Methods of data collection

Supervised by:Prof DR. Ragaa Ali

Vice Dean of Community services and environmental

prepared by :• Amal Mohamed El Hussein

04/08/23 1

Objectives

By the end of this presentation each candictate will be able to:-

1. Determine the need for physiological & psychological data collection methods.

2. Recognize the importance of observation as data collection methods.3. Discuss the importance of questionnaires as data collection

methods for nursing research.4. Describe the general characteristics of questionnaires.5 -Identify the importance of interview as data collection

methods

04/08/23 2

Out lines

• Introduction.• Biophysiological measures. * uses and types. * advantage and disadvantages.• Psychological data collection methods.• Observational data collection methods.

* determine behavior to be observed. * Research observes.* observational sampling.

04/08/23 3

Observation procedures.Relationship between observer and subject.Types of observational methods.Methods of recording structured and unstructured observations.Advantages and disadvantages of observational methods.Interview and questionnairesCritique the data collection methods.

Out lines

04/08/23 4

• Nurses use all of their senses when collecting data from Patients for whom they provide care. Nurses researchers also have available many ways to collect information about their research subjects. The major difference between the data collected when performing patient care and the data collected for purpose of research is that the data collection methods employed by researchers need to be: objectives, consistency, and operationalization.

04/08/23 5

• The method must be appropriate to problem, hypothesis, setting and population- Research should have quality instrument with adequate reliability and validity.

The methods chosen by the research would depend on: The problem begin studied. The nature of the subject. The relative cost. Benefit of each method.

04/08/23 6

There are five important questions to ask when the researchers is & in the process of collecting data:

1 -What data will be collected? "Types of data" e.g: is the study designed to measure knowledge, attitude or behavior?

2 -How will the data be collected? "Instrument".3 -Who will the data be collected? "Research collector" 4 -Where will the data be collected? "The setting"5 -When will the data be collected? "Determine month, day and

sometimes even the hour for data collection.

04/08/23 7

Data collection methods can be divided into

• Physiological, psychological, observation, interview ,quastionnaries and records ( data available):-

1 ) Physiological or Biological measures:• These types of measures are generally more objective and

accurate than many of the other data collection methods. It can be physical as weight or temperature, chemical as blood glucose level, microbiological as with culture, or anatomical as in radiological examination.

04/08/23 8

Types of Bio-physiologic measures:

1 . vivo.2. vitro.Advantages:• It is objective , precision and accurate because two reading of

the same instrument taken at the same time by two different nurses are likely to give the same result.

Disadvantages:• Requires specialized equipment, knowledge, training and special expertise.• Very expensive if the equipment didn't present in the hospital.• Variable of interest may be changed. e.g the presence of a heart rate

monitoring might make some patients anxious and increasing their heart rate.

• Measuring can be affected by the environment.

04/08/23 9

Uses of Biophysiological measures in nursing research:

1 - Studies of basic biophysilogic processes that have relevance for nursing care

2 -Explorations of the ways in which nursing actions affect the health out come of patients

3 -Evaluation of specific nursing procedure or intervention.

4- Studies to improve the measurement and recording of biophysilogic information regularly gathered by nurses.

5 -Studies of correlates of physiological functioning in patient with health problem

04/08/23 10

Psychological test

• Researcher have many methods to test the personality characteristic of people

(A) Personality Inventories: Are self reports measures used the difference in personality trait, needs or

values of people. This inventions seek information about a person by asking questions or requesting responses to statements that are presented. They are accurate because subjects respond honestly to the items.

• Some of more commonly used personality inventions:• Minnestoma multiphase personality inventory (MMPI)• Sixteen personality factor questionnaire (16 PE)• Edwards personal preference schedule (EPPS)

04/08/23 11

B) Delphi technique:

• This term used to describe a data collection technique that employs several rounds of questions to seek consensus on particular topic from a group of experts.

Purpose:• To obtain group consensus from the panel of expertise,

without brining this group together in a face to face meeting .• This type of procedure is appropriate to examine the

opinions, beliefs or future predictions of knowledgeable people on some special topic of interest.

04/08/23 12

C) Visual analogue scale

It is present subject with straight line which horizontally or vertically on apiece of paper

The line is anchored on each end by word or short phrases that represent phenomenon such as pain . It used frequently in nursing researches and useful with patients who are experiencing discomfort such as nausea .

04/08/23 13

D) Q sort ( methodology )

It is means of obtaining data in which subjects sort statements into categories according to their attitude toward or rating of the statement .

That are written on cards or pieces of paper , the respondent are asked to arrange the item

according to their attitude or belief about the item .

04/08/23 14

E) Projective techniques

In this technique subject is presented with stimuli designed to be ambiguous or to have know defent meaning . Then the person is asked to describe the stimuli and reflect the internal

Feeling of the subject that are projected on to the external stimuli . It is more acurate in gathering psychological data .

04/08/23 15

The most famous project is :-

• The Rorschach Inkblot test :- subject are presented with card that show design , which actually inkblot rather than true picture or drawing . One person may interpret that two figures dancing , another person might describe the same as two people .

• The Themantic apperception test :- consist of aset of picture and subject are asked to tell story relating what they think is happing in the picture .

04/08/23 16

F) Vignettes

Are brief description of event or situation to which respondent are asked to react . The description may be fictitious or fact . The information about respondent’s perception , opinion or knowledge about some phenomena under study ( use open or close ended guestion) . Are usually written , narrative description and used vidotape as example .

04/08/23 17

3 ) Observational methods:

04/08/23 18

May be the only way to gather some kinds of data . It can be gather such information through all of the sense .

Determing behavior to be observed :-1-The characteristic and condition of individual

Eg presence of edema .2-Psychomotor skills such as ability of client

with diabetes to performed insulin injection

Determining behavior ( cont)

3-Activity as personal habits eg eating habits4-Verbal communication as shift report .5-Non vearbal communication as body language6-Environmental condition as noise.

04/08/23 19

Note:

• Nurses are well qualified to conduct observation research because they observe client in health care setting every day.

• Observation procedures: The research must determine how and when observation will

be made. The degree of structure of the observation and the period for gathering data must b e considered.

04/08/23 20

Types of observation

04/08/23 21

A) Structured observations :- The researcher has obtain knowledge about the phenomena of interest , the tools is usually check list in which the expected behavior have been identified and indicate the frequency of occurrence .

Method of recording it :-i. Category systemii. Checklistiii. Rating scale .

Observational sampling:

A – Event sampling:Involves observation of an integral behavior or

events eg. Researcher were interested in determine the ability of nursing student to:-

• Perform catheterization procedures correctly. • Shift changes at nurses.• Cast removal of pediatric patient.

04/08/23 22

B – Time sampling:

Involve observation of event or behavior during certain specified times.

• Time frame systematically eg the periodic observation of specific behaviors for 5 minutes each one hour.

• Random selected eg observation family's behavior in intensive care unit waiting room.

04/08/23 23

B) Unstructured observations:

• Observer everything and record it with observer, it useful to be used with qualitative research . mainly for descriptive information" The research attempt to describe events or behavior as they occur, with no prior ideas of what will be seen. This requires a high degree of concentration and attention by the observer.

04/08/23 24

Methods of recording unstructured observation:

I - Anecdotes :focus on the behaviors of interest by illustrating particular point.II-log( field diary): is a daily record of event and conversation as it is occur.III- Field notes: include dairy log but tend to be broader "more analytic and interpretive than logs' Categorized according to purpose at the study.IV- Methodological notes: are instruction about how subsequent observation will be made "method of observation".V - Theoretical notes ( analytical notes): Interpretation of attached meaning to observation according to theory.VI- Personal notes: are comments about the researcher's own feeling during research process "Interpretation of the research".

04/08/23 25

C)Semi structured observation:

It is the combination between structured and un structured observation It provides the quantitative and qualitative types of data that have become important to nurse researchers.

04/08/23 26

Advantages of observations

• Provide the depth and Varity of information• To study the variable 0f interest.• Useful to describe adequately their own behavior

as:i. People are embrassed to report their activity eg

aggressive or hostel action ii. Emotional behavior eg grievingiii.Young children, mentally ill , unconscious patient.

04/08/23 27

Disadvantages of observation

• Ethical difficulties , in case of lack of consent to be observed.

• Reactivity of participant “Hawthorne effect”• Factor interfere with objectivity and enhance

biased as :-i. Emotion , attitude and value of observer.ii. Personal judgment, interest and comment.iii.Hastly decision before adequate information.iv.Reaction between observer and anticipant.04/08/23 28

4 ) Questionnaires:• Are used more frequently in nursing research than any other data

collection method have purpose of asking subjects to report data for themselves.

Questionnaires should be: Neat in appearance Grammatically correct Contain no typing or spelling error Avoid crowded appearance. Avoid too long questions "Adesirable length for a question is less than 20

words". should be written in the respondents preferred language. should be appropriate for the knowledge and reading level of the least

educated respondent. State questions in an affirmative rather than negative manner.

04/08/23 29

Types of question:

1 – Demographic questions:"gather data an the characteristic of sample"

data may be subjected to statistical analysis, eg age, educational back ground and religion

2 – Open ended question: That allow the subject to respond in their own

words eg essay, fill in the blank and may be used in combination with closed ended questions.

04/08/23 30

3) Attitude scaleA – Close ended questions (likert scale)

• Which offer respondents fixed alternatives from which to choose.

• It contain five or seven responses for each item, ranging from strongly agree to strongly disagree.

• As equal number of positively and negatively worded items are presented.

• Some researchers prefer to eliminate the "uncertain" category and force respondent into some form of agreement or disagreement with the items.

• The respondents may select answers that are really not their choice.

04/08/23 31

B) Semantic differential scale

• Asks subject to indicate their position or attitude about some concept between tow objectives that are present in relation to the concept being measured .it used to evaluate a setting , person , group , educational course, it is easy than likert scale , eg evaluation of clinical instructor .

04/08/23 32

4 - contingency questions:

Are relevant for some respondents and most for other e.g. a research might want to determined if client has been satisfied with the type of nursing care received during previous hospitalization have you been hospitalized before? NO ---------------------------

• Yes……… how would you rate the care you received during your last hospitalization

• Poor faire good04/08/23 33

5 – Filler questions:Are items in which researcher has no direct interest but included

on a questionnaire to reduce the emphasis on the specific purpose of other questions.

6 – Cover letter (mailed letter):The letter should be brief and contain the following information:• Identification of the researcher and any sponsoring a agency or person. • Purpose of the research.• How participant was selected .• Reason of the respondent should answer the questionnaires.• Length of time to complete the questionnaires.

04/08/23 34

Identification ( cont )

• How data will be used or made public.• Deadline to return of questionnaires.• An offer to inform respondent of results of

study .• Contact phone number , address or both .• Personal signature of the researcher.

04/08/23 35

Advantages of questions:

1 -Questionnaires are quick and generally inexpensive means obtaining data from a lager number of respondents.

2 -Questionnaires are one of the easiest research instrument to test for reliability and validity.

3 -The administration of questionnaires is less time consuming than interviews or observational research.

4 -Data can be obtained from respondent in widespread geographical areas.

5 -respondents can remain anonymous, so provide honest answer.

04/08/23 36

Disadvantages of questionnaires:

1 - Mailing at questionnaires may be costly.2 -Response rate may be low.3 -Respondent may provide socially acceptable answers.4 -Respondent may fact to answer some of the items.5 -There is no opportunity to clarify items that may be

misunderstood by respondent.6 -Respondent may be not literate.7 -Respondent may be not reprehensive of the population.

04/08/23 37

Interview measure

In which the interviewer obtain responses from a subject in a face to face encounter or telephone call.

Types of interviews :-a) Structured interview :-involve asking the same

guestion, in the same order, and in the same manner of all respondent in a study , must try to remain objective during the interview, and avoid unnecessary interaction with respondents

04/08/23 38

b) Un structured interview (focused)

The interviewer is given a great deal of freedom to direct the course of interview , like conversation and topics are pursued by interviewer, it conducted in naturalistic setting. It most appropriate to exploratory or qualitative research , produce more in depth information on subject’s belief and attitude than other .

04/08/23 39

c) Semi structured interview

Fall between the structured the unstructured , interviewer required to ask a certain number of specific guestion, but additional allowed or even encouraged, both closed and open ended questions are included. Data are obtained that can be compared across all respondents in the study .

04/08/23 40

Interview guidelines

Before the interview:-The interviewer should introduce himself to

the participant .Explain the purpose of the study .Identify how the information will be used .Identify how long the interview will be last.

04/08/23 41

During the interview

The interviewer should ensure a comfortable atmosphere , eg lying down, control unnecessary noises.

Use language is clearly understood and conversational tone .

Participant should be informed that there are no right or wrong answer.

No pressure should be applied for answer.Sensitive guestion should be left until the end 04/08/23 42

After the interview

• Ask participant if they have any guestions,explanation.

• Thank participant, should indicate how the study participant may obtain the result.

Advantages :-Responses can be obtained from a wide range

of subject , rate is high,in depth.Non verbal behavior and verbal manner can be

observed .04/08/23 43

Disadvantages Training programs are needed for interviewers Interview are time consuming and expensive Arrangement for interviews may be difficult to

make . Subject may provide socially acceptable

responses. Subject may be anxious because answers are

being recorded. Subject may misinterpret by non verbal behavior.

04/08/23 44