current theoretical models of generalized anxiety disorder...

Review

Current theoretical models of generalized anxiety disorder (GAD):Conceptual review and treatment implications

Evelyn Behar a,1, Ilyse Dobrow DiMarco b,1, Eric B. Hekler c,1,*, Jan Mohlman b,1, Alison M. Staples b,1

a University of Illinois at Chicago, Dept. of Psychology (M/C 285), 1007 W. Harrison Street (M/C 285), Chicago, IL 60607-7137, USAb Rutgers, the State University of New Jersey, Department of Psychology, 152 Frelinghuysen Road, Piscataway, NJ 08854, USAc Stanford Prevention Research Center, Stanford University School of Medicine, Hoover Pavilion, Mail Code 5705, 211 Quarry Road, Room N229, Stanford, CA 94305-5705, USA

Contents

1. Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1012

1.1. The evolution of GAD and its treatment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1012

2. Avoidance Model of Worry and GAD (AMW) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1012

2.1. Empirical support . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1013

2.2. Treatment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1013

3. The Intolerance of Uncertainty Model (IUM) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1014


3.2. Treatment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1015

Journal of Anxiety Disorders 23 (2009) 1011–1023

A R T I C L E I N F O

Article history:

Received 12 September 2008

Received in revised form 15 April 2009

Accepted 1 July 2009

Keywords:

Generalized anxiety disorder

Psychological theories

Cognitive behavior therapy

Treatment

Avoidance

GAD theory

A B S T R A C T

Theoretical conceptualizations of generalized anxiety disorder (GAD) continue to undergo scrutiny and

refinement. The current paper critiques five contemporary models of GAD: the Avoidance Model of

Worry and GAD [Borkovec, T. D. (1994). The nature, functions, and origins of worry. In: G. Davey & F.

Tallis (Eds.), Worrying: perspectives on theory assessment and treatment (pp. 5–33). Sussex, England: Wiley

& Sons; Borkovec, T. D., Alcaine, O. M., & Behar, E. (2004). Avoidance theory of worry and generalized

anxiety disorder. In: R. Heimberg, C. Turk, & D. Mennin (Eds.), Generalized anxiety disorder: advances in

research and practice (pp. 77–108). New York, NY, US: Guilford Press]; the Intolerance of Uncertainty

Model [Dugas, M. J., Letarte, H., Rheaume, J., Freeston, M. H., & Ladouceur, R. (1995). Worry and problem

solving: evidence of a specific relationship. Cognitive Therapy and Research, 19, 109–120; Freeston, M. H.,

Rheaume, J., Letarte, H., Dugas, M. J., & Ladouceur, R. (1994). Why do people worry? Personality and

Individual Differences, 17, 791–802]; the Metacognitive Model [Wells, A. (1995). Meta-cognition and

worry: a cognitive model of generalized anxiety disorder. Behavioural and Cognitive Psychotherapy, 23,

301–320]; the Emotion Dysregulation Model [Mennin, D. S., Heimberg, R. G., Turk, C. L., & Fresco, D. M.

(2002). Applying an emotion regulation framework to integrative approaches to generalized anxiety

disorder. Clinical Psychology: Science and Practice, 9, 85–90]; and the Acceptance-based Model of GAD

[Roemer, L., & Orsillo, S. M. (2002). Expanding our conceptualization of and treatment for generalized

anxiety disorder: integrating mindfulness/acceptance-based approaches with existing cognitive

behavioral models. Clinical Psychology: Science and Practice, 9, 54–68]. Evidence in support of each

model is critically reviewed, and each model’s corresponding evidence-based therapeutic interventions

are discussed. Generally speaking, the models share an emphasis on avoidance of internal affective

experiences (i.e., thoughts, beliefs, and emotions). The models cluster into three types: cognitive models

(i.e., IUM, MCM), emotional/experiential (i.e., EDM, ABM), and an integrated model (AMW). This

clustering offers directions for future research and new treatment strategies.

� 2009 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

* Corresponding author at: Stanford Prevention Research Center, Stanford University School of Medicine, Medical School Office Building, Mail Code 5411, 251 Campus Dr.,

Stanford, CA 94305-5705, USA. Tel.: +1 650 721 2516.

E-mail addresses: [email protected] (E. Behar), [email protected] (I.D. DiMarco), [email protected] (E.B. Hekler), [email protected] (J. Mohlman),

[email protected] (A.M. Staples).1 Authors contributed equally and are listed in alphabetical order.

Contents lists available at ScienceDirect

Journal of Anxiety Disorders

0887-6185/$ – see front matter � 2009 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

doi:10.1016/j.janxdis.2009.07.006

E. Behar et al. / Journal of Anxiety Disorders 23 (2009) 1011–10231012

4. The Metacognitive Model (MCM) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1016


4.2. Treatment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1017

5. The Emotion Dysregulation Model (EDM) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1017


5.2. Treatment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1018

6. Acceptance-Based Model of Generalized Anxiety Disorder (ABM) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1019


6.2. Treatment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1020

7. Limitations of extant research. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1020

8. The models in comparison . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1020

9. Future directions and conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1021

References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1021

1. Introduction

Theoretical conceptualizations of generalized anxiety disorder(GAD) continue to undergo scrutiny and refinement, and it is anexciting time for research investigating causal and maintainingfactors of this condition. Recent models offer unique andinnovative perspectives on the theory and treatment of GAD.Starting with Borkovec’s innovative avoidance theory of worry,each subsequent model has emphasized various pathogenicmechanisms (e.g., intolerance of uncertainty, positive beliefsabout worry, emotion dysregulation) that have led to severalnovel strategies for treatment.

The current paper critically reviews five contemporary modelsof GAD with a primary focus on their conceptual similarities anddifferences, followed by a brief discussion of treatments based oneach model. The models of interest are the Avoidance Model ofWorry and GAD (AMW; Borkovec, 1994; Borkovec, Alcaine, &Behar, 2004), the Intolerance of Uncertainty Model (IUM; Dugas,Letarte, Rheaume, Freeston, & Ladouceur, 1995; Freeston,Rheaume, Letarte, Dugas, & Ladouceur, 1994), the MetacognitiveModel (MCM; Wells, 1995), the Emotion Dysregulation Model(EDM; Mennin, Heimberg, Turk, & Fresco, 2002), and theAcceptance-Based Model of Generalized Anxiety Disorder (ABM;Roemer & Orsillo, 2002, 2005). The basic tenets of each model andsupporting evidence are critically evaluated, followed by adiscussion of treatment strategies derived from each model. TheMood-as-Input Model of Perseverative Worry (Davey, 2006) wasnot included in this review due to limited supporting evidence andthe lack of a treatment specifically based on central tenets of themodel.

Some of the basic assumptions of these five models arecurrently being tested a priori for the first time. Given that we arefocusing specifically on clinical levels of worry, the current reviewonly includes studies utilizing participants who either metdiagnostic criteria for GAD using clinical interviews or analogueclinical samples based on empirically derived scores on continuousmeasures. We also attempted to focus on studies in which a priori

hypotheses were tested, as opposed to post hoc analysesconducted.2 The primary goal was to compare the models on aconceptual basis rather than provide an exhaustive review of theempirical support for each model.

1.1. The evolution of GAD and its treatment

GAD was first introduced as a unique diagnosis in the thirdedition of the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders

(DSM-III; American Psychiatric Association [APA], 1980) but wasmost often used as a residual diagnosis for individuals who did not

2 For an exhaustive review of seminal literature including evidence from

nonclinical samples and other preliminary work prior to the models’ development,

the reader is referred to Heimberg, Turk, & Mennin (2004).

meet diagnostic criteria for another anxiety disorder (Barlow,Rapee, & Brown, 1992). It was not until the publication of DSM-III-R

(APA, 1987) that GAD was uniquely defined by chronic andpervasive worry (Barlow, Blanchard, Vermilyea, Vermilyea, & DiNardo, 1986). According to the DSM-IV-TR (APA, 2000), GAD ischaracterized by excessive, uncontrollable worry about a variety oftopics that occurs more days than not for a period of at least sixmonths. The worry causes distress and/or functional impairment,and is associated with at least three of the following features:restlessness or feeling keyed up or on edge, being easily fatigued,difficulty concentrating or having one’s mind go blank, irritability,muscle tension, and sleep disturbance (APA, 2000).

Psychotropic medications and cognitive behavior therapy (CBT)both appear to be effective for treating GAD (Anderson & Palm,2006; Borkovec & Ruscio, 2001; Fisher, 2006). However, responserates are inconsistent across studies. Current evidence suggeststhat pharmacotherapy may be effective at reducing symptoms ofanxiety but does not appear to have a significant impact on worry(Anderson & Palm, 2006), the defining characteristic of GAD.Clinical trials have indicated that CBT is an efficacious treatmentrelative to pill placebo, no treatment, wait-list, and nondirectivesupportive therapy, and that improvements from CBT aremaintained 1 year post-therapy (Borkovec & Ruscio, 2001; Gould,Safren, Washington, & Otto, 2004). A recent meta-analysisconducted by Covin, Ouimet, Seeds, and Dozois (2008) thatincluded only those studies that utilized the Penn State WorryQuestionnaire (PSWQ; Meyer, Miller, Metzger, & Borkovec, 1990)as an outcome measure (a valid and reliable indicator ofpathological worry) found that CBT was effective in reducingworry, with a large average effect size of �1.15. Despite theprogress that has been made in creating efficacious therapies forGAD, a more comprehensive understanding of the mechanismsunderlying this disorder is needed for additional enhancement oftreatment effects.

2. Avoidance Model of Worry and GAD (AMW)

The Avoidance Model of Worry and GAD (AMW; Borkovec,1994; Borkovec et al., 2004) is based on Mowrer’s (1947) two-stagetheory of fear, and also draws from Foa and Kozak’s emotionalprocessing model (Foa & Kozak, 1986; Foa, Huppert, & Cahill,2006). The AMW asserts that worry is a verbal linguistic, thought-based activity (Behar, Zuellig, & Borkovec, 2005; Borkovec & Inz,1990) that inhibits vivid mental imagery and associated somaticand emotional activation. This inhibition of somatic and emotionalexperience precludes the emotional processing of fear that istheoretically needed for successful habituation and extinction (Foa& Kozak, 1986; Foa et al., 2006).

On the other hand, enhancement of somatic and emotionalexperience can lead to effective processing of emotional cues.Habituation and extinction are made possible through exposure to

Fig. 1. The Avoidance Model of Worry and GAD. There is no published visual

representation of the Avoidance Model of Worry and GAD. The visual model above

was created by the current authors and approved by Dr. Borkovec.

E. Behar et al. / Journal of Anxiety Disorders 23 (2009) 1011–1023 1013

the entire spectrum of fear cues, including the feared stimulusitself, the response to the stimulus, as well as the potentialmeaning behind the fear (Foa & Kozak, 1986). Therefore, worry canbe seen as an ineffective cognitive attempt to problem solve andthus remove a perceived threat, while simultaneously avoiding theaversive somatic and emotional experiences that would naturallyoccur during the process of fear confrontation (Borkovec et al.,2004). Furthermore, the experience of worry becomes negativelyreinforced. According to the AMW, catastrophic mental imagesthat make their way into the worry process are replaced by lessdistressing, less somatically activating verbal linguistic activity.Thus, worry is negatively reinforced by the removal of aversive andfearful images (e.g., Borkovec, 1994; Borkovec et al., 2004). Inaddition, worry is further reinforced by positive beliefs, such as abelief that worry is helpful for problem-solving, motivatingperformance, and avoiding future negative outcomes. Positivebeliefs are reinforced when negative future events do not occur orare effectively managed, thus further reinforcing the worry (seeFig. 1 for a visual depiction of the AMW).

In addition to outlining the basic process of worry, Borkovecand colleagues have explored possible etiological factors of worry(Borkovec et al., 2004; Sibrava & Borkovec, 2006). Borkovec andcolleagues have suggested the possible impact of poor inter-personal skills on the maintenance of GAD (Sibrava & Borkovec,2006). In addition, they have hypothesized that early lifetimeevents such as past trauma and insecure attachment styles maylead to subsequent development of GAD (Borkovec et al., 2004).Some researchers have suggested that an insecure attachmentstyle (Bowlby, 1982) may result in diffuse anxiety problems inchildhood that persist into adult relationships (Cassidy, Lichten-stein-Phelps, Sibrava, Thomas, & Borkovec, 2009; Sibrava &Borkovec, 2006). It is hypothesized that insecure attachmentcauses individuals to perceive the world as a dangerous place, andthat individuals with GAD do not have adequate resources to copewith uncertain events. Further empirical work employing long-itudinal methods is required to test the potential etiological rolesof insecure attachment and past trauma in GAD.

2.1. Empirical support

Evidence supporting the AMW has already been extensivelyreviewed (e.g., Borkovec et al., 2004) and will only be brieflysummarized here. There is evidence supporting the notion thatworry is primarily a verbal-linguistic as opposed to an imagery-based process (Behar & Borkovec, 2005; Borkovec & Inz, 1990). Inaddition, worrying does appear to dampen somatic arousal at rest(Hoehn-Saric & McLeod, 1988; Hoehn-Saric, McLeod, & Zimmerli,

1989; Lyonfields, Borkovec, & Thayer, 1995; Thayer, Friedman, &Borkovec, 1996) and upon subsequent exposure to threat-relatedmaterial (Behar & Borkovec, submitted for publication; Borkovec &Hu, 1990; Peasley-Miklus & Vrana, 2000). Individuals with GADmay also require a longer period of time to return to baseline levelsof arousal following a stressor relative to individuals without GAD(e.g., Hoehn-Saric et al., 1989), suggesting prolonged hyporespon-siveness. There is also descriptive research suggesting that worry isreinforced among individuals with GAD via increased positivebeliefs about worry (Borkovec & Roemer, 1995). In particular,individuals with GAD believe that worry serves as a distractionfrom more emotional topics, providing further evidence that it isused as a strategy to avoid emotional processing.

More recent work suggests that an insecure attachment style ismore prevalent among individuals with GAD compared to healthycontrols (Eng & Heimberg, 2006), although this might be true forother forms of psychopathology as well and not necessarily specificto GAD. Similarly, increased symptoms of worry and GAD havebeen associated with perceived alienation from parental figuresand peers in a college undergraduate sample (Viana & Rabian,2008) as well as in adolescents (Hale, Engels, & Meeus, 2006).Prospective studies are needed to more strongly support the notionthat an insecure attachment style is an important predispositionalcharacteristic that increases a person’s risk for developing GAD.Finally, there is evidence suggesting that individuals with GADfocus much of their worry on interpersonal difficulties (Roemer,Molina, & Borkovec, 1997) and a large portion report being overlynurturing and exploitable within their relationships (Salzer et al.,2008), factors believed to be related to an insecure attachmentstyle. In addition, interpersonal problems (as measured by theInventory of Interpersonal Problems Circumplex Scales; Alden,Wiggins, & Pincus, 1990) that remain following therapy have beenshown to predict poor outcome following CBT (Borkovec, Newman,Pincus, & Lytle, 2002). However, another study utilizing thestructural analysis of social behavior (SASB; Benjamin, Giat, &Estroff, 1981) failed to replicate the finding that interpersonalbehavior processes predict CBT treatment outcome for clients withGAD (Critchfield, Henry, Castonguay, & Borkovec, 2007).

2.2. Treatment

Specific treatment components for GAD have been developedbased on the central tenets of the AMW. These cognitive-behavioral techniques include: (a) self-monitoring of externalsituations, thoughts, feelings, physiological reactions, and beha-viors; (b) relaxation techniques such as progressive musclerelaxation, diaphragmatic breathing, and pleasant relaxing ima-gery; (c) self-control desensitization, which entails the use ofmethods (e.g., imaginal rehearsal) to facilitate the acquisition ofhabitual coping responses; (d) gradual stimulus control achievedby establishing a specific time and place for worrying; (e) cognitiverestructuring aimed at increasing clients’ flexibility in thinking andaccess to multiple, flexible perspectives; (f) worry outcomemonitoring in which clients keep regular diary entries in orderto monitor specific worries, their feared outcomes, and the actualoutcomes of those worries; (g) the promotion of present-momentfocus of attention, and (h) expectancy-free living (Behar &Borkovec, 2005; Behar & Borkovec, in press). A summary of thekey components of treatment based on the AMW can be found inTable 1.

Evidence indicating that clients with GAD focus much of theirworry on interpersonal relationships (Roemer et al., 1997; Salzeret al., 2008) and that the presence of interpersonal problemssubsequent to CBT predicts poor short-term and long-termoutcome (Borkovec et al., 2002), as well as evidence pointing toemotional processing deficits in GAD, prompted Borkovec and

Table 1Summary of Treatment Components.

Theoretical model Theoretical components Key intervention components

Avoidance Model of Worry and GAD Cognitive avoidance Self-monitoring

Positive worry beliefs Relaxation techniques

Ineffective problem-solving/emotional processing Self-control desensitization

Interpersonal issues Gradual stimulus control

Attachment style Cognitive restructuring

Previous trauma Worry outcome monitoring

Present-moment focus

Expectancy-free living

Intolerance of Uncertainty Model Intolerance of uncertainty Self-monitoring

Negative problem orientation Intolerance of uncertainty education

Cognitive avoidance Evaluating worry beliefs

Beliefs about worry Improving problem-orientation

Processing core fears

Metacognitive therapy Positive beliefs about worry Case formulation

Type 1 Worry Socialization

Negative beliefs about worry Discuss uncontrollability of worry

Type 2 Worry Discuss danger of worry

Ineffective coping Discuss positive worry beliefs

Emotion Dysregulation Model Emotional hyperarousal Relaxation exercises

Poor understanding of emotions Belief reframing

Negative cognitive reactions to emotions Emotion Education

Maladaptive emotion management and regulation Emotional Skills Training

Experiential exposure exercises

Acceptance-Based Model of GAD Internal experiences Psychoeducation about ABM

Problematic relationship with internal experiences Mindfulness and Acceptance exercises

Experiential avoidance Behavioral change and valued actions

Behavioral restriction


colleagues to integrate a focus on interpersonal functioning andemotional processing into traditional CBT for chronic worry. Arandomized clinical trial in which the effects of addinginterpersonal and emotional processing therapy to CBT(CBT + IEP) was compared to CBT plus supportive listening(CBT + SL, where SL was used to control for common factorsrelated to psychotherapy) was recently completed. Analysesindicate that, contrary to expectations, the addition of IEP to CBTdid not enhance treatment efficacy as indicated by the majorityof primary outcome measures at the post-treatment assessment.However, 24 months following the termination of treatment, theCBT + IEP condition evidenced a significantly higher rate of highend-state functioning. Interestingly, secondary analyses indi-cated that clients who had highly dismissive attachment styles(a variant of insecure attachment in which an adult appears to beminimizing the importance of attachment relationships andattachment related experiences) and who received CBT + IEP hadsignificantly better post-therapy and follow-up outcome than allother clients, whereas those who did not have enmeshedrelationships with their primary care-giver in childhood (asituation in which a parent relies on a child to aide in managingdistress, which is a task that is developmentally beyond thecapability of the child and is therefore very distressing) also didparticularly well when IEP was part of their treatment (Newman,Castonguay, Borkovec, Fisher, & Nordberg, 2008; Newman,Castonguay, Fisher, & Borkovec, 2008). Thus, although theroutine administration of interpersonal and emotional proces-sing components is not appropriate for clients with GAD, thesetechniques may be useful with individual clients with particularinterpersonal histories. Future research will hopefully furtherdelineate the individual differences that predict enhancedtreatment responsiveness following IEP components.

Subsequent to the development of the AMW, a number ofalternative models of GAD and worry have been developed in anattempt to expand the scope of earlier formulations. Four such

models have been developed and systematically evaluated incontrolled research studies, as reviewed below.

3. The Intolerance of Uncertainty Model (IUM)

The first of these new models highlights the role of intoleranceof uncertainty (IU) in the development and maintenance of GAD(e.g., Dugas et al., 1995; Dugas, Buhr, & Ladouceur, 2004; Dugas,Gagnon, Ladouceur, & Freeston, 1998; Freeston et al., 1994).According to the Intolerance of Uncertainty Model (IUM),individuals with GAD find uncertain or ambiguous situations tobe ‘‘stressful and upsetting’’ (Dugas & Koerner, 2005, p. 62), andexperience chronic worry in response to such situations. Theseindividuals believe that worry will serve to either help them copewith feared events more effectively or to prevent those events fromoccurring at all (Borkovec & Roemer, 1995; Davey, Tallis, &Capuzzo, 1996; Tallis, Davey, & Capuzzo, 1994). This worry, alongwith its accompanying feelings of anxiety, leads to negativeproblem orientation and cognitive avoidance, both of which serveto maintain the worry. Specifically, individuals who experiencenegative problem orientation (1) lack confidence in their problemsolving ability, (2) perceive problems as threats, (3) become easilyfrustrated when dealing with a problem, and (4) are pessimisticabout the outcome of problem-solving efforts (Koerner & Dugas,2006). These feelings serve to exacerbate their worry and anxiety.As in Borkovec’s original conceptualization of GAD (Borkovec,1994), cognitive avoidance refers to the use of cognitive strategies(e.g., thought replacement, distraction, thought suppression) thatfacilitate avoidance of the cognitive arousal and threateningimages associated with worry (Dugas & Koerner, 2005). Dugas et al.(1998) note that IU serves to set off the chain of worrying, negativeproblem orientation, and cognitive avoidance, and argue thatintolerance of uncertainty also directly affects one’s problemorientation and degree of cognitive avoidance. In this way,individuals with increased IU will be more prone to engaging in

Fig. 2. The Intolerance of Uncertainty Model of GAD. Adapted with permission from

Dugas and Robichaud (2007).


the worry process. Fig. 2 presents a visual depiction of the IUM(Dugas & Robichaud, 2007).


The IUM posits the importance of four factors in distinguishingindividuals with GAD from healthy controls and other clinicalsamples: IU, positive beliefs about worry, cognitive avoidance, andnegative problem orientation. Two studies (Dugas, Marchand, &Ladouceur, 2005; Ladouceur et al., 1999) explored the specificity ofthe four central features of the model to GAD by testing whetherthese four constructs reliably distinguish individuals diagnosedwith GAD from those diagnosed with other anxiety disorders. Bothstudies (Dugas et al., 2005; Ladouceur et al., 1999) found that ofthese four facets, IU was the one aspect that was specific to GAD, asopposed to other anxiety disorders. Further, Dugas et al. (2007)found that IU and negative problem orientation predicted GADsymptom severity among a clinical sample of individuals withGAD. Holaway, Heimberg, and Coles (2006) found that individualswith analogue GAD and OCD experienced a greater degree of IUthan did non-anxious controls; however, there was no significantdifference in IU between the GAD and OCD groups. These resultsare consistent with other studies of IU in individuals with OCD(Steketee, Frost, & Cohen, 1998; Tolin, Abramowitz, Brigidi, & Foa,2003), and suggest that IU might not be a phenomenon specific toGAD, but may also characterize those with OCD.

Ladouceur, Blais, Freeston, and Dugas (1998) compared under-graduate students identified as an analogue GAD sample (scoredabove the 80th percentile on the PSWQ and met cognitive andsomatic criteria on the Generalized Anxiety Disorder Question-naire (GADQ; Roemer, Borkovec, Posa, & Borkovec, 1995) totreatment-seeking individuals diagnosed with GAD. Consistentwith the IU model, results indicated that these two groups reportedsignificantly greater difficulties with negative problem orientation(but not actual problem solving), problem solving confidence, IU,and positive beliefs about worry than did nonclinical, moderateworriers. Likewise, Dugas et al. (1998) found that that IU, beliefsabout worry, thought suppression (cognitive avoidance), andnegative problem orientation discriminated individuals diagnosedwith GAD from nonclinical participants in a discriminant functionanalysis; however, IU was the variable that most stronglydistinguished between the two groups.

Buhr and Dugas (2002) found that analogue GAD participants(identified as GAD based on scores on the Worry and AnxietyQuestionnaire [WAQ]; Dugas et al., 2001) scored significantlyhigher on the Intolerance of Uncertainty Scale (IUS; Freeston et al.,1994) than did control participants or individuals meeting only thesomatic criteria for GAD; furthermore, those meeting somaticcriteria scored significantly higher on the IUS than did controlparticipants. However, when considering results from the studysample as a whole (16% of whom met GAD criteria), the IUS was notfound to be more highly correlated with worry than withdepression (as measured by the Beck Depression Inventory[BDI]; Beck & Steer, 1987) or with anxiety (as measured by theBeck Anxiety Inventory [BAI]; Beck & Steer, 1990). In addition,evidence suggests that individuals with GAD experience elevatedlevels of positive beliefs about worry, cognitive avoidance, andnegative problem orientation (Buhr & Dugas, 2002; Dugas et al.,1998), but evidence is mixed regarding the specificity of theseelements to GAD with some studies suggesting good specificity fornegative problem orientation (Robichaud & Dugas, 2005) whereasothers indicate only IU as being specifically linked to GAD (Dugaset al., 2005; Ladouceur et al., 1999).

Support for IU as a cognitive vulnerability contributing to thedevelopment of GAD has also been examined in terms of fournecessary specific qualities: manipulability, temporal antece-dence, stability, and construct validity (Koerner & Dugas, 2008).Utilizing a gambling task to manipulate IU, Ladouceur, Dugas, et al.(2000) demonstrated that increasing IU subsequently increasedworry over successful completion of the task compared to acondition in which levels of IU were decreased. In terms oftemporal antecedence, a unidirectional relationship has beenfound between levels of IU and subsequent levels of worry withinGAD clients being treated with CBT (Dugas & Ladouceur, 2000).Time-series analysis indicated that changes in IU scores precededchanges in the amount of reported worry, but the reverserelationship was not found. IU has also been found to beindependent of mood state (e.g., symptoms of anxiety ordepression), an important indication of stability (Buhr & Dugas,2002, 2006; Dugas, Freeston, & Ladouceur, 1997). Finally, in a studyexamining the utility of a written exposure condition relative to acontrol writing condition, results suggested that improvements inworry were preceded by improvements in IU, suggesting thatimprovements in IU may be a key mediator for reducing worry(Goldman, Dugas, Sexton, & Gervais, 2007).

3.2. Treatment

Treatment of GAD based on the IUM revolves around the centraltheme of developing an increased tolerance for and acceptance ofuncertainty (Robichaud & Dugas, 2006). Specific treatmentcomponents include self-monitoring, education regarding IU, theevaluation of worry beliefs, improving problem-orientation, andprocessing core fears (Robichaud & Dugas, 2006). Based on theunderstanding that clients with GAD are more likely to havenegative and dysfunctional attitudes about problem solving, animportant treatment component emerging from the IUM entailshelping clients acquire a more positive orientation towardproblems. This includes teaching clients how to properlydiscriminate between a problematic situation and emotionssurrounding a situation, encouraging them to perceive problemsas being a normal part of life, and suggesting that problems may beviewed as opportunities rather than threats (Robichaud & Dugas,2006). Once the therapist educates the client about the frameworkof cognitions underlying their worry and specific maladaptiveperceptions have been addressed, a final step involves processingcore fears. Processing core fears, a component that addresses theinfluence of cognitive avoidance on maintenance of worry, entails

Fig. 3. The Metacognitive Model of GAD. Adapted with permission from Wells

(1997).


exposing clients to threatening mental imagery as a way toconfront their fears and prevent avoidance (Robichaud & Dugas,2006). The therapist probes for an underlying core fear within aclient’s recurring worry, and subsequently builds a descriptiveexposure scenario that can be recorded and used for futureexposure sessions (see Table 1 for a summary of the specifictreatment components based on the IUM).

Several randomized controlled trials (RCTs) have evaluated theIUM-based treatment for GAD in individual (Dugas & Robichaud,2007; Gosselin, Ladouceur, Morin, Dugas, & Baillargeon, 2006;Ladouceur, Dugas, et al., 2000; van der Heiden, 2008, September)and group formats (Dugas et al., 2003) with results generallysupporting the clinical efficacy of the IUM-based treatments forGAD relative to wait-list control conditions (Dugas et al., 2003;Dugas & Robichaud, 2007; Ladouceur, Dugas, et al., 2000). Further,preliminary results from an ongoing RCT suggest that the IUM-based treatment for GAD resulted in clinically significantimprovements in worry and anxiety relative to a wait-list controland applied relaxation (Dugas & Robichaud, 2007).

Gosselin et al. (2006) examined the utility of the IUM-basedtreatment for GAD for reducing benzodiazepine use amongindividuals with GAD who had taken benzodiazepines for at least1 year and had the desire to stop the medication. Results suggestedthat benzodiazepine use decreased more among the IUM-basedtreatment group relative to an active listening control group. Incontrast to these positive results, an IUM-based treatment for GADwas compared to metacognitive treatment and a wait-list controlcondition (van der Heiden, 2008, September). Results suggested nodifference in treatment efficacy between IUM treatment andmetacognitive treatment; likewise, there were no differencesfound in anxiety and worry reduction when IUM treatment wascompared to a wait-list control condition.

4. The Metacognitive Model (MCM)

The Metacognitive model (MCM) of GAD proposed by Wells(1995, 1999, 2004, 2005) posits that individuals with GADexperience two types of worry. When individuals are initiallyfaced with an anxiety-provoking situation, positive beliefs aboutworry are engendered (e.g., the belief that worry will help themcope with the situation). This process is known as Type 1 worry,which Wells defines as worry about non-cognitive events such asexternal situations or physical symptoms (Wells, 2005). Type 1worry initially stimulates an anxiety response but later mayincrease or decrease anxiety, depending on whether the problemthat has stimulated the worry has been resolved. During the courseof Type 1 worry, negative beliefs about worry are activated (forWells’ theories on how negative beliefs about worry initiallydevelop, see Wells, 1995). Individuals with GAD begin to worryabout their Type 1 worry; they fear that the worry is uncontrollableor may even be inherently dangerous. This ‘‘worry about worry’’(i.e., ‘‘meta-worry’’) is labeled by Wells as Type 2 worry.

According to the MCM, it is negative beliefs about worry and theresultant Type 2 worry that distinguishes individuals with GADfrom nonclinical worriers (Wells, 2005). Type 2 worry ishypothesized to be associated with a host of ineffective strategiesthat are aimed at avoiding worry via attempts at controllingbehaviors, thoughts, and/or emotions (e.g., reassurance-seeking,checking behavior, thought suppression, distraction, and avoid-ance of worrisome situations; Wells, 1999, 2004). Engagement inthese ineffective coping strategies precludes the experience ofevents that might provide evidence to disconfirm the belief thatworry is dangerous and uncontrollable. Furthermore, the veryefforts used by those with GAD to control their thoughts (e.g.,thought suppression, distraction) are often unsuccessful. As aresult, they may lose confidence in their ability to control their

worry, ultimately serving to reinforce the belief that worrying isuncontrollable and dangerous (Wells, 1999). Finally, Type 2 worryleads to an increase in anxiety symptoms, which may then serve amaintenance function if individuals interpret these anxietysymptoms as signs that their worrying is dangerous or uncontrol-lable (Wells, 2005). Fig. 3 presents a visual representation of thismodel (adapted from Wells, 1997).


A subset of tenets of the MCM have been supported in studies ofnonclinical worry (for a review, see Wells, 2004). However,relatively few studies have specifically aimed to test the MCM inclinical samples. Results from these studies indicate thatindividuals with GAD do not substantially differ in their reportedpositive beliefs about worry relative to other groups, such as non-worried, anxious individuals (Davis & Valentiner, 2000) and highworriers without GAD (Ruscio & Borkovec, 2004). Extant literatureevaluating the MCM suggests that individuals with GAD endorsenegative beliefs about worry and report engaging in meta-worry(Cartwright-Hatton & Wells, 1997; Davis & Valentiner, 2000;Ruscio & Borkovec, 2004; Wells & Carter, 2001). Althoughmetacognitions (i.e., self-awareness of cognitive processes) havebeen used to describe and treat other forms of psychopathology(e.g., OCD; Fisher & Wells, 2008), the MCM for GAD specifies theimportance of metacognitive beliefs specifically about worry as acentral component of GAD. However, evidence pointing to thespecificity of negative beliefs about worry and meta-worry to GADis mixed. Individuals with GAD experience more negative beliefsabout worry and Type 2 worry relative to individuals without adiagnosis of an anxiety disorder (Cartwright-Hatton & Wells, 1997;Davis & Valentiner, 2000; Ruscio & Borkovec, 2004; Wells, 2005;Wells & Carter, 2001), or who have subclinical anxiety or worry(Davis & Valentiner, 2000; Ruscio & Borkovec, 2004; Wells, 2005),panic disorder (Davis & Valentiner, 2000), social anxiety disorder(Davis & Valentiner, 2000; Wells & Carter, 2001), and mooddisorders (Cartwright-Hatton & Wells, 1997). Still, other studiessuggest that individuals with GAD experience similar levels ofnegative beliefs about worry and Type 2 worry as do those withOCD (Cartwright-Hatton & Wells, 1997) and panic disorder (Wells& Carter, 2001). Further, Ruscio and Borkovec (2004) found thatalthough non-GAD high worriers evidenced lower scores onnegative beliefs about the uncontrollability and danger of worrying

3 Mennin originally identified this component as negative reactivity to emotions

but more recently has named this component negative cognitive reactions to

emotions (Mennin, personal communication, April 2008).


than did those with GAD, the non-GAD high worriers evidencedhigher scores on these beliefs than did an unselected group ofuniversity students, suggesting that such beliefs may be relevantfor all high worriers and not merely those with GAD.

Aside from investigations examining the role of negative beliefsabout worry and Type 2 worry in GAD, the temporal relationshipbetween constructs suggested by the MCM along with the role ofineffective coping strategies in the perpetuation of GAD await a

priori evaluation. There has been no longitudinal work examiningany of the components of the model despite the fact that the modelwas created as a way of conceptualizing the development andmaintenance of GAD. Furthermore, some of the core features ofWells’ model remain less thoroughly defined. The model specifiesthat ‘‘the activation of negative beliefs [about worry] leads to anegative appraisal of worrying, or Type 2 worry’’ (Wells, 2004, p.169). Thus, negative beliefs about worry and Type 2 worry aredistinguished as two separate entities, with the former temporallypreceding the latter. However, studies and measures associatedwith the model such as the Anxious Thoughts Inventory (AnTI;Wells, 1994), the Metacognitions Questionnaire (MCQ; Cart-wright-Hatton & Wells, 1997), or the Meta-Worry Questionnaire(MWQ; Wells, 2005) do not reliably distinguish between negativebeliefs about worry and Type 2 worry.

Additionally, the majority of studies investigating negativebeliefs about worry/meta-worry utilize the MCQ (Cartwright-Hatton & Wells, 1997; Wells, 1994) and AnTI (Wells, 1994), which,as Wells notes, is potentially problematic given that these twomeasures focus on perceived lack of control over worry, which aredefining DSM-IV criteria of GAD (Wells, 2005). Thus, studiesemploying these measures assert that an established diagnosticcriterion for GAD discriminates individuals with GAD from thosewithout GAD. It is important that the constructs of Type 2 worryand negative beliefs about worry be refined, or that differentmethodological approaches be employed, in order to resolve thiscircularity. Finally, although Wells asserts a causal relationshipbetween Type 1 and Type 2 worry, and between negative beliefsabout worry and Type 2 worry, no investigations to date havetested these hypothesized causal relationships.

4.2. Treatment

The initial aim of Metacognitive Therapy (MCT) for GAD is not toreduce the amount of worry, but to alter Type 2 worry (i.e., thenegative beliefs that the client holds about worry; Wells, 2006). Inaddition, the client is introduced to alternative coping strategiesfor dealing with worry (see Table 1). Overall, there is an emphasison altering cognitions related to the client’s reliance on worry as apositive force in his/her life as well as negative perceptions ofworry as uncontrollable and dangerous. Specific treatmentcomponents include case formulation, socialization, discussionregarding the uncontrollability of worry, the danger of worry, andpositive worry beliefs (Wells, 2006). Case formulation involves aseries of probing questions regarding the thoughts that triggeredthe client’s worry episode, their reaction to the episode, and anyattempts to control or stifle the worry. Answers to these questionsallow the therapist to understand the situations that trigger worry,as well as the client’s positive and negative beliefs about worry.Socialization can be understood as the education component ofMCT as clients are introduced to the goals of MCT and the therapistemphasizes the importance of altering beliefs about worry asopposed to reducing the worry itself. Given that the MCM focuseson the clients’ dysfunctional beliefs about worry in their everydaylives, MCT uses several homework strategies for reducing worrysuch as the mismatch strategy (in which clients are asked tocompare worry concerning a situation with the actual outcome ofthe situation) or worry modulation experiments (where clients are

instructed to increase or decrease worry on different occasions inorder to dispel positive beliefs about worry; Wells, 2006).

The efficacy of MCT for GAD has been evaluated in one open trial(Wells & King, 2006) and one RCT (van der Heiden, 2008). Resultsfrom the open trial suggest significant reductions in anxiety, mood,and worry with 75% of treated individuals meeting criteria for asuccessful recovery at 12-months post-treatment (Wells & King,2006). As mentioned earlier, preliminary evidence was presentedof an RCT comparing MCT, IUM treatment, and a wait-list controlcondition. Results suggested that MCT but not IUM yieldedsignificant improvements on worry and anxiety relative to thewait-list control condition. Further, there were no significantdifferences in symptom-reduction between MCT and IUM treat-ments (van der Heiden, 2008). An RCT comparing MCT to appliedrelaxation has been completed and the manuscript is in prepara-tion (Wells, personal communication, January 2009).

5. The Emotion Dysregulation Model (EDM)

The Emotion Dysregulation Model (EDM) draws from theliterature on emotion theory and the regulation of emotional statesin general (e.g., Ekman & Davidson, 1994; Gross, 1998; Mayer,Salovey, Caruso, & Sitarenios, 2001; Mayer, Salovey, Caruso, &Sitarenios, 2003). The EDM also shares features with Linehan’sconceptualization of emotional deficits in borderline personalitydisorder (Linehan, 1993a, 1993b). The EDM consists of four centralcomponents (Mennin, Turk, Heimberg, & Carmin, 2004). The firstcomponent asserts that individuals with GAD experience emo-tional hyperarousal, or emotions that are more intense than thoseof most other people. This applies to both positive and negative,but particularly to negative, emotional states (Turk, Heimberg,Luterek, Mennin, & Fresco, 2005). Second, individuals with GADhave a poorer understanding of their emotions than do mostindividuals. Third, they have more negative attitudes aboutemotions (e.g., the perception that emotions are threatening)than do others.3 Finally, they evidence maladaptive emotionregulation and management strategies that potentially leave themin emotional states that are even worse than those they initially setout to regulate (Mennin et al., 2004).

Each of the four EDM components has several tenets. Forinstance, subsumed under the first component of the model(intensity of emotions) are the assumptions that individuals withGAD have a lower threshold for the experience of emotion than doothers, and that emotions occur more easily and quickly, ratherthan just more strongly, among individuals with GAD (Mennin,Heimberg, Turk, & Fresco, 2005). Moreover, perhaps due to thehypothesized greater intensity of and lower threshold foremotions, individuals with GAD are also expected to expressemotions more frequently than others, and this is particularly thecase for negative emotions.

The second component (poor understanding of emotions)subsumes deficits in describing and labeling emotions, as well as inaccessing and applying the useful information that emotionsconvey (Mennin et al., 2005). The combination of components 1and 2 is hypothesized to lead to the third component, whichstipulates that individuals with GAD become overwhelmed,anxious, or uncomfortable when strong emotions occur, therebycreating a feedback loop. Individuals with GAD are also hypothe-sized to show extreme hypervigilance for threatening informationand increased attention either toward or away from emotions andpertinent negative beliefs (McDonald, Hahn, Barefield, Smith, &Williams, 2005). Finally, this sequence culminates in the fourth

Fig. 4. Emotion Dysregulation Model. There is no published visual representation of

the Emotion Dysregulation model. As such, the above was created by the current

authors and approved by Dr. Mennin.


component, which specifies that individuals with GAD makeunsuccessful or maladaptive attempts to either minimize emo-tions or over-control emotions, or inappropriately express emo-tional arousal (e.g., excessive worry, suppression of emotions,emotional outbursts). As such, worry plays a fundamental role inthis model as an ineffective strategy to cope with emotions.According to Mennin and colleagues (e.g., Mennin et al., 2005),however, this succession of events can also proceed in the oppositedirection (i.e., maladaptive emotion regulation strategies leadingto increased negative emotion), thereby giving rise to a bidirec-tional cycle of emotion dysregulation and negative affect. Fig. 4presents a visual depiction of this model.


Current evidence supports the notion that individuals with GADexperience negative but not positive emotions more intensely thando healthy controls (Mennin et al., 2005; Salters-Pedneault,Roemer, Tull, Rucker, & Mennin, 2006; Turk et al., 2005) andthose with other psychopathology including depression (Mennin,Holaway, Fresco, Moore, & Heimberg, 2007) and social anxietydisorder (Mennin et al., 2007; Turk et al., 2005). In addition, priorresearch suggests that individuals with GAD have increaseddifficulty identifying, describing, and understanding their emo-tions compared to healthy undergraduates (Mennin et al., 2005,2007). Current evidence supports the notion that individuals withGAD exhibit increased fear of intense emotions compared tohealthy controls (Mennin et al., 2005; Salters-Pedneault et al.,2006; Turk et al., 2005). Finally, results suggest that individualswith GAD engage in more emotional coping strategies (i.e.,excessive worry, emotional outbursts, emotional suppression)compared to healthy controls (Mennin et al., 2007) and individualswith other psychopathology including depression and socialanxiety (Mennin et al., 2007).

Other studies have failed to support the hypothesizedcomponents of the EDM. Significant differences were not foundbetween GAD and control groups on the ability to identify anddescribe emotions in a study (Novick-Kline, Turk, Mennin, Hoyt, &Gallagher, 2005) that used an observer-rated measure (Levels ofEmotional Awareness Scale; Lane, Quinlan, Schwartz, Walker, &Zeitlin, 1990), or a study (Decker, Turk, Hess, & Murray, 2008) thatused a diary technique to assess emotional awareness. Theseresults suggest that self-report measures may be problematic inthe assessment of the ability of individuals with GAD to identifyand/or describe their emotional experiences. This may be due toGAD individuals’ tendency to underestimate their emotionregulation skills. In addition, there does not appear to be a

difference in identifying, describing, or understanding emotionsbetween individuals with GAD and individuals with other forms ofpsychopathology including depression (Mennin et al., 2007) andsocial anxiety disorder (Mennin et al., 2007; Turk et al., 2005).Finally, empirical evidence suggests no significant differencesbetween fear of intense emotions among individuals with GADcompared to individuals with depression (Mennin et al., 2007) orsocial anxiety (Mennin et al., 2007; Turk et al., 2005).

Future studies of the EDM should evaluate other aspects of themodel that have not yet been subjected to empirical scrutiny (e.g.,that GAD is characterized by a lower emotional threshold, or thatindividuals with GAD fail to utilize the adaptive informationcarried by emotional states). Furthermore, the research on thismodel has focused almost exclusively on data from analogueparticipants whose degree of GAD severity may be below clinicalthresholds. Additionally, a desirable quality of a model is that itmakes only one prediction given a specific set of circumstances(Keppel, Saufley, & Tokunaga, 1992). The EDM posits thatindividuals with GAD may demonstrate undercontrol (e.g.,inappropriate expression) of negative affective states, overcontrol(e.g., avoidance or suppression) of those states, or a combinationthereof; however, the distinct precursors of these differentresponse patterns have not been hypothesized or empiricallyexamined. Also, there have not been any investigations of themanner in which the four components may interact temporally.Despite these limitations, preliminary data supporting several ofthe key components of the model (as cited herein) suggest thatfurther testing of the EDM is warranted, and that this model has thepotential to enhance our conceptual understanding of GAD.

5.2. Treatment

A therapeutic intervention based on the EDM (emotionregulation therapy for GAD [ERT]), which is built on theassumption that improvements in emotion regulation lead toimprovements in GAD symptoms, is currently in development(Mennin, 2004). The intervention combines elements of CBT (e.g.,self-monitoring, relaxation) with techniques designed to addressproblems with emotion regulation (e.g., increasing emotionalawareness) and emotional avoidance (e.g., exposure). Specifictreatment components of ERT (as listed in Table 1) includerelaxation exercises, belief reframing, psychoeducation aboutemotions, emotional skills training, and experiential exposureexercises (Mennin, 2004). Emotion education focuses on teachingindividuals with GAD about the importance of emotions indecision-making and interpersonal relationships. Emotional skillstraining equips clients with various techniques designed toenhance understanding and regulation of their emotions. Suchskills include enhancing one’s somatic awareness of emotions,learning how to identify and differentiate emotions, and learningthe motivation behind one’s emotions. Becoming familiar withthese personally relevant emotional characteristics preparesclients for emotion regulation skills, through which they learnto recognize emotionally overwhelming situations and how tomanage them (Mennin, 2004). Experiential exposure exercises arecompleted during the therapy session and aim to reveal andexplore feared core emotional themes (Mennin, 2004).

A program of research investigating the efficacy of thistreatment is currently in the early stages, and preliminary resultshave thus far been presented during a professional conference(Mennin, Fresco, Ritter, Heimberg, & Moore, 2008, November).Results from 8 of the anticipated 14 initial participants in this opentrial are promising, indicating significant reductions in worry andGAD symptoms among those treated clients. Besides this opentrial, an RCT is in the beginning stages of data collection (Mennin,personal communication, January 2009).


6. Acceptance-Based Model of Generalized Anxiety Disorder(ABM)

Roemer and Orsillo (2002, 2005) have drawn upon Hayes andcolleagues’ Model of Experiential Avoidance (Hayes, Wilson,Gifford, Follette, & Strosahl, 1996) and Borkovec’s AMW (Borkovecet al., 2004) in proposing a preliminary Acceptance-Based Model ofGAD (ABM). According to Roemer and Orsillo (Roemer & Orsillo,2002, 2005; Roemer & Orsillo, personal communication, January2009; Roemer, Salters, Raffa, & Orsillo, 2005), the ABM involvesfour components: (a) internal experiences, (b) a problematicrelationship with internal experiences, (c) experiential avoidance,and (d) behavioral restriction (see Fig. 5).

According to this model, a problematic relationship withinternal experiences (thoughts, feelings, or bodily sensations)consists of two specific aspects, namely (1) negatively reacting tointernal experiences, and (2) fusion with internal experiences. Thefirst aspect, negatively reacting to internal experiences, involvesany negative thoughts (e.g., judgment of emotional responses asextreme or undesirable) or meta-emotions (e.g., fear of fear) thatmay arise when an individual has an internal experience. Whenthis occurs, individuals experience difficulties monitoring, accept-ing, and interpreting emotions. It is noteworthy that this firstproblem is conceptually similar to the EDM’s emphasis on negativeattitudes about emotions (e.g., a perception that emotions arethreatening; Mennin et al., 2002). The second problem, fusion withinternal experiences, entails becoming entangled or ‘‘fused’’ withthe negative reaction to internal experiences. In other words,fusion with internal experiences is a belief that these transientnegative reactions to internal experiences are permanent and thusa defining characteristic of the individual.

The third component of this model, experiential avoidance, isdefined as actively and/or automatically avoiding internalexperiences perceived to be threatening or otherwise negative.Examples include worrying about possible future events orworrying about minor matters to avoid more serious concerns.The final component of the model, behavioral restriction, is thereduced engagement in valued actions or activities that theindividual finds meaningful (e.g., spending time with family).Behavioral restriction develops as individuals with GAD become

Fig. 5. An Acceptance-Based Model of GAD. There is no published visual

representation of the Acceptance-Based Model of GAD. As such, the above was

created by the current authors and approved by Drs. Roemer and Orsillo. Note that

although the above cycle may begin with a perceived external threat it might also

be set-off by internal experiences alone. Further, once the cycle begins internal

experiences rather than perceived external threats play a more important role in

perpetuating the cycle.

more experientially avoidant of their internal experiences. Theyoften generalize that avoidance to other activities in their lives thatare valuable, such as spending time with their families. Oneconsequence of behavioral restriction may be reduced awarenessof the present moment, which can limit the awareness individualswith GAD experience when they do engage in valued actions.

The developers of the ABM suggest that ‘‘individuals with GADhave negative reactions to their own internal experiences, and aremotivated to try to avoid these experiences, which they do bothbehaviorally and cognitively (through repeated engagement in theworry process)’’ (Roemer & Orsillo, 2005, p. 216). Specifically, anindividual may perceive an external threat or may have anunpleasant internal experience that leads him/her to engage inexperiential avoidance. This avoidance reduces the distress causedby the internal experience in the short-term. In the long-term,however, this avoidance serves to reinforce behavioral restrictionas the individual becomes less engaged in activities (either byengaging in the activities less often or by being less experientiallyaware during the activities) that he/she finds valuable. This resultsin increased distress that can trigger more negative internalexperiences, thereby perpetuating the cycle.


Recent studies have explicitly examined components of theABM in predicting GAD symptoms (Lee, Orsillo, Roemer, & Allen, inpress; Michelson, Lee, Orsillo, & Roemer, 2008, November; Roemeret al., 2005, 2009). Roemer et al. (2005) conducted two studies toexamine the relationship between experiential avoidance, nega-tive reactions to emotions (i.e., fear of anger, depression, anxiety,and positive emotions), and GAD symptom severity in a nonclinicalsample of women (Study 1) and a small clinical sample ofindividuals with GAD (Study 2). Results suggest that experientialavoidance and negative reactions to emotions were both positivelyassociated with GAD symptom severity in the nonclinical sample(Study 1), but not in the clinical sample (Study 2), although thislack of a significant association in the clinical sample may bepartially attributable to the small sample size (N = 19; Roemeret al., 2005).

Roemer et al. (2009) conducted two studies to examine therelationship between emotion regulation, mindfulness, and GADsymptom severity in a nonclinical sample (Study 1) and amongindividuals with GAD and a nonclinical control group (Study 2).Results from Study 1 of Roemer et al. (2009) suggest thatdifficulties in emotional regulation were positively associatedwith GAD symptom severity and that mindfulness was inverselyassociated with GAD symptom severity within a nonclinicalsample drawn from an urban university. Results from Study 2(Roemer et al., 2009) suggest that individuals with GAD reportedhigher levels of difficulties with emotion regulation and sig-nificantly lower levels of mindfulness compared to a nonclinicalcontrol group. Lee et al. (in press) found that individuals with GADreported greater levels of experiential avoidance and distressabout emotions compared to a nonclinical control group. Finally,Michelson et al. (2008, November) found that individuals withGAD engaged less in valued actions compared to a nonclinicalcontrol group.

There are several limitations to the existing research on theABM. First, the model is still in its developmental stages and thusmany of the components and labels identified in this paper arebased on personal communications with the authors and papersunder review, rather than on published work (Lee et al., in press;Roemer & Orsillo, personal communication, January, 2009). Inaddition, there have been no tests of the temporal relationshipbetween the constructs specifically identified in this model. Themajority of the tenets of ABM await a priori evaluation using more

4 Although the AMW does cite many experimental investigations as evidence for

its central tenets, no direct a priori experimental tests of the model exist.


stringent designs including longitudinal analyses and experimentsin which the key constructs are manipulated. Finally, to the best ofthe authors’ knowledge, there is little research on GAD thatexamines fusion of internal experiences; thus, this constructrequires further validation.

6.2. Treatment

Roemer and Orsillo have developed an acceptance-basedbehavioral therapy for GAD (ABBT; Orsillo, Roemer, & Barlow,2003; Roemer & Orsillo, 2005, 2007; Roemer, Orsillo, & Salters-Pedneault, 2008). ABBT is comprised of three broad treatmentcomponents, specifically (a) psychoeducation about the ABM, (b)mindfulness and acceptance exercises, and (c) behavior changeand valued actions (Roemer & Orsillo, 2005). Psychoeducationinvolves teaching the client about the ABM, with particularemphasis on teaching the client about the use of worry as a tacticfor avoiding more distressing internal experiences that lead toreduced engagement in valued actions. In addition, psychoeduca-tion also focuses on the function of emotions in preparing foraction, communicating with others, and enhancing life experi-ences. Finally, psychoeducation focuses on defining the goal oftreatment as promoting valued actions rather than reducingdistressing internal experiences such as anxiety (Roemer & Orsillo,2005).

Mindfulness and acceptance exercises focus on promotingactive, compassionate, nonjudgmental, and expansive awarenessof one’s internal and external sensations as a way to fullyexperience the present moment. This is accomplished throughtechniques used in other GAD treatments (e.g., AMW treatment)such as self-monitoring and relaxation. In addition, the client isasked to label internal experiences (e.g., ‘‘I am having the feeling ofsadness;’’ ‘‘I am having the thought that I am useless’’). This ismeant to help the client separate or ‘‘defuse’’ the client’sperception of self from internal experiences. The final componentof treatment is behavior change and valued actions. For this, theclient is asked to identify values (i.e., aspects of life that he/shefinds meaningful) and to assess how consistent his/her currentactions are to these values. Following this, the client is asked toengage in a series of writing assignments to further increaseawareness of the relationship between current behaviors andvalues. Through these exercises, the client and therapist work toidentify specific valued actions in which the client can engage andthat can be self-monitored, with the goal of increasing thefrequency of these valued actions over time (Roemer & Orsillo,2005).

Results from an open trial conducted with clients diagnosedwith GAD indicated that ABBT resulted in significant improve-ments in worry, anxiety, and depression at post-treatment, andthat the majority of benefits were still apparent at 3-month follow-up (Roemer & Orsillo, 2007). In addition, a recent RCT examiningABBT compared to a wait-list control condition in a clinical sampleyielded similar results, with large effect sizes and significantlyreduced clinician-rated and self-reported GAD symptoms (Roemeret al., 2008). An RCT is currently underway comparing ABBT toapplied relaxation (Roemer & Orsillo, personal communication,January 2009).

7. Limitations of extant research

Although the models discussed herein hold promise fordeepening our understanding of GAD, studies examining themodels share several methodological limitations. Most of thestudies rely heavily on self-report measures that require indivi-duals to remember previous emotional states. As is evident fromprevious research, individuals’ short-term recall of emotions

appears to involve qualitatively different processes compared tolong-term past recall of emotions (e.g., Robinson & Clore, 2002). Assuch, methodological approaches in which participants are askedto engage in short-term recall or present-moment reporting ofemotional states would likely provide discrepant results fromthose relying on long-term past emotional recall. In addition,individuals with GAD respond differentially on physiological andself-report measures (e.g., Borkovec & Hu, 1990; Behar & Borkovec,submitted for publication), which further underscores the need forgreater utilization of objective measures of functioning in thispopulation.

Although self-report measures provide an effective tool fortesting preliminary hypotheses, a movement towards the use ofmore objective measures of internal experiences is warranted.These methods could include collateral and historical data,observational measures, physiological monitoring, and extendednaturalistic monitoring for continuous time periods. For example,two studies employed either an observer-rated measure or a diarytechnique to assess for emotional awareness, a key construct of theEDM (Decker et al., 2008; Lane et al., 1990). As reviewed above,these studies yielded different results compared to self-report,thus further highlighting the potential limitation of self-reportmeasures. These types of techniques should be used with greaterfrequency to better assess key constructs from each model.

Another limitation shared by many of the studies reviewedherein concerns their excessive reliance on identifying GADsamples based on continuous measures such as the GAD-Q-IV(Newman, Zuellig, Kachin, Constantino, & Cashman-McGrath,2002) as opposed to diagnostic interviews. Because analoguesamples may be less severely impaired by worry and other GADsymptoms, diagnostic interviews such as the Anxiety DisorderInterview Schedule-4th Edition (ADIS-IV; Brown, DiNardo, &Barlow, 1994) and the Structured Clinical Interview for theDSM-IV-TR (SCID-IV; First, Spitzer, Gibbon, & Williams, 2007)should be used whenever possible for proper classification ofindividuals with GAD.

Perhaps most importantly, the vast majority of investigationsexamining the five models have employed non-experimentaldesigns in tests of hypotheses. This fact stands in stark contrast tothe various specific causal hypotheses presented by the models.4

Experimental studies with clear a priori hypotheses are needed infuture tests of the newer models of GAD. For example (Ladouceur,Dugas, et al., 2000; Ladouceur, Gosselin, & Dugas, 2000) employedan experimental manipulation in which they utilized a gamblingtask to manipulate intolerance of uncertainty. This type ofinnovative methodological design approach should be used morewidely to provide rigorous assessments of the causal predictionsmade by each model. In addition, the use of RCTs with activecontrol conditions and appropriate examination of moderation andmediation (e.g., Kraemer, Wilson, Fairburn, & Agras, 2002), asdiscussed in the future directions section below, is required todelineate both the theoretical and practical utility of each theory.

8. The models in comparison

Despite these limitations, the models collectively offer valuableinsights into the basic nature of GAD and the necessary steps to itssuccessful treatment. Indeed, the veritable explosion in researchon GAD over the past 15 years has resulted in many complemen-tary theoretical models and vast improvements in our ability totreat the condition (Covin et al., 2008). The five theoretical modelsshare a common emphasis on the central importance of avoidanceof internal experiences. For example, the AMW asserts that worry


is a strategy for avoiding emotion-laden stimuli such as vividimages and somatic activation, whereas the IUM identifies worryas a strategy for avoiding uncertainty. The MCM focuses onindividuals engaging in strategies to avoid worrying about worry,and the EDM identifies worry as one of several ineffective copingstrategies to manage and likely avoid emotions. Finally, the ABMsuggests that worry is one type of experiential avoidance ofinternal experiences. Further, there are several common treatmentcomponents across the models including psychoeducation aboutGAD, self-monitoring, and an emphasis on training clients to copewith internal experiences. In addition to these similarities, thereare also important conceptual differences that impact thetreatments designed from each model. These conceptual differ-ences can be highlighted by classifying the theories into threerealms: cognitive models (i.e., MCM, IUM), emotional/behavioralmodels (i.e., EDM, ABM), and an integrated model (i.e., AMW).

Although the cognitive models certainly contain secondary focion emotional and behavioral components, specific thoughts/cognitions are identified as the primary pathogenic mechanismof GAD. For example, the IUM highlights intolerance of uncertaintyas the primary construct of interest, which the authors identify as acognitive vulnerability for worry, cognitive avoidance, andnegative problem orientation. Furthermore, negative problemorientation is defined as negative thoughts and core beliefs thatindividuals with GAD have about their problem-solving ability(Dugas et al., 1995). Similarly, the MCM highlights the importanceof negative meta-beliefs about worry and subsequent Type 2 worry(i.e., worry about worry; Wells, 1995). As such, these two models’primary foci are on cognitions as the key components that drive thedevelopment and maintenance of GAD. This focus on cognitionsdirectly impacts the types of treatment techniques used. Forexample, treatments based on these models primarily focus onunderstanding and evaluating core cognitions (i.e., beliefs andthoughts) about internal experiences such as the veracity ofnegative problem-solving beliefs (IUM), negative meta-beliefsabout worry (MCM), and positive beliefs about worry (IUM andMCM).

In contrast, the emotional/behavioral models focus primarily onthe impact of emotions and behaviors in the development andmaintenance of GAD. For example, in the EDM, poor understandingand regulation of emotions is identified as the key construct in theconceptualization of GAD etiology and maintenance (Mennin et al.,2002). The ABM highlights the importance of experientialavoidance, or engaging in behaviors to avoid unpleasant internalexperiences, which leads to behavioral restriction or a reducedengagement in behaviors that otherwise bring valued meaninginto an individual’s life (Roemer & Orsillo, 2002). Althoughcognitions play an important role in treatments based on thesetheoretical conceptualizations of GAD, emotions and behaviors arethe primary focus of treatment, as is evidenced in these treatmentpackages’ predominant focus on emotion education (i.e., emotionalskills training, the function of emotions in life, and the role ofemotions in decision-making; EDM and to a lesser degree ABM),experiential exposure exercises (EDM and ABM), mindfulness/acceptance (ABM), and values-based actions (ABM).

The AMW places equal importance on cognitive elements (e.g.,positive worry beliefs) and emotional/behavioral elements (e.g.,avoidance of emotionally laden stimuli) as key components in thedevelopment and maintenance of GAD (Borkovec et al., 2004). Inaddition, the AMW has evolved to include new components thatemphasize other factors such as interpersonal relationships,attachment style, and past trauma (Borkovec et al., 2004).Treatment based on the AMW incorporates cognitive restructuring(cognitive), self-control desensitization (behavioral), relaxationskills (behavioral), and interpersonal and emotional processing(affective) as central components of treatment.

9. Future directions and conclusion

Although significant advances have been made in the theore-tical understanding of GAD, there remains a need for a greateramount of basic research examining the predictive components ofthe five models. Moreover, additional randomized clinical trials arewarranted to further test the practical utility of each model and itsimpact on individuals suffering from GAD. Specifically, werecommend the increased use of additive (also called constructive)designs as a means of evaluating specific treatment componentsthat may enhance the efficacy of existing therapies for GAD.Additive designs start with a basic treatment that is known to beefficacious (e.g., traditional CBT) and then add to it a new treatmentcomponent that for theoretical and/or empirical reasons ishypothesized to potentially enhance the efficacy of the basictreatment component (for a detailed discussion of the additivedesign, see Behar & Borkovec, 2003). Such an approach toevaluating treatment efficacy allows for clear conclusions regard-ing the impact of each treatment component on outcomes and thuscan further advance our understanding of underlying theoreticalconstructs that impact GAD.

Additionally, future RCTs should continue to examine modera-tion analyses in order to identify individual differences indifferential treatment response to particular therapies for GAD(Kraemer et al., 2002). For example, some individuals with GADmay score particularly highly on measures of intolerance ofuncertainty and thus may respond better to treatment componentswith an emphasis on cognitions, whereas other individuals withGAD may score highly on measures of poor emotion regulation andthus respond better to emotional/behavioral treatment compo-nents. Examination of these moderation hypotheses could then beused to tailor specific individuals to specific treatments for GAD.Based on current models, important moderators to evaluateinclude intolerance of uncertainty, attachment style, negativemeta-beliefs about worry, and experiential avoidance, amongothers.

The effectiveness of CBT for the treatment of GAD has yieldedpromising results (Covin et al., 2008; Mitte, 2005), yet there is aneed to further enhance the efficacy of evidence-based interven-tions. All of the current models highlight the importance of worryas an avoidance strategy of internal experiences. Furthermore, themodels can be conceptualized into three types: cognitive models(i.e., IUM, MCM), emotional/behavioral models (i.e., EDM, ABM),and an integrated model (i.e., AMW). Future work examining thecomponents of each of these models is warranted using a greaterreliance on experimental designs that examine the predictiveelements of each model. In addition, testing the treatmentcomponents that are based on these theories should rely moreheavily on the additive design as a way of seeking to enhancecurrent therapies with additional components that may increasethe efficacy of those therapies. Finally, these RCTs should alsoinclude moderation analyses to determine the types of individualswho respond best to each type of treatment. These steps will aid inour enhanced understanding of the etiological and maintainingfactors in GAD, as well as our improved ability to treat individualssuffering from this condition.

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current theoretical models of generalized anxiety disorder...

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