Data and Computer Communications

Ninth Editionby William Stallings

Chapter 3 – Data Transmission

Data and Computer Communications, Ninth Edition by William Stallings, (c) Pearson

Education - Prentice Hall, 2011

Data Transmission

What we've got here is failure to communicate.

Paul Newman in Cool Hand Luke

Data Transmission

The successful transmission of data depends on two factors: 1) quality of the signal

being transmitted (garbage in, garbage out)

2) characteristics of the transmission medium

Transmission Terminology

Transmission Terminology

Data transmission occurs between transmitter and receiver over some transmission medium.

Communication is in the form of electromagneti

c waves.

Guided media twisted pair,

coaxial cable, optical

fiber

Unguided media

(wireless)

air, vacuum, seawater

Transmission Terminology

• no intermediate devices

Direct link

• direct link • only 2 devices share link

Point-to-point

• more than two devices share the link

Multi-point

Transmission Terminology Simplex

signals transmitted in one direction• eg. Television

Half duplex both stations transmit, but only one at a time

• eg. police radio

Full duplex simultaneous transmissions

• eg. telephone

Frequency, Spectrum and Bandwidth

analog signal• signal intensity varies smoothly with no breaks

digital signal• signal intensity maintains a constant level and

then abruptly changes to another level periodic signal

• signal pattern repeats over time aperiodic signal

• pattern not repeated over time

Time Domain Concepts

Analog and Digital Signals

PeriodicSignals

Sine Wave

peak amplitude (“A” in the previous slide) maximum strength of signal typically measured in volts

frequency (f) rate at which the signal repeats Hertz (Hz) or cycles per second period (T) is the amount of time for one repetition T = 1/f

phase () relative position in time within a single period of signal

(periodic continuous signal)

Varying Sine Wavess(t) = A sin(2ft +)

Wavelength ()the wavelength of

a signal is the distance occupied by a single cycle

can also be stated as the distance between two

points of corresponding phase of two consecutive

cycles

assuming signal velocity v, then the

wavelength is related to the period as = vT

or equivalently

f = v

especially when v=c• c = 3*108 ms-1 (speed of light

in free space)• For copper: v=0.55c to 0.77c

Frequency Domain Concepts signals are made up of many frequencies components are sine waves Fourier analysis can show that any signal

is made up of components at various frequencies, in which each component is a sinusoid

can plot frequency domain functions

Addition of Frequency

Components(T=1/f)

(c) is the sum of f & 3f

“Internet Explorer” only: http://www.falstad.com/fourier/

FrequencyDomain

Representations frequency domain

function of Fig 3.4c (previous slide)

frequency domain function of single square pulse

Spectrum & Bandwidthspectrum• range of frequencies contained in signal (ex: 100 to 250MHz)

absolute bandwidth• width of spectrum (ex: 150MHz)

effective bandwidth• often just bandwidth (ex: 100MHz)• narrow band of frequencies containing most energy (Figure)

dc component• component of zero frequency

Signal with dc Component

Data Rate and Bandwidthany transmission

system has a limited band of

frequencies

this limits the data rate that can be carried on the transmission

medium

square waves have infinite

components and hence an infinite

bandwidth

most energy in first few

components

limiting bandwidth

creates distortions

If only two frequencies get through the transmission system, the wave form shown in the previous slide would be received.

There is a direct relationship between data rate and bandwidth.

Analog and Digital Data Transmission

data entities that convey information

signals electric or electromagnetic representations of

data transmission

communication of data by propagation and processing of signals

Acoustic Spectrum (Analog)-> définition du décibel

Analog and Digital Transmission

(1080i vs 1080p : http://www.pcmag.com/article2/0,2817,2413044,00.asp)

(Digital Data)

Examples:

Text

Character strings

IRA (International reference alphabet)

Advantages & Disadvantages of Digital Signals

cheaperless susceptible to noise interference

suffer more from attenuationdigital now preferred choice

Audio Signals frequency range of typical speech is 100Hz-7kHz easily converted into electromagnetic signals varying volume converted to varying voltage can limit frequency range for voice channel to

300-3400Hz

Video Signals

to produce a video signal a TV camera is used

USA standard is 483 lines per frame, at a rate of 30 complete frames per second

actual standard is 525 lines but 42 lost during vertical retrace

horizontal scanning frequency is 525 lines x 30 scans = 15750 lines per second (63.5 μs per line but 11 μs is lost during horizontal retrace -> 52.5 μs )

max frequency reached if line alternates black and white (450 columns)

max frequency of 4.2MHz (450/2 cycles in 52.5 μs)

Video Signals

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1080p

2.1 megapixels X frame rate

1 pixel needs 3 X 8 bits = 24 bits

24 fps => 2.1 X 24 X 24 Mbits/s 50 fps => 2.1 X 24 X 50 Mbits/s 60 fps => 2.1 X 24 X 60 Mbits/s

Compression techniques are often used.

Analog Signals

Modulator/demodulator

Digital Signals

Similar to modembut for voice signal

Coder/decoder

Transmitter/receiver

(Analog and Digital

Transmission)

Transmission Impairments signal received may differ from signal

transmitted causing: In analog systems -> degradation of signal quality In digital systems-> bit errors

most significant impairments are attenuation attenuation distortion (some freq. are more attenuated than others) delay distortion (velocity of waves depends on their frequencies) noise

ATTENUATION

Received signal strength must be:•strong enough to be detected

•sufficiently higher than noise to be received without error

Strength can be increased using

amplifiers or repeaters.

Equalize attenuation

across the band of frequencies used by using loading coils or

amplifiers.

signal strength falls off with distance over any transmission medium

varies with frequency

Attenuation Distortion

Delay Distortion occurs because propagation velocity of a

signal through a guided medium varies with frequency

various frequency components arrive at different times resulting in phase shifts between the frequencies

particularly critical for digital data since parts of one bit spill over into others causing intersymbol interference

Delay Distortion

Noiseunwanted signals inserted between transmitter and receiver

=> is the major limiting factor in communications system performance

Categories of NoiseThermal noise

• due to thermal agitation of electrons

• uniformly distributed across bandwidths

• referred to as white noiseIntermodulation noise

• produced by nonlinearities in the transmitter, receiver, and/or intervening transmission medium

• effect is to produce signals at a frequency that is the sum or difference of the two original frequencies (sosmat.com)

Categories of NoiseCrosstalk:

a signal from one line is picked up by another

can occur by electrical coupling between nearby twisted pairs or when microwave antennas pick up unwanted signalsImpulse Noise:

caused by external electromagnetic interferences

noncontinuous, consisting of irregular pulses or spikes

short duration and high amplitude

minor annoyance for analog signals but a major source of error in digital data

Channel Capacity

Maximum rate at which data can be transmitted over a given communication channel under given conditions

Channel characteristics :

data rate

in bits per second

bandwidth

in cycles per

second or Hertz

noise

average noise level over path

error rate

rate of corrupted

bits

limitations due to

physical properties

main constraint

on achieving efficiency is noise

Nyquist BandwidthIn the case of a channel that is noise free: if rate of signal transmission is 2B then can carry

signal with frequencies no greater than B given bandwidth B, highest signal rate is 2B

for binary signals, 2B bps needs bandwidth B Hz can increase rate by using M signal levels Nyquist Formula is: C = 2B log2M data rate can be increased by increasing M

however this increases burden on receiver noise & other impairments limit the value of M

Shannon Capacity Formula considering the relation of data rate, noise and

error rate: faster data rate shortens each bit so bursts of noise

corrupts more bits given noise level, higher rates mean higher errors

Shannon developed formula relating these to the signal-to-noise ratio -> SNR= (signal power) / (noise power)

capacity C = B log2(1+SNR) (ex. SNR=0 -> C=0)

theoretical maximum capacity get much lower rates in practice

SNRdb=10 log10 (SNR)

Summary transmission concepts and terminology

guided/unguided media frequency, spectrum and bandwidth analog vs. digital signals data rate and bandwidth relationship transmission impairments

attenuation/delay distortion/noise channel capacity

Nyquist/Shannon