaysociety.”
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Overadecadeearlier,ThurgoodMarshallhadpresentedapetitionalongthesamelinestotheSupremeCourt,onlyhechosetouseargumention:
Althoughheraisedavarietyoflegalissuesonappeal,themostcommononewasthatseparateschoolsystemsforblacksandwhiteswereinherentlyunequal,andthusviolatethe“equalprotectionclause”oftheFourteenthAmendmenttotheU.S.Constitution.Furthermore,relyingonsociologicaltests,suchastheoneperformedbysocialscientistKennethClark,andotherdata,healsoarguedthatsegregatedschoolsystemshadatendencytomakeblackchildrenfeelinferiortowhitechildren,andthussuchasystemshouldnotbelegallypermissible.
Thoughbothpleasrelatetoofferingastrongersystemofeducationforpeopleofcolor,thecontextforeachassertionwasdifferent.Onehadasanaudiencethegeneralpublic;theother,atleastinitially,spoketocourtjustices.TheoccasionofarguingbeforetheSupremeCourtrequiredMarshalltomakeaformalandobjectivecase,whereastheBlackPantherswereseekingadramaticshiftinthepublicperceptionofthestatusquo.Marshall’spurposewastobuildanargumentthatwouldstanduptoscrutinyfordecadesorevencenturiestocome,inanyinstanceofsocietalsegregation,andwhiletheBlackPantherswouldlikelyhaveagreedwiththatgoal,theirimmediatepurposewastolifttheveilofwhiteprivilege.
Youmightnotice,though,thatthereareelementsofpersuasivelanguageinMarshall’sargument:hespeaksof“atendencytomakeblackchildrenfeelinferior,”whichhintsatpathos.Thereasonwewouldn’tcategorizeitassuch,though,isbecauseheiscitingsociologicaldata:heispresentingthistendencyasafact,nottryingtomanipulatethecourt’semotions.
Similarly,theorganizationoftheBlackPanthers’TenPointProgrammightseemakintoalogicalargument,butthecontentof“WhatWeWantNow!”isgroundedinideasofrightandwrong,ratherthanobjectivedata.
So,impassionedpleaorreasonedargument,let’slookatthestepstocreation.
StepstoCreatinganArgument1. Consideryourtopic.Whataresomequestionsthatcomeupforyou
aboutthistopic?Whatdoyouexpecttofindasyouresearchit?Howmightpeopledisagreeaboutthetopic?
2. Researchthetopic.Findoutwhat’sbeingsaidaboutthetopiconbothorallsidesoftheissue.Lookattheprimarywritersorspeakers
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championingeachperspectiveandallowyourselftimetomarinateineachoftheirideas.
3. Choosetheperspectiveyouagreewith.Havingreadmaterialrepresentingeachgeneralideaaboutthetopic,youwilllikelyfindyourselfagreeingwithoneoranother.Formulateapreliminarythesisstatementbasedonyourconclusions.
4. Gobacktotheliteraturetosupportyourthesisstatement,butbeopentochangingitifmoreinformationcomestolight.
5. Identifyeachcounterargument,findingthemostcogentresourcesforeach,andmakeyourbestargumentagainsttheseusingthemostapplicableandreliablesourcestosupportyourperspective.
6. Organizeyourpaperinawaythatwillmosteffectivelyanticipatethereader’smentaljourneythroughthetopic.
StepstoPersuasion1. Searchyourfeelingsforaresponsetothetopic.Whatkindofemotions
comeuparoundit?Whatisyourinitialgutreactiontoastatementforandastatementagainstthetopic?
2. Decidewhatyouwanttoconvinceothersaboutconcerningthisissue.Whatfeelsmeaningfultoyouconcerningthistopic?Createathesisstatementthatreflectsthisdesire.
3. Outlineanargumentbasedonwhatyoubelieveandfeel,thendiveintotheliteraturetofindoutwhatothershavehadtosayonthetopic.You’llwanttolookatobjectionstoyouropinionaswellassupportingevidenceinordertoanticipateyourreader’sthoughtprocess,evenifyouwon’tbeincludingallofthesereferencesinyourpaper.
4. Findorcreatestoriesandsensoryimagerythatwillspeaktothereader’semotions.
5. Organizeyourpaperinawaythatputsincreasingpressureonthereader’semotions.Often,thismeansbeginningwithimagerythatorientsthereadertothesituationandthenintensifyingthepathosasyougo.Keepcounterargumentsinmindaswell,asyouattendtoorganization.
Ifyouarecombiningtheapproaches,you’llwanttocreateyourpaperbasedonthestepstocreatinganargumentandthenincorporatesensoryimagery,stories,andimpassionedpleasintothestructureasappropriate—oftenintheintroductionandconclusion.
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StructureoftheArgumentativeandPersuasiveEssayWhileyoucanuseargumentationandpersuasioninanytypeofwriting,acommonvenueistheessay,inwhichyou’reaskedtoarguefororagainstaposition.
Whiletherearenohardandfastrulestostructuringyouressay,therearesomegenerallyacceptedconventionsthatwillgiveyouaheadstartincreatingyourargumentandallowyoutofocusoncontent.
Introduction
Thinkoftheintroductionasaninvertedtriangle;afunnel.Youwanttobeginwithabroadintroductiontotherealmofthoughtandendwithaveryspecificthesisthattherestofthepaperwillprove.Thepurposehereistocapturethereader’sinterestandquicklymovehimorhertoanunderstandingofyourpointoffocus.
Introductorysentence.Thisiswhereyoucansparkyouraudience’sinterestinthetopic.Youcanusepathoshereormakeaboldstatementoffact,eitherofwhichcanserveasa“hook”tocapturethereader’sattention.Linkingsentence.Here,younarrowinonyourtopicmorespecifically.Again,youmaychoosetoaccomplishthisthroughimagery,astatementoffact,orbysimpleexplanation.Bytheendofthissentence(whichcouldactuallybeasmanysentencesasyouneedtoaccomplishthetask),youraudienceshouldknowtheproblemyouwishtoaddressandwhyit’simportant.Argument#1.Here,you’llpreviewthefirstargumentinfavorofyourthesis,whichyou’llexpoundoninthefirstbodyparagraph.Youhaven’tstatedyourthesisyet;thesethreesentenceswillleadyourreadertoitnaturally.Sothinkofthesethree(ormore)sentencesasprimingthepumpfortherushofclaritythatisyourthesisstatement.Argument#2.Again,thissentenceismerelyastatementofwhatyou’llexpoundoninthebodyofthepaper:thistime,inthesecondbodyparagraph.Argument#3.Here,you’resimplystatingtheargumentforthethirdbodyparagraph.Thesisstatement.Thethesisstatementshouldflownaturallyoutofthe
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arguments(hence,thefunnelanalogy).Itshouldbeclear,concise,andone-sided.
BodyParagraphs
Eachoftheparagraphsinthebodyofyourpaperwillservethethesisstatement.Eachoftheseparagraphswillhaveitsownpointtoproverelatedtothethesis.Awell-structuredargumentwillgrowstrongerwitheachparagraph,whetherthetechniqueisargumentationorpersuasion.
Eachbodyparagraph(andthreetofiveparagraphsforabodyarethestandardguideline)shouldcontain
Atopicsentence.Alsocalleda“sub-thesis,”thetopicsentenceisamainpointthatsupportsyourthesisstatement.Youcanrefertothethesisstatementinthissentencetoremindyouraudiencehowthismainpointrelatestoit.Evidentiarysentences.Hereiswhereyouofferevidenceandexplanationstosupporttheveracityofthetopicsentence.Ratherthanasimplelistingofsupportingevidence,though,you’llwanttoformacoherentparagraphlinkingeachitemthoughtfully.Phraseslike,“notonly,”“therefore,”“inadditionto,”and“moreover”arecommonlyfoundlinkingpiecesofevidenceinabodyparagraph.Concludingsentence.Here,youwilllinkthefirsttopicsentence—theoneyoujustgaveevidencefor—tothesecondtopicsentencewhichyouareabouttointroduce.Thinkofthissentenceasavitallinkofachain.Withoutit,youraudiencewillnotbeabletofollowyourlineofthought.Howdoesthepointyoujustprovedrelatetotheoneyou’reabouttoprove?
Counterarguments
Inanargumentativeessay,youcanincludecounterargumentparagraphseitherdirectlyafterthemainpointtheyattempttocontradict(therebygettingtheobjectionoutofthereader’smindrightaway),oryoucanentertaincounterargumentsinaseriesofbodyparagraphsafteryourmainpointssupportingthethesis.Thestructuremimicsthebodyparagraphsbutinsteadofofferingevidenceforthetopicsentence,youareofferingevidencedisprovingthecounterargument.
Persuasiveessaysgenerallydonotentertaincounterarguments.
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Conclusion
Justastheintroductionbeganbroadlyandendedwiththespecificpointofthethesis,yourconclusionwillbeginwiththethesisandbroaden.Ideally,itwillalsolinkbacktotheimageryorfactsthatbegantheintroduction.Suchlinkingworkswiththereader’smemorytocreateasatisfyingfeelingofcompletion.
Restatementofthethesis.Inthisfirstconcludingsentence,youremindthereaderofthethesisstatementyouhavenowgivenevidencefor.Commonlead-insforthissentencearephraseslike,“Itisclearnowthat…,”“Wehaveseenhow…”and“Giventhepreponderanceofevidence…”Summaryofthemainpoints.Here,you’llrestatethemainpointsofyourargument.Youcanpresenttheminadifferentwayherethaninthebodyofthepaper,perhapsbycombiningthemorincorporatingthemintoastoryorimage.Broadeningstatement.Thisiswhereyoucanlinkbacktothefirstsentenceoftheintroductoryparagraph.Hasthesadimageyouledwithfoundahappyendingwithyourthesisinplace?Mightthedisturbingfactsturnaroundbasedonfollowingyourmainpoints?
Keepinmindthatwhileyoudon’twanttosoundlikeyou’refollowingascriptoraformulaandsimplyplugginginyourtopic,usingastructurecanallowyourcreativitytoshinebyallowingyoutofocusoncontent.
Havefunwithyourargument!Playwiththeideasuntilyoufeelasparkignite.Comeatitfromvariousanglesandsurpriseyourreaderwithnewperspectives.Arguingyourpositioncanbebotheffectiveandenjoyable—bothforyouandyouraudience.
8.2.2:Classification
Classificationisamethodofcreatingbetterunderstandingofasubjectbyidentifyingthecategoriestowhichitbelongs.
LearningObjective
Determinethepurposeandstructureofclassification.
KeyPoints
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Thepurposeofclassifyingistorevealinasubjectwhatmightremainobscuredifleftuncategorized,inordertoknowthesubjectmorecompletely.Theclassificationsystemselectedindicatesthemeaningthewriterwantstorevealaboutthesubject.Initialbrainstormingandsubsequentresearchareimportantstepsinselectingasystemofclassificationforasubject.Theintroductiontoaclassificationessayincludesanextendeddefinitionofthesubject,identifiestheclassificationsystemandcategories,andexplainswhythisexerciseofclassifyingwillenhancethereader’sunderstandingofthesubject.
KeyTerms
mindmap
Anartisticrepresentationofthoughtpatterns,createdduringbrainstormingaroundaspecifictopic.Therepresentationusuallyincludeslineslinkingcircledconcepts,withsubcategorylinklinesemergingfromlargercategorycircles.
classifying
Arrangingthings,ideas,orpeopleintogroupsbasedoncertaincharacteristics.
classification
Theprocessofclassifyingsomethingaccordingtosharedqualitiesorcharacteristics.
WhyClassify?Wespendmostofourtimetryingnottofallintothetrapofstereotypingand“pigeon-holing,”soasnottolimitthepotentialofapersonorthing.Afterall,aren’twesupposedtobelookingforoursimilarities,ratherthanourdifferences?
Well,yes,ofcourse,andyettherearetimeswhenidentifyingwhatcategoriesaperson,agroup,aphenomenon,orathingmightfallintocancreateabetterunderstandingofit—andevenofthewhole.
Ourpurposeinclassifyingistorevealwhatmightotherwiseremainobscured,whichcanhelpusknowsomethingmorecompletely.
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Takelove,forexample.Wecantakeitasawholeconceptandrevelinitsconsistency;itssameness;itsconsistenteffects.There’snothingwrongwiththat.Andyet,ifwewanttoreallyunderstandlove,webegintosussoutitsnuancesandintuitvarioustypesoflove.Weseethatromanticloveisonething,butthelovebetweenaparentandchildhassomedifferentqualities.Andtheloveofadivinebeingseemstodifferfromthehumanlovewegenerallyexperience.Evenlovebetweenadoganditsmasterhasuniquequalities.Oh,andthenthere’steacher-studentloveandthekindofloveyoufeelfortheworldwheneverythingisgoingwell,andwhatabouttheloveofself?
Examininganythingcantakeyoudownasimilarpath.Youcouldcategorizepeoplebycommonbehavioraltraits;horsesbyphysicalattributes;chairsbystyle;windbyspeeds;treesbyleafshape.
Ofcourse,youcouldalsocategorizepeoplebybeliefsystems;horsesbytemperament;chairsbycomfortlevel;windbydirection;andtreesbyrootstructure.Andhereinliesthekeytoclassification:choiceofsystem.
ChoiceofClassificationSystem
Remember,yourpurposeinclassifyingistoilluminatethepartstobetterunderstandthewhole.Youcanthinkofselectingasystemofclassification,then,aschoosingyourmagnifyingperspective.Whatkindsofthingsdoyouwanttoreveal?Andwhy?
Let’sgetbacktoloveforamoment.Whatpurposesmightitservetoclassifylovebytype?Well,asareaderIwilllikelywanttoseeifIcanfindeachkindofloveinmyownlifeexperience.Thatmightbehelpfultoseewheretheremightbegaps.IfIdon’thaveachild,andIfeelasenseoflongingwhenIreadabout“storge,”andtheempathybond,ImightidentifyaneedIdidn’trealizeIhad.Orif,whenIreadabout“eros,”Irollmyeyes,ImightdiscoverhowcynicalIhavebecomebecauseofmylastfailedrelationship.C.S.Lewis’scategorizationsoflove,then,mightassistthereaderindiscerningthetypesofloveonecanidentifyinone’sownlifeandthetypesthatmaybemissing.Psychologicalorspiritualgrowtharepossibleresultsfromthisillumination.
Anotherwaytocategorizelovemightbethevariouswayspeopletendtofeelloved.Somepeopletendtofeellovedwhentheyreceivedgifts,otherswhentheirpartnergivesthemwordsofaffirmation.Physicaltouch,actsofservice,andqualitytimeareotherindicatorsforpeoplethatthey’reloved.Findingoutwhichofthesewaysspeakmosttoyoucanhelpyouaskforwhatyouneed,
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andquizzingyourpartneraboutthecategoriescanberevelatory,assistingyouinknowinghowbesttocommunicatelovetohimorher.GaryChapman’sworkcategorizingexpressionsoflove,then,canaffectthequalityofrelationships.
YoucanseethatchoosingbyLewis’categorizationssystemorChapman’s,youwillbelayingbaredifferentaspectsofthephenomenonoflove.Andsomuchoftheworkthatgoesintoacategorizationessay,oranycategorizationeffort,willbeintheidentificationofthesystem.
StepstoChoosingaClassificationSystem(Pre-writing)
Sinceit’ssuchanimportantpartofclassification,let’stakealookathowonemightbegintoselectaclassificationsystem.
SmallFurryMammals
Brainstormingthevariousclassificationsystemsyoursubjectcouldbecategorizedundercanhelprevealwhichyoumightfindthemostmeaningfulandelucidating.
SmallFurryMammalsClassificationBrainstorm
1. Brainstorm.Onewayistobeginwithyourownbrain.Havingchosenatopic(letsgowithfurrymammalsthistime),simplystartbrainstormingonyourownorwithfriendsabouthowthetopiccouldbebrokendown.Youmightchoosetocreateamindmapforthisprocess,asitwillthenbeeasytosee,whenyou’refinished,wheremostofyourthoughtscentered.
2. Dosomeresearch.Choosethebrainstormedcategorythatmostinterests
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youanddoaninitialsearchtoseewhatotherdivisionsexistinthatcategory.Forexample,ifyouwanttowriteaboutthegroupingtypesofsmallfurrymammals,you’llwanttofindoutwhatscientistscallthis,andthenamestheyuseforeachcategory.Ifyou’restillinterestedinthiscategorizationsystem,youcanmoveontothenextstep,andifyou’renot,yourresearchcanleadyouinanewdirection.
3. Selectthethree(orso)mostapplicablecategoriestouseforyourtopic.Threecategoriesisageneralguideline,soyoumayneedtogroupcategoriestogetheriftherearemore,e.g.mammalswholiveinfamilygroupswouldincludebothmammalswhomateforlifeandthosethatlivetogetherwhentheoffspringaregrowing.Youcantalkaboutthedistinctionsintheparagraphforthatcategory,ifnecessary.
4. Checkyourcategoriestobesuretheydoindeedexistinthesamecategorizationsystemandaredistinctfromoneanother.Forexample,ifyouarecategorizingwoodlandcreaturesbyhabitat,you’llbechoosingwhat“habitat”means.Therecanbetree-dwellingmammalswholiveintherainforestandtree-dwellingmammalswholiveinthedessert,andstillmoreinwoodlandareas;soyouwouldn’twant“tree-dwelling”and“rainforest”tobepresentedastwodifferentcategoriesinthesamesystem.
5. Placeyoursubjectintothecategoriesyou’veselectedandseehowtheyfall.Dothesecategoriesshedlightonthesubjectasawhole?How?Whyisitinterestingandimportanttolookatthesubjectthroughthelensofthiscategorizationsystem?Onceyouanswerthosequestions,you’rereadytowriteyourpaper.
StructureoftheClassificationEssayIntroduction
You’llgenerallybeginyouressaywithanextendeddefinitionofthetopicandadescriptionoftheclassificationsystemyou’lluse.Thiswillleadtoyourthesisstatement,whichwill:
identifywhatyouwillbeclassifying(abriefreminderofthetopicyou’vedefined),explaintheclassificationsystemyouwilluse,listthecategoriesyou’veselected,andexplainwhythisclassificationsystemisimportanttothereader’sunderstandingofthetopic.
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BodyParagraphs
Eachbodyparagraphwillbecenteredaroundoneofthecategoriesfromtheclassificationsystem.You’llwanttochooseanorderforthebodyparagraphsthatmakesthemostsensetoyou.Youmaychoosetopresentthecategoriesinorderofimpact,orfrommostimportanttoleastimportant,orfromleastsurprisingtomostsurprising.Ifyouwerethereader,whichorderwouldbethemostconvincing?
Bodyparagraphsinclude
anexplanationofthecategoryhowthetopicfitsintothecategory,andwhatmakesthiscategorizationmeaningful
Conclusion
Inthefinalparagraph,you’llwanttobringthepartsyou’vejustcreatedbackintotheirstatusasawhole.Hereiswhereyoulayoutthemeaningyou’veshedonthetopicbyputtingitintocategories.Whatmoredowenowknowaboutsmall,furrymammalsnowthatwe’veseenthevarietyoftheirhabitats?Mightitsaysomethingaboutevolution?Abouttheiradaptability?Abouttheirusefulnessasresearchsubjects?You’llwanttoconsidertheinterestsofyouraudiencehere.
Aswithmostessays,yourconclusionwillbelikeaninvertedfunnel:
startingwitharestatementofthethesis,broadeningtodiscussthemeaningofthefindings,thenmakingamoregeneralstatementthatrelatesbacktotheintroduction’sopening.
Classificationessayscanbequiteusefulinclarifyingconceptsandrevealingasubject’sdeepermeaningifthepaperiswell-constructed.Thekeysareselectingaclassificationsystemandcategoriesthatarecoherentandclearlyrevealingtherelevanceofeachcategorytothewhole.
8.2.3:CauseandEffect
Therhetoricalmode“causeandeffect”isusedtolinkaneventwithitsconsequences.
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LearningObjective
Determinethepurposeandstructureofcauseandeffect.
KeyPoints
Therhetoricalmode“causeandeffect”isusedtolinkanaction,event,ordecision,withitsconsequences.Inlinkingcauseswitheffects,itisimportanttoexaminerootcausesandtoavoidlabelingcoincidentaloccurrencesascauses.Theorganizationapproachtocauseandeffectessayswilldescribethesubjectoftheessayandexamineeitheritscausesoritseffects.Theresultofreadinganeffectivecauseandeffectessaywillbetoseelinksbetweenpreviouslyunlinkedeventsandtofindlinksbetweenthesubjectoftheessayandbroaderphenomena.
KeyTerm
causeandeffect
Arelationshipbetweeneventswhereonecreatesorinitiatestheother.
JustBecauseTherhetoricalmode“causeandeffect”isusedtolinkanaction,event,ordecision,withitsconsequences.Itanswersthequestion,“WhyX?”with“XbecauseY.”
Weusecauseandeffectthinkingallthetime;it’sthewayourbrainsfunction.Welookforpatternsandlinkageseverywhere.
Mystomachisupset.IbetitwasthefishIhadforlunch.Ihadafunnyfeelingaboutit,butIjustaddedmorelemonjuiceandateitanyway.That’llteachmenottolistentomyintuition!
Wetalktooneanotheraboutcausesandeffectsallthetime,too:
Nikki’smiddlefingersonherrighthandaredeformedbecausetheywerebrokenwhenshewaselevenyearoldandhersisterslammedthepianotopdown.That’swhyshelookedatyoufunnywhenyousaiditmustbenicetohavesiblings.
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Sometimes(somewouldsayfartoooften),weevenlinkeffectstothewrongcause:
Ihavetowearmyredblazertothegamethisafternoon!I’vewornittothelastthreegames,andtheywoneverytime.Thetimebeforethat,itwastoohotandIdidn’tweartheblazer,andtheylostbythreepoints.Ishouldn’thaveletthemdownlikethat.Neveragain!
PurposeofCauseandEffectExposition
Youcanusecauseandeffectasthebasisofanessayorasaclarificationtoolinanywriting.Mysterynovelsareoftenbasedonfiguringoutthecauseofaparticularundesirableeffect.
Whymakelinksbetweencausesandeffectsinyourwriting?
toclearlyidentifylinkagesbetweenaneventanditsconsequencetoestablishaprecedentthatwillinformfuturedecision-makerstobetterunderstandthenuancesofaphenomenon’sevolution
CommonPitfallsinLinkingCauseandEffect
Whateveryourpurpose,youwillwanttoavoidthefollowing:
Mistakingcoincidenceforcauseandeffect.Justbecausetwoitemshappenedatthesametimeorplace,orbecauseonefollowedtheother,doesn’tmeanthatoneeventcausedtheother.Remembertheredblazerexample,above.Misattributionofcause.Inasimilarvein,sometimeswecanmakeattributeaneffecttoacausethatisrelatedtotheactualcausebutmaynotbethecause(orisn’tthewholestory).Forexample,youmayassertthatcashdepletioninyourbankaccountisduetothehighcostofgas,butthereasonyouhavespentsomuchongasisbecauseyou’vetakenseveralextratripssincebuyingthecar.Youcouldargueforeitherreason,butifthereisarelatedcauselikethisthatyouchoosenottoaddress,yourargumentwillbeinsincereandweak.
OrganizationoftheCauseandEffectEssay
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Youhaveaninitialchoicetomakeinyourcauseandeffectessay:whichisyourfocus?Youmightchoosetofocusononeeffect(e.g.,Hitler’srisetopowerinthe1940s)andexploreitspossiblecauses:
Effect
Youmaywishtoexaminethemultiplereasonsaphenomenonoccurred.
Examiningthecausesofaphenomenon.
Anotheroptionistoexplorethemultipleeffectsofoneevent,action,ordecision.
Cause
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Youmaywishtoexaminethevariouseffectsofaparticularphenomenon.
Theeffectsofaparticularevent.
Forclarificationpurposes,wewillidentifythesubjectasthephenomenoninthecircleontheleftsideofthegraphic,eithertheonecauseortheoneeffect.
Introduction
Beginwithasensoryimagehavingtodowiththesubjectofyouressay(whichcouldbeeithercauseoreffect).Hereisanexamplefromanessaythatwillgoontolink“TheTroubles”inNorthernIreland,whichendedwiththemurderofRobertMcCartney,toaseriesofdecisionstomilitarizeeffortsatIrishreunification:
BridgeenHagansstoodbleary-eyedatthedoor,tryingtounderstandwhattheBelfastpolicemanwasexplaining:Herfiance,RobertMcCartney,hadbeenslitfromchesttostomachbymembersoftheProfessionalIrishRepublicanArmy.Therewouldbenowedding.
Linktheimagetotheeffect(s)thatwillbeexamined.
Over3600peoplediedinthe30-yearspanofTheTroublesinNorthernIreland.
Linktheeffecttotheevent(s),decision(s),oraction(s)yourpaperwilldiscuss.
Thoughtheconflictisofficiallydatedfrom1968-1998,severaldecisionsbothbeforeandafterthesedatescomprisethereasonsbehindthedeaths:decisionstomilitarizepoliticalactiongroups
Expoundonthespecificevent(s),decision(s),oraction(s)yourpaperwillfocuson:
Wewilllookspecificallyattheoriginsoftheconflictdatingallthewaybackto1609,withtheScottishandEnglishsettlementofIreland,theCivilAuthoritiesActof1922,andthecivilrightsmarchinDerryin1968.Wewillalsoexaminethepost-GoodFridayAgreementviolenceresultingfrommilitarization.
Transitiontoyourthesisstatementbyexposingthepurposeofexaminingtheselinkages.
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IntheinterestoflastingpeaceinIrelandandaroundtheworld,itisimperativetounderstandtherootsofitsundoing.ByidentifyingthecausesofTheTroubles,wecanbegintopinpointtheprecursorsofmortalconflictbetweencultures.
BodyParagraphs
Yourfirstbodyparagraphwilldescribeyoursubject(thecause,ortheeffect,dependingonyourorganization).Yourreaderwillneedtofullyunderstandwhatitisyouareattemptingtoexplainoridentify:
Mostclimatescientistsagreethemaincauseofthecurrentglobalwarmingtrendishumanexpansionofthe“greenhouseeffect”—warmingthatresultswhentheatmospheretrapsheatradiatingfromEarthtowardspace.Certaingasesintheatmosphereblockheatfromescaping.Long-livedgasesthatremainsemi-permanentlyintheatmosphereanddonotrespondphysicallyorchemicallytochangesintemperaturearedescribedas“forcing”climatechange.Gases,suchaswatervapor,whichrespondphysicallyorchemicallytochangesintemperatureareseenas‘feedbacks.’
Subsequentbodyparagraphs,exceptforthefinalbodyparagraph,willeachbededicatedtothecausesoreffectsyouwillbeexamining(thecausesofthephenomenonyouhavejustdescribedortheeffectsoftheevent/decision/actionyouhavejustdescribed).Bodyparagraphscanbeorganizedbytheimpactyouanticipatetheywillhaveonthereader(oftenfromlessdramatictomost),orinchronologicalorder.Choosetheorderthatwillmakethemostsense,bothlogicallyandemotionally,tothereader.
Watervapor.Themostabundantgreenhousegas,butimportantly,itactsasafeedbacktotheclimate.WatervaporincreasesastheEarth’satmospherewarms,butsodoesthepossibilityofcloudsandprecipitation,makingthesesomeofthemostimportantfeedbackmechanismstothegreenhouseeffect.
Carbondioxide(CO2).Aminorbutveryimportantcomponentoftheatmosphere,carbondioxideisreleasedthroughnaturalprocessessuchasrespirationandvolcanoeruptionsandthroughhumanactivitiessuchasdeforestation,landusechanges,andburningfossilfuels.HumanshaveincreasedatmosphericCO2concentrationbymorethanathirdsincethe
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IndustrialRevolutionbegan.Thisisthemostimportantlong-lived“forcing”ofclimatechange.
Methane.Ahydrocarbongasproducedboththroughnaturalsourcesandhumanactivities,includingthedecompositionofwastesinlandfills,agriculture,andespeciallyricecultivation,aswellasruminantdigestionandmanuremanagementassociatedwithdomesticlivestock.Onamolecule-for-moleculebasis,methaneisafarmoreactivegreenhousegasthancarbondioxide,butalsoonewhichismuchlessabundantintheatmosphere.
Nitrousoxide.Apowerfulgreenhousegasproducedbysoilcultivationpractices,especiallytheuseofcommercialandorganicfertilizers,fossilfuelcombustion,nitricacidproduction,andbiomassburning.
Chlorofluorocarbons(CFCs).Syntheticcompoundsentirelyofindustrialoriginusedinanumberofapplications,butnowlargelyregulatedinproductionandreleasetotheatmospherebyinternationalagreementfortheirabilitytocontributetodestructionoftheozonelayer.Theyarealsogreenhousegases.
Thefinalbodyparagraphwilldescribethesignificanceoftherelationshipbetweenthesubjectandthecauses/effectsjustdiscussed.
OnEarth,humanactivitiesarechangingthenaturalgreenhouse.Overthelastcenturytheburningoffossilfuelslikecoalandoilhasincreasedtheconcentrationofatmosphericcarbondioxide(CO2).ThishappensbecausethecoaloroilburningprocesscombinescarbonwithoxygenintheairtomakeCO2.Toalesserextent,theclearingoflandforagriculture,industry,andotherhumanactivitieshasincreasedconcentrationsofgreenhousegases.
Conclusion
Yourconclusionwilloffer:
abriefsummaryofyourpointslinkingcause(s)andeffect(s)anindicationofwhytheselinkagesareimportant,andtowhom,andalinkbacktotheintroductoryparagraph’simagery,ifappropriate.Thefollowingexampleistheconclusiontoa2015articlebyFranciscaCarvajalandJoseManuelLerma-Cabrera:AlcoholConsumptionAmongAdolescents—ImplicationsforPublicHealth.
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At1.8billion,adolescentsandyoungadultsrepresentmorethanaquarteroftheworld’spopulation.Manyhealth-relatedbehaviorsusuallystartinginadolescence(i.e.alcoholuse)contributetodiseaseinadulthood.Severalstudieshaveindicatedthataconsiderableamountofadolescentsdrinkalcohol,andthisnumberiscontinuallygrowing.Nevertheless,theincreaseinalcoholuseandabuseamongadolescentshasbeencoupledwithincreasingsocial,healthandeconomicconsequences.Adolescentswhodrinkalcoholmayexperiencearangeofadverseshort-andlong-termconsequences,includingphysicalandmentalhealthproblems,violentandaggressivebehavior,andadjustmentproblemsinschoolandathome.Clearly,underagedrinkinganditsconsequencespresentasignificantpublichealthproblemthatmustcommandourattention.
8.2.4:ComparisonandContrast
Effortsatcomparison-contrastlookatthecommonalitiesofanddifferencesbetweensubjectsincontextinordertodiscerndeepermeaningsthanmightotherwisebepossible.
LearningObjective
Determinethepurposeandstructureofcomparisonandcontrast.
KeyPoints
Thecomparison-contrastmethodisusedtoexposethesimilaritiesanddifferencesbetweentwo(orsometimesmore)ideas.Thepointofcomparison-contrastistofindadeeperunderstandingofbothsubjectsandtheircontextthanyouwouldinlookingatthesubjectsalone.Youcancompareandcontrasttwosubjectsoneventerms,oryoucanuseonesubjectasalensthroughwhichtoviewtheother.Thecontextforthecomparison/contrastisasimportanttoexamineandexplainasthesubjects.PrewritingexercisesusingVenndiagramsorchartscanbeespeciallyusefulforthistypeofessay.Researchonthecontextandbothsubjectsoftheessaywilldeepenyourthoughtprocessandbettergroundyourdiscussion.Bodyparagraphsinthecomparison/contrastessaycanbeorganizedinavarietyofways,dependinglargelyontheconclusionsyouwantyour
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readertomake.Boththeintroductoryandconcludingparagraphsofthecomparison/contrastessayneedtoincludeexplanationsofandlinksbetweenthecontextandsubjectsofstudy.
KeyTerm
comparison-contrast
Amethodofinvestigatingatopicbycomparingtwoormoresubjectstodiscerntheirsimilaritiesanddifferencesinaparticularcontextualframe.
ThisandThatThecomparison-contrastrhetoricalmethodisusedtoexposethesimilaritiesanddifferencesbetweentwoormoreideas,resultinginadeeperunderstandingofbothideasandtheirrelationship.Noticethatwe’retalkingaboutideashere,ratherthan“things,”or“texts.”That’sbecausetheunderlyingtheme,evenwhencomparingtwotextsortwothings,isalwaysabouttheideastheyrepresent.
Comparingandcontrastingarecommonactivitiesourmindsplaywithallthetime.Likeobjectsinspace,wearedrawntooneanotheralmostgravitationallyandwanttoknowhowweareallalikeanddifferent.
Knowing(oratleastthinkingabout)howourbehavior,ourattitudes,ourideas,andourdreamsmatchuptootherpeople’shelpsusmakedecisions.Wemaydecidetotrynewthingsbasedonculturalpatterns,orwemightchoosetobuckthetrendsinfavorofinnerdirectives.Eitherway,though,thisconstant,subtlewonderingabouthowwematchuptootherskeepsourbrainsbusy:forbetterorworse.
Whenweusethiscapacityforcomparisonintherealmofideas,ourintellectsparkstolife.Diversityofopinionandthoughtiswhatperpetuatesintellectualevolution.Exposuretotwoideasthatmayberadicallyoronlysubtlydifferentisexcitingtothemind.Wewanttodiscernexactlyhowtheseideasdiffer,whattheyhaveincommon,andwhichmightbethebetteroptiontochooseinagivencontext.
Youhaveanauntwho’sgoneprematurelygrayandwearsherlonglocksproudly.Hermother(yourgrandmother),however,continuouslydiesherhairvariousshadesofpurple—violetoneweek,indigothenext—andrelishesthewide-eyedwondersheseesinhergrandchildren’seyes.“You’rewhatever
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ageyouwanttobe!”shelaughs,whileherdaughter,youraunt,rollshereyesandretorts,“Youneedtoacceptyourbodyandyourselfforwhoyouarenow.”
There’snothinginherentlywrongwitheitheridea,right?Butyourmindwillwanttochoose.That’sitsnature.Theexerciseofcomparingandcontrastingmakesthisprocessconscious,turning“judging”into“discernment.”Intheend,youmightdecidethatbothgrandmotherandaunthavehituponimportantwisdomthat,thoughdifferentonthesurface,bothspeakdeeplytotheideaoffreedom.
Comparison-contrastessaysdistinguishthemselvesbytheirdiscernmentcapability.Whenlookingatbothsimilaritiesanddifferencesbetweenideas,weareexaminingthemwithmorecareandrigorthansomeothermethodsrequire.Lookingatazebraanddescribingitgivesyouonelevelofinformation,whilecomparingitssimilaritiesanddifferencestoahorsegivesyouanotherlevel:morenuancedandspecific.
HowtoRecognizeanInvitationtoCompareandContrast
Inanacademicsetting,youmightbeassignedacomparison-contrastessayoutright,butyoumightalsobeaskedtocompareandcontrastusingsubtlerlanguage.Herearesomeexamples:
Discusstheroleof“thestranger”aspresentedinD.H.Lawrence’sSnakeandJ.Rumi’sTheGuestHouse.(Here,you’rebeingaskedtocomparetwopoemsusingaparticularlens.)TennesseeWilliamssaidthat“We’reallofussentencedtosolitaryconfinementinsideourownskins…Personallyricismistheoutcryfromprisonertoprisonerfromthecellinsolitarywhereeachisconfinedforthedurationofhislife.”HowdothecharactersofBlancheDubois,andLauraWingfieldembodyboththesolitaryconfinementmetaphorandtheoutcrytootherprisoners?(Inthispaper,you’llbeusingtwocharactersfromdifferentplaystodelveintoameaningfulcommentbytheircreator.)Howdothedualthemesofsocio-economicstatusandpersonalinnocencecompetetocreatetheprimaryconflictinJohnKnowles’sASeparatePeace?(Thisisaquestionrelatingtotwoplotthreadsandtheireffectsontheclimaxofthestory.)MinaLoy,theninFlorence,Italy,wrotetothefeministmovementin1914,“Ceasetoplaceyourconfidenceineconomiclegislation,vice-
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crusades,anduniformeducation—youareglossingoverReality(sic).Professionalandcommercialcareersareopeningupforyou—Isthatallyouwant?”Howmighthercommentsbemoreorlessapplicabletothefeministmovementofthe1970sandtowomen’sissuesinpresentday?(You’rebeingaskedtore-contextualizecriticismofaparticularmovementintwodifferenttimeperiods.)Whichofthecurrentlyavailabletypesettingmachinerywouldbeappropriatepurchasesforanewlyincorporated,mid-sizedprintingcompany?(Eveninbusinesssettings,you’llneedtouseeffectivecompare-contrastmethods;inthiscase,comparingmachinerybasedonavarietyoffactorsimportanttoanewbusiness.)Ofthebrassicas,whicharethemostlikelytothriveinlowpHsoilswithhighlevelsofmicronutrients?(Thoughwe’reinthefieldofbotanynow,you’restillbeingaskedtocompareagroupofthingsinaparticularcontext.)
Youcanseethatcomparison-contrastworksinavarietyofdifferentenvironments.Inageneralsense,anytimeyou’reaskedtoevaluatetwoormorethingsinonecontext,you’rebeingaskedtousethisstrategy.
TypesofComparison-ContrastEssays
Theclassiccomparison-contrastessaygivesequaltimeandequalemphasistobothoftwosubjects.Youusethistypeofessaytodiscernsimilaritiesanddifferences,butalsotorevealsurprisingrevelationsabouttheirrelationship.
Akeyholeessayusesonesubjectastheframetolookattheothersubject.Lookingatthewomen’ssuffragemovementthroughthelensofthewomen’sliberationmovementwouldbeanexample.Thiskindofessayyieldsmorespecializedinformationthanmightotherwisebefound.
HowtoCompareandContrastPrewriting
TheVenndiagramisausefultoolwhenapproachingacomparison-contrastessay.Simplycreatetwooverlappingcirclesandbeginputtinginthesimilaritiesyouseeintheoverlappingsectionandthecontrastingpiecesintheseparatedsections.Dothisasabrainstorm,withoutworryingaboutwhetheritemsareparallelorimportantenoughtobe
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analyzed.Thatcomeslater.
Comparing/ContrastingPoems
YoucanuseaVenndiagramorachartortabletobrainstormandrecordyourinitialideasabouthowthesubjectsarealikeanddifferent.
Thevenndiagramcompares“WhereI’mFrom”byGeorgeEllaLyonand“TheLanyard”byBillyCollins.Thelistofitemsuniqueto“WhereI’mFrom”include“varietyofchildhoodevents,”“poignancy,”“varietyofobjectsasimagery,”and“ancestors.”Thelistofitemstouniqueto“TheLanyard”include“specificchildhoodevent,”“humor,”“specificobjectasmetaphor,”and“mother.”Theshareditemsinclude“toneofgratitude,”“phraserepetition,”“reflectingonchildhood,”and“placenames.”
Atable/chart/graphexercisesimilarlyhelpsyouorganizeyourideasandresearch.
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GreatDivergence-1550-1850
Layingoutthesimilaritiesanddifferencesingraphortableformcangiveyouthevisualyourbrainneedstoformulateacoherentcomparisonbetweensubjects.
Thechartcomparesthe“EuropeanEconomy”andthe“AsianEconomy.”Theitemsuniquetothe“EuropeanEconomy”include“increasinglyhigherwagesforunskilledlabor1550-1850,”“colonizationexpandedresources,”and“state-enforcedlegaltradecontracts.”Theitemsuniquetothe“AsianEconomy”include“fallingwagesforunskilledlabor1550-1850,”“resourcesdwindledinsomeareas(notinIndia,butthentheywerecolonized,”and“honor-basedtradeagreementsnotenforcedbygovernment.”Thecommonitemsinclude“coalmining,”“literacyrates,”“constraintsonnativeresources,”“self-rule(exceptforIndiapost-EastIndiaCo.),and“tradingnetworks.”
Research
You’llnaturallywanttolearneverythingyoucanaboutthesubjectsyou’reworkingwith—thetwoormorethingsyou’recomparingandcontrasting.Butjustasimportantisresearchaboutthecontextyou’recomparingthemin.
Forexample,indiscussingtheroleof“thestranger”inbothD.H.Lawrence’sSnakeandJ.Rumi’sTheGuestHouse,yourcontextistheconceptof“thestranger.”Youcanresearchpsychologicalandsociologicalviewsaboutstrangersandfears;religiousspiritualideasandimageryspeculatingaboutwhatthepresenceofastrangermightindicate.Youcangodeeperandlookup
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theJungianconceptof“shadow”andexplorewhatotherphilosophersandpsychologistshavepostulated.Youcouldevenfindotherliteraryreferencestostrangersandshadowstogetanideaofhowtheconcepthasbeentreatedovertime.
StructureoftheComparison-ContrastEssayIntroduction
Theintroductionwillincludeexpositionof
thecontextforthecomparison,adescriptionofthesubjects,therationaleforchoosingthesubjectsyou’vechosen,andthethesisstatement,whichneedstomaketherelationshipbetweensubjectsclear(oftenbeginningwiththeword,“while”or“whereas”).
TheBodyParagraphs
Bodyparagraphscanbeorganizedbyexaminingeachsubjectoneatatime:
SubjectA
Point1Point2Point3
SubjectB
Point1Point2Point3
Thiswayoforganizingcanbeespeciallyusefulifyouaredescribingtopicsthatmaybedifficulttounderstandandneedacohesivedescription.Itsdownfallisthatthecompare/contrastsectionthatfollowscaneithergetrepetitious(becauseyou’llhavetorepeatpointsyou’vealreadymade)orlookmorelikealistthanacoherentdiscussion.
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Youcouldchooseaparagraphbyparagraphcomparisonofthesubjects:
Point1
SubjectASubjectB
Point2
SubjectASubjectB
Point3
SubjectASubjectB
Thisisacommonmethodoforganization,withtheadvantageofbeingabletopresentyourpointsandyoursubjectcomparisonstogether.Thedisadvantageisthatswitchingbackandforthbetweensubjectscangettediousorconfusingforthereaderifthewritingiseithertoorepetitiousorunclear.
Anotherorganizationoptionistofirstcompareandthencontrast.
PointA(Similarity)
SubjectASubjectB
PointB(Similarity)
SubjectASubjectB
PointC(Difference)
SubjectASubjectB
PointD(Difference)
SubjectASubjectB
Inthisway,youareemphasizingthedifferences,sinceyouleavethemfor
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last,soifyouwantthemainthrustofyourpapertobethatthedifferencesrevealthecruxoftheissue,thisstyleoforganizationmaybethemostusefulapproach.Onedrawback,however,isthatinwaitingsolongtofindcontrasts,thereadermaygetalittlebored.
Howeveryouorganizethebodyofyourpaper,eachpointofyourargumentmustbelinkedbacktothethesis;eachpointmustshedlightontherelationshipofthesubjectstothecontextoftheargument.
Conclusion
Here,youwillsummarizeyourpointssuccinctlyinawaythatmakesitclearhowyourpointshaveprovenyourthesis.(E.g.,“Sowhileso-called“alternative”sourcesofpowerare,intheshortterm,moreexpensivethanmoreconventionaltypesofpower,itisclearthatincreasedseedmoneywilldecreasethesecostdifferencesandeventheplayingfield.Inthelongrun,thecost-benefitanalysissoclearlyfavorsrenewableenergy,thereisnoquestionofitssuperioritybothfiscallyandintermsofenvironmentalcost.”)
Aswithmostessays,youwillthenwanttobroadenyourpointandlinkbacktotheintroductoryparagraph,ifappropriate.
8.2.5:Definition
Therhetoricalmode“definition”explainsatermthatmaybecontentious,controversial,orambiguoussothattheaudienceandwriterdevelopacommonunderstandingoftheidea.
LearningObjective
Determinethepurposeandstructureofdefiniton.
KeyPoints
Inordertobeworthyofbeingdefinedinanessay,atermshouldbecomplex,withmeaningsthatcanbetracedhistoricallythatmightevenbecontroversial,andthatwillyieldimportantinsightuponexamination.Definitionsincludeanexplorationofthethinkingofotherscholarsonthetopic.Exploringthehistoryofwordsandphrasescangivethewriter,aswellasthereader,anewrespectforthelanguageanditsevolution.
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KeyTerm
definition
Asarhetoricalmode,adetailedexplanationofatermandthewayitisbeingusedinaparticularcontext;possiblyincludinghistoricalusesandideasaboutthetermovertime.
What,Exactly,DoYouMean?Adefinitionessay,orthedefinitionportionofanessayorothertypeofwriting,guidestheaudiencetoacommonunderstandingofawordorconcept.Noneedtooverusethisform:youwon’twanttowasteyourreaders’timedefiningideasthatareinstandardusage.Attimes,though,therewillbesufficientvaguenessordisputearoundatermthatyou’llwanttoleadyourreadersthroughtheprocessofdefiningit.Andattimes,theexplorationofatermcanbebothtopicalandexciting!
TheDefinitionLitmusTest
Ofcourse,“vague”and“disputed”canexistinvariousdegrees,sohere’sawayforyoutodecidewhetherornottheideayou’reputtingforwardrequiresadefinition:
1. Isthetermcomplexenoughtoneedclarification?Theword“sentience,”forexample,appliedtophilosophy,wasoriginallyusedtodistinguishemotionfromreason,referringtotheformerexclusively.Ithasalsobeenapplied,throughmetaphysicsandevensciencefiction,asasynonymfor“consciousness”or“self-awareness,”andsometraditionsevenarguethattherearedegreesofsentience.
2. Istherecontentionaroundtheusageoftheterm?Tensionandconflictmakeforcompellingreading.Inordertotakethereader’stime,you’llwanttoaddressissuesfraughtwithcontention.Theideaofwhatconstitutesa“sentientbeing,”forexamplehasbeendisputedinrelationtohumanandanimalrights.Somesay“sentience”connotesanabilitytosufferandshouldindicatetheneedforprotection.Otherssaythattheabilitytocreateabstractionsisnecessaryforsentience,linkingittoconsciousnessandthereforeexcludinganimalsandfetusesinanyclassprotectedas“sentient.”
3. Doesthetermhaveastoriedhistory?Willtracingtheoriginoftheidea
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offerinsightintotheusage(s)youareadvocating?Forexample,theword“sentience”comesfromtheLatinword,“tofeel”(sentire)asdistinctfrom“toreason.”InthehandsoflaterWesterners,itwasusedtoindicate“theabilitytoexperiencesensations,”whichoffersaslightvariation.Itthenenteredthemetaphysicalparlanceas“theabilitytohavesubjectiveexperience,”andsoon.
4. Willcreatingadefinitionmovethereadertowardanewunderstandingofabroaderissue?Whydoyouwanttodefinetheterm?You’llusuallyhaveamotivethatincludespersuadingotherstoadoptoneoranotherviewofthetopic.
SupportingYourPoints
Whilespeculationisnotunheardofindefinitionessays(youarepositinganopinion,afterall),thebulkofyouressaywillneedtobeundergirdedbysupportingdocuments:thewordsofotherthinkersonthetopic,researchdoneonthesubject,anddocumentationofthevariousdefinitionsthathaveevolvedovertime.
StructureoftheDefinitionEssayIntroduction
You’llwantyourreadertoknowrightawaywhyyou’rechoosingtodefine(orre-define)thisterm.Youcanbeginwithasentencethatillustratestheimportanceoftheterm,thereasonitneedstobereexaminedatthistime,orevenitscontroversialnature.
Body
Inthebodyofthepaper,you’llneedtoaddresstheevolutionoftheterm,thecontroversyovertheterm,andthecomplexitiesthathavecausedconfusion.Here,wewillusetheSociology2etextonthedefinitionof“family,”byOpenStaxCNS,asanexampleforeach.Theyareintheorderinwhichtheyappearintheoriginal;notethattheorderinwhichtheauthorsaddressthenecessarypartsofthebodyparagraphisdictatednotbyanyparticularformbutbythewaytheyflowbestforthereader’sunderstanding.
Controversy-Noticethatinadditiontoreferencingdefinitionsthat
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differentgroupsholdof“family,”theauthorslayouthowtheydefinefamilyinthistext.Theyalsofurtherdefinefamilybydistinguishingtypesoffamilies.Theycouldhavegoneontocreatemorecategories,butthetwomentionedherearesufficientforthisintroductiontotheconcept.
Thequestionofwhatconstitutesafamilyisaprimeareaofdebateinfamilysociology,aswellasinpoliticsandreligion.Socialconservativestendtodefinethefamilyintermsofstructurewitheachfamilymemberfillingacertainrole(likefather,mother,orchild).Sociologists,ontheotherhand,tendtodefinefamilymoreintermsofthemannerinwhichmembersrelatetooneanotherthanonastrictconfigurationofstatusroles.Here,we’lldefinefamilyasasociallyrecognizedgroup(usuallyjoinedbyblood,marriage,cohabitation,oradoption)thatformsanemotionalconnectionandservesasaneconomicunitofsociety.Sociologistsidentifydifferenttypesoffamiliesbasedonhowoneentersintothem.Afamilyoforientationreferstothefamilyintowhichapersonisborn.Afamilyofprocreationdescribesonethatisformedthroughmarriage.Thesedistinctionshaveculturalsignificancerelatedtoissuesoflineage.
Complexities-Here,theauthorsdelvedeeperintothemeaningof“family”byexploringtwoapproachestoitsdefinition:“interactionism”and“functionalism.”Noticethesupportingreferenceregardingthelatterlineofthought.Alsonoticethattheauthorsarenotaskingthereadertomakeachoicebetweenthesetwostreams(astheydidintheareaofcontroversy)butareembracingbothparadigmsasvalidandrelevantandincludingthembothintheirdefinition.
Drawingontwosociologicalparadigms,thesociologicalunderstandingofwhatconstitutesafamilycanbeexplainedbysymbolicinteractionismaswellasfunctionalism.Thesetwotheoriesindicatethatfamiliesaregroupsinwhichparticipantsviewthemselvesasfamilymembersandactaccordingly.Inotherwords,familiesaregroupsinwhichpeoplecometogethertoformastrongprimarygroupconnectionandmaintainemotionaltiestooneanotheroveralongperiodoftime.Suchfamiliesmayincludegroupsofclosefriendsorteammates.Inaddition,thefunctionalistperspectiveviewsfamiliesasgroupsthatperformvitalrolesforsociety—bothinternally(forthefamilyitself)andexternally(forsocietyasawhole).Familiesprovideforoneanother’sphysical,emotional,andsocialwell-being.Parentscareforandsocializechildren.Laterinlife,adultchildrenoftencareforelderlyparents.Whileinteractionismhelpsusunderstandthesubjectiveexperienceof
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belongingtoa“family,”functionalismilluminatesthemanypurposesoffamiliesandtheirrolesinthemaintenanceofabalancedsociety(ParsonsandBales1956).
Evolution-Forthisportionofthebody,theauthorsofferavarietyofcurrentperspectivesontheterm“family”usingstudiestotracepopularopinion.Theyhavewoveninthetraditionalinterpretationsoftheconcept,buttoarticulatethemmoreexplicitlymighthaveprovedtediousreading,sincemostofushavesomefamiliaritywiththehistoryofthisparticularconcept.Evenifthehistoricalinformationprovedsurprising,theauthorswererighttofocusoncurrentevolutionsincetheyareposingthequestionofhowtheconceptiscurrentlyperceived.Youwillhavetodecidehowfaryouwanttodelveintothehistoryofthetermyouareexploringbasedontherelevanceofeachpartofitsevolutiontoyourcurrentthesis.
PeopleintheUnitedStatesasawholearesomewhatdividedwhenitcomestodeterminingwhatdoesandwhatdoesnotconstituteafamily.Ina2010surveyconductedbyprofessorsattheUniversityofIndiana,nearlyallparticipants(99.8percent)agreedthatahusband,wife,andchildrenconstituteafamily.Ninety-twopercentstatedthatahusbandandawifewithoutchildrenstillconstituteafamily.Thenumbersdropforlesstraditionalstructures:unmarriedcoupleswithchildren(83percent),unmarriedcoupleswithoutchildren(39.6percent),gaymalecoupleswithchildren(64percent),andgaymalecoupleswithoutchildren(33percent)(Powelletal.2010).Thissurveyrevealedthatchildrentendtobethekeyindicatorinestablishing“family”status:thepercentageofindividualswhoagreedthatunmarriedcouplesandgaycouplesconstituteafamilynearlydoubledwhenchildrenwereadded.
Thestudyalsorevealedthat60percentofU.S.respondentsagreedthatifyouconsideryourselfafamily,youareafamily(aconceptthatreinforcesaninteractionistperspective)(Powell2010).Thegovernment,however,isnotsoflexibleinitsdefinitionof“family.”TheU.S.CensusBureaudefinesafamilyas“agroupoftwopeopleormore(oneofwhomisthehouseholder)relatedbybirth,marriage,oradoptionandresidingtogether”(U.S.CensusBureau2010).Whilethisstructureddefinitioncanbeusedasameanstoconsistentlytrackfamily-relatedpatternsoverseveralyears,itexcludesindividualssuchascohabitatingunmarriedheterosexualandhomosexualcouples.Legalityaside,sociologistswouldarguethatthegeneralconceptoffamilyismorediverseandlessstructuredthaninyearspast.Societyhasgivenmore
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leewaytothedesignofafamilymakingroomforwhatworksforitsmembers(Jayson2010).
Conclusion
Yourconclusionwillofferaclarifiedworkingdefinitionoftheterm,abriefrestatementoftheevolutionofyourreasoning,andacommentontheconsequencesofthisdecisionasyouandthereadermoveforward.
GeorgiaWall’sethnographicessayonthemeaningoffoodandfoodwaystoItalianimmigrantsinLondonasanexplorationofthedefinition“heritage”offerssuchaconclusion:
TheconceptofheritageemergesthroughthenarrativeofSudItaliaasakeyintersectbetweenprivateaffectandpublicarticulation.Contradictionsareimplicitintheterm,whichappealstoinstitutionalauthorities,suchasUNESCO,forthevalorizationandreificationofapparentlyintenselypersonalvaluesandpractices;makingpizza,orspeakingalocallanguage.Thesetensionsarereflectedinthepertinenceitacquiresinindividualexpression.Heritageisontheonehandanimpreciseresourcethatisseenasembodiedinfamilymembersandtransmittedasanindefinitesetofvalues,affectsandpractices,towhichsubscriptionmarksouttheboundariesofacollective.Ontheother,throughtheconceptof“globalheritage”,specificperspectives—predominantlyWestern—transformreservationsregardingthepresentand/orfutureintoacelebrationofthepast,bestowingsignificanceuponcertainpracticesandartefacts.Heritagethereforerepresentsbothpersonalexplorationsofmeaningandthearticulationofgroupaffectandanxiety,andimplicatesbothinhierarchiesofpowerandauthority.Furthercriticalattentiontotheconceptpromisesnotonlyalternativewaysofconceptualizingthelifecourseandintergenerationaltransfer,butalsonewinsightsintothemobilityofpeople,ideas,andthingsthroughandacrosstime,andthechangesinvaluetheseprocessesgenerate.
Writingdefinitionessayscangiveyouanentirelynewwayoflookingatwriting,havinghadtheexperienceofdelvingdeeplyintothehistoryofawordorphrase.Justlikeanythingelse,languageisinaprocessofevolution.Aswriters,wearedocumentingthecurrentclimateinwhichthesewordsexist,providingedificationwhereveritwillbeusefultothereader.
8.2.6:Description
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Therhetoricalmode“description”conveyssensoryimagestothereadersoastodeeplyconnecthimorhertothesubject.
LearningObjective
Determinethepurposeandstructureofdescription.
KeyPoints
Gooddescriptionmakesthereaderfeelasifthey’reexperiencingthesubject.Sensorydescriptioncanconnectthereaderemotionallytothematerial.Whiledetailedsensoryimagesarekeytogooddescriptivepassages,itisimportanttobediscerningwhenselectingbothtypeandnumber.
KeyTerms
Description
Arhetoricalmodeusedtoconveyamentalimageofanobject,idea,situation,oreventsothatthereaderfeelsconnectedtoitthroughthesenses.
sensory
relatingtooneofthefiveprimarysenses:seeing,hearing,tasting,touching,andsmelling
AModeofTransportationDescriptionisarhetoricalmodeyou’llwantinyourtoolboxbecauseitplacesyourreaderinthesceneyou’redescribing.You’lllikelyrelatethistooltofiction,becausethebestnovelsusedescriptiontocaptureourimagination.
DescriptioninFiction
NotethedetailedimageryinthisexamplefromtheCustomHouseIntroductorytotheScarletLetter,byNathanielHawthorne,whichforeshadowsthelackofmercyfoundbyHesterPrynne.
OvertheentrancehoversanenormousspecimenoftheAmerican
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eagle,withoutspreadwings,ashieldbeforeherbreast,and,ifIrecollectaright,abunchofintermingledthunderboltsandbarbedarrowsineachclaw.Withthecustomaryinfirmityoftemperthatcharacterizesthisunhappyfowl,sheappears,bythefiercenessofherbeakandeyeandthegeneraltruculencyofherattitude,tothreatenmischieftotheinoffensivecommunity;andespeciallytowarnallcitizens.carefuloftheirsafety,againstintrudingonthepremiseswhichsheovershadowswithherwings.Nevertheless,vixenlyasshelooks,manypeopleareseeking,atthisverymoment,toshelterthemselvesunderthewingofthefederaleagle;imagining,Ipresume,thatherbosomhasallthesoftnessandsnugnessofaneider-downpillow.Butshehasnogreattenderness,eveninherbestofmoods,and,soonerorlater,—oftenersoonthanlate,—isapttoflingoffhernestlingswithascratchofherclaw,adabofherbeak,oraranklingwoundfromherbarbedarrows.
UsingDescriptioninNon-FictiontoPersuadeorInform
Notethatdescriptionisequallyusefulinessays,especiallywhenyouaremakinganemotionalappealofsomekind.Transportingyourreadertoadifferentplaceandtimewithsensorylanguagecanbeaveryconvincingwaytomakeapoint.
Thefollowingpassage,forexample,couldbeusedinapetitiontogivetheJemaael-Fnaa,amarketplaceinMarrakesh,protectedUNESCOstatus:
Duringthedayitispredominantlyoccupiedbyorangejuicestalls,watersellerswithtraditionalleatherwater-bagsandbrasscups,youthswithchainedBarbaryapesandsnakecharmers,despitetheprotectedstatusofthesespeciesunderMoroccanlaw.Asthedayprogresses,theentertainmentonofferchanges:thesnakecharmersdepart,andlateinthedaythesquarebecomesmorecrowded,withChleuhdancing-boys(itwouldbeagainstcustomforgirlstoprovidesuchentertainment),story-tellers(tellingtheirtalesinBerberorArabic,toanaudienceoflocals),magicians,andpeddlersoftraditionalmedicines.Asdarknessfalls,thesquarefillswithdozensoffood-stallsasthenumberofpeopleonthesquarepeaks.ThesquareisedgedalongonesidebytheMarrakeshsouk,atraditionalNorthAfricanmarketcateringbothforthecommondailyneedsofthelocals,andforthetouristtrade.Onothersidesarehotelsandgardensandcafeterraces,andnarrowstreetsleadintothealleysofthemedinaquarter.Onceabusstation,theplacewasclosedto
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vehicletrafficintheearly2000s.Theauthoritiesarewellawareofitsimportancetothetouristtrade,andastrongbutdiscreetpolicepresenceensuresthesafetyofvisitors.
Vividdescriptioncanhelpyouraudiencemakeanemotionalconnectiontoyoursubject,whichiswherethetruepowerofthewrittenwordlies.
WritingDescriptivePassages
It’sallwellandgoodtoreadandappreciatedescriptivepassages,buthowdoesoneactuallywriteonewhileavoidingthecommonpitfallsofoverdoingsensoryimagesorconfusingthereaderwithtoolittlespecificity?
Tousethefollowingchart,putyourselfinthesceneyouwanttodescribeforyourreader.Noticethesensoryimpressionsyouwitnessinyourimagination(orinreality)andrecordthem.Whenyoubeginwritingadescriptivepassage,youcanusethesedetailstohelpyouconveythesenseimagesyouexperienced.
SensoryImageNotesforDescriptivePassages
Makenotesofthesensationsyouexperienceasyouimaginethephenomenonyou’redescribingtoyourreader.
SensoryImageNotesChart
Whileyou’llwanttofillinthechartascompletelyaspossible,you’llwantto
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chooseonlyaselection,onlythemostsalient,tosharewiththereader.Here’sanexampleofgoingoverboardabitwithdescription:
Chedwick’shairyarmwasslungcarelesslyoverLuce’sdelicate,birdlikeshoulders.Hertiny,crookednosewriggledinvoluntarilyasthebreezecrossedhisarmpitandgentlycarriedhispiquantscentherway.Herhair,meanwhile,haddriftedlazilyontohisneckandChedwickhadtoresistslappinghisAdam’sapple,solikeaspiderdiditfeelonhismoistskin.
Youcanfindabalancethatsparksthereader’simaginationwithoutoverdoingthedescription.Youcanevenaddhumortothemix:
Noticehowphraseslike,“readyforacalvarycharge,”“landedwithacrashtothefloor,”“shehadlandedonallfoursontheground,”“thiswailofpainandsufferingandsurprise,”“myfranticseven-year-oldbrain,”and“scrambledbackupontothebunkbedwithallthegraceofababyunicorn…withonebrokenleg”servetodrawthelistenerintotheroomwithShawnandhissisterAmy.
Alsonoticethatineachofthedescriptiveexamplespresentedhere,thereisasenseoforder,similartoanarrative,thatservestoguidethereader’simaginationfromoneplacetoanother.Itmayhelptoenvisionafilmcamerazoominginandaroundanareaorasubject.
Whetheryou’reinformingorpersuading,puttingyouraudienceinthescenedrawsusinandmakesuswanttoknowmore.
8.2.7:IllustrationandExemplification
Illustrationandexemplificationoffersthereaderinternalimagesandstoriestowhichtorelatemoreabstractconceptsandideas.
LearningObjective
Determinethepurposeandstructureofillustrationandexemplification.
KeyPoints
Imagesandstoriescanservetoenhanceareader’sunderstandingofaconceptoridea.Whiletheremaybeatemptationtorelyonclichesasillustrations,originallanguageisusuallymoreeffective.Youmaychoosetosimplymakereferencetoastoryifyou’recertain
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youraudiencewillbefamiliarwithit,butifyou’renotcertain,it’sbettertoretellthestory.Onestorymaybeusedandrevisitedthroughoutanessayasanexampleofthevariationsortheintricaciesdiscussed.It’susefultotakethetimetocreateorfindanexamplethatmostcloselyrelatestotheconceptyouarediscussingsothatthereaderfeelsanimmediate“Aha”ofrecognition.
KeyTerms
illustration
Aliterarydeviceinwhichoneusesimagery-richexamplestoenhanceunderstandingofaconcept.
exemplification
Arhetoricalmodeinwhichthewriterusesoneormorepertinentandconcreterealorimaginedexamplesofaconceptinordertoenhancethereader’sunderstanding.
ForInstance…Beforeenlightenment:chopwood,carrywater.Afterenlightenment:chopwood,carrywater.
Thisshortproverbservestoillustrateaconceptthat’sabitabstract:thatnotmuchonthematerialplanechangesonceonehasattainedspiritualtranscendence,thoughagreatdealshiftsinternally.Thoseonaspiritualpathwilloftenchuckleonhearingthis,becauseitisanaptdescriptionoftheapparentironyofworkingsohardforsomethingthatshowssolittleoutwardchange—butwhichisnonethelessthemostmeaningfultransformationtheycanenvision.
Thismomentofrecognitioninyouraudienceiswhatyou’llbegoingforwhenyouusethetoolsofillustrationandexemplificationinyourwriting.Considertheseotherexamplesofillustration,whichhaveserved(andyes,perhapsover-served)toclarifysomeabstractconceptsovertheyears:
“He’sbarkingupthewrongtree.”
“Abirdinthehandisworthtwointhebush.”
“She’sjustfollowingtheherd.”
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Eachoftheseillustrationsgivesusapictureinourmindsofasituationanalogoustothepointwe’retryingtogetacrossandtherebyclarifiestheconceptforusinaninstant.
Exemplificationservesthesamepurpose,butexplainsusingspecificexamples.Ifyouweretryingtodescribethe“lawofdiminishingreturns,”forexample,ineconomics,youmightsay:
Whilethefirsticecreamconetastescreamyanddelicious,theeighthicecreamconeisenoughtomakeyousick.
Injustonesentence,yourreaderhasasolidideaoftheconceptofdiminishingreturnsbecauseyou’verelatedittosomethingfamiliartomostofus.Whilewehaven’talltriedeatingeighticecreamconesinarow,we’reprobablyabletoimaginewhatit’slike,basedonsimilarexperiencesandextendingthemthroughourimagination.
TooManyIceCreams
Anillustrationdemonstratingthelawofdiminishingreturns.
Toomanyicecreamcones.
Don’tGetTrippedUp
Thecautionwithillustrationsandexamplesistouseoriginallanguageasoftenaspossible.Oneortwoclicheslikethatabovemightservethepoint
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wellenough,butyourrealgoalistouselanguagethatwillcapturethereader’simagination.Originalityisthekey.
Howmightyouillustratethefollowingconceptswithoutrelyingoncliches?
flexibilityinparenting(withoutreferringtoawillowtree)theloveofastudentforhismentor(withoutusingtheword“worship”)asuspicionthatsomethingisn’tsafe(stayingawayfrom“gutfeeling”)averydifficulttask(avoiding“heroic”)
Now,considerhowyouwouldexemplifyeachoftheseconcepts.Whichdoyoufindmoreeffective?
Therearelittlephrasesinourlanguagethatcombineillustrationandexemplification.A“Sisypheantask,”forexample,recallsthestoryofSisyphusrollingaboulderupahillendlessly,onlytohaveitrollbackdowneachtimeitgetsalmosttothetop.Peopleuseittoexplainafruitlessandfrustratingendeavor.
A“Herculeantask”hasitsrootsinthestoriesofthechallengesHerculeswasforcedtofaceandcanrefertoanydeedthatisverychallengingtoperform.(TheGreekmyths,infact,arebothillustrativeandexemplary,asareAesop’sFables,Grimm’sFairyTales,andthelike.)
Usingthiskindofreferencemaybeusefulifyouknowyouraudienceisfamiliarwiththestories,butifyou’renotcertain,you’llneedtoeithertellthefullstoryoruseadifferentwayofillustratingyourpoint.
Storytelling
Tellingastorycantranscendmanyblockstoareader’sattention,includingthemostdifficulttoovercome:defensiveness.Illustrationandexemplificationarewaystoofferthereaderaconnectiontothematerialyou’representing:drawingtheminbygettingspecific.
Danahadjustfinishedherradiobroadcastandwasrushingoutthedoortogettothedaycarecenterwhenherbosscalledafterher.“Dana,IwasjusttalkingwithConradfromaccounting,andhehadsomeideasI’dliketobounceoffyou.Couldyoucomeinhereforamoment?”Danastoppedandforasplitsecondconsideredpretendingshehadn’theard,butinsteadshesighed,plasteredonapleasantexpression,andfollowedheremployerintohisoffice.
Usingthisillustrationatthebeginningofanessayaboutthemanyroles
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womenhavetoplayintheirdailylivesimmediatelyhumanizesanddepoliticizestheissuefortheaudience.Insteadoftellinguswhatit’slike,theauthorisshowingus,andthat’sthefirstruleofeffectivewriting.
Thisdeviceisoftenusedtointroduceaconcept,andtheexampleorillustrationcanberevisitedthroughoutthepapertofurtherexplicatethepointsyouaremaking.Dana,forexample,mighthavedifferentexperiencesbasedonyourideasofhowtosolvetheproblemswomenface.OryoumaysimplyoutlineyourpointswithoutusingexamplesandthenrevisitDanaattheendofthepaperashavingimplementedallthechangesyousuggest.Hopefully,she’sbetteroffinthisnewillustrativestory.
Cautions
Bejudiciousanddiscerningwithillustrationsandexamples.Makesurethatyou’reusingthemostappropriateexampleorillustrationpossibletoenhanceunderstanding.Don’toveruseexemplars,oryouraudiencemaybecomeconfused.Becautiousaboutusingnegativeexamplesorillustrationsthateitherdisproveyourpointorshowwhathappensifyourpointisnottaken.Sinceimageryandexamplestendtostickwithareader,it’sgenerallymoreeffectivetoshowwhatyoudomean,ratherthanwhatyoudon’tmean.Ifyoudoreferbacktooneexamplethroughoutthepaper,beconsistentwiththedescriptionofthecharacterorscene,changingonlyonevariableatatimetoillustrateapoint.
HowtoWriteanIllustration/ExemplificationEssayWhilemostofthetime,you’llbeusingillustrationsandexamplestoreinforcepointsinanessay,therewillbetimeswhenthewholepointofyouressayistoexplainaconceptusingillustrationandexemplification.Whenthat’sthecase,here’showtoorganizeit:
Introduction
Thisparagraphtellsyouraudienceabouttheconceptyou’llbeillustrating.Youmaywishtoinitiateoneexamplethatyou’llbeusingastheanchoring
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themethroughoutthepaper,oryoumaywishtosimplydescribetheconcepthere.
Illustrative/ExemplifyingParagraphs
Twoormoreparagraphsofferillustrationsorexamples—usuallyoneperparagraph—toshowtheaudiencewhattheconceptlooks/smells/feels/tastes/soundslikeinlife(realorimaginedlife).Yourexamplescanalsoservetodistinguishtheconceptfromsimilarconceptsoroppositeconcepts,ifthatwillhelpclarify.
Conclusion
Here,youwillrestatetheconceptyou’reexaminingandrevisittheintroductoryexample,orallexamples.Oryoumaychoosetocreateonefinalstrongexampletocementyourreader’sunderstanding.
8.2.8:Narration
Thenarrativerhetoricalmodeisanaturalandappealingwaytopresentorreinforceaperspectiveintheformofastory.
LearningObjective
Determinethepurposeandstructureofnarration.
KeyPoints
Thenarrativerhetoricalmodeusesstorytellingtosupportapointortoeducateanaudienceonaparticulartopic.Storytellingissodeeplyingrainedinhumanrelationshipsandsocietythatreadersmaybemoreopentoandenthusiasticaboutnarrativeasatechnique.Satiricalnarrativeoffersonestoryasanallegoricalcriticismofareal-lifeeventorsituation.Narrativeismadeclearbyexposingtheeventsinsmallpieces,inchronologicalorder.Narrativeismademoreinterestingusingliterarydeviceslikesuspense,imageryandverisimilitudetoputthereaderinthescene.
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KeyTerms
Narrative
Inwriting,tellingastory,usingdescriptiveelements,inchronologicalorder,tosupportapoint.
imagery
Languageusedindescriptionthroughsensoryexperience.
verisimilitude
Theinclusionofseeminglytruthfuldetailsappropriatetothestorybeingtoldsoastomakeitbelievabletothereader.
TheThingWeNeedMostintheWorldIhaddecidedtobecomeananthropologist—inMay,1923—becauseFranzBoasandRuthBenedicthadpresentedthetasksofanthropologyasmoreurgentthananyothertaskwhichlayreadytothechoiceofastudentofhumanbehavior.
WhatfeelingsandthoughtsdoesthisquotebyMargaretMeadbringupinyouwhenyoureadit?Whydoessheincludethispersonalglimpseinherprefacetothe1949editionofComingofAgeinSamoa?
Byusingevenabriefpersonalstory,Meadishelpingherreadersrelatetoherandopentoherviewpoint.Hermentorsandteachersinstilledinherasenseofpurpose—anurgentone,atthat—tostudyhumanbehaviorasithappensnaturallyinavarietyofsocietiesandcultures.Wecanallrelatetothefeelingoflongingforasenseofpurpose,eventhoughwemaynothaveaninterestinanthropologyspecifically.Mostofuswillnodknowinglyatherdecisionbecauseweunderstandthatwhenonefindsasenseofpurpose,thewilltomakeithappenfollowsstrongly.
Narrativereportstothereaderastoryrelatedtothepointthewriteristryingtomake.Thereasonweusenarrativeisbecausestorytellingisthemostnaturalwayforushumanstocommunicate.Notunlikeethnography,it’sbothawaywefindofrelatingtooneanotherandawaywelearntounderstandourdifferences.
Weusestoriestoeducateandtoentertain.Storiesfeelfriendlierthanlistsof
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factsorcitationsofscientificstudies.Humansseemtohungerforstories,andsonarrativemaybethemostwell-receivedofrhetoricaldevices.
AsPhilipPullmansaid,
Afternourishment,shelterandcompanionship,storiesarethethingweneedmostintheworld.
UsingNarrative
You’llfindnarrativeusefulinanessaywhenyouwantyourreadertoidentifywithyourperspectiveorwiththeviewtakenbyoneofyourcharactersorsubjects.Documentaryfilmmakingisfullofnarrativeexamples:peopletellusthestoryofwhathappenedasiftheywerewitnesses,eveniftheeventhappenedmanyyearsbeforetheywereborn.It’saneffectivetechniquebecausethefilmmakerweavesataleforusthrougheachnarrator.
Youcantakeasimilarapproachinwriting,layingoutthefactsofastoryinterspersedwithfirst-personperspectives.Oryoumight,asMeaddid,offeryourreaderinsightintoyourownthoughtprocessasyoucametounderstandtheconceptorevent.
Satirecanbeaparticularlyeffectiveformofnarrative,exemplifiedbyAnimalFarmandGulliver’sTravels,asitexposesthedefectsinanideaorsocietybytellingafictionaltaleofadifferentsocialgroup.Fictionalcharactersstandinforrealpeopleorplayoutsocialideas,usuallypoliticalinnature.
WritingtheNarrativeEssayIfyouareusingnarrationastheprimarystrategyinwritingapaper,youwillusesomesemblanceofthefollowingformat:
Introduction
Here,youwillgiveadescriptionoftheeventyouwillbespellingoutintheessayandthereason(s)you’reexaminingit.Whyshouldyouraudiencebeinterested?Yourfinalintroductorysentencewillstatesimplythatyouareofferinganarrativeaccountoftheevent.
NarrativeParagraphs
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Youwilldividetheeventintosmallereventsandgiveeachofthesesmallerincidentsaparagraph.Thesewillbesimpleexplanationsofwhathappenedwhen,thoughinamorecomplexessayyoumightincludereasonsforeacheventandcomparisonstoanother,morecurrentcircumstance.Accountsbyhistorians,witnesses,orthoughtleaderscanbewovenintothenarrativetostrengthentheperspectiveyou’reofferingortoofferthepossibilityofanotherperspective,inanefforttoprovideanobjectivereport.
You’llwanttomakeeachportionofthenarrativeinterestingtothereader,souseliterarydeviceslikesuspense,imagery,verisimilitude,andsurprise,perhapsalongwithalittlehumor,ifappropriate,tokeepyouraudienceengaged.
Conclusion
You’llleaveyourreaderwithasummaryoftheeventandmakereferencetothereason(s)forexaminingitthatyoupresentedintheintroduction.Youmaydecidetoendwithsomeideasabouthowthiseventisrelevanttothereaderandtotheworldatthistime.
Thechecklistforanarrativeessay:
Haveaclearpurpose.Tellthestoryclearlyandchronologically.Makethenarrativeinteresting.Relateittosomethinglargerthanitself,eitherovertly,orcovertly.
Happystorytelling!
8.2.9:ProcessAnalysis
Processanalysisdescribeindetailhowsomethingisaccomplishedorcreated.
LearningObjective
Determinethepurposeandstructureofprocessanalysis.
KeyPoints
Processanalysisdescribeshowsomethingisdone.Aninformativeprocessanalysisdescribeshowsomethinghappens.Adescriptiveprocessanalysisgivesinstructionsforhowtodo
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something.Processanalysisconsistsofbreakingawholeintoitspartsandexplainingeachpart.Thebodyparagraphsofprocessanalysisessaysmaybeorganizedinavarietyofways,dependingonwhatwillbemostusefultoareaderseekingclarityofinstruction.
KeyTerms
Processanalysis
Astep-by-stepexplanationofhowsomethingisdone.
directiveanalysis
Astep-by-stepinstructivetutorial.
informativeanalysis
Adescriptionofhowsomethinghappensorisaccomplished.
Here’stheHowProcessanalysisanswersthe“how”questionwiththeideathatreaderswillbeabletoreplicateaprocessthemselves,oratleastthoroughlyunderstandit,afterreadingthepaper.Thatmeansitneedstobebothdetailedandthorough.
Itdoesn’tfollowthatitneedstobelong,however.Considerthisexample:
Lawsbeginasideas.First,arepresentativesponsorsabill.Thebillisthenassignedtoacommitteeforstudy.Ifreleasedbythecommittee,thebillisputonacalendartobevotedon,debatedoramended.Ifthebillpassesbysimplemajority(218of435),thebillmovestotheSenate.IntheSenate,thebillisassignedtoanothercommitteeand,ifreleased,debatedandvotedon.Again,asimplemajority(51of100)passesthebill.Finally,aconferencecommitteemadeofHouseandSenatemembersworksoutanydifferencesbetweentheHouseandSenateversionsofthebill.TheresultingbillreturnstotheHouseandSenateforfinalapproval.TheGovernmentPrintingOfficeprintstherevisedbillinaprocesscalledenrolling.ThePresidenthas10daystosignorvetotheenrolledbill.
Acomplexprocesshasbeenexplainedcompletelybybreakingitintopartsandbrieflydescribingeachstep.
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Purposes
Therearetwopossiblereasonsyou’dwanttowriteaprocessanalysis.Oneisillustratedbytheparagraphaboveexplaininghowabillbecomesalaw:theinformativeanalysis.Thepurposehereistohelppeopleunderstandhowsomethinghappens.
Adirectiveanalysisshowsthereaderhowtodosomethinghimselforherself.Youmightteachthereadertofish,forexample,ordemonstratethestepstodefuseanincendiarydevice.
Ineithercase,gatheringallthestepsandputtingthemintothecorrectorderareyourtwoprewritingtasks.
TheProcessAnalysisEssayYoumay,ofcourse,decidetouseprocessanalysisaspartofanykindofwriting,fromablogpostabouthousecleaningtoalettertoyourgrandmotheraboutadvancedGooglesearches.Butinacademicwork,youmaybeaskedtowriteaspecificessaydedicatedtoprocessanalysis.Here’showitwilllook:
Introduction
Here,you’llwanttobrieflyexplainthe“why”ofyourpaper.Whatpurposedoesthesoon-to-be-describedactivityorprocessserve?You’llalsolisteachstepandthenstatethegeneralideaofwhatyou’redescribinginthelastsentenceoftheparagraph.
BodyParagraphs
Eachparagraphofthebodyofthepaperwilldescribeaspecificsteporstageoftheprocess.Youcanbeginwiththe“why”ofthestep,includinghowitnaturallyfollowsthepreviousstep,ifappropriate,andthendescribethestepindetail.Youcanendtheparagraphwithalead-intothenextstageoftheprocess.
Youwillwanttoorganizethematerialinwhateverwaywillbethemostusefultoyouraudience.Forexample,aprocessanalysisofpruninganappletreewillneedtobedividedbasedonthestageofgrowthofthetree,thetimeofyear,andthegoalofpruning.Insuchcases,numberingsectionscanhelpifyoudirectthereader,asin,“Ifyouaredealingwitholdorneglectedtrees,
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skiptoSectionTwo.”
Conclusion
Here,you’llrecapthestepsbrieflyandexpandontheusefulnessoftheprocess.Asusualwithconclusions,you’llmovefromthespecifictothebroad.Hereisanexampleofthelastsentenceofaconcludingparagraph:
Whetheryourworkisrescuinganoldorchard,cultivatinganewone,orsimplytrimmingasingletree,yourrewardwillbeabountyofbloomsinthespring,followedinthefallbythesupremesweetnessthatcanonlycomefromfruityou’vegrownyourself.
Examplesofprocessanalysisareallovertheweb.It’soneofthemostexcitingbenefitsoftheinternet.Here’sacreativetutorial:
Attributions
ArgumentationandPersuasion
“60YearsAfterBrownv.BoardofEducation.”https://www.congress.gov/congressional-record/2014/5/19/house-section/article/h4462-1.CongressionalRecordoftheUnitedStatesCC01.0Universal.
“TenPointProgram.”https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Ten-Point_Program&oldid=751083961.WikipediaCCBY-SA.
Classification
“TheFiveLoveLanguages.”https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Five_Love_Languages.WikipediaCCBY-SA.
“TheFourLoves.”https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Four_Loves.WikipediaCCBY-SA.
“OriginalfigurebyPrudenceTippins.LicensedCCBY-SA4.0.”PrudenceTippinsCCBY-SA3.0.
CauseandEffect
“AlcoholConsumptionAmongAdolescents:ImplicationsforPublicHealth.”http://www.intechopen.com/books/howtoreference/topics-in-public-
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health/alcohol-consumption-among-adolescents-implications-for-public-health.InTechPublicdomain.
“GlobalClimateChange:VitalSignsofthePlanet.”https://climate.nasa.gov/causes/.NASAPublicdomain.
“OriginalfigurebyPrudenceTippins.LicensedCCBY-SA4.0.”PrudenceTippinsCCBY-SA3.0.
“OriginalfigurebyPrudenceTippins.LicensedCCBY-SA4.0.”PrudenceTippinsCCBY-SA3.0.
ComparisonandContrast
“OriginalfigurebyPrudenceTippins.LicensedCCBY-SA4.0.”PrudenceTippinsCCBY-SA3.0.
“OriginalfigurebyPrudenceTippins.LicensedCCBY-SA4.0.”PrudenceTippinsCCBY-SA3.0.
Definition
“Reading;DefiningFamily.”https://courses.lumenlearning.com/intro-to-sociology/chapter/reading-what-is-marriage-what-is-a-family/.LumenSociologyCCBY4.0.
“Sentience.”https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sentience.WikipediaCCBY-SA.
“Foodways,CampervansandtheTermsofMobility:TransnationalBelonging,Home,andHeritageintheNarrativeof“SudItalia”.”http://www.mdpi.com/2076-0787/5/2/23/htm.HumanitiesCCBY4.0.
Description
“TEDxBloomingtonShawnAchor“TheHappinessAdvantage:LinkingPositiveBrainstoPerformance”.”https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=GXy__kBVq1M.YouTubeYoutubeLicense.
“TheCustom-HouseIntroductorytoTheScarletLetter.”http://eldritchpress.org/nh/slcus.html.EldritchPressPublicdomain.
“Jemaael-Fnaa.”https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jemaa_el-Fnaa.WikipediaCCBY-SA3.0.
“OriginalfigurebyPrudenceTippins.LicensedCCBY-SA4.0.”PrudenceTippinsCCBY-SA3.0.
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IllustrationandExemplification
“Handenvolmetijsjes-Holdingtoomanyicecreams.”https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File%3AHanden_vol_met_ijsjes_-_Holding_too_many_ice_creams_(4900465673).jpg.WikimediaCommonsCCBY-SA.
“WhatMakesaHero?-MatthewWinkler.”https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Hhk4N9A0oCA.YouTubeYoutubeLicense.
“Handen_vol_met_ijsjes_-_Holding_too_many_ice_creams_49004656731.jpg.”https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Handen_vol_met_ijsjes_-_Holding_too_many_ice_creams_(4900465673).jpg#filelinks.WikimediaCommonsCCBY-SA.
Narration
“TheSubjectofAnthropology.”http://ethnografix.blogspot.com/2010/05/subjects-of-anthropology.html.EthnografixCCBY-SA3.0.
“ColbertstaysincharacteratcongressionalhearingbyPBSNewsHour.”https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ewPburLEZyY.YouTubeYoutubeLicense.
ProcessAnalysis
“Step-by-StepTutorial:HowtoPaintwithAlcoholInks.”https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=hWA3VJmgGjg&t=28s.YouTubeYoutubeLicense.
“HowAreLawsMade?.”http://www.house.gov/content/learn/legislative_process/.UnitedStatesHouseofRepresentativesPublicdomain.
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9:WritingAcrossDisciplines
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9.1:IntroductiontoWritingAcrossDisciplines9.1.1:WritinginDifferentAcademicDisciplines
Academicwritingconventionsvarysubstantiallyaccordingtodiscipline—thatis,whetheroneisworkinginthehumanities,thesocialornaturalsciences,orbusiness.
LearningObjective
Identifythekeycharacteristicsofwritingindifferentacademicdisciplines
KeyPoints
Writinginthehumanitiesusuallyseekstoanalyze,interpret,argue,and/orexplainthoughts,reactions,ideas,andemotions.Writinginthesciencesfocusesoninformingthereaderofnewdiscoveriesandassistingreadersindiscoveringtruththroughfactsandsoliddataprovidedindetail.Writinginbusinessoftenmeansexplainingasituation,event,orchangetocompelthereadertowardaveryspecificaction.
KeyTerms
creativewriting
Theartofcraftingtexts,suchasnovels,biographies,shortstories,andpoems,thatfalloutsidetheboundsofprofessional,journalistic,academic,andtechnicaldiscourse.Creativewritingcanbeusedtotellstories,evokeemotions,buildempathy,andinspirenewwaysofthinkingabouttheworld.
genres
Categoriesortypesofwriting,includinganalytical,creative,explanatory,interpretive,andpersuasive(amongmanyothers).
Academicwritinginacollegesettingcangenerallybedividedintothreemain
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categoriesorgenres:writinginthehumanities,writinginthesciences,andwritinginbusiness.Eachgenrehasitsownspecificrequirementsintermsofstyle,content,andformat.
WritingintheHumanitiesAcademicwritinginthehumanitiesexploresquestionsthatdealwithhumanvalues.Theultimategoalinwritinginthehumanitiesistoexplainorunderstandthehumanexperience—tousewritingasatooltoreflectuponlife.The“humanities,”asadiscipline,includesnotonlyliterature,butalsophilosophy,ethics,performingarts,finearts,history,andaspectsofanthropology,culturalstudies,foreignlanguages,andlinguistics.Inahumanitiesclass,youmightbeaskedtoanalyzeapoem,aperformanceorplay,apainting,afilm,orevenamusicalwork.
WritingintheSciencesSciencewritingincludeswritingintwomaincategories—naturalsciencesandsocialsciences.Ineachgenre,thewritingfocusesoninformingreadersofnewdiscoveriesandassistingthemindiscoveringtruththroughfactsandfirm,detaileddata.
Research-basedwritinginthesciencestypicallyusesaformaltone,employsathird-personvoice,andavoidspersonalreferencesandneedlessadjectives.Dependingontheassignment,youmightalsowriteananalytical,explanatory,orpersuasivepaperinanyofthesefieldsforapopularorprofessionalaudience.
NaturalSciences
Naturalsciencesincludephysicalsciencessuchasbiology,chemistry,engineering,geology,andphysics.Thistypeofwritingisgenerallyconciseandincludesgenressuchaslabreportsandreviewsofscientificliterature.
SocialSciences
Thesocialsciences,ontheotherhand,focusonhumanbehaviorandsocieties.Theyinvolvedocumentingactualeventsastheyhappen.Categories
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ofsocialscienceincludepsychology,anthropology,politicalscience,sociology,education,andeconomics.
WritinginBusinessBusinesswritingoftenmeansexplainingasituation,event,orchangeinordertocompelthereadertowardaveryspecificaction.Formatiskeytoawell-writtenbusinessdocumentbecauseitsstructureneedstoallowthereadertoquicklyfindparticularsectionsandacontactpersonwhocananswerfurtherquestions.Writinginbusinesscanincludememos,coverletters,resumes,projectreports,proposals,thank-youletters,emails,andbusinessplans.Whileadherencetoconventionalgrammar,spelling,andpunctuationisimportantineverydiscipline,businesswritingplacesthegreatestemphasisonmechanics.
Attributions
WritinginDifferentAcademicDisciplines
“Creativewriting.”https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Creative_writing.WikipediaCCBY-SA3.0.
“creativewriting.”http://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/creative_writing.WiktionaryCCBY-SA3.0.
“socialscience.”http://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/social_science.WiktionaryCCBY-SA3.0.
“RhetoricandComposition/AdvancedTopics.”http://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/Rhetoric_and_Composition/Advanced_TopicsWikibooksCCBY-SA3.0.
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9.2:WritingintheHumanities9.2.1:IntroductiontoWritingintheHumanities
Academicwritinginthehumanitiesallowsforsomeflexibilityinstyleandvoice,whilestillfollowingspecificconventionsofformatanddocumentation.
LearningObjective
Definethesubtypesofwritingthatexistwithinthehumanities
KeyPoints
Generally,writinginthehumanitiesfallsintooneofthreecategories:researchwriting,interpretive/analyticalwriting,andcreativewriting.Whenwritingaresearchpaperinthehumanities,youwillcollect(andcite!)informationfromavarietyofdifferentsourcestosupportanargument.Ininterpretive/analyticalwriting,youwillmakeaclaimaboutwhataparticulartext(orfilm,orpainting,etc.)meansorhowitgoesaboutpresentingmeaning;youwillmakeanargumentbackedupwithspecificexamplesfromthetext.Insomeanalyticalwriting,youmaybeaskedtointerpretatextthroughthelensofaparticulartheory—forexample,modernisttheory,psychoanalytictheory,etc.Creativewritingmostlycomprisesfictionwriting,suchaspoems,shortstories,novels,andsonglyrics;however,thereisalsoatypeofwritingcalledcreativenonfiction,inwhichcreativewritingcentersaroundrealevents.
KeyTerms
thesis
Aclaimortheorythatmustbesupportedwithevidencetoarguefororagainstaspecificideaorposition.
literaryanalysis
Apieceofacademicwritingthatexploresandinterpretsthemeaning
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behindthestory,characters,themes,andpurposesofatext.
humanities
Thecollectionofacademicdisciplinesthatstudyhumanexpression,ideas,andthought.
expository
Ofatypeofwritingthatexplains,informs,ordescribesaprocessorconcept.
WritingintheHumanitiesTheultimategoalinwritinginthehumanitiesistoexplainorunderstandthehumanexperienceandhumanvalues.Thehumanities—alsocalledtheliberalarts—includephilosophy,religion,art,music,literature,history,andlanguage.Thesefieldsareabroadwayofstudyingandunderstandinghowpeopleexpressideas,information,andfeelings—theexperienceofwhatmakesushuman.Sometimesmislabeledasthe“opposite”oftheappliedsciencesorprofessionalprogramssuchasbusiness,thehumanitiesareinfactatthecoreofeveryhumanendeavortopursue,discover,andpassonknowledge.
Thereisnosingle,all-encompassingtypeofwritinginthehumanities.Youmightwritealiteraryanalysisofanovel,story,play,orpoem;ananalysisthatexplainshowawrittenorvisualtextworkstopersuadeaspecificaudience;anexpositoryessaythatsharespersonalexperiencesorexploresideas;aresearchpaperinvestigatingthehistoryofaparticulartheoreticalapproach;orapersuasivearticlethatworkstoconvinceaspecificaudienceofyourthesis.Generally,however,writinginthehumanitiesfallsintooneofthreecategories:researchwriting,interpretive/analyticalwriting,andcreativewriting.
ResearchWritingWhenwritingaresearchpaperinthehumanities,youwilllikelyberelyingonanumberofdifferentsourcestosupportabroaderclaimthatyou’retryingtomake.Itiscrucialthatyoucorrectlyciteandattributeallideasandinformationthatarenotcommonknowledgeandnotyourown.Forexample,youwouldneedtoprovideacitationforastatementlike,“60%ofgunsrecoveredincrimesaresoldbyunlicenseddealers,”whichislikelywritten
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aboutinaspecificstudy,butnotforastatementlike,“WilliamShakespearewasbornin1564,”whichiscommonknowledgeandreferencedinmanydifferentsources.
Interpretive/AnalyticalWritingAninterpretation,oranalysis,involvesthediscoveryofmeaninginatext(orfilm,orpainting,etc.)ortheproductionofmeaningintheprocessofreadingatext.Assuch,analyticalwritingfocusesonthequestionsof“how?”and“why?”Ittriestoassistthereaderinunderstandingspecificevents(literary,cultural,orotherwise)ratherthanjustengaginginsummary.Writingaboutliterature(poems,shortstories,plays,etc.)ofteninvolvesmakinganargumentthatcanbebackedupwithspecificexamplesfromthetext.Forexample,astudentwritinganinterpretivepaperaboutaspecificbookmaytrytoexplaintheauthor’sattitudesorviewsonaspecificsubjectmatter.Thewriterofthepapermustthenuseevidencefoundinthatbook—specificlines,words,orphrases—tobackuptheirclaims.
TheoreticalWriting
Theoreticalwritinginvolveswritingonatopicfromaparticulartheoreticalperspectiveorcombinationofperspectives(e.g.,modernism,deconstructionism,psychoanalytictheory,etc.).Often,studentswillbeaskedtocombinetheanalyticalandtheoreticalgenres:towriteapaperinterpretingaspecifictextorfilmthroughthelensofaparticulartheoryortheoreticaltext.Forexample,astudentmightwriteanessayonFordMadoxFord’sTheGoodSoldier,investigatinghowitsuseoflanguagefitsintoNietzsche’stheoryofhumancommunication.Anotherexamplemightbeapaperinterpretingafilmusingcertaintenetsofpsychoanalytictheory.
CreativeWritingCreativewritingattemptstoachieve,orcreate,aneffectinthemindsofreaders.Creativewritingcanalsobeusedasanoutletforpeopletogettheirthoughtsandfeelingsoutandontopaper.Poems,shortstories,novels,andevensonglyricsareallexamplesofcreativewriting.
Tosome,nonfictioncanalsobeconsideredcreativewritingbecauseitisdonefromtheauthor’spointofviewandmaybewritteninanindividualstylethat
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engagesthereader.Infact,manyuniversitiesoffercoursesin“creativenonfiction.”Othersliketoseparatenonfictionfromcreativewritingbecauseitdealswithrealeventsthatactuallytookplace,eveniftheyarewrittenaboutsubjectively.
Attributions
IntroductiontoWritingintheHumanities
“WritingintheHumanities.”https://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/Rhetoric_and_Composition/Writing_in_the_HumanitiesWikibooksCCBY-SA3.0.
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9.3:WritingintheNaturalandSocialSciences:TheResearchPaperandtheIMRADModel9.3.1:PrinciplesofWritingintheSciences
Scientificwritinghastwogoals:toinformthereaderofnewdevelopmentsinaspecificfield,andtoaddressexistingquestionswithnewevidence.
LearningObjective
Listthestylisticelementsofasuccessfulscientificpaper
KeyPoints
Academicwritinginthesciencesaddressesnewscientificdevelopmentsandclarificationsofscientificquestions,mostfrequentlyintheformofalabreport,journalarticle,orliteraturereview.Thenaturalsciencesincludefieldssuchasastronomy,biology,chemistry,andphysics;thesocialsciencesincludeanthropology,economics,linguistics,politicalscience,sociology,andpsychology.ScientificpaperscommonlyfollowtheIMRADmodel,whichstandsforintroduction,method,results,anddiscussion.Theintroductionshoulddescribeelementssuchasthepaper’smotivation,aim,problem,testedhypothesis,novelcontributions,backgroundmaterials,andanoverviewofthesubsequentmaterial.Themethodssectionshouldcoverthewriter’sassumptions,systemmodel,simulationmodel,andperformancemeasures.Foranoriginalstudy,when,where,andhowthestudywasconducted,whatmaterialswereused,andwhowasincludedinthestudygroupsshouldallbeincluded.Indescribingtheresults,thewritershouldincludeanyempiricaldata,charts,andplotsthatconveytheanswertotheresearchquestion,andstatewhethertheresearchhypothesiswasprovenornotproven.Thediscussionsectionshouldanalyzetheresults,statewhytheymatter,contextualizetheminrelationtoexistingresearch,andsuggestthe
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implicationsforfutureresearch.
KeyTerms
objectivity
Theabilitytoperceiveasubjectwithoutbeinginfluencedbypersonalbiasesoremotions.
bias
Adefiniteopinionorpositiononasubject.
labreport
Astep-by-stepexplanationofthematerials,methods,data,results,analysis,conclusions,andreferencesofanexperiment.
Scientificresearchpapersreportnewdiscoveries,applyingevidencetoanswerquestionsandidentifypatterns.Writinginthesedisciplinesoftentakestheformofpeer-reviewedjournalarticles,literaturereviews,grantproposals,casestudies,andlabreports.
Forexample,inanenvironmental-sciencelabreport,astudentmightanalyzeresearchresultstoaddressorclarifyaparticularscientificdevelopmentorquestion:
“Thisstudyaimstoidentifylevelsofchlorineandphosphoruscompoundsinathree-milestretchoftheColumbiaRiver,whichisanareanotableforsalmonruns.Ananalysisofsamplestakenoveratwo-yearperiodfromvariouslocationswithinthethree-milestretchrevealedthepersistenceofhighlevelsofphosphorousandchlorinecompounds.Inthestudy,weexaminetherelationshipbetweensalmonpopulationandthepersistenceofthesecompounds.”
Scientificpapersrequireagreatdealofpreliminarywork,includingresearch,fieldwork,andexperimentation.Translatingthatworkintowritingcanbedifficult,butacademicconventionsprovideacommontemplateforcommunicatingfindingsclearlyandeffectively.
GeneralStyleWritinginthesciencesseekstoexplaincomplexphenomenainclear,straightforwardprosethatminimizesauthorialbias.Italsoincludeselementsofclassicalargument,sincescientificpapersareexpectedtocontextualize,
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analyze,andinterprettheinformationathand.
PrecisionofLanguageLabreports,casestudies,andothertypesofscientificwritingmustbepreciseinordertoprovideresultsthatcanbetestedandreproduced.
Strivetousesimplewordsandsentences.Somestudentstrytomaketheirworksoundmoreintellectualbyusingobscurewordsandlong,elaboratesentences.Inreality,theacademyvaluesprecisewordsanddetaileddescriptionsthatarestillunderstandabletoalayaudience.Don’ttrytomimicthestereotypeofdense,convolutedacademicwriting.Instead,writeassimplyandclearlyaspossible.Precisionisakeycomponentofclarity.
Inthesciences,precisionhastwomainapplications:usingconcreteexamples,andusingclearlanguagetodescribethem.Definingyourparametersaccuratelyisessential.Don’tgeneralize—provideexacttimes,measurements,quantities,andotherrelevantdatawheneverpossible.Usingprecise,straightforwardlanguagetodescribeyourworkisalsovital.Thisisnotthetimeorplaceforflashyvocabularywordsorrhetoricalflourishes.Style,however,isstillimportant:writingaboutthesciencesdoesn’tgiveyouapasstowritesloppily.
ObjectivityThesciencesaimforobjectivityateverystage,fromtheexperimentalprocedurestothelanguageusedinthewrite-up.Sciencewritingmustconvinceitsaudiencethatitsofferinganimportant,innovativecontribution;asaresult,ithasanargumentativecharacter.Combiningobjectivityandargumentativewritingcanbechallenging.Scientificobjectivityhastworequirements:yourhypothesismustbetestable,andyourresultsmustbereproducible.
Theimportanceofobjectivityinthescienceslimitswriters’abilitytousepersuasiverhetoric.However,itisstillnecessarytomakeastrongcasefortheimportance,relevance,andapplicabilityofyourresearch.Argumentativewritingdoeshaveaplaceinscientificpapers,butitsroleislimited.Youmayusepersuasivelanguageintheabstract,introduction,literaturereview,discussionofresults,andconclusion,butavoidusingitwhenyoudescribeyourmethodsandpresentyourresults.
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TransitionsManystudentsstruggletotransitionfromonetopictothenext.Transitionsarewellworthmastering—theyarethegluethatholdsyourideastogether.Neverassumethatthereaderwillcorrectlyguesstherelationshipsbetweendifferentsubtopics;itisyourresponsibilitytoexplaintheseconnections.
ScientificReasoningKeepingyourchosenmodelinmindwhileyouwritecanhelpensurethatyourdecisionsandconclusionsarelogicallyconsistent.Also,watchoutforlogictrapssuchasbiasandfaultycausality.Researchersmustaccountfortheirownbiases,orpersonalpreferences,prejudices,andpreconceivednotions.Thesemayincludecognitivebias(irrationalthinking),culturalbias(theimpositionofone’sownculturalstandardsuponresearchsubjects),andsamplingbias(thetendencyduringsamplecollectiontoincludesomemembersoftheintendedsamplemorereadilythanothers).
9.3.2:OverviewoftheIMRADModel
Thebodyofascientificpapergenerallyconsistsofthefollowingsections:introduction(whichmayincludealiteraturereview),methods,results,anddiscussion.
LearningObjective
DefineeachelementoftheIMRADstructure
KeyPoints
TheIMRADmodelistheconventionalstructuralapproachtoacademicwritinginthesciences.TheIMRADmodelhasfourparts:introduction,methods,results,anddiscussion.Theliteraturereviewprovidesanoverviewofrelevantresearchinyourdiscipline.Thismaybeincludedaspartoftheintroduction,oritmaystandasitsownsection.Themethodssectionshouldexplainhowyoucollectedandevaluatedyourdata.
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Ifyourprojectconductsanexperimentoranoriginaldataanalysis,youshouldincludeaseparatesectionthatreportsyourresults.Thediscussionsectionshouldanalyzeyourresultswithoutreportinganynewfindings.
KeyTerms
quantitative
Ofresearchmethodsthatrelyonobjectivemeasurementsanddataanalysis.
literaturereview
Asynthesisofthecriticalpointsofcurrentknowledgeinagivenfield,whichincludessignificantfindingsaswellastheoreticalandmethodologicalcontributionstoaparticulartopic.
IMRAD
AnacronymforIntroduction,Methods,Results,andDiscussion—theconventionalstructureofascientificpaper.
result
Thediscovery(orabsenceofdiscovery)thatarisesfromthescientificmethodofinvestigation.
qualitative
Ofresearchmethodsthatcreateamoresubjectiveunderstandingbystudyingasubject’sdefiningqualitiesandcharacter.
Inthenaturalandsocialsciences,theformatforthebodyofthepapervariesdependingonthediscipline,audience,andresearchmethods.Generally,thebodyofthepapercontainsanintroduction,amethodssection,results,anddiscussion.ThismethodiscalledIMRADforshort.
Thesesectionsareusuallyseparate,althoughsometimestheresultsarecombinedwiththemethods.However,manyinstructorspreferthatstudentsmaintainthesedivisions,sincetheyarestilllearningtheconventionsofwritingintheirdiscipline.MostscientificjournalsprefertheIMRADformat,orvariationsofit,andevenrecommendthatwritersdesignatethefourelementswithuniformtitleheadings.
Trytostaytruetoeachsection’sstatedpurpose.Youcanciterelevantsourcesinthemethods,discussion,andconclusionsections,butagain,savethelengthydiscussionofthosesourcesfortheintroductionorliteraturereview.
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Theresultssectionshoulddescribeyourresultswithoutdiscussingtheirsignificance,whilethediscussionsectionshouldanalyzeyourresultswithoutreportinganynewfindings.Thinkofeachsectionasacourseservedatafancydinner—don’tpourthesoupintothesaladoraddleftoverscrapsfromtheentreetothedessert!
IntroductionInthefirstsectionofyourpaper,makeacaseforyournewresearch.Explaintoyourreaderwhyyouchosetoresearchthistopic,problem,orissue,andwhysuchresearchisneeded.Explainany“gaps”inthecurrentresearchonthistopic,andexplainhowyourresearchcontributestoclosingthatgap.
LiteratureReview
Whilenotalwaysrequired,theliteraturereviewcanbeanimportantpartofyourintroduction.Itprovidesanoverviewofrelevantresearchinyourdiscipline.Itsgoalistoprovideascholarlycontextforyourresearchquestion,andexplainhowyourownresearchfitsintothatcontext.Aliteraturereviewisnotmerelyasummaryofthesourcesyou’vefoundforyourpaper—itshouldsynthesizetheinformationgatheredfromthosesourcesinordertodemonstratethatworkstillneedstobedone.
Explainyourselectioncriteriaearlyon—whydidyouchooseeachofyoursources?Theliteraturereviewshouldonlyrefertoworkthataffectsyourparticularquestion.Seekoutadiverserangeofsources.Lookatprimary-researchreportsanddatasetsinadditiontosecondaryoranalyticalsources.
MethodsThissectionshouldexplainhowyoucollectedandevaluatedyourdata.Usethepasttense,andusepreciselanguage.Explainwhyyouchoseyourmethodsandhowtheycomparetothestandardpracticesinyourdiscipline.Addresspotentialproblemswithyourmethodology,anddiscusshowyoudealtwiththeseproblems.Classifyyourmethods.Aretheyempiricalorinterpretive?Quantitativeorqualitative?
Afteryousupportyourmethodsofdatacollectionorcreation,defendtheframeworkyouusetoanalyzeorinterpretthedata.Whattheoreticalassumptionsdoyourelyon?
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Afteryouprovidearationaleforyourmethodology,explainyourprocessindetail.Ifyouarevagueorunclearindescribingyourmethods,yourreaderwillhavereasontodoubtyourresults.Furthermore,scientificresearchshouldpresentreproducible(i.e.,repeatable)results.Itwillbeimpossibleforotherresearcherstorecreateyourresultsiftheycan’tdetermineexactlywhatyoudid.Includeinformationaboutyourpopulation,sampleframe,samplemethod,samplesize,data-collectionmethod,anddataprocessingandanalysis.
ResultsWhenyoudescribeyourfindings,dosointhepasttense,usingimpartiallanguage,withnoattempttoanalyzethesignificanceofthefindings.Youwillanalyzeyourresultsinthenextsection.However,itisperfectlyacceptabletomakeobservationsaboutyourfindings.Forinstance,iftherewasanunexpectedlylargegapbetweentwodatapoints,youshouldmentionthatthegapisunusual,butsaveyourspeculationsaboutthereasonsforthegapforthediscussionsection.Ifyoufindsomeresultsthatdon’tsupportyourhypothesis,don’tomitthem.Reportincongruousresults,andthenaddresstheminthediscussionsection.Ifyoufindthatyouneedmorebackgroundinformationtoprovidecontextforyourresults,don’tincludeitintheresultssection—gobackandaddittoyourintroduction.
DiscussionThisistheplacetoanalyzeyourresultsandexplaintheirsignificance—namely,howtheysupport(ordonotsupport)yourhypothesis.Identifypatternsinthedata,andexplainhowtheycorrelatewithwhatisknowninthefield,aswellaswhethertheyarewhatyouexpectedtofind.(Often,themostinterestingresearchresultsarethosethatwerenotexpected!)Youshouldalsomakeacaseforfurtherresearchifyoufeeltheresultswarrantit.
Itcanbeveryhelpfultoincludevisualaidssuchasfigures,charts,tables,andphotoswithyourresults.Makesureyoulabeleachoftheseelements,andprovidesupportingtextthatexplainsthemthoroughly.
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RoyalAcademySchool
Oneofthegoalsoftheliteraturereviewistodemonstratefamiliaritywithabodyofknowledge.
9.3.3:Abstract
Theabstractisthefirst(and,sometimes,only)partofascientificpaperpeoplewillread,soit’sessentialtosummarizeallnecessaryinformationaboutyourmethods,results,andconclusions.
LearningObjective
Describethepurposeoftheabstract
KeyPoints
Manyonlinedatabaseswillonlydisplaytheabstractofascientificpaper,sotheabstractmustengagethereaderenoughtopromptthemtoreadthelongerarticle.Theabstractisthefirst(and,sometimes,only)partofyourpaperpeoplewillsee,soit’simportanttoincludeallthefundamentalinformationaboutyourintroduction,methods,results,anddiscussionsections.Whileascientificpaperitselfisusuallywrittenforaspecializedprofessionalaudience,theabstractshouldbeunderstandabletoabroaderpublicreadership(alsoknownasa“layaudience”).
KeyTerm
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abstract
Theoverallsummaryofascientificpaper,usuallyfewerthan250words.
TheImportanceoftheAbstractTheabstractofascientificpaperisoftentheonlypartthatthereadersees.Awell-writtenabstractencapsulatesthecontentandtoneoftheentirepaper.Sinceabstractsarebrief(generally300–500words),theydonotalwaysallowforthefullIMRADstructure.Aspecializedaudiencemayreadfurtheriftheyareinterested,andtheabstractisyouropportunitytoconvincethemtoreadtherest.Additionally,theabstractofanarticlemaybetheonlypartthatisavailablethroughelectronicdatabases,publishedinconferenceproceedings,orreadbyaprofessionaljournalreferee.Henceabstractsshouldbewrittenwithanon-specializedaudience(oraverybusyspecializedaudience)inmind.
WhattoAddressintheAbstractWhileeachmediumofpublicationmayrequiredifferentwordcountsorformatsforabstracts,agoodgeneralruleistospendonetotwosentencesaddressingeachofthefollowing(donotuseheadersorusemultipleparagraphs;justmakesuretoaddresseachcomponent):
SummarizeYourIntroduction
Thisiswhereyouwillintroduceandsummarizepreviousworkaboutthetopic.Statethequestionorproblemyouareaddressing,anddescribeanygapsintheexistingresearch.
SummarizeYourMethods
Next,youshouldexplainhowyousetaboutansweringthequestionsstatedinthebackground.Describeyourresearchprocessandtheapproach(es)youusedtocollectandanalyzeyourdata.
SummarizeYourResults
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Presentyourfindingsobjectively,withoutinterpretingthem(yet).Resultsareoftenrelayedinformalproseandvisualform(charts,graphs,etc.).Thishelpsspecializedandnon-specializedaudiencesalikegraspthecontentandimplicationsofyourresearchmorethoroughly.
SummarizeYourConclusions
Hereiswhereyoufinallyconnectyourresearchtothetopic,applyingyourfindingstoaddressthehypothesisyoustartedoutwith.Describetheimpactyourresearchwillhaveonthequestion,problem,ortopic,andincludeacallforspecificareasoffurtherresearchinthefield.
9.3.4:IntroductionandThesis
Inacademicwriting,theintroductionandthesisstatementformthefoundationofyourpaper.
LearningObjective
Identifyelementsofasuccessfulintroduction
KeyPoints
Writinginthesocialsciencesshouldadoptanobjectivestylewithoutfigurativeandemotionallanguage.Bedetailed;remainfocusedonyourtopic;beprecise;andusejargononlywhenwritingforaspecialistaudience.Inthesocialsciences,anintroductionshouldsuccinctlypresentthesefivepoints:thetopic,thequestion,theimportanceofthequestion,yourapproachtothequestion,andyouranswertothequestion.Athesisstatementisabriefsummaryofyourpaper’spurposeandyourcentralclaim.Thethesisstatementshouldbeonetothreesentencesinlength,dependingonthecomplexityofyourpaper,anditshouldappearinyourintroduction.
KeyTerms
thesisstatement
Aclaim,usuallyfoundattheendofthefirstparagraphofanessayorsimilardocument,thatsummarizesthemainpointsandargumentsofthe
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paper.
introduction
Aninitialsectionthatsummarizesthesubjectmaterialofabookorarticle.
Socialsciences
Thesocialsciencesincludeacademicdisciplineslikeanthropology,sociology,psychology,andeconomics
Theintroductioncanbethemostchallengingpartofapaper,sincemanywritersstrugglewithwheretostart.Ithelpstohavealreadysettledonathesis.Ifyou’refeelingdaunted,youcansometimeswritetheothersectionsofthepaperfirst.Then,whenyou’veorganizedthemainideasinthebody,youcanwork“backward”toexplainyourtopicandthesisclearlyinthefirstparagraph.
PresentMainIdeasTheintroductiontoasocial-sciencepapershouldsuccinctlypresentthemainideas.Thegoaloftheintroductionistoconvincethereaderthatyouhaveavalidanswertoanimportantquestion.Inordertodothat,makesureyourintroductioncoversthesefivepoints:thetopic,thequestion,theimportanceofthequestion,yourapproachtothequestion,andyouranswertothequestion.
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StructuringYourIdeasApopularintroductionstructureistheconcept-funnel—beginwithgeneralinformationaboutyourtopic,narrowthefocusandprovidecontext,andendbydistillingyourpaper’sspecificapproach.Asyoumovefromgeneralbackgroundinformationtothespecificsofyourproject,trytocreatearoadmapforyourpaper.Mirrorthestructureofthepaperitself,explaininghoweachpiecefitsintothebiggerpicture.Itisusuallybesttowritetheintroductionafteryouhavemadesignificantprogresswithyourresearch,experiment,ordataanalysistoensureyouhaveenoughinformationtowriteanaccurateoverview.
Papersinthesciencesgenerallyaimforanobjectivevoiceandstayclosetothefacts.However,youhaveabitmorefreedomatthebeginningoftheintroduction,andyoucantakeadvantageofthatfreedombyfindingasurprising,high-impactwaytohighlightyourissue’simportance.Herearesomeeffectivestrategiesforopeningapaper:
MakeaprovocativeorcontroversialstatementStateasurprisingorlittle-knownfactMakeacaseforyourtopic’srelevancetothereaderOpenwitharelevantquoteorbriefanecdoteTakeastandagainstsomethingStakeapositionforyourselfwithinanongoingdebateTalkaboutachallengingproblemorparadox
EstablishingRelevanceAfteryouengageyourreader’sattentionwiththeopening,makeacasefortheimportanceofyourtopicandquestion.Herearesomequestionsthatmayhelpatthisstage:Whydidyouchoosethistopic?Shouldthegeneralpublicoryouracademicdisciplinebemoreawareofthisissue,andwhy?Areyoucallingattentiontoanunderappreciatedissue,orevaluatingawidelyacknowledgedissueinanewlight?Howdoestheissueaffectyou,ifatall?
ThesisStatementAthesisstatementisabriefsummaryofyourpaper’spurposeandcentral
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claim.Thethesisstatementshouldbeonetothreesentences,dependingonthecomplexityofyourpaper,andshouldappearinyourintroduction.Athesisstatementinthesocialsciencesshouldincludeyourprincipalfindingsandconclusions.Ifwritingaboutanexperiment,itshouldalsoincludeyourinitialhypothesis.Whilethereisnohard-and-fastruleaboutwheretostateyourthesis,itusuallyfitsnaturallyatorneartheendoftheintroductoryparagraph(notlaterthantheverybeginningofthesecondparagraph).Theintroductionshouldprovidearationaleforyourapproachtoyourresearchquestion,anditwillbeeasiertofollowyourreasoningifyourevealwhatyoudidbeforeyouexplainwhyyoudidit.
TestabilityYourthesisisonlyvalidifitistestable.Testabilityisanextensionoffalsifiability,aprincipleindicatingthataclaimcanbeproveneithertrueorfalse.Thestatement,“allSwedishpeoplehaveblondehair”isfalsifiable—itcouldbeprovenfalsebyidentifyingaSwedewithadifferenthaircolor.Forahypothesistobetestable,itmustbepossibletoconductexperimentsthatcouldrevealobservablecounterexamples.Thisistheequivalentoftheprincipleinthehumanitiesthataclaimisonlyvalidifsomeonecouldalsoreasonablyargueagainstit.
ThesisStatementstoAvoidThestatementwithoutathesis:Astatementofafact,opinion,ortopicisnotathesis.Pushthethesisstatementbeyondthelevelofatopicstatement,andmakeanargument.Thevaguethesis:Ifyourthesisstatementistoogeneral,itwillnotprovidea“roadmap”forreaders.The“valuejudgment”thesis:Yourargumentshouldnotassumeauniversal,self-evidentsetofvalues.Value-judgment-basedargumentstendtohavethestructure“ isbad; isgood,”or“ isbetterthan .”“Good,”“bad,”“better,”and“worse”arevaguetermsthatdonotconveyenoughinformationforacademicarguments.Inacademicwriting,itisinappropriatetoassumethatyourreaderwillknowexactlywhatyoumeanwhenyoumakeanoverlygeneralclaim.Theburdenofproof,andthoroughexplanation,isonyou.Theoversizedthesisclaim.Thereisonlysomuchmaterialyoucancoverwithinapagelimit,somakesureyourtopicisfocusedenoughthat
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youcandoitjustice.Also,avoidargumentsthatrequireevidenceyoudonothave.Therearesomeargumentsthatrequireagreatdealofresearchtoprove—onlytacklethesetopicsifyouhavethetime,space,andresources.
9.3.5:Methods
Amethodssectionisadetaileddescriptionofhowastudywasresearchedandconducted.
LearningObjective
Identifytheelementsofasuccessfulmethodssection
KeyPoints
Scientificobjectivityrequiresthatyourpaperhaveatestablehypothesisandreproducibleresults.Yourmethodssectionshouldincludeallinformationnecessaryforyourreaderstoexactlyrecreateyourexperiment;thisgivesothersachancetotestyourfindingsanddemonstratesthatyourprojectmeetsthecriteriaofscientificobjectivity.Toprovethatyourpapermeetsthosecriteria,youneedtoincludeadetaileddescriptionofhowyouconductedyourexperimentandreachedyourconclusions.Specifically,yourmethodssectionshouldincludedetailsaboutyourassumptions,yourvariablesandparticipants,andwhatmaterialsandmetricsyouused—essentially,anyimportantinformationaboutwhen,where,andhowthestudywasconducted.
KeyTerms
IMRAD
Currentlythemostprominentnormforthestructureofascientificpaper;anacronymfor“introduction,methods,results,anddiscussion.”
testable
Alsoknownasfalsifiable;abletobedisproven.
reproducible
Capableofbeingreproducedatadifferenttimeorplaceandbydifferent
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people.
IMRAD:TheMethodsSectionYourmethodssectionshouldincludeafull,technicalexplanationofhowyouconductedyourresearchandfoundyourresults.Itshoulddescribeyourassumptions,questions,simulations,materials,participants,andmetrics.
Becausethemethodssectionisgenerallyreadbyaspecializedaudiencewithaninterestinthetopic,ituseslanguagethatmaynotbeeasilyunderstoodbynon-specialists.Technicaljargon,extensivedetails,andaformaltoneareexpected.
Themethodssectionshouldbeasthoroughaspossiblesincethegoalistogivereadersalltheinformationnecessaryforthemtorecreateyourexperiments.Scientificpapersneedathoroughdescriptionofmethodologyinordertoprovethataprojectmeetsthecriteriaofscientificobjectivity:atestablehypothesisandreproducibleresults.
PurposeoftheMethodsSection:TestabilityHypothesesbecomeacceptedtheoriesonlywhentheirexperimentalresultsarereproducible.Thatmeansthatiftheexperimentisconductedthesamewayeverytime,itshouldalwaysgeneratethesame,orsimilar,results.Toensurethatlaterresearcherscanreplicateyourresearch,andtherebydemonstratethatyourresultsarereproducible,itisimportantthatyouexplainyourprocessveryclearlyandprovideallofthedetailsthatwouldbenecessarytorepeatyourexperiment.Thisinformationmustbeaccurate—evenonemistakenmeasurementortypocouldchangetheprocedureandresultsdrastically.
ExampleMethodsSectionThefollowingisanexampleofamethodssectionofascientificpaper:
“Thestudyfocusedonathree-hundred-milestretchoftheColumbiaRiver,whichhasbeenthestretchoftherivermoststudiedhistorically.Five
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locationswereselected,eachsixtymilesapart.Eachlocationhadthreedifferentwatersamplesselectedforthreelevelsofthewater:surfacewater(3-inchdepth),mid-levelwater(12-inchdepth),andwaterfromthebottomoftheriver(36-inchdepth).Samplesweretakenthreetimesaday,sevendaysaweek,duringaperiodstretchingfromthefourthmonthbeforeuntilthefourthmonthaftertheyear’ssalmonrun.”
9.3.6:Results
Theresultssectionofascientificpaperobjectivelypresentstheempiricaldatacollectedinastudy.
LearningObjective
Identifytheinformationthatbelongsintheresultssection
KeyPoints
Afterdiscussingthemethodologyofyourstudy,describetheoutcomesthatyoumeasuredorobserved.Whenpresentingthefindings,avoiddrawingconclusions.Insteadprovideandexplainthedatayoucollected.Thisisyouropportunitytotellthereaderwhatyoufoundwithoutdrawinganyexplicitconclusionsfromit.Usecharts,tables,orgraphstopresentyourfindingsinawaythatisclearandeasilyunderstood.
KeyTerms
summary
Acondensedversionofthebackgroundormainideasofatext.
results
Thesectionofascientificpaperthatobjectivelypresentsthedatacollectedorobservedinaresearchstudy.
methodology
Adetailedexplanationofspecificcomponentsofaresearchproject,suchasphases,tasks,methods,techniques,andtools.
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WritingtheResultsSectionTheresultssectioniswhereyoustatetheoutcomeofyourexperiments.Itshouldincludeempiricaldata,anyrelevantgraphics,andlanguageaboutwhetherthethesisorhypothesiswassupported.Thinkoftheresultssectionasthecold,hardfacts.
Style
Sincethegoalofthescientificpaperistopresentfacts,useaformal,objectivetonewhenwriting.Avoidadjectivesandadverbs;insteadusenounsandverbs.Passivevoiceisacceptablehere:youcansay“Thestreamwasfoundtocontain0.27PPMmercury,”ratherthan“Ifoundthatthestreamcontained0.27PPMmercury.”
PresentingInformation
Usingcharts,graphs,andtablesisanexcellentwaytoletyourresultsspeakforthemselves.Manyword-processingandspreadsheetprogramshavetoolsforcreatingthesevisualaids.However,makesureyouremembertotitleeachfigure,provideanaccompanyingdescription,andlabelallaxessothatyourreaderscanunderstandexactlywhatthey’relookingat.
WasYourHypothesisSupported?
Thisisthepartwhereitisthemostdifficulttobeobjective.Ifyoufollowedthescientificmethod,youbeganyourresearchwithahypothesis.Nowthatyouhavecompletedyourresearch,youhavefoundthateitheryourhypothesiswassupportedoritwasnot.Intheresultssection,donotattempttoexplainwhyorwhynotyourhypothesiswassupported.Simplysay,“Theresultswerenotfoundtobestatisticallysignificant,”or“Theresultssupportedthehypothesis,with significance,”orthelike.Beobjective—therewillbetimeforinterpretationlater.
GettingReadyfortheConclusionItwillbetemptingtostartdrawingconclusionsasyouwritetheresultssection.Youmayalsowanttocompareyourresultstotheoutcomesofother
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researchers’experiments.Resisttheurge!You’llgetyourchancetodrawconclusionsintheconclusionsection.Themostyoushoulddointheresultssectionispresentthedatayourexperimentsproduced.Thinkofitaslayingthefoundationforwhatyouwillconcludelateroninyourpaper.
9.3.7:DiscussionandConclusion
Thediscussionsectionofascientificpaperanalyzesandinterpretstheresultsofastudy,whiletheconclusionexplainsimplicationsforfurtherresearch.
LearningObjective
Differentiatebetweenthediscussionsectionandtheconclusion
KeyPoints
Thediscussionsectionshouldbrieflyremindthereaderofyourresearchquestionandprincipalfindings,andtheninterpretyourresults.Besuretoacknowledgeotherpossibleinterpretationsofyourresultsinthediscussionssection,andadmityourproject’slimitations.Inyourconclusion,restatetheresearchquestion,themainresults,andthemeaningofthoseresults.However,avoidsimplyrepeatingyourdiscussionsection.Inyourconclusionyoumayalsodiscussthesignificanceofyourresearchforfutureresearch,publicpolicy,personaldecision-making,orotherspheresofinfluence.
KeyTerms
conclusion
Theend,finish,close,orlastpartofsomething.
discussion
Textgivingfurtherdetailonasubject.
DiscussionThediscussionsectionofascientificpapershouldinterprettheresultsofyourresearch.First,brieflyremindyourreaderofyourresearchquestionand
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principalfindingsbybrieflyrestatingthesepoints.Thenexplaintheresultsthemselves.Discusshowtheyfit(ordonotfit)yourhypothesis,andwhethertheyareconsistentwiththeresultsofsimilarresearchprojects.Didyouencounteranythingsurprisingoridiosyncratic?Ifso,whyisitsignificant?Whatmighthavecausedit?Buildontheresearchquestionyouposedintheintroduction,andthecontextyouestablishedintheliteraturereview.Makeacaseforthemeaningandsignificanceofyourfindings,andsupportyourcasebyconnectingittorelatedresearch.
Acknowledgeotherpossibleinterpretationsofyourresults,andadmityourproject’slimitations.Yourargumentwillbemoreconvincingifyoucananticipateyourreader’spotentialobjectionstoyourclaimsandaddressthemdirectlyinthediscussionsection.Forexample,generalizability(orhowapplicableastudy’sresultsaretoamoregeneralpopulation)ismorelimitedwithasmallerorlesshomogeneoussample.Ifyourresearchsampleissmallorlimited,besuretoacknowledgethoselimitationsandaddresshowtheymighthaveaffectedtheresults.
Ifyourinterpretationhasbroaderimplications,youcaneithersuggesttheminthediscussionsectionorintroducetheminaseparateconclusion.Youdon’thavetowriteaconclusionifyourpointsfitneatlyintothediscussionsection,butaconclusionishelpfulifyouwanttomakesuggestionsthatstretchbeyondthescopeofyourproject.
ConclusionTheconclusionsectionisnotstrictlynecessaryinthesocialsciences,butitcanbehelpfultoprovideasuccinctsummaryofyourwork.Itisalsoagoodplacetomakeboldspeculationsabouttheimplicationsofyourproject.Youshoulddiscuss,somewhereinyourpaper,thesignificanceofyourresearchforfutureresearch,publicpolicy,personaldecision-making,orotherspheresofinfluence.Butthinkcarefullyaboutwhetheryoucouldbenefitfromthedistancingeffectofputtingtheseimplicationsinaseparateconclusion.
Theconclusionshouldnotrepeatyourdiscussionsection.Itshouldtakeonetothreeparagraphstorestatetheresearchquestion,themainresults,andthemeaningofthoseresults.Theconclusionthenreachesbeyondthesuggestionsyoumadeinthebodyofthepapertoemphasizetheimportanceoftheresultsandtheirpotentialconsequences.
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Conclusion
Conclusionshavebeenanimportantpartofwritingforcenturies.
Attributions
PrinciplesofWritingintheSciences
“Boundless.”http://www.boundless.com/.BoundlessLearningCCBY-SA3.0.
“Objectivity(science).”http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Objectivity_(science).WIKIPEDIACCBY-SA3.0.
“Casestudy.”http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Case_study.WIKIPEDIACCBY-SA3.0.
“IMRAD.”http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IMRAD.WikipediaCCBY-SA3.0.
“Precision.”http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Precision.WikipediaCCBY-SA3.0.
“Socialscience.”http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Social_science.WIKIPEDIACCBY-SA3.0.
“Literaturereview.”http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Literature_review.WIKIPEDIACCBY-SA3.0.
“Naturalscience.”http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Natural_science.
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WIKIPEDIACCBY-SA3.0.
“Casestudy.”https://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/Introduction_to_Psychology/Case_StudiesWikibooksCCBY-SA3.0.
“RhetoricandComposition/WritingintheSciences.”http://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/Rhetoric_and_Composition/Writing_in_the_SciencesWikibooksCCBY-SA3.0.
“objectivity.”http://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/objectivity.WiktionaryCCBY-SA3.0.
“bias.”http://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/bias.WiktionaryCCBY-SA3.0.
“TesttubesandotherrecipientsinchemistrylabbyHoriaVarlaninTesttubeonFotopedia-ImagesforHumanity.”http://www.fotopedia.com/items/flickr-4273968004.FotopediaCCBY-SA3.0.
OverviewoftheIMRADModel
“Boundless.”http://www.boundless.com/.BoundlessLearningCCBY-SA3.0.
“RhetoricandComposition/WritingintheSciences.”http://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/Rhetoric_and_Composition/Writing_in_the_Sciences%23Social_SciencesWikibooksCCBY-SA3.0.
“result.”http://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/result.WiktionaryCCBY-SA3.0.
“literaturereview.”http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/literature%20review.WikipediaCCBY-SA3.0.
“SocialResearchMethods/ReadingandWritingSocialResearch.”http://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/Social_Research_Methods/Reading_and_Writing_Social_ResearchWikibooksCCBY-SA3.0.
“RoyalAcademySchool-ScientistsofNote|Flickr-PhotoSharing!.”http://www.flickr.com/photos/swanksalot/6298615953/.FlickrCCBY-SA.
AbstractIntroductionandThesis
“Boundless.”http://www.boundless.com/.BoundlessLearningCCBY-SA3.0.
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“Devcompage|Alearningresourceondevelopmentcommunication.”http://devcompage.com/.devcompageCCBY-SA.
“thesisstatement.”http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/thesis%20statement.WikipediaCCBY-SA3.0.
“introduction.”http://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/introduction.WiktionaryCCBY-SA3.0.
“TheCainProjectinEngineeringandProfessionalCommunication,ThreeModulesonClearWritingStyle:AnIntroductiontoTheCraftofArgument,byJosephM.WilliamsandGregoryColomb.September17,2013.”http://cnx.org/content/m17223/latest/?collection=col10551/latest.OpenStaxCNXCCBY3.0.
“RhetoricandComposition/WritingintheSciences.”http://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/Rhetoric_and_Composition/Writing_in_the_Sciences%23Social_SciencesWikibooksCCBY-SA3.0.
“SocialResearchMethods/ReadingandWritingSocialResearch.”http://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/Social_Research_Methods/Reading_and_Writing_Social_ResearchWikibooksCCBY-SA3.0.
”GoogleImageResultforhttp://s0.geograph.org.uk/photos/93/28/932893_55ff837b.jpg.”http://www.google.com/imgres?hl=en&sa=X&biw=1334&bih=723&tbs=sur:fmc&tbm=isch&tbnid=Eui9_9JhKzNXRM:&imgrefurl=http://www.geograph.org.uk/photo/932893&docid=VfK4jFPSAn-90M&imgurl=http://s0.geograph.org.uk/photos/93/28/932893_55ff837b.jpg&w=640&h=480&ei=IBe6T4aXD-HG6AHirfjDCg&zoom=1&iact=hc&vpx=188&vpy=63&dur=29&hovh=193&hovw=258&tx=148&ty=96&sig=107678383186574758964&page=1&tbnh=142&tbnw=200&start=0&ndsp=13&ved=1t:429,r:0,s:0,i:148GoogleCCBY-SA.
“300Socialsciences|Flickr-PhotoSharing!.”http://www.flickr.com/photos/helder/147680983/in/photostream/.FlickrCCBY-SA.
Methods
“IMRAD.”http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IMRAD.WikipediaCCBY-SA3.0.
“RhetoricandComposition/WritingintheSciences.”http://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/Rhetoric_and_Composition/Writing_in_the_SciencesWikibooksCCBY-SA3.0.
“reproducible.”http://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/reproducible.WiktionaryCCBY-SA3.0.
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Results
“Boundless.”http://www.boundless.com/.BoundlessLearningCCBY-SA3.0.
“result.”http://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/result.WiktionaryCCBY-SA3.0.
“summary.”http://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/summary.WiktionaryCCBY-SA3.0.
“methodology.”http://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/methodology.WiktionaryCCBY-SA3.0.
“RhetoricandComposition/WritingintheSciences.”http://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/Rhetoric_and_Composition/Writing_in_the_Sciences%23Elements_of_the_Natural_Sciences_PaperWikibooksCCBY-SA3.0.
DiscussionandConclusion
“Boundless.”http://www.boundless.com/.BoundlessLearningCCBY-SA3.0.
“conclusion.”http://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/conclusion.WiktionaryCCBY-SA3.0.
“discussion.”http://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/discussion.WiktionaryCCBY-SA3.0.
“RhetoricandComposition/WritingintheSciences.”http://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/Rhetoric_and_Composition/Writing_in_the_Sciences%23Social_SciencesWikibooksCCBY-SA3.0.
“SocialResearchMethods/ReadingandWritingSocialResearch.”http://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/Social_Research_Methods/Reading_and_Writing_Social_ResearchWikibooksCCBY-SA3.0.
“conclusion.png.”https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Collier_conclusion.jpg.WikimediaCommonsPublicdomain.
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9.4:WritinginBusiness9.4.1:IntroductiontoWritinginBusiness
Businesswritingconsistsofmanydifferenttypes,allofwhichrequireaspecifictoneandorganizationalstructure.
LearningObjective
Listthestylisticelementsofsuccessfulbusinesswriting
KeyPoints
Businesswritingincludesreports,memos,PRcommunications,email,socialmedia,andmuchmore.Eachtypeofbusinesswritinghasadifferentaudience,purpose,organization,andstyle.Businesswritingisalwaysformalandusesathird-personvoice(“he,”“she,”“they”).Concisionisextremelyimportantinbusinesswriting.Eliminateanylanguagethatisnotessentialtoyourpurpose.
KeyTerms
primaryaudience
Thereaderorreadersforwhomapieceofwritingisintended.
secondaryaudience
Thereaderorreaderswhomayalsoreadapieceofwriting,evenifthepiecewasnotoriginallyintendedforthem.
genre
Acategoryortypeofwriting.
Businesswritinghaschangedagreatdealsincethedaysoftypedmemosandreports.Whilereportsandmemosareofcoursestillrelevant,theworldofbusinesswritinghasexpandedtoincludeemail,PRcommunications,socialmedia,andmuchmore.Eachgenreofbusinesswritingcarriesitsown
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conventionsoforganization,voice,andaudience.
GenreSomeofthewritinggenresyouwillencounterinthebusinessworldincludethefollowing:resumesandcoverletters,proposals,instructions,businessandsalesletters,emails,businessplans,caseanalyses,memoranda,performancereviews,andprofessionalbiographies.Theaudiencesandpurposeswillvarywitheachtypeofwriting(andevenwithingenresthemselves).
OrganizationDifferenttypesofbusinesswritingrequiredifferentpatternsoforganization.Dependingonwhetheryouwanttosimplyinform,conveygoodnews,makeadirectrequest,conveybadnews,orpersuadeyouraudienceofsomething,youmightchoosefromanyofthefollowingorganizationalstructures:
Directandtothepoint;startsrightawaywithaproblemorrequestDetailedexplanation:statetheproblemandofferideasforsolutionsPresentideasandevidencefirst,thenconclusionsorrecommendations
Style,Voice,andToneWritinginthebusinessworldisalwaysformalandusesathird-personvoice(“he,”“she,”“they”),althoughyoumayusecontractionstosoundmorenatural.Insomecases,suchasemailsandsalesletters,aslightlylessformaltone(“I”and“you”)ispermissible,butthesubjectandvoiceshouldalwaysremainbusinesslike.Aboveall,lessismore—beasconciseaspossible,eliminatingneedlesswordsthatarenotessentialtoyourpurpose.
AudienceYouprobablyalreadyknowhowtoproperlyaddresstheprimaryaudience(thepersonorpersonswhoaretheintendedrecipients).It’salsocrucialtorememberthatanyandallformsofbusinesswritingshouldbeappropriateforsecondaryaudiencesaswell(i.e.,peopleorgroupsforwhomthewritingmay
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nothavebeenoriginallyintended,butwhomightreaditanyway).Forexample,youmightsubmitaproposaltoyourdirectsupervisor(yourprimaryaudience),whointurnmaypassitontohisorhersupervisor,ataskforceorcommittee,orsomeothersecondaryaudience.
Attributions
IntroductiontoWritinginBusiness
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10:WritingaPaperinMLAStyle(Humanities)
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10.1:IntroductiontoMLAStyle10.1.1:WhentoUseMLAStyle
MLAstyle,createdbytheModernLanguageAssociationofAmerica,istheprimarycitationstyleusedforpapersinliteratureandmediastudies.
LearningObjective
RecognizewhentouseMLAstyleinwriting
KeyPoints
Ifyoutakeawritingorliteratureclassincollege,youwillalmostcertainlyneedtowriteallyourpapersinMLAstyle.MLAstyleisthehousestyleoftheModernLanguageAssociationofAmerica(MLA).MLAstyleprovidesguidelinesforevaluatinganddocumentingsources.
KeyTerm
MLAstyle
Acommoncitationandformattingstyleusedincomposition,literature,andmediastudies.
MLAstyleisoneofthemostcommoncitationandformattingstylesyouwillencounterinyouracademiccareer.AnypieceofacademicwritingcanuseMLAstyle,fromaone-pagepapertoafull-lengthbook.ItiswidelyusedbyinmanyhighschoolandintroductorycollegeEnglishclasses,aswellasscholarlybooksandprofessionaljournals.Ifyouarewritingapaperforaliteratureormediastudiesclass,itislikelyyourprofessorwillaskyoutowriteinMLAstyle.
TheTwoMLAStyleGuidesMLAstyle,thehousestyleoftheModernLanguageAssociationofAmerica(MLA),hastwoofficialpublications.Themostrecentlypublishededitionsof
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bothworkshavebeenupdatedinlightofadvancementsincomputerword-processingprogramsandelectronicanddigitalpublishingpractices.
ForStudents
ThefirstMLAstyleguideistheMLAHandbook.Thispublicationtargetshighschoolandcollegestudentsandteachers,explainingthestyleandformattingrulesrelevanttostudentwriting;thisisthepublicationofmostinteresttoyou.ThemostrecentversionoftheMLAHandbookistheeighthedition,publishedin2016.
ForAcademicProfessionals
ThesecondistheMLAStyleManualandGuidetoScholarlyPublishing,calledtheMLAStyleManualforshort.Thispublicationtargetsacademicscholarsandprofessors,explainingthestyleandformattingrulesrelevanttothepublicationofMLA-stylebooksandjournalarticlesinliteratureandmediastudies.ThemostrecentversionoftheMLAStyleManualisthethirdedition,publishedin2008.
Followingtheadventofthe8theditionoftheMLAHandbookinspring2016,theMLAstatedthattheMLAStyleManualwouldbedeclaredoutofprinteffectiveSeptember1,2016.
ThePurposeoftheMLAHandbookTheMLAstyleguideaimstoaccomplishseveralgoals:
1. todefineplagiarismandexplainhowtoavoidit;2. toprovideguidelinesforevaluatingthereliabilityofsources;3. toensureproperattributionofideastotheiroriginalsources,forthesake
ofacademichonestyandintertextualdialogue;4. andtoensureconsistentformattingandpresentationofinformation,for
thesakeofclarityandeaseofnavigation.
Attributions
WhentoUseMLAStyle
“MLAHandbookforWritersofResearchPapers.”
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/MLA_Handbook_for_Writers_of_Research_PapersWikipediaCCBY-SA3.0.
“MLAStyleManual.”https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/MLA_Style_Manual.WikipediaCCBY-SA3.0.
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10.2:MLA:QuotationsandCitations10.2.1:MLA:BlockQuotations
InMLAstyle,formatquotationsofmorethanfourlinesofproseormorethanthreelinesofverseasblockquotations.
LearningObjective
RecognizewhentouseblockquotationsinMLAstyle
KeyPoints
Aregularquotationispartofasentencewithinaparagraphinyourpaper;however,forlongerquotations(morethanfourlinesofprose,ormorethanthreelinesofverse),formattheexcerptasablockquotation.Ablockquotationbeginsonitsownline,isnotenclosedinquotationmarks,and—ifapplicable—hasanin-textcitationafterthefinalpunctuation.Blockquotationsaredouble-spaced,liketherestofyourpaper,andindentedhalfaninchfromtheleftmargin.
WhentoUseaBlockQuotationAtypicalquotationisenclosedindoublequotationmarksandispartofasentencewithinaparagraphofyourpaper.However,ifyouwanttoquotemorethanfourlinesofprose(orthreelinesofverse)fromasource,youshouldformattheexcerptasablockquotation,ratherthanasaregularquotationwithinthetextofaparagraph.Mostofthestandardrulesforquotationsstillapply,withthefollowingexceptions:ablockquotationwillbeginonitsownline,itwillnotbeenclosedinquotationmarks,anditsin-textcitationwillcomeaftertheendingpunctuation,notbeforeit.
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Blockquotation
Anexampleofaproperlyformattedblockquotation
SpacingandAlignmentTheentireblockquotationshouldbeindentedhalfaninchfromtheleftmargin.Thefirstlineoftheexcerptshouldnotbefurtherindented,unlessyouarequotingmultipleparagraphs—inwhichcasethefirstlineofeachquotedparagraphshouldbefurtherindented0.25inches.
Tobettervisuallydistinguishablockquotationfromthesurroundingtext,besuretoleaveanextra(blank)linebothaboveandbelowyourblockquotation.
Ifquotingmorethanthreelinesofverse,maintaintheoriginallinebreaks.
10.2.2:MLA:In-TextCitationsandParentheticals
InMLA,therearedifferentformatsforcitingsourcesintextdependingonthetypeofsource.
LearningObjective
Arrangein-textcitationsinMLAstyle
KeyPoints
In-textcitationsarewhereyoutellthereader,withinthetextofyourpaper,whichsourceyouareciting.Thecorrectformattingforanin-textcitationvariesdependingonhowmanyauthorscreatedtheworkbeingcited.Formattingalsovariesdependingonwhetheryoucitethesamesourcemorethanonce,whetheryoucitemultipleworksbythesameauthor,and
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whetheryoucitesourceswithpagenumbers.
Inyourpaper,whenyouquotedirectlyfromasourceintheirwords,orwhenyouparaphrasesomeoneelse’sidea,youneedtotellthereaderwhatthatsourceissotheauthorgetscreditfortheirwordsandideas.Whenyoutellthereaderwhichsourceyouarereferringtowithinthetextofyourpaper,thisiscalledanin-textcitation.
SourcebyaSingleAuthorTocitethistypeofreferenceinthetext,youshouldusewhatisknownasaparenthetical—thecitationinformationenclosedinparentheses—attheendoftherelevantsentence.Theparentheticalshouldincludesimplytheauthor’slastname(withnofirstormiddleinitial).Ifyou’recitingadirectquote,youalsoneedtoincludethepagenumber.Forexample:
Socialrepresentationstheorypositsthatreifiedscientificknowledgethatexistsattheboundariesofagivensocietywillbeinterpretedinmeaningfulandoftensimplifiedformsbythemajority(Pauling113).Socialrepresentationstheory“proposesanewhypothesis…”(Pauling113).
Ifyouchoose,youcanintegratetheauthor’snameintothesentenceitself—thisisknownasa“signalphrase”—andprovidejustthepagenumberinparentheses:
Pauling(113)positsthat“scientificknowledge…”
SourcebyTwoAuthorsAuthorsshouldbepresentedintheorderinwhichtheyarelistedonthepublishedarticle.Ifyouincludetheauthors’namesintheparenthetical,usetheword“and”betweenthetwonames.Forexample:
Socialrepresentationstheorypositsthatreifiedscientificknowledgethatexistsattheboundariesofagivensocietywillbeinterpretedinmeaningfulandoftensimplifiedformsbythemajority(PaulingandLiu113).
Usingasignalphrase:
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PaulingandLiu(113)positthat…
SourcebyThreeorMoreAuthorsForanarticlewiththreeormoreauthors,tosavespaceandtomakeyourpapereasiertoread,youshoulduseonlythefirstauthor’slastnamefollowedby“etal.”,andthenthepagenumber,ifapplicable(“etal.”isshortfor“etalia,”whichmeans“andotherpeople”inLatin—muchlike“etc.”isshortfor“etcetera,”whichmeans“andotherthings”inLatin.):
(Paulingetal.113)
Usingasignalphrase:
Paulingetal.(113)posit…
SourcebyNoKnownAuthorForanarticlewithnoknownauthor,usethesourcetitleinplaceoftheauthor’sname,formattedasitwouldbe(i.e.,italicizedorenclosedinquotationmarks)inyourWorksCitedsection:
(“BilingualMinds,BilingualBodies”4)
Usingasignalphrase:
Thearticle“BilingualMinds,BilingualBodies”(4)claims…
MultiplePublicationsbyDifferentAuthorsIfyouneedtocitemultiplepublicationsbydifferentauthorsinthesamesentence,youshouldlistthemultiplesourcesinalphabeticalorderbyauthoranduseasemicolontoseparatethem.
…majority(Alford24;Pauling113;Sirkis96).
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MultiplePublicationsbytheSameAuthorIfanauthorhasmultiplepublicationsthatyouwanttociteinthesamesentence,includetheauthor’snameinasignalphraseandthetitlesofthereferencedsourcesinsteadintheparentheticals:
Achenbach’srecentresearch(“BibliographyofPublishedStudies”17)demonstratesaradicalshiftinthinkingfromhisstanceofadecadeago(“School-AgeAssessments”39)…
SourceWithoutPageNumbersIfyouneedtociteasourcewithoutpagenumbers,includeotherlocationinformationifitthatinformationisconsistentlyavailabletoallusers.Forexample,ifyou’recitinganebookwithoutpagenumbers,includeacommafollowedbythechapternumberinstead:
(PaulingandLiu,ch.6)
Usingasignalphrase:
PaulingandLiu(ch.6)positthat…
10.2.3:MLA:TheWorksCitedSection
InMLAstyle,thesourcesyouciteinyourpaperarelistedalltogetherattheend,intheWorksCitedsection.
LearningObjective
ArrangetheWorksCitedsectioninMLAstyle
KeyPoints
InMLAstyle,allthesourcesyoucitethroughoutthetextofyourpaperarelistedtogetherattheend,intheWorksCitedsection.ThereareninecoreelementsofaWorksCitedentry:Author.Titleof
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source.Titleofcontainer,Othercontributors,Version,Number,Publisher,Publicationdate,Location.Eachelementisfollowedbyacommaoraperiod(asshown),thoughthefinalelementinaWorksCitedentryisalwaysfollowedbyaperiod.OnlytheelementsrelevanttoaparticularsourceshouldbeincludedinitsWorksCitedentry.TheWorksCitedsectionisarrangedalphabetically.Inaddition,thefirstandsubsequentlinesofeachcitationshouldbeindentedahalfaninchfromtheleftmargin.
InMLAstyle,allthesourcesyoucitethroughoutthetextofyourpaperarelistedtogetherinfullintheWorksCitedsection,whichcomesafterthemaintextofyourpaper.
ConstructingaCitationThereareninecoreelementsofaWorksCitedentry:
1. Author.2. Titleofsource.3. Titleofcontainer,4. Othercontributors,5. Version,6. Number,7. Publisher,8. Publicationdate,9. Location.
Eachelementisfollowedbyacommaoraperiod(asshown),thoughthefinalelementinaWorksCitedentryisalwaysfollowedbyaperiod.
OnlytheelementsrelevanttoaparticularsourceshouldbeincludedinitsWorksCitedentry.
Abriefexplanationofeachofthenineelementsfollows.ConsulttheMLAHandbook,8thEditionformoreinformation.TheMLAwebsitealsocontainsahelpfulguide,includingapracticetemplate:
1.Author.
Ifthesourceiswrittenbyoneauthor,thecitationshouldbeginwiththe
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author’slastname,acomma,therestoftheauthor’sname,andthenaperiod.Forexample,ifyou’recitingasourcewrittenbyZadieSmith,thecitationshouldbegin:
Smith,Zadie.
Ifthesourceiswrittenbytwoauthors,thecitationshouldbeginwiththefirstauthor’slastname,acomma,therestofthefirstauthor’sname,acomma,thesecondauthor’sfullname(inthenormalorder),andthenaperiod.Forexample,ifyou’recitingasourcewrittenbyMarkTwainandCharlesDudleyWarner,thecitationshouldbegin:
Twain,Mark,andCharlesDudleyWarner.
Ifthesourceiswrittenbythreeormoreauthors,thecitationshouldbeginwiththefirstauthor’slastname,acomma,therestofthefirstauthor’sname,acomma,andthenet.al.,whichmeans“andothers.”Forexample,ifyou’recitingasourcewrittenbyWayneC.Booth,GregoryG.Colomb,andJosephM.Williams,thecitationshouldbegin:
Booth,WayneC.,etal.
2.TitleofSource.
IfthesourceiswhattheMLAHandbookdescribesas“self-containedandindependent,”suchasabookoracollectionofessays,stories,orpoemsbymultipleauthors,includethetitleinitalics,followedbyaperiod.Forexample,ifyou’recitingZadieSmith’snovelSwingTime,thecitationshouldbegin:
Smith,Zadie.SwingTime.
Ifthesource,ontheotherhand,isaworkthatappearswithinalargerwork,suchasapoemthatappearswithananthology,includethetitleinquotationsmarksinstead.(Makesurethattheperiodfollowingthetitleappearsinsidetheclosingquotationmark.)Forexample,ifyou’recitingSeamusHeaney’spoem“Digging”fromhiscollectionDeathofNaturalist,thecitationshouldbegin:
Heaney,Seamus.“Digging.”
3.TitleofContainer,
Acontainer,inthiscontext,isthelargerworkthatcontainstheshorterworkbeingcited.SeamusHeaney’spoetrycollectionDeathofaNaturalist,for
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example,isthecontainerforhispoem“Digging.”
Ifthesourceyou’recitingappearswithinacontainer,continuethecitationbyincludingthetitleofthecontainerinitalics,followedbyacomma:
Heaney,Seamus.“Digging.”DeathofaNaturalist,
Here’sanotherexample.Inthiscase,thewebsiteSlateisthecontainerforthearticle“HackersBreachedSanFrancisco’sTransitSystemandDemandedaRansom”:
Grabar,Henry.“HackersBreachedSanFrancisco’sTransitSystemandDemandedaRansom”Slate,
4.Othercontributors,
Sometimesthereareothercontributorstoawork—inadditiontotheauthororauthors—whoshouldbeincludedintheWorksCitedentry.Includeacontributoriftheircontributionhelpsfurtheridentifytheworkoriftheircontributionisparticularlyrelevanttoyourresearch.
IfyouincludeacontributorinyourworkCitedentry,addadescriptionofthecontribution(“adaptedby,”“directedby,”“editedby,”“illustratedby,”etc.),followedbythefullnameofthecontributorandacomma.
Forexample,ifyou’recitingaworkthathasbeentranslatedfromanotherlanguage,continuethecitationbyincludingthephrase“translatedby”followedbythefullnameofthetranslatorandacomma:
Calvino,Italo.InvisibleCities.TranslatedbyWilliamWeaver,
Or,forexample,ifyourresearchrelatestotheillustrationscontainedwithinawork,continuethecitationbyincludingthephrase“Illustratedby”followedbythefullnameoftheillustratorandacomma:
Bloom,AmyBeth.LittleSweetPotato.IllustratedbyNoahZ.Jones,
5.Version,
Someworksarepublishedindifferentversionsoreditions.Ifyou’recitingaparticularversionofawork,continuethecitationbyincludingtheversionfollowedbyacomma.Herearetwoexamples:
Nelson,Philip.BiologicalPhysics:Energy,Information,Life.UpdatedVersion,
King,LauraA.TheScienceofPsychology:AnAppreciativeReview.3rded.,
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6.Number,
Similarly,someworksarepublishedinmultiplenumbers,volumes,issues,episodes,orseasons.Ifyou’recitingaparticularnumberofawork,continuethecitationbyincludingthenumberfollowedbyacomma.Hereareafewexamples:
“IndigenousRightsinCanada:ContestedWilderness.”TheEconomist,Vol.421,Number9017,
Kirkman,Rodman.TheWalkingDead.IllustratedbyCharlieAdlardandCliffRathburn,Vol.4:TheHeart’sDesire,
“Airport2010.”ModernFamily.WrittenbyDanO’ShannonandBillWrubel,season1,episode22,
7.Publisher,
Ifthesourceisdistributedbyapublisher,blognetwork,orotherorganization,continuethecitationbyincludingthepublisher,followedbyacomma.Herearetwoexamples:
Miranda,Lin-Manuel,andJeremyMcCarter.Hamilton:TheRevolution.GrandCentralPublishing,
McMillan,Robert.“HerCodeGotHumansontheMoon—andInventedSoftwareItself.”Wired,CondéNast,
8.PublicationDate,
Continuethecitationbyincludingtheavailablepublicationdateinformationmostrelevanttoyoursource,followedbyacomma.Ifyou’recitingabook,forexample,acopyrightyearwillsuffice:
Fish,Stanley.HowMiltonWorks.BelknapPress,2001,
Ifyou’recitingatweet,ontheotherhand,providetheday,month,year,andtime,assomepeopleandorganizationstweetmorethanonceaday:
@POTUS.“ThisThanksgiving,wegivethanksforourblessings,andworktofulfillthetimelessresponsibilitywehaveasAmericanstoserveothers.”Twitter,24Nov.2016,2:05p.m.,
9.Location.
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Location,inthiscontext,referstothelocation(e.g.pagenumber(s),DOI,URL,etc.)ofasourcewithinacontainerorthephysicallocationofaliveperformance,lecture,orpresentation.Ifapplicable,continuethecitationbyincludingthelocationinformation,followedbyaperiod.Hereareafewexamples:
Heaney,Seamus.“Casualty.”FieldWork:Poems,Farrar,Straux,andGiroux,2009,pp.13-16.
Grabar,Henry.“HackersBreachedSanFrancisco’sTransitSystemandDemandedaRansom,”Slate,TheSlateGroup,28Nov.2016,slate.com/blogs/future_tense/2016/11/28/san_francisco_muni_hacked_for_a_ransom_payment.html.
Ernst,Steve,andLizaNeustaetter.“EmpoweringFacultyandStudentswithHighQualityModularCourseware.”OLCAccelerate,18Nov.2016,WaltDisneyWorldSwanandDolphinResort,Orlando.
FormattingtheWorksCitedSectionYourWorksCitedentriesshouldbelistedinalphabeticalorder.
Eachreferenceshouldbeformattedwithwhatiscalledahangingindent.Thismeansthefirstlineofeachcitationshouldbeflushwiththeleftmargin(i.e.,notindented),buttherestofthatcitationshouldbeindentedahalfaninchfromtheleftmargin.Anyword-processingprogramwillletyouformatthisautomaticallysoyoudon’thavetodoitbyhand.(InMicrosoftWord,forexample,yousimplyhighlightyourcitations,clickonthesmallarrowrightnexttotheword“Paragraph”onthehometab,andinthepopupboxchoose“hangingindent”underthe“Special”section.ClickOK,andyou’redone.)
MultiplePublicationsbytheSameAuthor
Ifyouarereferencingmultiplepublicationsbythesameauthor(orgroupofauthors),thereisaspecialrulefordenotingthis.YoushouldfirstorderthosearticlesalphabeticallybysourcetitleintheWorksCitedsection.Then,replacetheauthor’sname(orlistofnames)withthreehyphens,followedbyaperiod,forallbutthefirstentrybythatauthor:
Achenbach,ThomasM.“Bibliographyof….
–.“School-Age…
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WorksCited
AproperlyformattedWorksCitedpage.
Attributions
MLA:BlockQuotations
“OriginalfigurebyLizaNeustaetter.LicensedCCBY-SA4.0.”LizaNeustaetterCCBY-SA3.0.
MLA:In-TextCitationsandParentheticalsMLA:TheWorksCitedSection
“OriginalfigurebyLizaNeustaetter.LicensedCCBY-SA4.0.”LizaNeustaetterCCBY-SA3.0.
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11:WritingaPaperinAPAStyle(SocialSciences)
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11.1:IntroductiontoAPAStyle11.1.1:WhentoUseAPAStyle
APAstyle,whichisbasedontheAmericanPsychologicalAssociationstylemanual,iswidelyusedinmanyformsofacademicwriting.
LearningObjective
RecognizewhentouseAPAstyleinwriting
KeyPoints
APAstyleisoneofthemostcommoncitationandformattingstylesyouwillencounterinyouracademiccareer.APAstyleisbasedonthestyleguideoftheAmericanPsychologicalAssociation(APA),officiallytitledthePublicationManualoftheAmericanPsychologicalAssociation.APAstyleisnotusedonlyinthefieldofpsychology;itisextremelycommonthroughoutthesocialandbehavioralsciences.APAstyleprovidesguidelinesforgrammar,formatting,andcitingyoursources.
KeyTerm
APAstyle
Acommoncitationandformattingstyle,usedespeciallyofteninthesocialandbehavioralsciences.
APAstyleisoneofthemostcommoncitationandformattingstylesyouwillencounterinyouracademiccareer.AnypieceofacademicwritingcanuseAPAstyle,fromaone-pagepapertoafull-lengthbook.Itiswidelyusedbyhundredsofscientificjournalsandmanytextbooks.Ifyouarewritingapaperforapsychologyorsociologyclass,itispossiblethatyourprofessorwillaskyoutowriteinAPAstyle.
TheAPAManual
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APAstyleisbasedonthestyleguideoftheAmericanPsychologicalAssociation(APA),officiallytitledthePublicationManualoftheAmericanPsychologicalAssociation.ButAPAstyleisnotusedonlyinthefieldofpsychology;infact,itisextremelycommonthroughoutthesocialandbehavioralsciences,andsomewhatcommoninotherscientificfields,suchasmedicine.
ThemostrecentversionoftheAPAmanualisthesixthedition,secondprinting(whichcorrectederrorsfoundinthefirstprinting),publishedin2009.Thesixtheditionintroducedguidelinesforcitingonlinesourcesandonline-accessjournalarticles.
ThePurposeofAPAStyleTheAPAstyleguideaimstoaccomplishseveralgoals:
1. toensureconsistentformattingandpresentationofinformation,forthesakeofclarityandeaseofnavigation;
2. toensureproperattributionofideastotheiroriginalsources,forthesakeofintellectualintegrity;and
3. toprovideaclearstructuralscaffoldforanexperimentalpaper,forthesakeofscientificrigor.
GrammarandFormattingAPAstyleincludesmanybasicgrammaticalrules.Forexample,APAstyledoesusetheOxfordcomma,whichsomeothercitationstyles(e.g.,APstyle)donot.Otherexamplesincluderulesaboutwhatpunctuationshouldbeincludedinsideaquotationandwhentousewhattypeofdash.
APAstylealsohasrulesaboutformatting,suchashowtousedifferentlevelsofheadersthroughoutyourpaperandwhatsizemarginsyoushoulduse.
CitationsAPAstylealsoputsforthguidelinesforcitingyoursources—infact,thisiswhyitiscalleda“citationstyle.”Forexample,APAstylehasspecificrulesforwhatinformationtoincludeinyourReferencessection,howtocitequotationswithinaparagraph,andhowtoincorporateblockquotations.
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TheScientificMethodAPAstylerulesarenotlimitedtogrammarandformatting;infact,itwasoriginallydevelopedasasetofguidelinesforwritingwithoutbiasinthesciences.Theguidelinesforreducingbiasinlanguagehavebeenupdatedovertheyearsandprovidepracticalguidanceforwritingaboutrace,ethnicity,age,gender,sexualorientation,anddisabilitystatus.
APAstyleprovidesaroadmapforthestructureofascientificpaperthatcloselymirrorsthescientificmethod,withsectionsfortheIntroduction(includingyourhypothesis),Method,Results,andDiscussion.
11.1.2:OverallStructureandFormattingofanAPAPaper
EverypaperwritteninAPAstylehasthesamebasicstructuralelements.
LearningObjective
IdentifythestructuralelementsofanAPApaper
KeyPoints
AnAPApapershouldincludeatitlepage,anabstract,abody,references,andinsomecases,atableofcontentsand/orendnotes.TherearespecificAPAguidelinesforfont(12ptTimesorTimesNewRoman),linespacing(double-spaced),margins(1inch),indentation,andpagenumbering.WhenwritinganAPApaper,besuretousetheOxfordcomma,andonlyuseonespacefollowingperiods.Listentoyourprofessor’sspecificguidelinesiftheywantyoutouseatableofcontents.
KeyTerm
Oxfordcomma
Thecommathatcomesafterthesecondtolastiteminalist.
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OverallStructureofanAPAPaperYourAPApapershouldincludethefollowingbasicelements:
1. Titlepage2. (Inrarecases)Tableofcontents3. Abstract4. Body5. References6. (Inrarecases)Endnotes
GeneralFormattingRulesFont
Yourpapershouldbewrittenin12-pointTimesorTimesNewRomanfont.
LineSpacing
Alltextinyourpapershouldbedouble-spaced.
Margins
Allpagemargins(top,bottom,left,andright)shouldbe1inch(orgreater,but1inchisstandard).Alltext,withtheexceptionofheaders,shouldbeleft-justified.
Indentation
Thefirstlineofeveryparagraphandfootnoteshouldbeindented1inch(withtheexceptionofthefirstlineofyourAbstract,whichshouldbeginatthemargin).
PageNumbers
PagenumbersinArabicnumerals(1,2,3…)shouldappearright-justifiedintheheaderofeverypage,beginningwiththenumber1onthetitlepage.Most
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word-processingprogramshavetheabilitytoautomaticallyaddthecorrectpagenumbertoeachpagesoyoudon’thavetodothisbyhand.
GeneralGrammarRulesTheOxfordComma
TheOxfordcomma(alsocalledtheserialcomma)isthecommathatcomesafterthesecond-to-lastiteminaseriesorlist.Forexample:
TheUKincludesthecountriesofEngland,Scotland,Wales,andNorthernIreland.
Intheabovesentence,thecommaimmediatelyafter“Wales”istheOxfordcomma.
Ingeneralwritingconventions,whethertheOxfordcommashouldbeusedisactuallyapointofferventdebateamongpassionategrammarians.However,it’sarequirementinAPAstyle,sodouble-checkallyourlistsandseriestomakesureyouincludeit!
CapitalizationAfterColonsandEmDashes
Ifyouhaveacolonoremdash(—)inthemiddleofasentence,andwhatfollowsafterisanindependentclause(i.e.,itcouldbeasentenceonitsown),thewordafterthecolonoremdashshouldbecapitalized(asthoughthefollowingsentencewereonitsown).Forexample:
Therewasonlyonepossibleexplanation:Thetrainhadneverarrived.
Here,“Thetrainhadneverarrived”couldstandasitsownsentencebecauseitisanindependentclause(i.e.,ithasbothasubject—thetrain—andaverbphrase—hadneverarrived).Therefore,wecapitalizeitsfirstwordfollowingthecolon.
However,ifwemakeonesmallchangetothissentence,therulechanges:
Therewasonlyonepossiblepersontoblame:thetrainconductor.
Here,“thetrainconductor”cannotstandasitsownsentence,soitsfirstwordfollowingthecolonisnotcapitalized.
SentenceSpacing
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Itusedtobeconventiontotypetwospacesaftereveryperiod—forexample:
“Marywenttothestore.Sheboughtsomemilk.Thenshewenthome.”
Thisconventionwasdevelopedwhentypewriterswereinuse;thespaceonatypewriterwasquitesmall,sotwospaceswereneededtoemphasizetheendofasentence.However,typewriters,andthereforethispractice,arenowobsolete—infact,usingtwospacesaftersentencesisnowgenerallyfrownedupon.APAstyleinparticularincludesanexplicitruletouseonlysinglespacesafterperiods:
“Marywenttothestore.Sheboughtsomemilk.Thenshewenthome.”
ANoteontheTableofContentsBecauseAPAstyleissooftenusedforjournalarticles,whichappearaspartofalargerbodyofwork,itdoesnotprovideguidelinesfortablesofcontentsfortheindividualpapersthemselves.Ifyourprofessorasksyoutoincludeatableofcontentsinyourpaper,theywillgiveyoutheirownguidelinesforformatting.
Attributions
WhentoUseAPAStyle
“APAstyle.”https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/APA_style.WikipediaCCBY-SA3.0.
OverallStructureandFormattingofanAPAPaper
“Colon(punctuation).”https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Colon_(punctuation).WikipediaCCBY-SA3.0.
“APAstyle.”https://en.wikiversity.org/wiki/APA_style.WikiversityCCBY-SA3.0.
“APAstyle.”http://psychology.wikia.com/wiki/APA_style.PsychologyWikiCCBY-SA3.0.
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11.2:APA:StructureandFormattingofSpecificElements11.2.1:APA:TitlePageandRunningHead
APApapershaveatitlepageanda“runninghead,”oralineatthetopofeverypagetoidentifythepaper.
LearningObjective
ArrangethetitlepageandrunningheadcorrectlyinanAPApaper
KeyPoints
Yourtitlepageshouldbedouble-spaced,justliketherestofyourpaper.Centertheinformationonthetitlepagehorizontallyandvertically.Yourtitlepageshouldincludethetitleofyourpaper,yourname,andthenameofyourschool.TherunningheadisuniquetoAPAstyle.Itmakesthepaperidentifiablewithoutusingthenameoftheauthor.
KeyTerm
runninghead
Aheaderthatdoesnotcontaintheauthor’sname,sothatthepapercanbeevaluatedwithoutbias.
TitlePageLiketherestofyourpaper,yourwholetitlepageshouldbedouble-spaced.Thefollowinginformationshouldbecenteredhorizontallyandverticallyonthetitlepage:
1. onthefirstline,thefulltitleofyourpaper2. onthesecondline,yourname3. onthethirdline,thenameoftheinstitutionyouareaffiliatedwith(e.g.,
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thenameofyourschool)
Theseelementsshouldnotbebolded,underlined,oritalicized.
RunningHeadTherunningheadisanelementuniquetoAPAstyle.Thepurposeoftherunningheadistomakethepaperidentifiablewithoutusingthenameoftheauthor;thisstyleiscommonlyusedinjournalarticles,sincejournalsneedtobeabletoevaluateapaperwithoutbiastowardtheauthor.
Left-justifiedintheheader(i.e.,attheverytop)ofyourtitlepage,youshouldhavethetext“Runninghead:”followedbyanabbreviatedtitleofyourpaperinallcaps.Thisisusuallythefirstseveralwordsofyourtitleandcannotexceed50charactersinlength(includingspaces).Theabbreviatedtitle,stillinallcaps,shouldthenappearatthesameplace—left-justifiedintheheader—oneveryfollowingpageofyourpaper,butwithoutthetext“Runninghead:”precedingit(thatshouldappearonlyonthetitlepage).
Anyword-processingprogramshouldallowyoutoeditthepageheadersothatthesameinformationappearsoneverypage.Youwillhavetochangetheoptionssothatthefirstpageisdifferent,soyoucanincludethetext“Runninghead:”onlyonthetitlepage.Yourheaderandfootershouldappear0.5inchesfromtheedgeofthepage—thisisalsoanoptionyoucanchangeinyourword-processingprogram.
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Titlepage
ThisisanexampleofatitlepageproperlyformattedinAPAstyle.
11.2.2:APA:Abstract
AnAPAabstractshouldsummarizeyourentirepaperandshouldbeformattedaccordingtotheAPAstyleguide.
LearningObjective
ArrangetheabstractcorrectlyinanAPApaper
KeyPoints
Yourabstractshouldappearbyitselfonpage2ofyourpaper;itshouldbenomorethan250wordsandshouldsummarizeyourentirepaper.Theentireabstractshouldbeonlyone,non-indentedparagraph.Someabstractsmustincludekeywords.
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KeyTerm
abstract
Abriefsummaryofapaper.
Yourabstractshouldappearbyitselfonpage2ofyourpaper.Recallthattherunningheadshouldnowappearleft-justifiedintheheaderonthispageandoneverypagethatfollows.(Alsorecallthat,startingonthispage,therunningheadshouldbeonlyyourabbreviatedtitleinallcaps,withoutthewords“Runninghead:”atthebeginning.)
ContentYourabstractshouldbenomorethan250wordsandshouldsummarizeyourentirepaper,fromliteraturereviewtodiscussion.
FormattingThispageshouldsimplybetitled“Abstract”;thetitleshouldbecentered(andnotbolded,underlined,oritalicized)andshouldappearinthefirstline.Theabstractitselfshouldstartonthefollowingline.
Theentireabstractshouldbeonlyoneparagraph,anditistheonlyparagraphinyourpaperthatisnotindentedatthebeginning—theentireparagraphshouldbeleft-justifiedalongthemargin.
Anynumberthatappearsintheabstractshouldbewrittenasanumeral(e.g.,1.5,300)ratherthanspelledout(e.g.,oneandahalf,threehundred)unlessitbeginsasentence—thenitshouldbespelledout(e.g.,“Threehundredchildrenate1.5sandwicheseach”).
Keywords(Optional)APAstylealsoincludesguidelinesforprovidingkeywordsunderyourabstract,butthisisonlyrequiredinsomesituations.Ifyourprofessordoesn’tmentionit,youprobablydon’tneedtoincludethem.
Thatsaid,ifyoudoneedtoincludekeywords,theyshouldappearonthelineimmediatelyafterthelastlineofyourabstract.Beginthelistwiththe
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italicizedword“Keywords:”.Then,includealistof3–10wordsorphrasesrelevanttoyourpapertopic;separatethemwithcommas,anddonotendwithaperiod.Forexample,ifyou’rewritingaboutpeople’sexperiencesofanxietyinstressfulsituations,youmightincludethekeywords“anxiety”and“stress.”
Abstract
ThisisanexampleofanabstractproperlyformattedinAPAstyle.
11.2.3:APA:Headings
InAPAstyle,headingsareusedtoorganizeyourwritingandgiveitahierarchicalorganization.
LearningObjective
OrderheadingscorrectlyinAPAstyle
KeyPoints
InAPAstyle,headingsareusedtoorganizeyourwritingandgiveita
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hierarchicalorganization.Therecanbeuptofivelevelsofheadingsinyourpaper.Someusetitlecase,someusesentencecase.
KeyTerms
titlecase
Aformatinwhichthefirstlettersofmajorwordsarecapitalized.
sentencecase
Aformatinwhichonlythefirstmajorword(andanypropernoun)iscapitalized.
InAPAstyle,headingsareusedtoorganizeyourwritingandgiveitahierarchicalorganization.Thisisespeciallyimportantinpapersthatpresentexperimentalresearchbecausetheyfollowtheparticularlyrigidstructureofthescientificmethod.
APAstyleputsforthspecificrulesforformattingheadings(uptofivelevels)withinyourpaper:
APAheadinghierarchy
ThesearetheformattingrulesfordifferentlevelsofheadingsinAPAstyle.
Ifaheadingissaidtobeintitlecase,thatmeansyoushouldformatitasthoughitwerethetitleofabook,withthefirstlettersofmostmajorwordscapitalized(e.g.,AStudyofColor-BlindnessinDogs).
Ifaheadingissaidtobeinsentencecase,thatmeansyoushouldformatitasthoughitwereanormalsentence,withonlythefirstletterofthefirstword
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(andofanypropernouns)capitalized(e.g.,Astudyofcolor-blindnessindogs).
Youshouldalwaysuseheadinglevelsinthisorder,beginningwithLevel1.So,ifyouhaveapaperwithtwolevelsofheadings,youwoulduseLevel1formattingforthehigherlevelandLevel2formattingforthelowerlevel.Similarly,ifyouhaveapaperwithfivelevelsofheadings,youwoulduseLevel1formattingforthehighestlevelandLevel5formattingforthelowestlevel.
Yourheadingsshouldnotbeginwithsectionnumbers(e.g.,yourMethodssectionshouldbetitledsimply“Methods”,not“2.Introduction”).
Theintroductionofthepapershouldnotbetitled“Introduction”;instead,thepapershouldsimplybeginwiththetitleoftheentirepaper.Notethatthe“Abstract”titleandtheoverallpapertitledonotactuallycountasheadings,sotheyaresimplycenteredandintitlecase,butnotboldedasLevel1headingswouldbe.ThismeansthatthefirstheadingyouuseinyourintroductionwillfollowLevel1formatting,becauseitisthefirstandsoatthehighestlevel.
11.2.4:APA:SeriesandLists
InAPAstyle,therearespecificformatsforseriesandlists.
LearningObjective
DistinguishbetweencorrectlyformattedlistsandseriesinAPAstyle
KeyPoints
Ifyouareincludingasimple,relativelyshortlistofthreetofiveelements,formatitasa“series.”Ifyouhavemorethanfiveelements,oryourelementsarecomplexorimportant,formatitasa“list.”Useabulletedlistiftheorderoftheatomsdoesn’tmatter.Useanumberedlistiftheorderoftheatomsdoesmatter.
KeyTerms
series
Asimple,relativelyshortlistofthreetofiveitemswithinaparagraph.
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element
Anitemwithinaseriesorlist.
SeriesIfyouareincludingasimple,relativelyshortlistofthreetofiveitemswithinaparagraph—alsoknownasaseries—theproperformattingisto:(a)precedethelistwithacomma,(b)labeleachitemwithalowercaseletterenclosedinparentheses,and(c)separateeachitemwithcommasorsemicolons.Theitemswithinaseriesoralistareknownas“elements.”
Asisstandardinmoststyleguides,usesemicolonsratherthancommastoseparatetheelementsoftheseriesifatleastoneoftheelementsincludesacommasomewherewithinit(knownasan“internalcomma”).Forexample:“Josiewassohungrysheate:(a)thebrownie;(b)thecupcake,wrapperandall;and(c)thebowloficecream.”Donotcapitalizethefirstletterofeachelement(e.g.,donotwrite:(a)Thebrownie;(b)Thecupcake,wrapperandall;and(c)Thebowloficecream.)
ListsYouwillwanttousealistratherthanaseriesifanyofthefollowingistrue:
youhavemorethanfiveelements,yourelementsarecomplexphrasesorfullsentences,ortheinformationisimportantenoughtodeservebeingvisuallydistinguishedfromtherestofthetextofyourpaper.
Listsdifferfromseriesinthattheyappearseparatefromaparagraphratherthanembeddedwithinit.However,thesamerulesofcapitalizationandofusingcommasorsemicolonstoseparatetheelementsapply.
Unlikeaseries,alistcanincludeelementsthatareallfullsentences,orevenparagraphs.Ifthisisthecase,eachelementshouldendwithaperiod,ratherthanacommaorsemicolon,andshouldbeginwithacapitalletter.
Tobettervisuallydistinguishalistfromthesurroundingtext,besuretoleaveanextra(blank)linebetweenthelastlineofthelistandthefirstlineofthefollowingparagraph.
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BulletedLists
Youshoulduseabulletedlistiftheorderoftheitemsdoesn’tmatter.Eachelementofthelistshouldstartonanewline.Thebulletpointsshouldbeindentedoneinchfromtheleftpagemargin,andthetextofeachelementshouldbeindentedafurther0.5inchesfromthebulletpointitself.
NumberedLists
Iftheorderofyourelementsdoesmatter—e.g.,ifyou’reoutliningastep-by-stepprocess,asummaryofhowaneventunfoldedovertime,oraseriesofitemsinorderofimportance—youwillneedtouseanumberedlist.
Aswithabulletedlist,eachelementshouldstartonanewline.Thefirstelementshouldbeginwiththenumber1,thesecondwiththenumber2,andsoon.Thesenumbersshouldbefollowedbyperiods,andthetextofeachelementshouldbeindentedafurther0.5inchesfromthebeginningnumber.
11.2.5:APA:BlockQuotations
InAPAstyle,formatquotationsofmorethan40wordsasblockquotations.
LearningObjective
RecognizewhentouseblockquotationsinAPAstyle
KeyPoints
Atypicalquotationispartofasentencewithinaparagraphinyourpaper;however,forlongerquotations(morethan40words),formattheexcerptasablockquotation.Ablockquotationbeginsonitsownline,isnotenclosedinquotationmarks,andhasitsin-textcitationafterthefinalpunctuation.Blockquotationsaredouble-spaced,liketherestofyourAPApaper.
KeyTerm
blockquotation
Awayofformattingaparticularlylongexcerptorquotationinapaper.
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WhentoUseaBlockQuotationAtypicalquotationisenclosedindoublequotationmarksandispartofasentencewithinaparagraphofyourpaper.However,ifyouwanttoquotemorethan40wordsfromasource,youshouldformattheexcerptasablockquotation,ratherthanasaregularquotationwithinthetextofaparagraph.Mostofthestandardrulesforquotationsstillapply,withthefollowingexceptions:ablockquotationwillbeginonitsownline,itwillnotbeenclosedinquotationmarks,anditsin-textcitationwillcomeaftertheendingpunctuation,notbeforeit.
Forexample,ifyouwantedtoquotetheentirefirstparagraphofLewisCarroll’sAliceinWonderland,youwouldbeginthatquotationonitsownlineandformatitasfollows:
Alicewasbeginningtogetverytiredofsittingbyhersisteronthebank,andofhavingnothingtodo:onceortwiceshehadpeepedintothebookhersisterwasreading,butithadnopicturesorconversationsinit,‘andwhatistheuseofabook,’thoughtAlice‘withoutpicturesorconversations?’(Carroll,p.98)
ThefullreferenceforthissourcewouldthenbeincludedinyourReferencessectionattheendofyourpaper.
SpacingandAlignmentTheentireblockquotationshouldbeindentedfromtheleftmarginthesamedistanceasthefirstlinesofyourparagraphs(andthefirstlineshouldnotbefurtherindented).Astherestofyourpaper,itshouldbedouble-spaced.Andaswithseriesandlists,tobettervisuallydistinguishablockquotationfromthesurroundingtext,besuretoleaveanextra(blank)linebetweenthelastlineoftheblockquotationandthefirstlineofthefollowingparagraph.
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Blockquotation
ThisblockquotationisproperlyformattedinAPAstyle.
Attributions
APA:TitlePageandRunningHead
“OriginalfigurebyCatherineMcCarthy.LicensedCCBY-SA4.0.”CatherineMcCarthyCCBY-SA3.0.
APA:Abstract
“OriginalfigurebyCatherineMcCarthy.LicensedCCBY-SA4.0.”CatherineMcCarthyCCBY-SA3.0.
APA:Headings
“APAstyle.”http://psychology.wikia.com/wiki/APA_style.PsychologyWikiCCBY-SA3.0.
“APAHeadings.”http://psychology.wikia.com/wiki/APA_style%23Headings.PsychologyWikiaCCBY-SA3.0.
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“APAHeadings.”http://psychology.wikia.com/wiki/APA_style%23Headings.PsychologyWikiaCCBY-SA3.0.
APA:SeriesandListsAPA:BlockQuotations
“OriginalfigurebyCatherineMcCarthy.LicensedCCBY-SA4.0.”CatherineMcCarthyCCBY-SA3.0.
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11.3:APA:EmpiricalResearchPapers11.3.1:APA:ReportingStatistics
BecausepapersusingAPAstyleoftenreportexperimentaldata,youmustbeabletodiscussstatisticsinyourpaper.
LearningObjective
IdentifycorrectlyformattedstatisticsaccordingtoAPAstyle
KeyPoints
SinceexperimentalpapersinthesocialsciencesareusuallywritteninAPAstyle,youwillneedtoknowhowtoproperlytalkaboutstatisticsinthetextofyourpaper.Neverneverreportastatisticinthetextofyourpaperthatisalreadyevidentinatableorfigure,orreportastatisticinatablewhichisreportedinyourtext.Alwaysitalicizestatisticalvariables.Summarizeimportantstatisticalrelationshipsinclear,plainEnglish.
KeyTerm
statistic
Anumericalfigurefromexperimentaldata.
SinceexperimentalpapersinthesocialsciencesareusuallywritteninAPAstyle,youwillneedtoknowhowtoproperlytalkaboutstatisticsinthetextofyourpaper.
GeneralRulesYoushouldnevermentionastatisticinthetextofyourpaperthatisalreadyevidentinatableorfigure,andviceversa.
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Besuretoitalicizestatisticalvariables(e.g.,p-value;t-test,F-test).
ClarityToplacethefocusonthemeaningofyourstatisticaltestsandtheirrelevancetoyouroverallargument,youshouldsummarizeeachstatisticalrelationshipinclear,plainEnglish.Also,includetheimportantvaluesinparentheses,andthetestinformationandsignificanceattheendofthesentence.Forexample,ratherthanwritingthis:
Themeananxietyscoreforwomenwas43.5,andthemeananxietyscoreformenwas47.9.Thisdifferencewassignificant;at-testfoundat-scoreof2.34,andthep-valuewas0.01.
Youshouldwritethis:
IntermsoftheirscoresontheAnxietyScale,womenwerefoundtobesignificantlymoreanxious
thanmen ,
( standsfor“mean”—meaningaverage—and standsfor“standarddeviation.”)
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Reportingstatistics
ThisfigureshowstheproperwaytoreportstatisticsinanAPA-stylepaper.
11.3.2:APA:TablesandFigures
APAstylehasspecificrulesforformattingtablesandfigures.
LearningObjective
ArrangetablesandfiguresinAPAstyle
KeyPoints
APAspecifiestwomethodsforpresentinginformationvisually:tablesandfigures.Atableisachartthatpresentsnumericalinformationinagridformat.Afigure,bytheAPAdefinition,isgenerallyagraphorvisualrepresentationofaprocess;inrarecasesitcanalsobeaphotograph.Usingatableorafigureasavisualaidcanhelpyoustrengthenaclaim
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you’remaking.
Whenyouneedtosummarizequantitativedata,wordscanonlygosofar.Sometimes,usingachart,graph,orothervisualrepresentationcanbeusefulinprovingyourpoint.However,it’simportanttomakesureyouincorporatethisextrainformationinawaythatiseasytounderstandandinlinewiththeconventionsofAPAstyle.
APAspecifiestwomethodsforrepresentinginformationvisually:tablesandfigures.
TablesAtableisachartthatpresentsnumericalinformationinagridformat.APAstylerecommendsthatatablebeusedonlyforparticularlycomplexdataorlargedatasets;ifyourtablehasonlyoneortwocolumns,youshouldsummarizetheinformationwithinthetextofaparagraphinstead.
InAPAstyle,youmustincludeeachtableonitsownseparatepageattheveryendofyourpaper,aftertheReferencessection.(Notethatthesepagesshouldstillincludetherunningheadandpagenumber.)Becausetablesareinaseparatesection,youmustrefertoeachoneinthetextofyourpaperbyitsnumber(e.g.,“Table1”)sothereaderknowswhereitisrelevant.
Formatting
Formatyourtablesassimplyaspossible.Donotuseboldoritalicizedtext(unlessyouaretalkingaboutavariableorstatisticaltestthatrequiressuchformatting).
APAstylehasstrictrulesabouthowtoformattheborders,orthelines,ofyourtable.Generally,forsimplertables,youshouldhaveonlythreehorizontallines:oneimmediatelyaboveandoneimmediatelybelowthecolumnheadings,andoneatthebottomofthetable.
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Simpletable
ThistableisproperlyformattedinAPAstyle,usingonlythreehorizontalborders.
Ifyouhaveamorecomplextable—e.g.,onethathasmultiplelayersofcolumnheadersorsectionsofdata—youmaysparinglyuseadditionalhorizontallinesasvisualseparators.
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Complicatedtable
ThismorecomplicatedtableisproperlyformattedinAPAstyle;itusesmorethanthreehorizontalborderstoclearlyseparatethedifferentsections.
TitleandSource
Everytableshouldappearflushwiththeleftmargin.Immediatelyabovethetable,provideitsnumber(e.g.,“Table1”),andthenonthenextlineprovideashortbutdescriptivetitleinitalicizedtitlecase.
Ifyourtableincludesanyabbreviationsthatneeddefining,orstatisticswhosesignificancelevelsneednoting,immediatelybelowthetable,writetheword“Note”initalics,followedbyacolon,andthenprovidetheneededexplanation.
Ifyourtablecomesfromanothersource,youneedtoaddthatsourcetoyourReferencessection.Usingthesameformatting,youshouldalsoplacethatinformationimmediatelybelowyourtable,followingtheword“Source”initalics.
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FiguresInAPAstyle,youmustalsoincludeeachfigureonitsownseparatepageattheendofyourpaper;thissectionoffiguresshouldappearafterthesectionoftables.(Notethatthesepagesshouldalsostillincludetherunningheadandpagenumber.)
Becausefiguresappearseparatefromthebodyofyourpaper,youmustrefertoeachoneinthetextofyourpaperbyitsnumber(e.g.,“Figure1”)sothereaderknowswhereitisrelevant.
Formatting
APAstylehasstrictrulesabouthowtocreateandformatyourfigures.
Anytextinafigure(e.g.,axislabels,legendlabels)shouldbeinasans-seriffont,between8ptand14ptinsize.One-columnfigures(e.g.,agraphwithasinglepanel)shouldbebetween2and3.25inchesinwidth.Two-columnfigures(e.g.,agraphwithtwopanels)shouldbebetween4.25and6.875inchesinwidth.
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Single-panelfigure
Thisisasingle-panelfigureproperlyformattedinAPAstyle.
TitleandCaption
Everyfigureshouldappearflushwiththeleftmargin.Immediatelybelowthefigure,provideitsnumber(e.g.,“Figure1”)initalics,followedbyaperiod,followedbyabriefbutdescriptivetitle(calleda“figurecaption”)insentencecase.Forexample:
Figure1.Averageself-reportedanxietyof18-to24-year-oldwomeninresponsetoperceivedsocialslight.
Ifyourfigureincludesanyabbreviationsthatneeddefining,orstatisticswhosesignificancelevelsneednoting,includethisinformationinthefigurecaption.Forexample:
Figure1.Averageself-reportedanxietyof18-to24-year-oldwomeninresponsetoperceivedsocialslight.
Thetitleofthefigureshouldnotappearinthefigureitself—itshouldappearonlyinthecaptionbeneaththefigure.
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Three-panelfigure
Thisisathree-panelfigureproperlyformattedinAPAstyle.
Attributions
APA:ReportingStatistics
“OriginalfigurebyCatherineMcCarthy.LicensedCCBY-SA4.0.”CatherineMcCarthyCCBY-SA3.0.
APA:TablesandFigures
“OriginalfigurebyCatherineMcCarthy.LicensedCCBY-SA4.0.”CatherineMcCarthyCCBY-SA3.0.
“OriginalfigurebyCatherineMcCarthy.LicensedCCBY-SA4.0.”CatherineMcCarthyCCBY-SA3.0.
“OriginalfigurebyCatherineMcCarthy.LicensedCCBY-SA4.0.”CatherineMcCarthyCCBY-SA3.0.
“OriginalfigurebyCatherineMcCarthy.LicensedCCBY-SA4.0.”CatherineMcCarthyCCBY-SA3.0.
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11.4:APA:CitationsandReferences11.4.1:APA:TheReferencesSection
InAPAstyle,thesourcesyouciteinyourpaperarelistedalltogetherattheend,intheReferencessection.
LearningObjective
ArrangetheReferencessectioninAPAstyle
KeyPoints
InAPAstyle,allthesourcesyoucitethroughoutthetextofyourpaperarelistedtogetherintheReferencessection.TheReferencessectionhasitsownspecialformattingrules,includingdouble-spacedtextandhangingindentation.Howyoushouldformateachindividualcitationdiffersdiffersslightlybasedonsourcetype;therearedifferentcitationstylesforbooks,onlineresources,journals,andmanyothers.
KeyTerm
hangingindent
AformattingstyleforcitationsinAPAReferencepagesinwhicheverylineexceptthefirstisaninchawayfromtheleftmargin.
InAPAstyle,allthesourcesyoucitethroughoutthetextofyourpaperarelistedtogether,andmorefully,intheReferencessection,whichcomesafterthemaintextofyourpaper.
FormattingtheReferencesSectionThetopofthepage,astherestofyourpaper,shouldstillincludetherunningheaderontheleftandthepagenumberontheright.Onthefirstline,thetitleofthepage—“References”—shouldappearcenteredandnotitalicizedorbolded.(Asisthecasewiththe“Abstract”pagetitle,thisdoesnotcountasan
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actualheading,soitisnotformattedpertheheadingguidelines.)And,liketherestofyourpaper,thispageshouldalsobedouble-spaced.
Startingonthenextlineafterthepagetitle,yourreferencesshouldbelistedinalphabeticalorderbyauthor.Multiplesourcesbythesameauthorshouldbelistedchronologicallybyyearwithinthesamegroup.
Eachreferenceshouldbeformattedwithwhatiscalledahangingindent.Thismeansthefirstlineofeachreferenceshouldbeflushwiththeleftmargin(i.e.,notindented),buttherestofthatreferenceshouldbeindentedoneinchfromtheleftmargin.Anyword-processingprogramwillletyouformatthisautomaticallysoyoudon’thavetodoitbyhand.(InMicrosoftWord,forexample,yousimplyhighlightyourcitations,clickonthesmallarrowrightnexttotheword“Paragraph”onthehometab,andinthepopupboxchoose“hangingindent”underthe“Special”section.ClickOK,andyou’redone.)
References
ThisisanexampleofthefirstpageofaReferencessectionproperlyformattedinAPAstyle.
ConstructingaCitation
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Thefirststepinbuildingeachindividualcitationistodeterminethetypeofresourceyouareciting,sinceineachcitationstyleformattingdiffersslightlybasedonsourcetype.Somecommontypesareabook,achapterfromabook,ajournalarticle,anonlinebookorarticle,anonlinevideo,ablogpost,andpersonalcommunicationsuchasanemailoraninterviewyouconducted.(You’llnoticethat“website”isnotacategorybyitself.Iftheinformationyoufoundisonline,youwanttodetermineifyou’relookingatanonlinebook,anonlinearticle,orsomeothertypeofdocument.)
Asanexample,let’slookindetailattheprocessofcitingthreeparticularsourcesinAPAstyle:JosephConrad’sHeartofDarkness(i.e.,abookbyoneauthor),ProjectGutenberg’sonlinetextofthesamebook(i.e.,anonlinebook),andanonlinejournalarticleaboutthebook.
PrintSourcesAuthorName
Youalwayswanttostartwiththeauthorinformation.Youshouldpresenttheauthorinformationinthefollowingorderandformat:theauthor’slastname(capitalized),acomma,theauthor’sfirstinitial,thenaperiod,andfinallytheirmiddleinitialandperiod(ifgiven):
Conrad,J.
DateofPublication
Aftertheauthor’sname,youprovidetheyear,insideparentheses,inwhichthesourcewaspublished,followedbyaperiod.Itmaylookodd,butmakesureyourperiodisoutsidetheparentheses.
(1993).
TitleofSource
Next,youshouldincludethetitleofthesourceinsentencecase.Forabook,thetitleisitalicized.
Heartofdarkness.
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CityofPublication
Next,youwanttoprovidethelocationofthepublisher’soffice.Thelocationisgenerallyacity,suchas“London”or“NewYork,NY.”
London:
PublisherName
Next,providethepublisher’sname,followedbyaperiod:
Everyman’sLibrary.
Alltogether,then,thecitationlookslikethis:
Conrad,J.(1993).Heartofdarkness.London:Everyman’sLibrary.
OnlineSourcesNowlet’stakealookatthecitationfortheonlineversionofthesamebook,availableonlinethroughProjectGutenberg(gutenberg.org).Muchofthecitationisthesame:
Conrad,J.(2006).Heartofdarkness.ProjectGutenberg.Retrievedfromhttps://www.gutenberg.org/files/219/219-h/219-h.htm
JournalArticlesandMultipleAuthors
NooriBerzenji,L.S.,&Abdi,M.(2013).TheimageoftheAfricansinHeartofDarknessandThingsFallApart.InterdisciplinaryJournalofContemporaryResearchinBusiness,5(4),710–726.
Muchofthiscitationwilllookfamiliartoyounowthatyouknowthebasics.Again,westartwiththeauthorinformation.Thisarticlehasmultipleauthors,sowelisttheminthesameorderinwhichtheyarelistedinthesource,andinthesameformatasbefore(lastname,firstinitial,middleinitial),separatedbycommas.Thelastauthorshouldalsohavean“and”sign,orampersand(&),
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beforeit.Herewehaveonlytwoauthors,butifwehadfive,theampersandwouldcomebeforethefifthauthor’slastname,afterthecommafollowingthefourthauthor’sname.
Thedateofpublicationandtitleareformattedthesame.NotethateventhoughAPAstylesaysthatthearticletitleshouldnotbeitalicized,thebooktitles“HeartofDarkness”and“ThingsFallApart”withinthearticletitlearestillitalicized.
Thenewinformationherebeginswithcitingthejournalthisarticleisfrom.Includethetitleofthejournalinitalicizedtitlecase(allmajorwordscapitalized,asinthetitleofabook),followedbyacomma:
InterdisciplinaryJournalofContemporaryResearchinBusiness,
Thenincludethejournalvolume,alsoitalicized:
5
Iftheparticularjournalyou’recitinglistsanissuenumberinadditiontothevolumenumber,asthisonedoes,includeitinparenthesesimmediatelyafterthevolume,anddonotitalicizeit.Thenfollowitwithacomma.
5(4),
Finally,listthepagenumbersofthearticle,followedbyaperiod[notethatthedashbetweenthefirstandsecondnumbersisanen-dash(–),notahyphen(-)orem-dash(—)]:
710–726.
MultiplePublicationsbytheSameAuthorintheSameYearIfyouarereferencingmultiplepublicationsbythesameauthor(orgroupofauthors)thatwerepublishedinthesameyear,thereisaspecialrulefordenotingthis.YoushouldfirstorderthosearticlesalphabeticallybysourcetitleintheReferencessection.Then,appendalowercaseletterinalphabeticalordertotheendofeachyearofpublication:
Achenbach,T.M.(2012a).Bibliographyofpublishedstudiesusingthe
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ASEBA.RetrievedMarch25,2012,fromAchenbachSystemofEmpiricallyBasedAssessment:http://www.aseba.org/asebabib.htmlAchenbach,T.M.(2012b).School-age(ages6–18)assessments.RetrievedMarch18,2012,fromAchenbachSystemofEmpiricallyBasedAssessment:http://www.aseba.org/schoolage.html
ANoteonCapitalizationIntheguidelinesforcitingdifferenttypesofsourcesinAPAstyle,youwillnoticeseveraldifferentpatternsincapitalizingsourcetitles.Aworkthatstandsonitsown—abook,apainting,afilm,etc.—shouldbewritteninitalicizedtitlecase(everymajorwordcapitalized).Asourcethatispartofalargerwork—achapterinananthology,anarticleinajournal,awebpage,etc.—shouldbewritteninsentencecaseandnotitalicized.(Recallthatsentencemeansthatjustthefirstwordandpropernounsarecapitalized,aswellasthefirstwordafteracolon,ifthereareany).Asanexample,comparethecitationsofHeartofDarknessandtheNooriBerzenji&Abdi(2013)article.
11.4.2:APA:HowtoReferenceDifferentTypesofSources
InAPAstyle,therearedifferentformatsforcitingsourcesattheendofyourpaperdependingonthetypeofsource.
LearningObjective
ListthewaystocitedifferentsourcetypesinAPAstyle
KeyPoints
InyourReferencessection,youwillhavetocreateacitationforeverysourceyouusedinyourpaper;thesecitationswillbeformatteddifferentlydependingonthesourcetype.Therearedifferentcitationstylesforbooks,dependingonhowmanyauthorstheyhave.Therearedifferentcitationstylesforarticles,dependingonwhereyoufoundthem.Therearewaystoformatsourcesthatarenotbooksorarticles.
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KeyTerm
ellipsis
Apunctuationmarkconsistingofthreeperiodsinarow,usedtoindicateanomission,apause,oradditional,unmentionedlistitems.
NowthatyouknowthedifferentcomponentsofabookcitationinAPAstyleandhowtheyshouldbeformatted,youwillbeabletounderstandthecitationformatsforothersourcetypes.Herearesomeexamplecitationsforthemostcommontypesofresourcesyouwilluse.
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BookbyOneAuthorSherman,R.D.(1956).Theterrifyingfuture:Contemplatingcolortelevision.SanDiego:Halstead.
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BookbyMultipleAuthorsTwoAuthors
Kurosawa,J.,&Armistead,Q.(1972).Hairball:Anintensivepeekbehindthesurfaceofanenigma.Hamilton,ON:McMasterUniversityPress.
ThreetoSevenAuthors
Brown,T.E.,LeMay,H.E.,Bursten,B.E.,Murphy,C.,&Woodward,P.(2011).Chemistry:Thecentralscience.London:PrenticeHall.
MorethanSevenAuthors
Listthefirstsixauthors,thenanellipsis,thenthefinalauthor.
Hughes-Hallett,D.,Gleason,A.M.,McCallum,W.G.,Lomen,D.O.,Lovelock,D.,Tecosky-Feldman,J.,…Lock,P.F.(2008).Calculus:Singlevariable.Hoboken,NJ:Wiley.
ArticleinanEditedBookStanz,R.F.(1983).Practicalmethodsfortheapprehensionandsustainedcontainmentofsupernaturalentities.InG.L.Yeager(Ed.),Paranormalandoccultstudies:Casestudiesinapplication(pp.42–64).London,England:OtherWorldBooks.
ArticleinaJournalwithContinuousPaginationRottweiler,F.T.,&Beauchemin,J.L.(1987).DetroitandSarnia:Twofoesonthebrinkofdestruction.Canadian/AmericanStudiesJournal,54.66–146.
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ArticleinaJournalPaginatedSeparatelyCrackton,P.(1987).TheLoonie:God’slong-awaitedgifttocolourfulpocketchange?CanadianChange,64(7),34–37.
ArticleinanInternet-OnlyJournalBlofeld,H.V.(1994,March1).ExpressingoneselfthroughPersiancatsandmodernarchitecture.Felines&Felons,4,Article0046g.RetrievedOctober3,1999,fromhttp://journals.f+f.org/spectre/vblofeld-0046g.html
PageonaWebSitePavlenko,A.(2015,October7).Bilingualminds,bilingualbodies.PsychologyToday.Retrievedfromhttps://www.psychologytoday.com/blog/life-bilingual/201510/bilingual-minds-bilingual-bodies
PageonaWebSite,NoAuthorIdentified,NoDateBilingualminds,bilingualbodies.(n.d.).PsychologyToday.Retrievedfromhttps://www.psychologytoday.com/blog/life-bilingual/201510/bilingual-minds-bilingual-bodies
11.4.3:APA:In-TextCitationsandParentheticals
InAPAstyle,therearedifferentformatsforcitingsourcesintextdependingonthetypeofsource.
LearningObjective
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Arrangein-textcitationsinAPAstyle
KeyPoints
In-textcitationsarewhereyoutellthereader,withinthetextofyourpaper,theauthor’snameandthedatethesourcewaspublished.Thecorrectformattingforanin-textcitationvariesdependingonhowmanyauthorscreatedtheworkbeingcited.Formattingalsovariesdependingonwhetheryoucitethesamesourcemorethanonce,orwhetheryoucitemultipleworksbythesameauthor.
KeyTerm
in-textcitation
Givingthenameandyearorotheridentifyinginformationoftheauthorofasourcewithinthetextofapaper.
Inyourpaper,whenyouquotedirectlyfromasourceintheirwords,orwhenyouparaphrasesomeoneelse’sidea,youneedtotellthereaderwhatthatsourceissotheauthorgetscreditfortheirwordsandideas.Whenyoutellthereadertheauthor’snameandthedatethesourcewaspublishedinthetextofyourpaper,thisiscalledanin-textcitation.
In-textcitations
Thesein-textcitationsareproperlyformattedinAPAstyle.
SourcebyaSingleAuthorTocitethistypeofreferenceinthetext,youshouldusewhatisknownasa
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parenthetical—thecitationinformationenclosedinparentheses—attheendoftherelevantsentence.Theparentheticalshouldincludetheauthor’slastname(withnofirstormiddleinitial),followedbyacomma,followedbytheyearthesourcewaspublished.Ifyou’recitingadirectquote,youalsoneedtoincludethepagenumber.Forexample:
Socialrepresentationstheorypositsthatreifiedscientificknowledgethatexistsattheboundariesofagivensocietywillbeinterpretedinmeaningfulandoftensimplifiedformsbythemajority(Pauling,2005).Socialrepresentationstheory“proposesanewhypothesis…”(Pauling,2005,p.113).
Ifyouchoose,youcanintegratetheauthor’snameintothesentenceitself—thisisknownasa“signalphrase”—andprovidejusttheyearinparentheses:
Pauling(2005)positsthat…
SourcebyTwoAuthorsAuthorsshouldbepresentedintheorderinwhichtheyarelistedonthepublishedarticle.Ifyouincludetheauthors’namesintheparenthetical,useanampersand(&)betweenthetwonames.Forexample:
Socialrepresentationstheorypositsthatreifiedscientificknowledgethatexistsattheboundariesofagivensocietywillbeinterpretedinmeaningfulandoftensimplifiedformsbythemajority(Pauling&Liu,2005).
Ifyouchoosetouseasignalphraseinstead,usetheword“and”ratherthananampersand:
PaulingandLiu(2005)positthat…
SourcebyThreetoFiveAuthorsForanarticlewiththreetofiveauthors,thefirsttimeyoucitethearticleinthetextofyourpaper,youshouldincludethenamesofalltheauthors(inthesameorderinwhichtheyappearinthearticle)followedbytheyearofpublication.Afterthat,tosavespaceandtomakeyourpapereasiertoread,youshoulduseonlythefirstauthor’snamefollowedby“etal.”andtheyear
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ofpublication.(“Etal.”isshortfor“etalia,”whichmeans“andotherpeople”inLatin—muchlike“etc.”isshortfor“etcetera,”whichmeans“andotherthings”inLatin.)
FirstInstance
Socialrepresentationstheorypositsthatreifiedscientificknowledgethatexistsattheboundariesofagivensocietywillbeinterpretedinmeaningfulandoftensimplifiedformsbythemajority(Pauling,Liu,&Guo,2005).
Usingasignalphrase:
Pauling,Liu,andGuo(2005)posit…
SubsequentInstancesintheSameDocument
(Paulingetal.,2005)
Usingasignalphrase:
Pauling,etal.(2005)posit…
SourcebyMorethanFiveAuthorsForanarticlewithmorethanfiveauthors,includeonlythefirstauthor’snamefollowedby“etal.”andtheyearofpublicationineachin-textcitation.
(Hughes-Hallettetal.,2008)
Usingasignalphrase:
Hughes-Hallettetal.(2008)claimthat…
MultiplePublicationsbyDifferentAuthorsIfyouneedtocitemultiplepublicationsbydifferentauthorsinthesame
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sentence,youshouldlistthemultiplesourcesinalphabeticalorderbyauthoranduseasemicolontoseparatethem.
…majority(Alford,1995;Pauling,2004;Sirkis,2003).
Ifwithinthiscitationyoualsohavemultiplesourcesbythesameauthor,afterthatauthor’snameseparatethemultipledatesofpublicationwithasemicolonandorderthemchronologically(earliesttolatest).
…majority(Alford,1995;Pauling,2004;2005;Sirkis,2003).
MultiplePublicationsbytheSameAuthorIfanauthorhasmultiplepublicationswhichyouwishtociteinthesamesentence,youuseasemicolon(;)toseparatetheyearsofpublicationinchronologicalorder(oldesttomostrecent).
…majority(Pauling,2004;2005).
Usingasignalphrase:
Pauling(2004;2005)suggeststhat…
MultiplePublicationsbytheSameAuthor/sintheSameYearIfmultiplepublicationsbythesameauthor(orgroupofauthors)werepublishedinthesameyear,thereisaspecialrulefordenotingthis.IntheReferencessection,youwouldorderthosearticlesalphabeticallybysourcetitle,andthenappendalowercaseletterinalphabeticalordertotheendoftheyearofpublication.Forexample,ifyouhadtwopublicationsbyPaulingin2004,thefirstwouldbemarkedas(2004a)andthesecondas(2004b).Youwouldthenincludetheselowercaselettersinyourin-textcitationsaswell:
…majority(Pauling,2004a;2004b).
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Attributions
APA:TheReferencesSection
“APAstyle.”http://psychology.wikia.com/wiki/APA_style.PsychologyWikiCCBY-SA3.0.
“BasicsofCiting,APA,2of3(References).”https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=k3zz7VOpuQM.YoutubeCCBY.
“OriginalfigurebyCatherineMcCarthy.LicensedCCBY-SA4.0.”CatherineMcCarthyCCBY-SA3.0.
APA:HowtoReferenceDifferentTypesofSources
“Howtoreferenceandlinktosummaryortext.”http://psychology.wikia.com/wiki/How_to_reference_and_link_to_summary_or_textPsychologyWikiCCBY-SA3.0.
“BasicsofCiting,APA,2of3(References).”https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=k3zz7VOpuQM.YoutubeCCBY.
APA:In-TextCitationsandParentheticals
“APAstyle.”http://psychology.wikia.com/wiki/APA_style.PsychologyWikiCCBY-SA3.0.
“OriginalfigurebyCatherineMcCarthy.LicensedCCBY-SA4.0.”CatherineMcCarthyCCBY-SA3.0.
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12:WritingaPaperinChicago/TurabianStyle(History)
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12.1:IntroductiontoChicago/TurabianStyle12.1.1:WhentoUseChicago/TurabianStyle
Chicagostyle,createdbytheUniversityofChicago,istheprimarycitationstyleusedforpapersinhistory.
LearningObjective
RecognizewhentouseChicago/Turabianstyleinwriting
KeyPoints
Chicagostyleisoneofthemostcommoncitationandformattingstylesyouwillencounterinyouracademiccareer.ChicagostyleisbasedonTheChicagoManualofStyle.TurabianstyleisbasedonKateL.Turabian’sAManualforWritersofResearchPapers,Theses,andDissertations,whichisverysimilartoChicagostylebutwithanemphasisonstudentwriting.Chicagostyleprovidesguidelinesforgrammar,formatting,andcitingyoursources.TherearetwosubsetsofChicago/Turabianstylewhichcitetheirresearchsourcesdifferently:Author–DateandNotesandBibliography.
Chicagostyleisacitationandformattingstyleyoumayencounterinyouracademiccareer.AnypieceofacademicwritingcanuseChicagostyle,fromaone-pagepapertoafull-lengthbook.Itisusedbymosthistoricaljournalsandsomesocialsciencepublications.Ifyouarewritingapaperforahistoryclass,itislikelyyourprofessorwillaskyoutowriteinChicagostyle.
TheChicagoManualTheChicagoManualofStyle(abbreviatedinwritingasChicagostyle,CMS,orCMOS)isastyleguideforAmericanEnglishpublishedsince1906bytheUniversityofChicagoPress.Itssixteeneditionshavespecifiedwritingand
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citationstyleswidelyusedinpublishing,particularlyinthebookindustry(asopposedtonewspaperpublishing,whereAPstyleismorecommon).Chicagostyledealswithmanyaspectsofeditorialpractice.ItremainsthebasisfortheStyleGuideoftheAmericanAnthropologicalAssociationandtheStyleSheetfortheOrganizationofAmericanHistorians.Manysmallpublishersthroughouttheworldadoptitastheirstyle.
TheTurabianManual“Turabianstyle”isnamedafterthebook’soriginalauthor,KateL.Turabian,whodevelopeditfortheUniversityofChicago.Exceptforafewminordifferences,TurabianstyleisthesameasChicagostyle.However,whileChicagostylefocusesonprovidingguidelinesforpublishingingeneral,Turabian’sManualforWritersofResearchPapers,Theses,andDissertationsfocusesonprovidingguidelinesforstudentpapers,theses,anddissertations.
ThePurposeofChicago/TurabianStyleChicago/Turabianstyleofferswritersachoiceofseveraldifferentformats,becauseitisusedinawidevarietyofacademicdisciplines.Itallowsthemixingofformats,providedthattheresultisclearandconsistent.
ThemostrecenteditionofTheChicagoManualofStylepermitstheuseofbothin-textcitationsystems(“Author–Date”style,whichisusuallyusedinthesocialsciences)orfootnotesandendnotes(thisiscalled“Notesandbibliography”style,whichisusuallyusedinthehumanities).
GrammarandFormattingChicagostyleincludesmanybasicgrammaticalrules.Forexample,ChicagostyledoesusetheOxfordcomma,whichsomeothercitationstyles(e.g.,APstyle)donot.Otherexamplesincluderulesaboutwhatpunctuationshouldbeincludedinsideaquotationandwhentousewhattypeofdash.Forinstance,Author–Datecitationsareusuallyplacedjustinsideamarkofpunctuation.
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CitationsAsmentionedabove,themostrecenteditionsofTheChicagoManualofStylepermittheuseofeitherin-textcitationsystemsorfootnotesandendnotes.Itcangiveinformationaboutin-textcitationbypagenumberorbyyearofpublication;itevenprovidesforvariationsinstylesoffootnotesandendnotes,dependingonwhetherthepaperincludesafullbibliographyattheend.
12.1.2:OverallStructureandFormattingofaChicago/TurabianPaper
EverypaperwritteninChicago/Turabianstylehasthesamebasicstructuralelements.
LearningObjective
IdentifythestructuralelementsofaChicago/Turabianpaper
KeyPoints
AChicago/Turabian-stylepapershouldincludeatitlepage,abody,areferencessection,and,insomecases,endnotes.Chicago/Turabianstyleprovidesspecificguidelinesforlinespacing(yourpapershouldbedouble-spaced),margins(1–1.5inches),andpagenumbering.UsetheOxfordcomma,andonlyuseonespacefollowingperiods.Listentoyourprofessor’sspecificguidelinesiftheywantyoutouseatableofcontents.
KeyTerm
footnote
Ashortpieceoftext,oftennumbered,placedatthebottomofaprintedpagetoaddacomment,citation,orreferencetoadesignatedpartofthemaintext.
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OverallStructureofaChicagoPaperYourChicagopapershouldincludethefollowingbasicelements:
1. Titlepage2. Body3. References(ifusingtheAuthor–Datemethod)4. Bibliography(ifusingthenotesandbibliographymethod)
GeneralFormattingRulesTypeface
YourpapershouldbewritteninalegiblefontsuchasTimesNewRoman,andshouldbeatleast10-ptinsize(12-ptisrecommended).
LineSpacing
Alltextinyourpapershouldbedouble-spacedexceptforblockquotationsandimagecaptions.Onyourcitationspage,eachcitationshouldbesingle-spaced,butthereshouldbeablanklinebetweeneachcitation.
Margins
Allpagemargins(top,bottom,left,andright)shouldbeatleast1inchandnomorethan1.5inches.Alltext,withtheexceptionofheaders,shouldbeleft-justified.
Indentation
Thefirstlineofeveryparagraphandfootnoteshouldbeindented0.5inches.
PageNumbers
PagenumbersinArabicnumerals(1,2,3…)shouldappearright-justifiedin
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theheaderofeverypage,beginningwiththenumber1onthefirstpageoftext.Mostword-processingprogramshavetheabilitytoautomaticallyaddthecorrectpagenumbertoeachpagesoyoudon’thavetodothisbyhand.
GeneralGrammarRulesTheOxfordComma
TheOxfordcomma(alsocalledtheserialcomma)isthecommathatcomesafterthesecond-to-lastiteminaseriesorlist.Forexample:
TheUKincludesthecountriesofEngland,Scotland,Wales,andNorthernIreland.
Intheabovesentence,thecommaimmediatelyafter“Wales”istheOxfordcomma.
Ingeneralwritingconventions,whethertheOxfordcommashouldbeusedisactuallyapointofferventdebateamongpassionategrammarians.However,it’sarequirementinChicagostyle,sodouble-checkallyourlistsandseriestomakesureyouincludeit!
CapitalizationAfterColons
Inmostcases,thefirstwordafteracolonshouldnotbecapitalized:
Iknowexactlywhathappened:hestolethecookies.
However,ifwhatfollowsacolonisaseriesofmultiplesentences,oraquotation,youdoneedtocapitalizethefirstwordafterthecolon:
Ifyouhaveacoloninthemiddleofasentence,andwhatfollowsafterisaquotationormultiplesentences,thefirstwordafterthecolonshouldbecapitalized.Forexample:
Iknowexactlywhathappened:Hestolethecookies.Shesnatchedthecupcakes.Youtookthebrownies.
SentenceSpacing
Itusedtobeconventiontotypetwospacesaftereveryperiod—forexample:
“Marywenttothestore.Sheboughtsomemilk.Thenshewenthome.”
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Thisconventionwasdevelopedwhentypewriterswereinuse;thespaceonatypewriterwasquitesmall,sotwospaceswereneededtoemphasizetheendofasentence.However,typewriters,andthereforethispractice,arenowobsolete—infact,usingtwospacesaftersentencesisnowgenerallyfrownedupon.Chicagostyleinparticularincludesanexplicitruletouseonlysinglespacesafterperiods:
“Marywenttothestore.Sheboughtsomemilk.Thenshewenthome.”
ANoteontheTableofContentsChicagostyledoesnotprovideguidelinesfortablesofcontentsforindividualpapersthemselves.Ifyourprofessorasksyoutoincludeatableofcontentsinyourpaper,theywillgiveyoutheirownguidelinesforformatting.
Attributions
WhentoUseChicago/TurabianStyle
“TheChicagoManualofStyle.”https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Chicago_Manual_of_Style.WikipediaCCBY-SA3.0.
OverallStructureandFormattingofaChicago/TurabianPaper
“footnote.”https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/footnote.WiktionaryCCBY-SA3.0.
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12.2:Chicago/Turabian:StructureandFormattingofSpecificElements12.2.1:Chicago/Turabian:TitlePage
ApaperinChicago/Turabianstylehasatitlepagethatfollowsspecificformattingrules.
LearningObjective
ArrangethetitlepagecorrectlyinaChicago-stylepaper
KeyPoints
Yourtitlepageshouldincludethetitleofyourpaper,yourname,thenameofyourcourse,andthedatethepaperisdue.Alltheinformationonyourtitlepageshouldbecenteredhorizontally.Thetitleofyourpapershouldbewritteninallcapitalletters.
KeyTerm
dissertation
Aformalresearchpaperthatstudentswriteinordertocompletetherequirementsforadoctoraldegree.
TitlePageThefollowinginformationshouldbecenteredhorizontallyonthetitlepage:
1. athirdofthewaydownthepage,thetitleofyourpaperinallcapitalletters;
2. onthenextline,thesubtitleofyourpaper(ifyouhaveone);3. two-thirdsofthewaydownthepage,yourname;4. onthenextline,thenameofyourcourse;and5. onthenextline,theduedateofthepaper.
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Theseelementsshouldnotbebolded,underlined,oritalicized.Notethattherequirementsmaybedifferentfordoctoralthesesordissertations.
Chicago-styletitlepage
Atitlepageintroducesthetitleofyourpaper—andyou,itsauthor!
12.2.2:Chicago/Turabian:Headings
InChicagostyle,headingsareusedtoorganizeyourwritingandgiveitahierarchicalorganization.
LearningObjective
OrderheadingscorrectlyinChicago/Turabianstyle
KeyPoints
InChicagostyle,headingsareusedtoorganizeyourwritingandgiveitahierarchicalorganization.Therecanbeuptofivelevelsofheadingsinyourpaper.Someusetitle
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case;someusesentencecase.
KeyTerm
hierarchical
Arrangedaccordingtoimportance.
InChicagostyle,headingsareusedtoorganizeyourwritingandgiveitahierarchicalorganization.Chicagostyleputsforthspecificrulesforformattingheadings(uptofivelevels)withinyourpaper:
Chicagoheadinghierarchy
ThesearetheformattingrulesfordifferentlevelsofheadingsinAPAstyle.
Ifaheadingissaidtobeintitlecase,thatmeansyoushouldformatitasthoughitwerethetitleofabook,withthefirstlettersofmostmajorwordscapitalized(e.g.,AStudyofColor-BlindnessinDogs).
Ifaheadingissaidtobeinsentencecase,thatmeansyoushouldformatitasthoughitwereanormalsentence,withonlythefirstletterofthefirstword(andofanypropernouns)capitalized(e.g.,Astudyofcolor-blindnessindogs).
Youshouldalwaysuseheadinglevelsinthisorder,beginningwithLevel1.So,ifyouhaveapaperwithtwolevelsofheadings,youwoulduseLevel1formattingforthehigherlevelandLevel2formattingforthelowerlevel.Similarly,ifyouhaveapaperwithfivelevelsofheadings,youwoulduseLevel1formattingforthehighestlevelandLevel5formattingforthelowestlevel.
12.2.3:Chicago/Turabian:BlockQuotations
InChicagostyle,formatquotationsofmorethanfivelinesasblock
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quotations.
LearningObjective
RecognizewhentouseblockquotationsinChicago/Turabian
KeyPoints
Atypicalquotationispartofasentencewithinaparagraphinyourpaper;however,forlongerquotations(morethanfivelines),formattheexcerptasablockquotation.Ablockquotationbeginsonitsownline,isnotenclosedinquotationmarks,andhasitsin-textcitationafterthefinalpunctuation.Blockquotationsarenotdouble-spaced,unliketherestofyourChicagostylepaper.
WhentoUseaBlockQuotationAtypicalquotationisenclosedindoublequotationmarksandispartofasentencewithinaparagraphofyourpaper.However,ifaquotationtakesupmorethanfivelinesinyourpaper,youshouldformatitasablockquotationratherthanasaregularquotationwithinthetextofaparagraph.Mostofthestandardrulesforquotationsstillapply,withthefollowingexceptions:ablockquotationwillbeginonitsownline(skipalinebeforeandaftertheblockquotation),itwillnotbeenclosedinquotationmarks,anditsin-textcitationwillcomeaftertheendingpunctuation,notbeforeit.
Forexample,ifyouwantedtoquotethefirsttwosentencesofThomasPaine’s“CommonSense”,youwouldbeginthatquotationonitsownline,indenteveryline,andformatitasfollows:
Perhapsthesentimentscontainedinthefollowingpages,arenotYETsufficientlyfashionabletoprocurethemgeneralfavour;alonghabitofnotthinkingathingwrong,givesitasuperficialappearanceofbeingright,andraisesatfirstaformidableoutcryindefenseofcustom.Butthetumultsoonsubsides.(Paine)
ThefullreferenceforthissourcewouldthenbeincludedinyourReferencessectionattheendofyourpaper.
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SpacingandAlignmentEachlineoftheblockquotationshouldbeindentedfromtheleftmarginthesamedistanceasthefirstlinesofyourregularbodyparagraphs.Unliketherestofyourpaper,itshouldbesingle-spaced.Andaswithseriesandlists,tobettervisuallydistinguishablockquotationfromthesurroundingtext,besuretoleaveanextra(blank)linebetweenthelastlineoftheblockquotationandthefirstlineofthefollowingparagraph.
Blockquotations
ThisblockquotationiscorrectlyformattedaccordingtoChicago/Turabianstyle.
12.2.4:Chicago/Turabian:TablesandFigures
Chicago/Turabianstylehasspecificrulesforformattingtablesandfigures.
LearningObjective
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ArrangetablesandfiguresinChicagostyle
KeyPoints
Chicago/Turabianspecifiestwomethodsforpresentinginformationvisually:tablesandfigures.Atableisachartthatpresentsnumericalinformationinagridformat.Afigure,bytheChicago/Turabiandefinition,isanyvisualthatisnotatable.Usingatableorafigureasavisualaidcanhelpyoustrengthenaclaimyou’remaking.
Whenyouneedtosummarizequantitativedata,wordscanonlygosofar.Sometimes,usingachart,graph,orothervisualrepresentationcanbeusefulinprovingyourpoint.However,it’simportanttomakesureyouincorporatethisextrainformationinawaythatiseasytounderstandandinlinewiththeconventionssetforthinChicago/Turabianstyle.
Chicago/Turabianspecifiestwomethodsforrepresentinginformationvisually:tablesandfigures.
TablesAtableisachartthatpresentsnumericalinformationinagridformat.InChicago/Turabianstyle,youmustpresentatableimmediatelyfollowingtheparagraphinwhichyoumentionedit.Whenyoumentionatableinthetextofyourpaper,makesureyourefertoitbyitsnumber(e.g.,“Table1”)ratherthanwithaphraselike“thetablebelow”or“thistable.”
Formatting
Formatyourtablesassimplyaspossible.Donotuseboldoritalicizedtext,anddonotoveruseborders.Generally,youshouldhaveonlythreehorizontallinesinyourtable:oneimmediatelyaboveandoneimmediatelybelowthecolumnheadings,andoneatthebottomofthetable,tohelpseparateitfromthesurroundingtext.However,Chicagostyledoesallowtwoexceptions:youmayuseanadditionalhorizontallineif(1)youneedtoseparateaddednumbersfromtheirtotal,or(2)ifyouhavemultiplelevelsofcolumnheadingswithinatable.
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TitleandSource
Everytableshouldappearflushwiththeleftmargin.Immediatelyabovethetable,provideitsnumber,followedbyacolon,followedbyashortbutdescriptivetitle:
Table1:FrogpopulationsintheWillametteRiverfrom2009-2014
Immediatelybelowthetable,writetheword“Source”(oror“Sources”)initalics,followedbyacolon,andthenprovidethesource(s)oftheinformationinthetable.Includethesameinformation,withthesameformatting,asinaparentheticalcitation—i.e.,theauthor’slastnameandthepagenumber.Endthislinewithaperiod:
Source:Rottweiler67.
BesuretoalsoincludethefullcitationforthissourceinyourReferencesorBibliographysection.Neitherthetitlenorthesourcelineshouldbedouble-spaced.
Sampletable
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ThistableisformattedcorrectlyaccordingtoChicago/Turabianformattingrules.
FiguresTreatafiguremuchasyouwouldtreatatable,withtwoexceptions:(1)youshouldpresentafigureimmediatelyafteryouhavereferenceditinthetext,and(2)allinformationaboutthefigure,includingitsnumber(“Figure1”)andtitle(“FrogsintheWillametteRiver,2012”)shouldappearonthelineimmediatelybelowthefigure.Thesourceinformationshouldappearonthenextline.
Samplefigure
ThisfigureisformattedcorrectlyaccordingtoChicago/Turabianformattingrules.
Attributions
Chicago/Turabian:TitlePage
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“dissertation.”https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/dissertation.WiktionaryCCBY-SA3.0.
“OriginalfigurebyEvaPetzinger.LicensedCCBY-SA4.0.”EvaPetzingerCCBY-SA3.0.
Chicago/Turabian:Headings
“OriginalfigurebyEvaPetzinger.LicensedCCBY-SA4.0.”EvaPetzingerCCBY-SA3.0.
Chicago/Turabian:BlockQuotations
“CommonSensebyThomasPaine.”http://www.ushistory.org/paine/commonsense/singlehtml.htm.USHistory.orgPublicdomain.
“OriginalfigurebyEvaPetzinger.LicensedCCBY-SA4.0.”EvaPetzingerCCBY-SA3.0.
Chicago/Turabian:TablesandFigures
“OriginalfigurebyEvaPetzinger.LicensedCCBY-SA4.0.”EvaPetzingerCCBY-SA3.0.
“OriginalfigurebyEvaPetzinger.LicensedCCBY-SA4.0.”EvaPetzingerCCBY-SA3.0.
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12.3:Chicago/Turabian:CitationsandReferences–NotesandBibliography(NB)System12.3.1:Chicago/Turabian(NB):TheBibliographySection
InChicagoNBstyle,thesourcesyouciteinyourpaperarelistedattheendinthebibliography.
LearningObjective
ArrangethebibliographyinaChicago/TurabianNBpaper
KeyPoints
InChicago/Turabianstyle,therearetwoapproachestoformattingyourcitations:theAuthorDatesystemortheNotesandBibliography(NB)system.IfyouareusingNB,youwillneedabibliographyattheendofyourpaper,inwhichallthesourcesyoucitethroughoutthetextofyourpaperarelistedtogether.Thebibliographyhasitsownspecialformattingrules,includinghangingindentation.Ineachcitationstyle,formattingdiffersslightlybasedonsourcetype;forexample,youwouldformatacitationdifferentlyifyoursourcewasanonlinebookvs.aphysicaltextbook.Therearedifferentcitationstylesfortypesofsources,includingbooks,onlineresources,journals,andmanyothers.
InChicago/TurabianpapersusingtheNotesandBibliography(NB)citationsystem,allthesourcesyoucitethroughoutthetextofyourpaperarelistedtogetherandinfullinthebibliography,whichcomesafterthemaintextofyourpaper.(IfyouareusingtheAuthorDatecitationsystem,thiswillbecalledtheReferencessection.)
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FormattingtheBibliographyThetopofthebibliographypage,astherestofyourpaper,shouldstillincludethepagenumberintherightheader.Onthefirstline,thetitleofthepage—“Bibliography”—shouldappearcenteredandnotitalicizedorbolded.Afterthepagetitle,leavetwoblanklinesbeforeyourfirstcitation.
Unliketherestofyourpaper,thispageshouldnotbedouble-spaced:leaveablanklinebetweeneachcitation,butthecitationsthemselvesshouldnotbedouble-spaced.Yourcitationsshouldbeinalphabeticalorderbythefirstwordineachcitation(usuallytheauthor’slastname).
Eachcitationshouldbeformattedwithwhatiscalledahangingindent.Thismeansthefirstlineofeachreferenceshouldbeflushwiththeleftmargin(i.e.,notindented),buttherestofthatreferenceshouldbeindentedoneinchfromtheleftmargin.Anyword-processingprogramwillletyouformatthisautomaticallysoyoudon’thavetodoitbyhand.(InMicrosoftWord,forexample,yousimplyhighlightyourcitations,clickonthesmallarrowrightnexttotheword“Paragraph”onthehometab,andinthepopupboxchoose“hangingindent”underthe“Special”section.ClickOK,andyou’redone.)
Bibliography
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ThisisanexampleofacorrectlyformattedbibliographyinChicago/TurabianNBstyle.
ConstructingaCitationThefirststepinbuildingeachindividualcitationistodeterminethetypeofresourceyouareciting,sinceineachcitationstyleformattingdiffersslightlybasedonsourcetype.Somecommontypesareabook,achapterfromabook,ajournalarticle,anonlinebookorarticle,anonlinevideo,ablogpost,andpersonalcommunicationsuchasanemailoraninterviewyouconducted.(You’llnoticethat“website”isnotacategorybyitself.Iftheinformationyoufoundisonline,youwanttodetermineifyou’relookingatanonlinebook,anonlinearticle,orsomeothertypeofdocument.)Themostimportantinformationtohaveforcitingasourcewillalwaysbetheauthornames,thetitle,andthepublisherinformationandyearofpublication.
Asanexample,let’slookindetailattheprocessofcitingthreeparticularsourcesinChicagostyle:JosephConrad’sHeartofDarkness(i.e.,abookbyoneauthor),ProjectGutenberg’sonlinetextofthesamebook(i.e.,anonlinebook),andanonlinejournalarticleaboutthebook.
PrintSourcesAuthorName
Youalwayswanttostartwiththeauthorinformation.Youshouldpresenttheauthorinformationinthefollowingorderandformat:theauthor’slastname(capitalized),acomma,theauthor’sfirstname(capitalized),theauthor’smiddleinitial(ifgiven),andthenaperiod:
Conrad,Joseph.
TitleofSource
Next,youshouldincludethetitleofthesourceintitlecase.Forabookorotherstandalonesource,thetitleisitalicized;otherwiseitshouldbeenclosedinquotationmarks.
HeartofDarkness.
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CityofPublication
Next,youwanttoprovidethelocationofthepublisher’soffice.Thelocationisgenerallyacity,suchas“London”or“NewYork,NY.”
London:
PublisherName
Next,providethepublisher’sname,followedbyacomma:
Everyman’sLibrary,
DateofPublication
Afterthepublisherinformation,youprovidetheyearinwhichthesourcewaspublished,followedbyaperiod.
1993.
Alltogether,then,thecitationlookslikethis:
Conrad,Joseph.HeartofDarkness.London:Everyman’sLibrary,1993.
OnlineSourcesNowlet’stakealookatthecitationfortheonlineversionofthesamebook,availableonlinethroughthepublisherProjectGutenberg(gutenberg.org).Treattheonlineversionofaprintbookexactlythesameasaprintbook,butwithanindicationofwhereyoufounditonline.
Conrad,Joseph.HeartofDarkness.ProjectGutenberg,2006.https://www.gutenberg.org/files/219/219-h/219-h.htm.
JournalArticlesandMultipleAuthors
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NooriBerzenji,LatefS.,andMarwanAbdi.“TheImageoftheAfricansinHeartofDarknessandThingsFallApart.”InterdisciplinaryJournalofContemporaryResearchinBusiness5,no.4(2013):710–726.
Muchofthiscitationwilllookfamiliartoyounowthatyouknowthebasics.Again,westartwiththeauthorinformation.Ifthesourcehasmultipleauthors,thecitationrulesarealittledifferent.Thefirstauthorwillbelistedwiththeirsurnamefirst(Conrad,Joseph)butsubsequentauthorswillbelistedwiththeirfirstnamesfirst(JosephConrad).Usetheword“and”(notanampersand,&”)beforethelastauthor.Herewehaveonlytwoauthors,butifwehadfive,the“and”wouldcomebeforethefifthauthor’slastname,afterthecommafollowingthefourthauthor’sname.
Thedateofpublicationandtitleareformattedthesame.NotethateventhoughChicagostylesaysthatthearticletitleshouldnotbeitalicized,thebooktitleswithinthearticletitlearestillitalicized.
Thenewinformationherebeginswithcitingthejournalthisarticleisfrom.Includethetitleofthejournalinitalicizedtitlecase(allmajorwordscapitalized,asinthetitleofabook):
InterdisciplinaryJournalofContemporaryResearchinBusiness
Thenincludethejournalvolume:
5
Ifanissuenumberisprovidedinadditiontothevolumenumber,asitishere,addacommaafterthevolumenumber,theabbreviation“no.”,andtheissuenumber:
5,no.4
Next,listtheyearofthearticle’spublicationinparentheses,followedbyacolon:
(2013):
Finally,listthepagenumbersofthearticle,followedbyaperiod[notethatthedashbetweenthefirstandsecondnumbersisanen-dash(–),NOTahyphen(-)orem-dash(—)]:
710–726.
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MultiplePublicationsbytheSameAuthorIfyouarereferencingmultiplepublicationsby(orgroupofauthors)thatwerepublishedinthesameyear,thereisaspecialrulefordenotingthis.Youshouldfirstorderthosearticlesalphabeticallybysourcetitleinthebibliography.Butthen,replacetheauthor’snameinallentriesexceptthefirstonewithanem-dash(—).
Achenbach,Thomas.“BibliographyofPublishedStudiesUsingtheASEBA.”AchenbachSystemofEmpiricallyBasedAssessment,2012.http://www.aseba.org/asebabib.html.—.“School-Age(Ages6–18)Assessments.”AchenbachSystemofEmpiricallyBasedAssessment,2012.http://www.aseba.org/schoolage.html.
12.3.2:Chicago/Turabian(NB):HowtoReferenceDifferentTypesofSources
InChicago/TurabianNBstyle,therearedifferentformatsforcitationsinyourbibliographydependingonthetypeofsourceyouareciting.
LearningObjective
ListthewaystocitedifferentsourcetypesinaChicago/Turabianbibliography
KeyPoints
IfyouareusingtheNotesandBibliography(NB)methodofChicago/Turabianstyle,youwillneedabibliographyattheendofyourpaper.Inyourbibliography,youwillhavetocreateacitationforeverysourceyouusedinyourpaper;thesecitationswillbeformatteddifferentlydependingonthetypeofsource.Therearedifferentcitationstylesforbooks,dependingonhowmanyauthorstheyhave.Therearedifferentcitationstylesforarticles,dependingonwhereyou
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foundthem.
KeyTerm
bibliography
Asectionofawrittenworkcontainingcitations,notquotations,ofallthesourcesreferencedinthework.
NowthatyouknowthedifferentcomponentsofabookcitationinChicago/TurabianNotesandBibliography(NB)styleandhowthecitationshouldbeformatted,youwillbeabletounderstandthecitationformatsforothersourcetypes.Herearesomeexamplecitationsforthemostcommontypesofresourcesyouwilluse.
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BookbyOneAuthorDoyle,Arthur.TheMemoirsofSherlockHolmes.Mineola:DoverPublications,Inc.,2010.
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BookbyMultipleAuthorsTwoorMoreAuthors
(Writeoutallauthornames.)
Dubner,Stephen,andStevenLevitt.Freakonomics:ARogueEconomistExplorestheHiddenSideofEverything.NewYork:HarperPerennial,2005.
Brown,Theodore,H.EugeneLemay,BruceBursten,CatherineMurphy,PatrickWoodward,andMatthewStoltzfus.Chemistry:TheCentralScience.London:PrenticeHall,2015.
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BookwithAuthorandEditorLovecraft,HowardPhillips.Tales.EditedbyPeterStraub.NewYork:LibraryofAmerica,2005.
ArticleinaJournalwithContinuousPaginationRottweiler,Frank,andJacquesBeauchemin.“DetroitandSarnia:Twofoesonthebrinkofdestruction.”Canadian/AmericanStudiesJournal54(2012):66–146.
ArticleinaJournalPaginatedSeparatelyRottweiler,Frank,andJacquesBeauchemin.“DetroitandSarnia:Twofoesonthebrinkofdestruction.”Canadian/AmericanStudiesJournal54,no.2(2012):66–146.
ArticleinanInternet-OnlyJournalMarlowe,Philip,andSarahSpade.“DetectiveWorkandtheBenefitsofColourVersusBlackandWhite.”JournalofPointlessResearch11,no.2(2001):123–124.AccessedOctober31,2015.http://www.jpr.com/stable/detectiveworkcolour.htm.
PageonaWebSitePavlenko,Aneta.“BilingualMinds,BilingualBodies.”PsychologyToday.LastmodifiedOctober7,2015.https://www.psychologytoday.com/blog/life-bilingual/201510/bilingual-
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minds-bilingual-bodies.
PageonaWebSite,NoAuthorIdentified,NoDate“BilingualMinds,BilingualBodies.”PsychologyToday.AccessedOctober29,2015.https://www.psychologytoday.com/blog/life-bilingual/201510/bilingual-minds-bilingual-bodies.
12.3.3:Chicago/Turabian(NB):FootnotesandEndnotes
InChicago/TurabianNotesandBibliographystyle,usefootnotesorendnotesforcitingsourcesintext.
LearningObjective
ArrangefootnotesinChicago/TurabianNBstyle
KeyPoints
Afootnoteiswhenyoufollowaquotation,aparaphrasedidea,orapieceofinformationthatotherwiseneededtobecitedwithasuperscriptnumber.Anendnoteisexactlylikeafootnote,exceptthenoteonwhatsourcewasusedisattheendofthepaperratherthanthebottomofthepage.Therearetwostepstocreatingafootnote.First,youneedtoplaceanumberinthetexttotellthereaderwhatnotetolookfor;then,youneedtocreatethenoteitself.
KeyTerms
endnote
Anoteattheendofapaper,correspondingtoanumberinatext,whichgivesthereadercitationinformation.
footnote
Anoteatthebottomofthepage,correspondingtoanumberinatext,
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whichgivesthereadercitationinformation.
FootnotesandEndnotesInyourpaper,whenyouquotedirectlyfromasourceintheirwords,orwhenyouparaphrasesomeoneelse’sidea,youneedtotellthereaderwhatthatsourceissotheauthorgetscreditfortheirwordsandideas.Onemethodfordoingthisiscreatingafootnote.
Afootnoteiswhenyoufollowaquotation,aparaphrasedidea,orapieceofinformationthatotherwiseneededtobecitedwithasuperscriptnumber(likethis.)1Then,atthebottomofthepage,yougiveabriefindicationofwhereyouretrievedthatinformation.Fullerinformationaboutthatsourceisthencontainedinthepaper’sbibliography.Thinkofthefootnoteastellingthereaderwheretogoinyourbibliographytofindthesource,andthebibliographyentryastellingthereaderwheretogointherealworldtofindthesource.
Anendnoteisexactlylikeafootnote,exceptthatendnotesappearalltogetherattheendofthepaper,whileeachfootnoteappearsonthebottomofthesamepageasitssuperscriptednumber.
CreatingaFootnoteTherearetwostepstocreatingafootnote.First,youneedtoplaceanumberinthetexttotellthereaderwhatnotetolookfor;then,youneedtocreatethenoteitself.Asanexample,let’ssaywearewritingapaperaboutmeerkatpopulationsandwewritethefollowingsentences:
Asof2009,themeerkatpopulationhasincreasedby20%inEasternBotswana.“It’sthrilling,”saysrenownedbiologistElizabethKhama,“Theanimalsaretrulymakingacomeback.”
Weneedtocreatefootnotestociteoursources.
Numbering
Thefirststeptocreatingafootnoteisplaceanumbernexttothestatementthatneedstobesourced.Todothis,placethenumberattheendofthesentenceitrefersto,afterallpunctuation.
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Asof2009,themeerkatpopulationhasincreasedby20%inEasternBotswana.1“It’sthrilling,”saysrenownedbiologistElizabethKhama,“Theanimalsaretrulymakingacomeback.”2
Yourfirstfootnoteofthepapershouldbenumbered1,yoursecondshouldbe2,andsoonuntiltheendofthepaper.Ifyouarewritinganexceptionallylongpaper,suchasadoctoralthesis,numbersshouldrestartatthebeginningofeverychapter.
CreatingtheNotes
Next,youneedtocreatethenotethatthenumberrefersto.Everynumberneedsanote.Inthenote,youwillhavetheauthor’sname,thetitleofthework,thepublicationinformation,andthepagenumber:
1. AndrewByrd,“TheResurgenceoftheMeerkat,”SouthernAfricanEcology32,no.2(2009):221.
Youonlyneedtocreateanotethatcontainsallofthisinformationonceperpaper.Ifyoucitethissourceagainlaterinthepaper(say,inyoursixthnote),youwouldsimplywritetheauthor,title,andpagenumber,separatedbycommas:
6.Byrd,“TheResurgenceoftheMeerkat,”256.
Using“Ibid.”
However,ifyoucitetheexactsamesourcemorethanonceinarow,withoutcitinganyothersourcesinbetween,thereisaspecialshorthandyoucanuse.ChicagoNBstylehasveryspecificrulesforwhattodointhissituation.Ifyoucitethesamesourcemultipletimesinarow,simplywrite“Ibid.”ineachnoteafterthefirst—thismeans“thissourceisthesameasthesourceinthepreviousnote”:
1. AndrewByrd,“TheResurgenceoftheMeerkat,”SouthernAfricanEcology32,no.2(2009):221.
2. Ibid.
Ifyou’recitingadifferentpageofthesamesource,addacommaandthenewpagenumberafter“Ibid.”:
1. AndrewByrd,“TheResurgenceoftheMeerkat,”SouthernAfrican
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Ecology32,no.2(2009):221.2. Ibid.,225.
Onceyouciteadifferentsource,youruseof“Ibid.”hastostartover—youshouldnotuseitagainuntilyouhavemultiplenotesinarowthatcitethesamesource.
12.3.4:HowtoReferenceDifferentTypesofSourcesinFootnotes
Differentsourcetypesrequiredifferentcitationinformationwhenbeingcitedinfootnotes.
LearningObjective
ListthewaystocitedifferentsourcetypesinChicago/Turabianfootnotes
KeyPoints
Footnotesarelike“mini-citations”atthebottomofthepage,whichdirectyourreadertoabibliographyentry.Differenttypesofsourcerequiredifferentcitationinformation.
KeyTerm
NotesandBibliography
AsubsetoftheChicago/Turabiancitationstyle,whichusesfootnotestocitesourcesinthetext.
FootnotesarethepreferredcitationmethodfortheChicago/TurabianNotesandBibliographycitationstyle.Whenusingfootnotes,youcreatewhatisessentiallya“mini-citation”atthebottomofthepage.Thesefootnotesguidethereadertothecorrespondingentryinyourbibliography.
Differenttypesofsourcerequiredifferentcitationinformation,buttheyalwaysfollowtheformof:author,title,publicationinformation,andtheneitherpagenumberorwebsiteURL(allseparatedbycommas).Andremember,thisinformationwillalsobecontained,inaslightlydifferentform,inyourbibliography.
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BookbyaSingleAuthor1.StevenPinker,HowtheMindWorks(NewYork:Norton,1997),223.
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BookbyTwotoFourAuthors2.StephenDubnerandStevenLevitt,Freakonomics(NewYork:WilliamMorrow,2005),101.
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BookbyFiveorMoreAuthors3.TheodoreBrownetal.,Chemistry:TheCentralScience(UpperSaddleRiver:PrenticeHall,2005),642.
JournalArticle4.AndrewByrd,“TheResurgenceoftheMeerkat,”SouthernAfricanEcology32,no.1(2009):221.
ElectronicJournalArticle5.AndrewByrd,“TheMeerkatsHaveAllGoneAway,”AfricanEcologyOnline18,no.2(2006):169,accessedOctober31,2015,http://www.afrecoonline.org/byrd1.htm.
WebsitewithAuthorandPublicationDate6.CaraNelson,“TheTopThreeMoviesofAllTime,”BestMovies,lastmodifiedJune26,1993,http://www.bestmovies.com/nelsoncara1.htm.
WebsitewithUnknownAuthorandPublicationDate7.“SomeCoolMovies,”BestMovies,accessedOctober14,2015,http://www.bestmovies.com/anonymous.htm.
Attributions
Chicago/Turabian(NB):TheBibliographySection
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“OriginalfigurebyEvaPetzinger.LicensedCCBY-SA4.0.”EvaPetzingerCCBY-SA3.0.
Chicago/Turabian(NB):HowtoReferenceDifferentTypesofSources
“bibliography.”https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/bibliography.WiktionaryCCBY-SA3.0.
Chicago/Turabian(NB):FootnotesandEndnotesHowtoReferenceDifferentTypesofSourcesinFootnotes
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12.4:Chicago/Turabian:CitationsandReferences–Author–Date(AD)System12.4.1:Chicago/Turabian(Author–Date):TheReferencesSection
InChicagoAuthor–Datestyle,thesourcesyouciteinyourpaperarelistedattheendintheReferencessection.
LearningObjective
ArrangetheReferencessectioninaChicago/TurabianAuthor–Datepaper
KeyPoints
InChicago/Turabianstyle,therearetwowaysofformattingyourcitations:theAuthor–DatesystemortheNotesandBibliographysystem(NB).IfyouareusingtheAuthor–Datesystem,youwillneedaReferencessection.AllthesourcesyoucitethroughoutthetextofyourpaperarelistedtogetherintheReferencessectionattheendofyourpaper.TheReferencessectionhasitsownspecialformattingrules,includinghangingindentation.Ineachcitationstyle,formattingdiffersslightlybasedonsourcetype;forexample,youwouldformatacitationdifferentlyifyoursourcewasanonlinebookvs.aphysicaltextbook.Therearedifferentcitationstylesfortypesofsources,includingbooks,onlineresources,journals,andmanyothers.
InChicago/TurabianpapersusingtheAuthor–Datecitationsystem,allthesourcesyoucitethroughoutthetextofyourpaperarelistedtogetherinfullintheReferencessection,whichcomesafterthemaintextofyourpaper.(IfyouareusingNB,thiswillbecalledthebibliography.)
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FormattingtheReferencesSectionThetopofthepage,astherestofyourpaper,shouldstillincludethepagenumberintherightheader.Onthefirstline,thetitleofthepage—“References”—shouldappearcenteredandnotitalicizedorbolded.Afterthepagetitle,leavetwoblanklinesbeforeyourfirstcitation.
Unliketherestofyourpaper,thispageshouldnotbedouble-spaced:leaveablanklinebetweeneachcitation,butthecitationsthemselvesshouldnotbedouble-spaced.Yourcitationsshouldbeinalphabeticalorderbythefirstwordineachcitation(usuallytheauthor’slastname).
Eachreferenceshouldbeformattedwithwhatiscalledahangingindent.Thismeansthefirstlineofeachreferenceshouldbeflushwiththeleftmargin(i.e.,notindented),buttherestofthatreferenceshouldbeindentedoneinchfromtheleftmargin.Anyword-processingprogramwillletyouformatthisautomaticallysoyoudon’thavetodoitbyhand.(InMicrosoftWord,forexample,yousimplyhighlightyourcitations,clickonthesmallarrowrightnexttotheword“Paragraph”onthehometab,andinthepopupboxchoose“hangingindent”underthe“Special”section.ClickOK,andyou’redone.)
Referencespage
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ThisisacorrectlyformattedReferencespageinChicago/TurabianAuthor–Datestyle.
ConstructingaCitationThefirststepinbuildingeachindividualcitationistodeterminethetypeofresourceyouareciting,sinceineachcitationstyleformattingdiffersslightlybasedonsourcetype.Somecommontypesareabook,achapterfromabook,ajournalarticle,anonlinebookorarticle,anonlinevideo,ablogpost,andpersonalcommunicationsuchasanemailoraninterviewyouconducted.(You’llnoticethat“website”isnotacategorybyitself.Iftheinformationyoufoundisonline,youwanttodetermineifyou’relookingatanonlinebook,anonlinearticle,orsomeothertypeofdocument.)
Asanexample,let’slookindetailattheprocessofcitingthreeparticularsourcesinChicagostyle:JosephConrad’sHeartofDarkness(i.e.,abookbyoneauthor),ProjectGutenberg’sonlinetextofthesamebook(i.e.,anonlinebook),andanonlinejournalarticleaboutthebook.
PrintSourcesAuthorName
Youalwayswanttostartwiththeauthorinformation.Youshouldpresenttheauthorinformationinthefollowingorderandformat:theauthor’slastname,acomma,theauthor’sfirstname,theauthor’smiddleinitial(ifgiven),andthenaperiod:
Conrad,Joseph.
TitleofSource
Next,youshouldincludethetitleofthesourceintitlecase.Forabook,thetitleisitalicized.
HeartofDarkness.
CityofPublication
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Next,youwanttoprovidethelocationofthepublisher’soffice.Thelocationisgenerallyacity,suchas“London”or“NewYork,NY.”
London:
PublisherName
Next,providethepublisher’sname,followedbyacomma:
Everyman’sLibrary,
DateofPublication
Nowprovidetheyearinwhichthesourcewaspublished,followedbyaperiod.
1993.
Alltogether,then,thecitationlookslikethis:
Conrad,Joseph.HeartofDarkness.London:Everyman’sLibrary,1993.
OnlineSourcesNowlet’stakealookatthecitationfortheonlineversionofthesamebook,availableonlinethroughthepublisherProjectGutenberg(gutenberg.org).Treattheonlineversionofaprintbookexactlythesameasaprintbook,butwithanindicationofwhereyoufounditonline.
Conrad,Joseph.HeartofDarkness.ProjectGutenberg,2006.https://www.gutenberg.org/files/219/219-h/219-h.htm.
JournalArticlesandMultipleAuthors
NooriBerzenji,LatefS.,andMarwanAbdi.“TheImageoftheAfricansinHeartofDarknessandThingsFallApart.”InterdisciplinaryJournalofContemporaryResearchinBusiness5,no.4(2013):710–726.
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Muchofthiscitationwilllookfamiliartoyounowthatyouknowthebasics.Again,westartwiththeauthorinformation.Ifthesourcehasmultipleauthors,thecitationrulesarealittledifferent.Thefirstauthorwillbelistedwiththeirsurnamefirst(Conrad,Joseph)butsubsequentauthorswillbelistedwiththeirfirstnamesfirst(JosephConrad).Usetheword“and”(notanampersand,&)beforethelastauthor.Herewehaveonlytwoauthors,butifwehadfive,the“and”wouldcomebeforethefifthauthor’slastname,afterthecommafollowingthefourthauthor’sname.
Thedateofpublicationandtitleareformattedthesame.NotethateventhoughAPAstylesaysthatthearticletitleshouldnotbeitalicized,thebooktitles“HeartofDarkness”and“ThingsFallApart”withinthearticletitlearestillitalicized.
Thenewinformationherebeginswithcitingthejournalthisarticleisfrom.Includethetitleofthejournalinitalicizedtitlecase(allmajorwordscapitalized,asinthetitleofabook):
InterdisciplinaryJournalofContemporaryResearchinBusiness
Thenincludethejournalvolume:
5
Ifanissuenumberisprovidedinadditiontothevolumenumber,asitishere,addacommaafterthevolumenumber,theabbreviation“no.”,andtheissuenumber:
5,no.4
Next,listtheyearofthearticle’spublicationinparentheses,followedbyacolon:
(2013):
Finally,listthepagenumbersofthearticle,followedbyaperiod[notethatthedashbetweenthefirstandsecondnumbersisanen-dash(–),NOTahyphen(-)orem-dash(—)]:
710–726.
MultiplePublicationsbytheSame
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AuthorIfyouarereferencingmultiplepublicationsby(orgroupofauthors)thatwerepublishedinthesameyear,thereisaspecialrulefordenotingthis.YoushouldfirstorderthosearticlesalphabeticallybysourcetitleintheReferencessection.Butthen,replacetheauthor’snameinallentriesexceptthefirstonewithanem-dash(—).
Achenbach,Thomas.“BibliographyofPublishedStudiesUsingtheASEBA.”AchenbachSystemofEmpiricallyBasedAssessment,2012.http://www.aseba.org/asebabib.html.—.“School-Age(Ages6–18)Assessments.”AchenbachSystemofEmpiricallyBasedAssessment,2012.http://www.aseba.org/schoolage.html.
12.4.2:Chicago/Turabian(Author–Date):HowtoReferenceDifferentTypesofSources
InChicago/Turabianstyle,therearedifferentformatsforcitingsourcesattheendofyourpaperdependingonthetypeofsource.
LearningObjective
ListthewaystocitedifferentsourcetypesinChicago/TurabianAuthor–Datestyle
KeyPoints
IfyouareusingtheAuthor–DatemethodofChicago/Turabianstyle,youwillneedaReferencessectionattheendofyourpaper.InyourReferencessection,youwillhavetocreateacitationforeverysourceyouusedinyourpaper;thesecitationswillbeformatteddifferentlydependingonthesourcetype.Therearedifferentcitationstylesforbooks,dependingonhowmanyauthorstheyhave.Therearedifferentcitationstylesforarticles,dependingonwhereyoufoundthem.Therearewaystoformatsourcesthatarenotbooksorarticles.
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KeyTerm
Author–Date
AsubsetoftheChicago/Turabiancitationstylethatusesin-textcitationsandaReferencespageattheend.
NowthatyouknowthedifferentcomponentsofabookcitationinChicago/TurabianAuthor–Datestyleandhowtheyshouldbeformatted,youwillbeabletounderstandthecitationformatsforothersourcetypes.Herearesomeexamplecitationsforthemostcommontypesofresourcesyouwilluse.ThesearehowyourcitationswillbeformattedonyourReferencespageattheendofyourAuthor–Datestylepaper.
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BookbyOneAuthorDoyle,Arthur.TheMemoirsofSherlockHolmes.Mineola:DoverPublications,Inc.,2010.
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BookbyMultipleAuthorsTwoorMoreAuthors
(Writeoutallauthornames.)
Dubner,Stephen,andStevenLevitt.Freakonomics:ARogueEconomistExplorestheHiddenSideofEverything.NewYork:HarperPerennial,2005.
Brown,Theodore,H.EugeneLemay,BruceBursten,CatherineMurphy,PatrickWoodward,andMatthewStoltzfus.Chemistry:TheCentralScience.London:PrenticeHall,2015.
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BookwithAuthorandEditorLovecraft,HowardPhillips.Tales.EditedbyPeterStraub.NewYork:LibraryofAmerica,2005.
ArticleinaJournalwithContinuousPaginationRottweiler,Frank,andJacquesBeauchemin.“DetroitandSarnia:TwoFoesontheBrinkofDestruction.”Canadian/AmericanStudiesJournal54(2012):66–146.
ArticleinaJournalPaginatedSeparatelyRottweiler,Frank,andJacquesBeauchemin.“DetroitandSarnia:TwoFoesontheBrinkofDestruction.”Canadian/AmericanStudiesJournal54,no.2(2012):66–146.
ArticleinanInternet-OnlyJournalMarlowe,Philip,andSarahSpade.“DetectiveWorkandtheBenefitsofColourVersusBlackandWhite.”JournalofPointlessResearch11,no.2(2001):123–124.AccessedOctober31,2015.http://www.jpr.com/stable/detectiveworkcolour.htm.
PageonaWebSitePavlenko,Aneta.“BilingualMinds,BilingualBodies.”PsychologyToday.LastmodifiedOctober7,2015.https://www.psychologytoday.com/blog/life-bilingual/201510/bilingual-
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minds-bilingual-bodies.
PageonaWebSite,NoAuthorIdentified,NoDate“BilingualMinds,BilingualBodies.”PsychologyToday.AccessedOctober29,2015.https://www.psychologytoday.com/blog/life-bilingual/201510/bilingual-minds-bilingual-bodies.
12.4.3:Chicago/Turabian(Author–Date):In-TextReferencesandParentheticals
InChicago/TurabianAuthor–Datestyle,in-textcitationsfollowstrictformattingrules.
LearningObjective
Arrangein-textcitationsinChicago/TurabianAuthor–Datestyle
KeyPoints
In-textcitationsarewhereyoutellthereader,withinthetextofyourpaper,theauthor’snameandthedatethesourcewaspublished.Thecorrectformattingforanin-textcitationvariesdependingonhowmanyauthorscreatedthesourcebeingcited.Formattingalsovariesdependingonwhetheryoucitethesamesourcemorethanonce,orwhetheryoucitemultipleworksbythesameauthor.
KeyTerm
parenthetical
Awordorphrasewithinparentheses.
Inyourpaper,whenyouquotedirectlyfromasourceintheauthor’swords,orwhenyouparaphrasesomeoneelse’sidea,youneedtotellthereaderwherethewordsandideascomesfromsotheoriginalauthorgetscredit.Whenyoudothiswithinthetextthereadertheauthor’snameandthedatethesourcewaspublishedinthetextofyourpaper,thisiscalledanin-textcitation.
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TheChicago/Turabiancitationstyleusesin-textcitationsonlyinitsAuthor–Datemethod,whichisgenerallyusedforsocialsciencepapersandisexplainedbelow.Ifyourprofessorasksyoutocitesourceswithfootnotesandbibliographyratherthanin-textcitations,makesureyouusetheNotesandBibliography(NB)methodratherthantheAuthor–Datemethoddescribedhere.
SourcebyaSingleAuthorTocitethistypeofreferenceinthetext,youshouldusewhatisknownasaparenthetical—citationinformationenclosedinparentheses—attheendoftherelevantsentence.Theparentheticalshouldincludetheauthor’slastname(withnofirstormiddleinitial)followedbytheyearthesourcewaspublished.Ifyou’recitingadirectquote,youalsoneedtoincludethepagenumberafteracomma.Forexample:
Socialrepresentationstheorypositsthatreifiedscientificknowledgethatexistsattheboundariesofagivensocietywillbeinterpretedinmeaningfulandoftensimplifiedformsbythemajority(Pauling2005).Socialrepresentationstheory“proposesanewhypothesis…”(Pauling2005,113).
Ifyouchoose,youcanintegratetheauthor’snameintothesentenceitself—thisisknownasa“signalphrase”—andprovidejusttheyearinparentheses:
Pauling(2005)positsthat…
SourcebyTwoorThreeAuthorsAuthorsshouldbepresentedintheorderinwhichtheyarelistedonthepublishedarticle.Ifyouincludetheauthors’namesintheparenthetical,usetheword“and”betweenthetwonames.Forexample:
Socialrepresentationstheorypositsthatreifiedscientificknowledgethatexistsattheboundariesofagivensocietywillbeinterpretedinmeaningfulandoftensimplifiedformsbythemajority(PaulingandLiu2005).
Youmaystillchoosetouseasignalphraseinstead,butmakesureyoukeepbothauthorsinit:
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PaulingandLiu(2005)positthat…
SourcebyFourorMoreAuthorsForanarticlewithmorethanfourauthors,thefirsttimeyoucitethearticleinthetextofyourpaper,youshoulduseonlythefirstauthor’snamefollowedby“etal.”andtheyearofpublication.(“Etal.”isshortfor“etalia,”whichmeans“andotherpeople”inLatin—muchlike“etc.”isshortfor“etcetera,”whichmeans“andotherthings”inLatin.)
Socialrepresentationstheorypositsthatreifiedscientificknowledgethatexistsattheboundariesofagivensocietywillbeinterpretedinmeaningfulandoftensimplifiedformsbythemajority(Paulingetal.2005).
Usingasignalphrase:
Paulingetal.(2005)posit…
CitingMultiplePublicationsbyDifferentAuthorsIfyouneedtocitemultiplepublicationsbydifferentauthorsinthesamesentence,youshouldlistthemultiplesourcesinalphabeticalorderbyauthoranduseasemicolontoseparatethem.
…majority(Alford1995;Pauling2004;Sirkis2003).
Ifwithinthiscitationyoualsohavemultiplesourcesbythesameauthor,afterthatauthor’sname,separatethemultipledatesofpublicationwithacomma,andorderthemchronologically(earliesttolatest).
…majority(Alford1995;Pauling2004,2005;Sirkis2003).
CitingMultiplePublicationsbytheSameAuthor
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Ifyouneedtocitemultiplepublicationsbythesameauthorwithinasentence,youuseacommatoseparatetheyearsofpublicationinchronologicalorder(oldesttomostrecent).
…majority(Pauling2004,2005).
Usingasignalphrase:
Pauling(2004,2005)suggeststhat…
Attributions
Chicago/Turabian(Author–Date):TheReferencesSection
“OriginalfigurebyEvaPetzinger.LicensedCCBY-SA4.0.”EvaPetzingerCCBY-SA3.0.
Chicago/Turabian(Author–Date):HowtoReferenceDifferentTypesofSourcesChicago/Turabian(Author–Date):In-TextReferencesandParentheticals