david g. myers myers’ psychology for ap ®, 2e ap ® is a trademark registered and/or owned by the...

David G. Myers

Myers’ Psychology for AP®, 2e

AP® is a trademark registered and/or owned by the College Board ®, which was not involved in the production of, and does not endorse, this product.

Module 60:Introduction to Intelligence

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IntelligenceIntelligence

Do we have an inborn general mental capacity (intelligence)? If so, can we quantify this capacity as a meaningful number?

Introduction• Intelligence mental quality consisting of

the ability to learn from experience, solve problems, and use knowledge to adapt to new situations. intro-to-intelligence

• Intelligence test a method of assessing an individual's mental aptitudes & comparing them with those of others, using numerical scores.

https://education-portal.com/academy/lesson/intro-to-intelligence.html#lesson

Is Intelligence One General Ability or Several Specific

Abilities?

Is Intelligence One General Ability or Several Specific Abilities?

• Spearman’s General intelligence (g) a general intelligence factor that, according to Spearman and others, underlies specific mental abilities and is therefore measured by every task on an intelligence test.

– Factor analysis = a statistical procedure that identifies clusters of related items (called factors) on a test; used to identify difference dimensions of performance that underlie a person’s total score.

– Comparison to athleticism g

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General IntelligenceSpearman proposed that general intelligence (g) is linked to many clusters that can be analyzed by factor analysis.For example, people who do well on vocabulary examinations do well on paragraph comprehension examinations, a cluster that helps define verbal intelligence. Other factors include a spatial ability factor, or a reasoning ability factor.

•Thurstone’s counter argument


Theories of Multiples Intelligences:

Gardner’s 8 Intelligences multiple-intelligences

• Savant syndrome a condition in which a person otherwise limited in mental ability has an exceptional specific skill, such as in computation or drawing.

Gardner’s Eight Intelligences There is speculation about the existence of a ninth one — existential intelligence.



Gardner’s Eight Intelligences

• Grit in psychology,

grit is passion & perseverance in the pursuit of long-term goals.

Is Intelligence 1 General Ability or Several Specific Abilities?


Sternberg’s 3 IntelligencesSternberg’s 3 Intelligences

• Sternberg’s Three Intelligences1.1. Analytical Intelligence:Analytical Intelligence:

Intelligence that is assessed by intelligence tests.

2.2. Creative Intelligence:Creative Intelligence: Intelligence that makes us adapt to novel situations, generating novel ideas.

3.3. Practical Intelligence:Practical Intelligence: Intelligence that is required for everyday tasks (e.g. street smarts).

Emotional Intelligence

Emotional Intelligence• Emotional intelligence = the ability to

perceive, understand, manage, & use emotions.

– Perceive emotions

– Understand emotions

– Manage emotions

– Use emotions for adaptive or creative thinking

– emotional_intelligence

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Emotional Intelligence: Components

Component Description

Perceive emotionRecognize emotions in

faces, music and stories

Understand emotion

Predict emotions, how they change and blend

Manage emotionExpress emotions in different situations

Use emotionUtilize emotions to adapt

or be creative

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Emotional Intelligence: CriticismCriticism

Gardner & others criticize the idea of emotional intelligence & question whether we stretch this idea of intelligence too far when we apply it to our emotions.

Is Intelligence Neurologically Measurable?


Brain Size & Complexity• Brain size studies

• More correlative than causal (a 3rd factor?)

• Brain complexity studies– Neural plasticity- Neural plasticity-

– Brain “growth” or “rewiring” base on use

– Gray matter vs. white matter– Gray = mostly neural cells– White = axons– Together they lead to faster

communication btwn brain centers


Brain FunctionEfficiency Matters! How fast can

you retrieve information is an indicator of intelligence. Think Jeopardy & Timed Tests.

Perceptual speed - Neurological speed –

Cause? Or Correlation?

Module 61:Assessing Intelligence

Origins of Intelligence Testing

Origins of Intelligence Testing history-of-intelligence-testing 4:30

• Francis Galton’s intelligence testing• (Darwin’s cousin), believed intelligence to

be inherited & wanted to find a way to MEASURE intellectual strengths. Looked at…

– Reaction time– Sensory acuity– Muscular power– Body proportions

…. Found no correlations with any.

Did, however establish some statistical techniques that we still use

• Hereditary Genius - - Eugenics


Predicting School AchievementAlfred Binet Alfred Binet & Théodore Simon

practiced a more modern form of intelligence testing by developing questions that would predict children’s future progress in the Paris school system.– Identifying French school

children in need of assistance

– Mental age Vs. Chronological age a measure of intelligence test performance devised

by Binet; the chronological age that most typically corresponds to a given level of performance. Thus, a child who does as well as the average 8-yr-old is said to have a mental age of 8.


Lewis Terman: The Innate IQ• Stanford-Binet TestIn the US, Lewis Terman Lewis Terman

adapted Binet’s test for American school children. The test was named the Stanford-Binet Test.

• This is the formula of Intelligence Quotient Intelligence Quotient (IQ),(IQ), introduced by William Stern:

• IQ of 100 is considered average• World War I testing• /history-of-intelligence-testing 4:30

Modern Tests of Mental Abilities


• Achievement tests tests designed to assess what a person has learned.

• Aptitude tests tests designed to predict a person’s future performance; aptitude is the capacity to learn . types-of-assessments-used-in-psychology


• Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale (WAIS) = the WAIS is the most widely used intelligence test; contains verbal & performance (nonverbal) subtests– Wechsler Intelligence

Scale for Children (WISC)

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WAISWAIS measures overall intelligence & 11 other aspects related to intelligence that are designed to assess clinical & educational problems.

Principles of Test Construction standardization-and-norms-of-

psychological-tests 5m +

Principles of Test Construction

Standardization• Standardization = defining uniform testing

procedures and meaningful scores by comparison with the performance of a pretested group

– Normal curve (bell curve) a symmetrical, bell-shaped curve that describes the distribution of many physical and psychological attributes. Most scores fall near the average, and fewer and fewer scores lie near the extremes.


Standardization

• Normal curve (bell curve)


Standardization• Flynn effect In the past 60 years, intelligence

scores have risen steadily by an average of 27 points. WHY?


Reliability reliability-and-validity 3:30

• Reliability the extent to which a test yields consistent results, as assessed by the consistency of scores on two halves of the test, on alternate forms

of the test or on retesting.–Scores correlate if 2 scores generally

agree or correlate than the test is reliable

–Test-retest reliability Dividing the test into two equal halves and assessing how consistent the scores are.

–Split-half reliability Using the same test on two occasions to measure consistency.


Validity

• Validity–Content validity Refers to the extent a test

measures a particular behavior or trait.• A Criterion types-of-tests-norm-referenced-vs-criterion-referenced 5:30 m

–Predictive validity Refers to the function of a test in predicting a particular behavior or trait

Module 62:The Dynamics of Intelligence

Stability or Change?


Aging & Intelligence

• Cross-Sectional Evidence: researchers have consistently found that older adults give fewer correct answers on intelligence tests than do younger adults

• Longitudinal Evidence: began in 20s, cohorts of subjects tested and then retested until late in life demonstrated that intelligence remained stable & sometimes increased

– Cohort a group of people from a given time period.


Aging & Intelligence• It all depends

–Crystallized intelligence our accumulated knowledge and verbal skills; tends to increase with age.

–Fluid intelligence our ability to reason speedily and abstractly; tends to decrease during late adulthood.


Stability Over the Life Span

Extremes of Intelligence

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Extremes of IntelligenceA valid intelligence test divides two groups of people into two extremes: the mentally retarded (IQ 70) & individuals with high intelligence (IQ 135). These two groups are significantly different.


The Low Extreme• Intellectual disabilitya condition of limited mental ability, indicated by an

intelligence score of 70 or below and difficulty in adapting to the demands of life.

Formerly referred to as mental retardation

–Down syndrome a condition of mild to severe intellectual disability and associated physical disorders caused by an extra copy

of 21st chromosome

–Mainstreamed

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Intellectually DisabledMentally retarded individuals required constant supervision a few decades ago, but with a supportive family environment & special education they can now care for themselves.


The High Extreme• Terman’s study of gifted - Contrary to popular

belief, before Terman’s study of “gifted” children (135 IQ & >) people with high intelligence test scores tend to be healthy, well adjusted, and unusually successful academically

• Self-fulfilling prophecy

• Tracking in schools

• Appropriate developmental placement

Module 63:Studying Genetic &

Environmental Influences on Intelligence

Twin & Adoption Studies

Twin & Adoption Studies• Studies of twins, family members, & adopted children

together support the idea that there is a significant genetic

contribution to intelligence.• Identical twin studies

–Polygenetic–Heritability the proportion of

variation among individuals that we can attribute to genes. The hereditability of a trait may vary, depending on the range of populations & environments studied.

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Heritability

Key Points:

The variation in intelligence test scores attributable to genetics.

We credit heredity with 50% of the variation in intelligence.

It pertains only to why people differ from one another, not to the individual alone.

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Adoption Studies

Adopted children show a marginal correlation in verbal ability to their adopted parents.

Heritability

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Environmental Influences

Studies of twins & adopted children also show the following:

1. Fraternal twins raised together tend to show similarity in intelligence scores.

2. Identical twins raised apart show slightly less similarity in their intelligence scores.

Environmental Influences

Environmental Influences• Early environmental influences

– Tutored human enrichment: helps & enhances intelligence. Lang. games

– Impoverished environments: Demonstrates how important experience can be in development

– Targeted training– Nutrition

• Schooling & intelligence INTERACT– Project Head Start: initial bump with

aptitude benefits diminishing over time

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Early Intervention Effects

Early neglect from caregivers leads children to develop a lack of personal control over the environment, & it impoverishes their intelligence.

Romanian orphans with minimalhuman interaction are delayed in their development.

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Schooling Effects

Schooling is an experience that pays dividends, which is reflected in intelligence scores. Increased schooling correlates with higher intelligence scores.

To increase readiness for schoolwork,projects like Head Start facilitate leaning.

Module 64:Group Differences on the

Question of Bias

Group Differences in Intelligence Test Scores

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Ethnic Similarities & Differences

1. Racial groups differ in their average intelligence scores.

2. High-scoring people (and groups) are more likely to attain high levels of education & income.

To discuss this issue we begin with two disturbing but agreed upon facts:

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Racial (Group) Differences

If we look at racial differences, white Americans score higher in average intelligence than black AmericansEuropean New Zealanders score higher than native New Zealanders

White-Americans Black-Americans

Average IQ = 100 Average IQ = 85

Hispanic Americans

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Environmental Effects

Differences in intelligence among these groups are largely environmental, as if one environment is more fertile in developing these abilities than the other.

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Gender Similarities & Differences

There are seven ways in which males and females differ in various abilities.1. Girls are better spellers

2. Girls are verbally fluent and have large vocabularies

3. Girls are better at locating objects

4. Girls are more sensitive to touch, taste, and color

5. Boys outnumber girls in counts of underachievement

6. Boys outperform girls at math problem solving, but under perform at math computation

7. Women detect emotions more easily than men do

Group Differences in Intelligence Test Scores

Racial & Ethnic Similarities & Differences

• Ethnic similarities

• Ethnic differences

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Reasons Why Environment Affects Intelligence

1. Races are remarkably alike genetically. 2. Race is a social category.3. Asian students outperform North

American students on math achievement & aptitude tests.

4. Today’s better prepared populations would outperform populations of the 1930s on intelligence tests.

5. White & black infants tend to score equally well on tests predicting future intelligence.

6. Different ethnic groups have experienced periods of remarkable achievement in different eras.

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The Question of Bias

Aptitude tests are necessarily biased in the sense that they are sensitive to performance differences caused by cultural differences.

However, aptitude tests are not biased in the sense that they accurately predict performance of one group over the other.

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Test-Takers’ Expectations

A stereotype threat is a self-confirming concern that one will be evaluated based on a negative stereotype.This phenomenon appears in some instances in intelligence testing among African-Americans & among women of all colors.


• Two meanings of bias

–Popular sense

–Scientific sense

• Test-taker’s expectations

–Stereotype threat

The End

Teacher Information• Types of Files

– This presentation has been saved as a “basic” Powerpoint file. While this file format placed a few limitations on the presentation, it insured the file would be compatible with the many versions of Powerpoint teachers use. To add functionality to the presentation, teachers may want to save the file for their specific version of Powerpoint.

• Animation– Once again, to insure compatibility with all versions of Powerpoint, none of the

slides are animated. To increase student interest, it is suggested teachers animate the slides wherever possible.

• Adding slides to this presentation– Teachers are encouraged to adapt this presentation to their personal teaching

style. To help keep a sense of continuity, blank slides which can be copied and pasted to a specific location in the presentation follow this “Teacher Information” section.

Teacher Information• Unit Coding

– Just as Myers’ Psychology for AP 2e is color coded to the College Board AP Psychology Course Description (Acorn Book) Units, so are these Powerpoints. The primary background color of each slide indicates the specific textbook unit.

• Psychology’s History and Approaches • Research Methods • Biological Bases of Behavior • Sensation and Perception• States of Consciousness• Learning• Cognition• Motivation, Emotion, and Stress• Developmental Psychology• Personality• Testing and Individual Differences• Abnormal Psychology• Treatment of Abnormal Behavior• Social Psychology

Teacher Information• Hyperlink Slides - This presentation contain two types of hyperlinks.

Hyperlinks can be identified by the text being underlined and a different color (usually purple).– Unit subsections hyperlinks: Immediately after the unit title and module title

slide, a page can be found listing all of the unit’s subsections. While in slide show mode, clicking on any of these hyperlinks will take the user directly to the beginning of that subsection.

– Bold print term hyperlinks: Every bold print term from the unit is included in this presentation as a hyperlink. While in slide show mode, clicking on any of the hyperlinks will take the user to a slide containing the formal definition of the term. Clicking on the “arrow” in the bottom left corner of the definition slide will take the user back to the original point in the presentation. These hyperlinks were included for teachers who want students to see or copy down the exact definition as stated in the text. Most teachers prefer the definitions not be included to prevent students from only “copying down what is on the screen” and not actively listening to the presentation.For teachers who continually use the Bold Print Term Hyperlinks option, please contact the author using the email address on the next slide to learn a technique to expedite the returning to the original point in the presentation.

Teacher Information• Continuity slides

– Throughout this presentation there are slides, usually of graphics or tables, that build on one another. These are included for three purposes.

• By presenting information in small chunks, students will find it easier to process and remember the concepts.

• By continually changing slides, students will stay interested in the presentation.• To facilitate class discussion and critical thinking. Students should be encouraged to think about

“what might come next” in the series of slides.

• Please feel free to contact me at [email protected] with any questions, concerns, suggestions, etc. regarding these presentations.

Kent KorekGermantown High SchoolGermantown, WI [email protected]

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Definition Slides

Intelligence

= mental quality consisting of the ability to learn from experience, solve problems, and use knowledge to adapt to new situations.

Intelligence Test

= a method of assessing an individual's mental aptitudes and comparing them with those of others, using numerical scores.

General Intelligence (g)

= a general intelligence factor that, according to Spearman and others, underlies specific mental abilities and is therefore measured by every task on an intelligence test.

Factor Analysis

= a statistical procedure that identifies clusters of related items (called factors) on a test; used to identify difference dimensions of performance that underlie a person’s total score.

Savant Syndrome

= a condition in which a person otherwise limited in mental ability has an exceptional specific skill, such as in computation or drawing.

Grit

= the in psychology, grit is passion and perseverance in the pursuit of long-term goals.

Emotional Intelligence

= the ability to perceive, understand, manage, and use emotions.

Mental Age

= a measure of intelligence test performance devised by Binet; the chronological age that most typically corresponds to a given level of performance. Thus, a child who does as well as the average 8-year-old is said to have a mental age of 8.

Stanford-Binet

= the widely used American revision (by Terman at Stanford University) of Binet’s original intelligence test.

Intelligence Quotient (IQ)

= defined originally as the ratio of mental age (ma) to chronological age (ca) multiplied by 100 (thus, IQ=ma/ca X 100). On contemporary intelligence tests, the average performance for a given age is assigned a score of 100, with scores assigned to relative performance above or below average.

Achievement Tests

= tests designed to assess what a person has learned.

Aptitude Tests

= tests designed to predict a person’s future performance; aptitude is the capacity to learn.

Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale (WAIS)

= the WAIS is the most widely used intelligence test; contains verbal and performance (nonverbal) subtests.

Standardization

= defining uniform testing procedures and meaningful scores by comparison with the performance of a pretested group.

Normal Curve

= a symmetrical, bell-shaped curve that describes the distribution of many physical and psychological attributes. Most scores fall near the average, and fewer and fewer scores lie near the extremes.

Reliability

= the extent to which a test yields consistent results, as assessed by the consistency of scores on two halves of the test, on alternate forms of the test or on retesting.

Validity

= the extent to which a test measures or predicts what it is suppose to.

Content Validity

= the extent to which a test samples the behavior that is of interest.

Predictive Validity

= the success with which a test predicts the behavior it is designed to predict; it is assessed by computing the correlation between test scores and the criterion behavior (also called criterion-related validity).

Cohort

= a group of people from a given time period.

Crystallized Intelligence

= our accumulated knowledge and verbal skills; tends to increase with age.

Fluid Intelligence

= our ability to reason speedily and abstractly; tends to decrease during late adulthood.

Intellectual Disability

= a condition of limited mental ability, indicated by an intelligence score of 70 or below and difficulty in adapting to the demands of life.

• Formerly referred to as mental retardation

Down Syndrome

= a condition of mild to severe intellectual disability and associated physical disorders caused by an extra copy of chromosome 21.

Hereditability

= the proportion of variation among individuals that we can attribute to genes. The hereditability of a trait may vary, depending on the range of populations and environments studied.

Stereotype Threat

= a self-confirming concern that one will be evaluated based on a negative stereotype.

david g. myers myers’ psychology for ap ®, 2e ap ® is a trademark registered and/or owned by the...

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