cyber revolution

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The term information revolution (sometimes called also the "informational revolution") describes current economic, social and technological trends beyond the Industrial Revolution.

Many competing terms have been proposed that focus on different aspects of this societal development. The British polymath crystallographer J. D. Bernal (1939) introduced the term "scientific and technical revolution" in his book The Social Function of Science to describe the new role that science and technology are coming to play within society. He asserted that science is becoming a "productive force", using the Marxist Theory of Productive Forces.After some controversy, the term was taken up by authors and institutions of the then-Soviet Bloc. Their aim was to show that socialism was a safe home for the scientific and technical ("technological" for some authors) revolution, referred to by the acronym STR. The book Civilization at the Crossroads, edited by the Czech philosopher Radovan Richta (1969), became a standard reference for this topic.

Daniel Bell (1980) challenged this theory and advocated post-industrial society, which would lead to a service economy rather than socialism.Many other authors presented their views, including Zbigniew Brzezinski (1976) with his "Technetronic Society".

Information in social and economic activities

The main feature of the information revolution is the growing economic, social and technological role of information. Information-related activities did not come up with the Information Revolution. They existed, in one form or the other, in all human societies, and eventually developed into institutions, such as the Platonic Academy,Aristotle's Peripatetic school in the Lyceum, the Musaeum and the Library of Alexandria, or the schools of Babylonian astronomy. The Agricultural Revolution and the Industrial Revolution came up when new informational inputs were produced by individual innovators, or by scientific and technical institutions. During the Information Revolution all these activities are experiencing continuous growth, while other information-oriented activities are emerging.

Information is the central theme of several new sciences, which emerged in the 1940s, including Shannon's (1949) Information Theoryand Wiener's (1948) Cybernetics. Wiener stated also: "information is information not matter or energy". This aphorism suggests that information should be considered along

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with matter andenergy as the third constituent part of the Universe; information is carried by matter or by energy.

We can outline a hierarchy to distinguish between data, information, knowledge, and wisdom.Data are sensations, facts, figures, etc., that are independent and atomic in nature. Information can be described alternately as organized data, the patterns that exist in data, or the underlying meaning of interrelated pieces of dataKnowledge is the ability to comprehend and use informationWisdom is the ability to make the best use of knowledge.

Data and information are easily transferablein the modern world, whether through oral, written or electronic methods. Knowledge, however, is built by one personand transferred (more slowly) through education and human interaction. Wisdom is the least transferrable by virtue of being built upon the other three with the addition of personal experience and reflection on one's experience

Information is then further considered as an economic activity, since firms and institutions are involved in its production, collection, exchange, distribution, circulation, processing, transmission, and control. Labor is also divided into physical labor (use of muscle power) and informational labor (use of intellectual power).A new economic sector is thereby identified, the Information Sector, which amalgamates information-related labor activities.

The theory of information revolution

The term information revolution may relate to, or contrast with, such widely used terms as Industrial Revolution and Agricultural Revolution. Note, however, that you may prefer mentalist to materialist paradigm. The following fundamental aspects of the theory of information revolution can be given:

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1. The object of economic activities can be conceptualized according to the fundamental distinction between matter, energy, and information. These apply both to the object of each economic activity, as well as within each economic activity or enterprise. For instance, an industry may process matter (e.g. iron) using energy and information (production and process technologies, management, etc.).

2. Information is a factor of production (along with capital, labor, land (economics)), as well as a product sold in the market, that is, a commodity. As such, it acquires use value and exchange value, and therefore a price.

3. All products have use value, exchange value, and informational value. The latter can be measured by the information content of the product, in terms of innovation, design, etc.

4. Industries develop information-generating activities, the so-called Research and Development (R&D) functions.

5. Enterprises, and society at large, develop the information control and processing functions, in the form of management structures; these are also called "white-collar workers", "bureaucracy", "managerial functions", etc.

6. Labor can be classified according to the object of labor, into information labor and non-information labor.

7. Information activities constitute a large, new economic sector, the information sector along with the traditional primary sector, secondary sector, and tertiary sector, according to the three-sector hypothesis. These should be restated because they are based on the ambiguous definitions made by Colin Clark (1940), who included in the tertiary sector all activities that have not been included in the primary (agriculture, forestry, etc.) and secondary (manufacturing) sectors.The quaternary sector and the quinary sector of the economy attempt to classify these new activities, but their definitions are not based on a clear conceptual scheme, although the latter is considered by some as equivalent with the information sector. 

8. From a strategic point of view, sectors can be defined as information sector, means of production, means of consumption, thus extending the classical Ricardo-Marx model of the Capitalist mode of production (see Influences on Karl Marx). Marx stressed in many occasions the role of the "intellectual element" in production, but failed to find a place for it into his model.

9. Innovations are the result of the production of new information, as new products, new methods of production, patents, etc. Diffusion of

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innovations manifests saturation effects (related term: market saturation), following certain cyclical patterns and creating "economic waves", also referred to as "business cycles". There are various types of waves, such as Kondratiev wave (54 years), Kuznets swing (18 years), Juglar cycle (9 years) and Kitchin (about 4 years, see also Joseph Schumpeter) distinguished by their nature, duration, and, thus, economic impact.

10. Diffusion of innovations causes structural-sectoral shifts in the economy, which can be smooth or can create crisis and renewal, a process which Joseph Schumpeter called vividly "creative destruction".

From a different perspective, Irving E. Fang (1997) identified six 'Information Revolutions': writing, printing, mass media, entertainment, the 'tool shed' (which we call 'home' now), and the Information Highway. In this work the term 'information revolution' is used in a narrow sense, to describe trends in communication media.

Measuring and modeling the Information Revolution

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Modeling the Informational Revolution.

Porat (1976) measured the Information Sector in the US using the input-output analysis; OECD has included statistics on the Information Sector in the economic reports of its member countries.Veneris (1984, 1990) explored the theoretical, economic and regional aspects of the Informational Revolution and developed a systems dynamics simulation computer model.

These works can be seen as following the path originated with the work of Fritz Machlup who in his (1962) book "The Production and Distribution of Knowledge in the United States", claimed that the "knowledge industry represented 29% of the US gross national product", which he saw as evidence that the Information Age has begun. He defines knowledge as a commodity and attempts to measure the magnitude of the production and distribution of this commodity within a modern economy. Machlup divided information use into three classes: instrumental, intellectual, and pastime knowledge. He identified also five types of knowledge: practical knowledge; intellectual knowledge, that is, general culture and the satisfying of intellectual curiosity; pastime knowledge, that is, knowledge satisfying non-intellectual curiosity or the desire for light entertainment and emotional stimulation; spiritual or religious knowledge; unwanted knowledge, accidentally acquired and aimlessly retained.

More recent estimates have reached the following results:

the world’s technological capacity to receive information through one-way broadcast networks grew at a sustained compound annual growth rate of 7% between 1986 and 2007;

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the world's technological capacity to store information grew at a sustained compound annual growth rate of 25% between 1986 and 2007;

the world's effective capacity to exchange information through two-way telecommunication networks grew at a sustained compound annual growth rate of 30% during the same two decades;

The cyber revolutionIt used to be that word of mouth, newspapers and letters were the most efficient ways to communicate. People could spend days or weeks waiting for a postcard from a family member, and groups of people would need to plan months ahead of time for gatherings. Back then, information moved at a snail’s pace. By today’s standards, Paul Revere’s midnight ride would be unnecessary: An e-mail or text

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would have worked just fine. Technologies, like the Internet and cellphones, have transformed communication.

The Internet has revolutionized the way humans socialize and obtain information. A letter nowadays would seem archaic, a postcard anachronistic, however sentimental either may be. I can’t remember the last time I opened a book for the purpose of research, or if I ever have at all. I merely have to open my laptop, click on Google Chrome and all the information I will ever need is right at my fingertips. Why would I bother with an index or a table of contents when I have a search bar?

Although the ease with which we obtain information has devalued communication and traditional media, the Internet revolution has obvious benefits. What used to take days or weeks now takes a couple of seconds. One person can invite hundreds of other people to an event via Facebook. Twitter allows us to keep up with what our favorite celebrities are doing or thinking at all times.More importantly, to people for whom communication has been limited, social networking provides the ability to organize, galvanize and mobilize from behind a computer screen or from a cellphone. This was made apparent by the recent overthrow of the Egyptian government. In response to the assault and death of Alexandria blogger and businessman Khaled Said, a Google marketing executive, Wael Ghonim, created the Facebook page “We Are All Khaled Said.” The page generated outrage among Egyptian citizens and sparked a popular movement against the Mubarak regime.

For the various dictatorships that exist around the world, perhaps there is no greater threat to their rule than the Internet. Governments can restrict access (as in North Korea) or ban certain websites, but some citizens manage to find ways to circumvent filters and firewalls. In addition, Internet proxies make completely eliminating the power of the Internet very difficult. Despite what oppressive governments may teach in schools, and the propaganda that they try to infuse into the minds of people, these governments cannot completely control the websites that their citizens visit. The truth, however diluted or polluted it may be, is now accessible to anyone with a stable connection.

Young Egyptians recognized the injustices being perpetrated by their government, such as the murder of Khaled Said, so they took advantage of the one resource that would provide uncensored information and allow them to mobilize quickly. The Egyptian government was either unaware of or powerless to prevent the uprising. They saw no picket signs, no shouting and no protest—to them all seemed well. The government did not realize that a real revolution was picking up steam in quiet cyber cafes and cubicles across Egypt.

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Because of the rapid flow of information, similar protests erupted in Iran and Libya shortly after the uprising in Egypt Jan. 25. Citizens of these Arab nations are using the Internet in similar ways to organize opposition to oppressive regimes.

Many people lament the disconnect that the Internet has created between people. What if, instead, it serves as a vehicle for bringing us together? Viral videos, often used for humorous or commercial purposes, can also spread footage of atrocities, unite people in outrage and ultimately provide fertilizer for the seeds of revolution.

In his book, “Future Hype: The Myths of Technology Change,” Bob Seidensticker points out that “a technology isn’t inherently good or bad, but it will have an impact, which is why it’s not neutral.” The Internet has resulted in people taking for granted the ability to communicate and obtain information in a matter of seconds. Information was once a valuable luxury, but it is now a cheaply obtained commodity. However, the Internet also has come to serve as a means for people without a voice to express themselves. By using the Internet as a source of information and communication, those who have been rendered silent in the past finally have the freedom to overcome their oppressors.

with Cyber War Will Not Take Place, Thomas Rid has written an important volume at a critical juncture of the cyber-conflict debate. In a rush to articulate a new threat after the end of the Cold War, the demise of regional powers in the Middle East and North Africa (such as Syria, Iraq, and Libya, making Israel more secure), and the near total rejection of the Global War on Terror, the next threat to materialize appears to be cyber war. This is the impression one might get if engaging the current security discourse. Both the United Nations and United States have argued that the threat of cyber warfare is greater than the danger of terrorism, a striking reversal barely ten years after 9/11. Yet, as Rid notes (along with others in this developing literature), the threat of cyber warfare often is overstated and near nonexistent.

1 Building on an article in Journal of Strategic Studies (2012), Rid argues, very forcibly, that cyber war will not take His argument is based on logic and a careful engagement of what the term ‘war’ really means. Defining terms is important in this exercise. He defines war in the manner of Carl von Clausewitz and posits that it is an act of force and violence used in order to obtain a political objective. Since cyber war does not include violence or force in its conduct, it is tough to argue that cyber war will take place because the tactic rarely can breach the gap between violations of information and data, on one hand, and physical harm, on the other. Of course, one can make the argument that this breach can happen. The influential Tallinn Manual that

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evaluates customary international legal standards as they apply to cyber technologies points out that a pacemaker can be a target of hackers and even suggests this could be a legal step taken by a state.3 At the recent Black Hat 2013 conference, it was demonstrated that smart cars can be taken over remotely, the same fear was put forth for the 787 Dreamliner plane when software flaws were pointed out.4 Yet, these dangers are hypothetical; to make the leap from the hypothetical to the actual is perhaps disingenuous or, as some might argue, dangerous.

Overall, Rid’s argument is nuanced. When Rid asserts that cyber war will not take place, he is speaking of something very specific - warfare in conventional terms. “Most cyber attacks are not violent and cannot sensibly be understood as a form of violent action” (12). Of course there will be cyber battles, but it is not at all clear that cyber security will dominate the international affairs landscape in the future. Rid notes that the cyber attacks that have happened in the past (specifically in Estonia and Georgia) have been very minor in terms of their impact. The rush to push the threat to the top of the security agenda in some ways makes the issue a self-fulfilling prophecy in that if the threat is overstated, then states will overreact to the fear and build their own cyber armies. This would then provoke the security dilemma and push the other side to react. Because of this process, a careful evaluation of the cyber threat is critical at this juncture.

Another important aspect of the book is its coverage of cyber weapons. By defining cyber weapons on a spectrum, Rid is able to carefully classify each tactic according to its actual usage and practices. A potential limitation of this discussion is that it is not detailed enough. There is room here, and a need, to educate non-cyber practitioners about the details of cyber actions. The rest of the book covers many important issues in the cyber debate. Rid notes that the oft-stated attribution problem is a political, not a technical, problem. This is an important insight that many in the cyber community seem to miss. He also discusses the actual content of cyber attacks which are generally espionage or sabotage activities. Understanding the tactic in this manner pushes us away from frames of warfare and towards applications of defense and internal resiliency. Since governments have dealt with espionage and sabotage as long as humans have organized as collective enemies, why should cyber tactics be treated as something new when they are the continuation of age-old practices?

The main flaw of the book is simply that Rid does not take his argument beyond the context of war to examine the nature of cyber conflict in general. In the preface to the book he sets this question up by suggesting that cyber attacks are making conflicts less violent. This is an interesting and important hypothesis that needs more engagement. To be fair, this request does not reflect Rid’s goal and perhaps goes beyond the bounds of this book. He has also addressed this

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question in other places - see his recent article in Foreign Policy entitled Cyber Sabotage is Easy where he engages the issue of a lack of sabotage operations.5 In this volume he could have gone further, but here he sticks to a cohesive argument, develops it, and executes in a well written and easy to grasp style. In this context, Cyber War Will Not Happen is a foundational text in the cyber security field.

Rid’s volume is an important piece of evidence in the cyber-conflict debate. Any responsible scholar should use this volume to counter the divergent perspective contained in the Clarke and Knake volume Cyber War, perhaps the most widely read tome in the field.6 We are witnessing the development of a new strain of security research. This developing area differs different from past tactics that have been engaged in the security discourse such as nuclear warfare, terrorism, and counterinsurgency in that skepticism seems early on to have developed from the academic perspective. Rid’s volume advances this perspective through a careful engagement of the term and the limitations of the practice of cyber war.

Perhaps this is a positive development. Possibly we have learned our lessons from past failures to fully explore the implications and contexts of the security discourse before rushing to action in the policy sphere. There are many threats to society, and to meet them effectively we must fully dissect and engage those that would seek to articulate emerging threats on the landscape without challenge. In a rush to push the cyber threat, we might be missing more critical issues such as the consolidation of Arab Spring democracies (Egypt), mass-migration in the context of ongoing conflicts (Syria), and energy security (the post-Soviet States). It is likely that the cyber threat is overstated; Rid’s volume is the first shot fired against those would seek to make cyberspace the realm of conflict.

Brandon Valeriano (Ph.D. Vanderbilt University, 2003) is a Senior Lecturer at the University of Glasgow in the Department of Politics and Global Security. Dr. Valeriano’s main research interests include investigations of the causes of conflict and peace as well as the study race/ethnicity from the international perspective. Ongoing research explores interstate rivalry, classification systems of war, arms buildups, cyber conflict, popular culture and foreign policy, and Latino foreign policy issues. Dr. Valeriano has published over two dozen articles and book chapters in such outlets as the Journal of Politics, International Studies Quarterly, International Interactions, Third World Quarterly, and Policy Studies Journal. He recently published a book on the origins of rivalry (Becoming Rivals, Routledge 2012) and a book on China, Tibet, and Hollywood (Palgrave, 2012). He is currently wrapping up production on two more books (one that empirically examines cyber conflict) and preparing a book length exploration of Latino International Politics.

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WE ARE all to a degree citizens of the emerging cyber world. We cannot imagine ourselves and our businesses without cellphones, e-mail, the internet, Skype and social networks.

Sociologists and economists hail this as a "new revolution" creating a "network society" of "digital capitalism" with a higher penetration than the print and industrial revolutions.

There is no doubt about the benefits of this new cyber world: enormous capacity for data storage and data retrieval, high efficiencies in terms of all kinds of digital transactions, and connectivity to any place on Earth not imagined even 30 years ago.

But as with any human system, the ambiguities and moral questions should not escape us. Let us not lose our critical mind set and be swept away by this wonderful new world.

First, the idea that all people gladly use and benefit from technology is only partially true. Yes, cellphones have improved the lot of those at the so-called "bottom of the pyramid". But in reality, poor people sometimes have to choose between food and airtime.

Also, the economic and educational inequalities of the world may be reinforced by fast-moving cyber innovation. Those who are enjoying their smartphones, video learning and internet banking are leaving billions of people behind.

This revolution has a crude edge to it: if you do not participate, you do not exist.

Second, there is no doubt the cyber age has democratised access to information. The movement towards free and open access is, in principle, a good one. Anything one wants to know is at one’s fingertips.

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But there is a huge difference between information and knowledge. Information needs interpretation. For that a hermeneutic skill is required, and such a skill is based on learning to distinguish between bad and good information.

The dramatic rise in weak writing skills and plagiarism among students points to one thing: many know how to cut and paste. They know where the information is and, on the basis of superficial correspondences, hope that the copy is appropriate to the topic. But few know how to make distinctions, distil insights or create new knowledge.

As cyber citizens we appear smart, but we are actually quite dumb.

Third, we have gained in information and efficiencies of transactions of all sorts, but information vulnerability is hitting governments, banks and individuals hard. (A friend recently had R100,000 stolen from his secure online account.) Billions are spent on information security as not all those surfing the cyber world are good people looking to book an airline ticket. "Cyber warfare" is now a reality.

Having our information held by others — including the state — may render the concept of privacy outdated. We cannot hide from the eyes of Big Brother. Gaining access to information about our movements, our shopping habits and even our genetic dispositions (for medical and life insurance companies) is getting easier.

Our enthusiasm for the almost daily novelties conjured up by cyber entrepreneurs may blind us to the slow but sure curtailment of our liberties.

Fourth, a huge benefit of the cyber world is connectivity and seemingly effortless communication no longer restricted by geography. The social impacts are not all beneficial: clinical psychologists tell us cyber addiction is on the rise. There are physical and social symptoms of addiction and withdrawal, and the "drug" in this case may be a smartphone, which has become an integral part of social identity formation.

Cyber people connect virtually, but can hardly talk at the dinner table.

• Naudé is the former head of the business school and currently deputy vice-chancellor: academic at the Nelson Mandela Metro University in Port Elizabeth. He writes in his personal capacity. This article is to inform and educate, not to advise.

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What is cyber revolution?its using of technology to the great extentInformation Technology Has The Potential To Change Societal Structure And Processes Similar In Scale To That Of Both The Agricultural Revolution And The Industrial Revolution. On This Basis Governments Should Ensure Provision Of Information Techno......to that of both the Agricultural Revolution and the Industrial Revolution. On this basis governments should ensure provision of Information Technology to all members of society as a matter of urgency. Discuss. Today, we are experiencing a technological revolution. There is nothing silent or stealthy about it – we are aware of new technology arriving every year. In-your-face advertising and attractive shop displays tempt buyers at every turn, and this year’s new model is next year’s dinosaur. This revolution is global, not local. Many years ago in India, there was a campaign to have a “tap in every village” – such a simple aim. Now every home “needs a computer”. The Information Technology(IT) revolution has brought a lot of good. It has improved the way we communicate, storage and retrieval of information has never been easier, and we have new ways of learning, working, trading and enjoying ourselves. Technology brings benefits and prosperity to its users, but it leaves the under privileged behind, creating a “digital divide”.

The digital divide is a term used to describe “the gap between those who have 'ever' and those who have 'never' used a computer or the internet” (Young, 2005).

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Digital divides can exist between young and old, urban and rural locations and country to country. Information Technology has changed individual lives and it is beginning to change society’s structure. Unless we deliver IT to all members of society, those without access to computers will have less opportunities than those who do.

“We are witnessing an explosion of computer applications for peaceful goals -- for economic development, education, monitoring environmental conditions and in publishing.” (Pollard, 2002) 

E-commerce has boomed in recent years to allow direct trade with consumers. Businesses now...

The One Cyber Revolution is a forward thinking, full service communication agency with a presence in India, South Africa and USA. Our work is primarily in developing impactful, ever-lasting brands that communicate the aspirations of our clients. We have a highly specialized team of software developers capable of delivering large scale-longer term and smaller impact projects. Ours is an energy driven agency with a real passion for functional aesthetics within design. 

Our diverse team works from numerous locations globally and around the clock to deliver premium quality campaigns on every project we commit ourselves to. Our gaze is future bound and our ears are permanently fixated on the ground - This is why we know how to reach out to your target audience in their preferred channel allowing you to control every precious moment of a customer’s full attention.

Telecommunication is the transmission of messages, over significant distances, for the purpose of communication. In earlier times, telecommunications involved the use of visual signals, such as smoke, semaphore telegraphs, signal flags, and

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optical heliographs, or audio messages via coded drumbeats, lung-blown horns, or sent by loud whistles, for example.

In the modern age of electricity and electronics, telecommunications has typically involved the use of electric means such as the telegraph, the telephone, and the teletype, the use of microwave communications, the use of fiber optics and their associated electronics, and/or the use of the Internet. The first breakthrough into modern electrical telecommunications came with the development of the telegraph during the 1830s and 1840s. The use of these electrical means of communications exploded into use on all of the continents of the world during the 19th century, and these also connected the continents via cables on the floors of the ocean. These three systems of communications all required the use of conducting metal wires.

A revolution in wireless telecommunications began in the first decade of the 20th century, with Guglielmo Marconi winning the Nobel Prize in Physics in 1909 for his pioneering developments in wireless radio communications. Other early inventors and developers in the field of electrical and electronic telecommunications included Samuel F.B. Morse, Edwin Armstrong, Joseph Henry, and Lee de Forest (who invented the triode) of the United States, as well as John Logie Baird of Scotland, Nikola Tesla, an Serbian emigrant to the United States, and Alexander Graham Bell of Scotland, who lived in Canada, and then invented the telephone in the United States.

Information Technology has the potential to change societal structure and processes similar in scale to that of both the Agricultural Revolution and the Industrial Revolution. On this basis governments should ensure provision of Information Technology to all members of society as a matter of urgency. Discuss. 

Today, we are experiencing a technological revolution. There is nothing silent or stealthy about it – we are aware of new technology arriving every year. In-your-face advertising and attractive shop displays tempt buyers at every turn, and this year’s new model is next year’s dinosaur. This revolution is global, not local. Many years ago in India, there was a campaign to have a “tap in every village” – such a simple aim. Now every home “needs a computer”. 

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The Information Technology(IT) revolution has brought a lot of good. It has improved the way we communicate, storage and retrieval of information has never been easier, and we have new ways of learning, working, trading and enjoying ourselves. Technology brings benefits and prosperity to its users, but it leaves the under privileged behind, creating a “digital divide”.

The digital divide is a term used to describe “the gap between those who have 'ever' and those who have 'never' used a computer or the internet” (Young, 2005). Digital divides can exist between young and old, urban and rural locations and country to country. Information Technology has changed individual lives and it is beginning to change society’s structure. Unless we deliver IT to all members of society, those without access to computers will have less opportunities than those who do.“We are witnessing an explosion of computer applications for peaceful goals -- for economic development, education, monitoring environmental conditions and in publishing.”

The Cybernetic Revolution and the Crisis of CapitalismBy Jerry Harris and Carl Davidson The Chicago Third Wave Study Group In the early 1970s U.S. capitalism began to suffer a deepening crisis of accumulation. This crisis sprang from the very heart of the modern industrial system, arising out of fundamental contradictions in its exploitation of labor and its conditions of production. But this crisis also occurred along side a postmodern revolution in microelectronics and computer technologies, creating significant changes in the forms of accumulation and wealth creation. The two dynamics have created a new historic juncture for rethinking established theories of political and social change. Marxist economists such as Paul Sweezy have long tracked the cris is of accumulation. Recently key extensions have been added by eco-Marxist James O'Connor. But radicals also need to take note of the important contributions of Alvin and Heidi Toffler and their three waves theory. The Tofflers describe agricultural society as the first wave and industrial society as the second wave. They have added new insights into the nature of changes in the economic base where knowledge has become the most important tool of production. This became possible because of the revolution in the means of production, or information technologies. Toffler calls this information society the third wave, or what we'll call information capitalism. For about 200 years "second-wave" industrial capitalism

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was generally expanding and dynamic. Although punctuated by cycles of economic crisis, it grew into imperialism and built a world market. In the metropolitan countries, the circle of wealth grew wider, as a substantial number of workers organized unions and attained "middle class" living standards. But in the early 1970s industrial capitalism hit new limitations to its growth. The crisis was all sided, including both labor and nature. In a frantic race to maintain profits, the system began to toss huge.

Reearch methodologyThe important elements that researcher Should note while earching related literure include:* Reports studie of closely related problems that have been investigated.* Design of the study, including procedurese employed and data gathering instrument used.* Populations that were sampled and sampled methods employed.* Variables that were defined.* Extraneous variables that could have affected the finding.* Faults that could have been avoided.Recommendation for further research.The review of literature has certain advantage;* This indicate that the research has dine a lot of work in choosing this problem and he/she is aware with what has already been researched and also with what is to be researched.* It eliminates the risk and chances of duplication of the already researched work.* Italo help the researcher in formulating the hypothesis on basis of what is already known about known that particular problem.

NUCLEAR TECHNOLOGYIntroduction:Nuclear technology is technology that involves the reactions of atomic nuclei. Among the notable nuclear technologies are nuclear power, nuclear medicine, and nuclear weapons. It has found applications from smoke detectors to nuclear reactors, and from gun sights to nuclear weapons.

History and scientific background:In 1896, Henri Becquerel was investigating phosphorescence in uranium salts

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when he discovered a new phenomenon which came to be called radioactivity. He,Pierre Curie and Marie Curie began investigating the phenomenon. In the process, they isolated the element radium, which is highly radioactive. They discovered that radioactive materials produce intense, penetrating rays of three distinct sorts, which they labeled alpha, beta, and gamma after the Greek letters. The new phenomenon of radioactivity was seized upon by the manufacturers of quack medicine (as had the discoveries of electricity and magnetism, earlier), and a number of patent medicines and treatments involving radioactivity were put forward. Gradually it was realized that the radiation produced by radioactive decay was ionizing radiation, and that even quantities too small to burn posed a severe long-term hazard. Many of the scientists working on radioactivity died of cancer as a result of their exposure. Radioactive patent medicines mostly disappeared, but other applications of radioactive materials persisted, such as the use of radium salts to produce glowing dials on meters.In the modern age of electricity and electronics, telecommunications has typically involved the use of electric means such as the telegraph, the telephone, and the teletype, the use of microwave communications, the use of fiber optics and their associated electronics, and/or the

Is this Essay helpful? Join OPPapers to read more and access more than 460,000 just like it!get better gradesuse of the Internet. The first breakthrough into modern electrical telecommunications came with the development of the telegraph during the 1830s and 1840s. The use of these electrical means of communications exploded into use on all of the continents of the world during the 19th century, and these also connected the continents via cables on the floors of the ocean. These three systems of communications all required the use of conducting metal wires.

A revolution in wireless telecommunications began in the first decade of the 20th century, with Guglielmo Marconi winning the Nobel Prize in Physics in 1909 for his pioneering developments in wireless radio communications. Other early inventors and developers in the field of electrical and electronic telecommunications included Samuel F.B. Morse, Edwin Armstrong, Joseph Henry, and Lee de Forest (who invented the triode) of the United States, as well as John Logie Baird of Scotland, Nikola Tesla, an Serbian emigrant to the United States, and Alexander Graham Bell of Scotland, who lived in Canada, and then invented the telephone in the United States.

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The Limits of Cyber-Revolutions

Revolutions remain a tricky business. Even as social-networking sites have changed the way insurrections are built, the daily headlines from the Middle East are a reminder that a robust Twitter following and a widely followed Facebook group are only half the battle. At some point, an uprising, to truly be one, needs a physical staging ground. And what’s gone underappreciated this Arab Spring is

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just how much hangs on what happens as protests make the jump from virtual to actual, old-fashioned public spaces.

In Egypt, that of course happened at Tahrir Square. When Ismail the Magnificent ordered the redesign of Cairo in the second half of the nineteenth century, he created broad boulevards and public squares inspired by Haussmann’s Paris, where he’d received his education—a layout that had the benefit of allowing the military to move swiftly through the city to stamp out unrest, per Haussmann’s intent.” So when Egyptian dissidents, following extensive online preparations, began to reclaim Tahrir for the public on January 25—and then ignored the curfews and the commands to return to work—their actions were much more than symbolic. Without the ability to control space, Mubarak suddenly could not govern.

Syrian president Bashar al-Assad no doubt took note of the events in Cairo; more brutally than Mubarak would dare (or at least more brutally than the Egyptian Army would go along with), he has enforced his country’s emergency laws, his troops arresting protesters to try to clear the public spaces surrounding Umayyad Mosque in Damascus—and, elsewhere, firing into peaceful crowds—and send that country’s nascent rebellion back to its computers. In Bahrain, King Hamad bin Isa Al Khalifa has gone so far as to bulldoze the 300-foot monument at the center of Manama’s Pearl Square, hoping that might defuse the revolutionary yearnings of the young people encamped around it. Libya’s rebels, meanwhile, have their strip of shoreline in Benghazi, spared for now from Qaddafi’s forces by coalition airstrikes. But they’ve said they have no desire to make that city a confederate capital. Victory will come only when they can safely mass in Tripoli’s Green Square.