Culture of Conflict:Evolvement, Institutionalization

and Consequences

Daniel Bar-Tal

School of Education

Tel Aviv University

A conflict begins in human mind and

therefore also its ending must be

initiated in the human mind.

Assumption

Conflicts are over real issues like money, love,

territories, natural resources, self-

determination, statehood, religious dogmas,

and/or basic values and it is these real issues that

have to be addressed in conflict resolution. But,

the fact that they are accompanied by socio-

psychological dynamics influences their nature

and requires taking them greatly into the

consideration for their understanding,

prevention and resolution.

Fundamental Premises • Prolonged and harsh experiences of

intractable conflicts not only shape the psyche of the individuals involved but also the culture of the engaged societies.

• Subsequently, it is this evolved culture of conflict that fuels the continuation of the conflict and obstructs its peaceful resolution.

Plan of the Presentation

• Intractable conflicts

• Socio-psychological infrastructure

• Culture of conflict

• Optimistic ending

Characteristics of Intractable Conflicts(Bar-Tal, 1998; Kriesberg, 1993)

1. They are total

2. They are of a zero-sum nature

3. They are violent

4. They are central

5. They are perceived as unsolvable

6. They demand great investments

7. They are protracted

Prototypic Intractable Conflicts Examples

• Middle Eastern conflict (1948-1977)

• Sri Lankan conflict

• Northern Ireland conflict (1968-1998)

• Chechnyan conflict

• Chronic feelings of mid-level threat, stress, insecurity

• Feelings of pain and grief for human losses

• Sense of hardship and demands (in psychological and

material terms)

• Feelings of uncertainty

• Feelings of lack of control and sometimes helplessness

• Feelings of determination

• Feelings of solidarity

• Feelings of ability to endure

Psychological Experiences in Intractable Conflict

Psychological Challenges of a Society Involved in Intractable Conflict

• Developing psychological conditions that

enable the society to at least withstand the

enemy.

• Adaptation – trying to satisfy basic needs

and learning to live with their deprivation.

• Coping with stress and other negative

psychological phenomena.

Proposition 1

Societies involved in intractable conflict

attempt to evolve a functional socio-

psychological infrastructure in order to meet

the psychological challenges of the conflict.

Socio-psychological Infrastructure

• Societies in intractable conflict develop a specific socio-psychological repertoire that includes shared beliefs, attitudes, motivations and emotions.

• It eventually turns into a socio-psychological infrastructure, which means that the shared repertoire gradually crystallizes into a well organized system of societal beliefs, attitudes and emotions and penetrates into institutions and communication channels' of the society.

Basis for Proposition 1

This proposition is based on conceptual and empirical literature which suggests that successful adaptation and coping with threatening and stressful conditions requires the construction of a meaningful world view (e.g., Antonovsky, 1987; Frankl, 1963; Greenberg, Solomon, & Pyszczynski, 1997; Horowitz, 1986; Janoff-Bulman, 1992; Kobasa, 1985; Moos & Schaefer, 1986; Taylor, 1983).

Socio-psychological Ways to Meet the

Psychological Challenges of Intractable Conflict

Evolvement of the Functional

Socio-Psychological Infrastructure

(Bar-Tal, 1998, 2007)

• Collective Memory

• Ethos of Conflict

• Collective Emotional Orientations (e.g.,

hatred, fear, anger)

Socio-Psychological Infrastructure

Definitions• Collective memory is the narrative of a

remembered group's common past (Kansteiner, 2002).

• Ethos consists of the configuration of central societal beliefs that provide a particular orientation to a society (Bar-Tal, 2000).

Themes of the Emerging Socio-Psychological Infrastructure

1) Collective Memory and Ethos of Conflict

• Societal Beliefs about the Justness of Ingroup Goals (their importance, justification, adherence).

• Societal Beliefs about Security (threats, conditions of security).

• Societal Beliefs about Delegitimization of the Opponent (dehumanization, blame for the conflict and intransigence, blame for violence and atrocities, lack of trust).

Themes of the Emerging Socio-Psychological Infrastructure

2) Collective Memory and Ethos of Conflict• Societal Beliefs about Positive Collective

Self-Image (morality, courage, heroism, peace-loving).

• Societal Beliefs about Collective Self-Victimization (suffering, losses, injustice, responsibility of the rival).

• Societal Beliefs about Patriotism (mobilization, sacrifice).

• Societal Beliefs about Unity (necessity of being united).

• Societal Beliefs about Peace (wish).

Collective Emotional Orientations

Definition

Emotions shared by society’s members and expressed in their cultureTypes

Collective Fear Orientation is an aversive emotion that arises in situations of threat and danger to the society and its members and enables adaptive response.

Collective Hatred is a hostile feeling directed toward another group that consists of malice, repugnance, willingness to harm and even annihilate the object of hatred.

Collective Anger Orientation appears when a group appraises that what another group has done is an unjustified and unfair violation of social norms.

Proposition The evolved socio-psychological repertoire serves as a prism through which society members process

information and experiences .

This is a selective, biased an distorting processing .

Functions of the Socio-psychological Infrastructure

• Epistemic function of illuminating the conflict situation

• Justifies the ingroup’s acts toward the enemy

• Prepares for threats and dangers• Enhances motivation for solidarity,

mobilization and action• Creates a sense of differentiation and

superiority over the rival• Forms, maintains, and strengthens social

identity

Proposition 2

Societies that live under prolonged

experiences of intractable conflict with

the dominant socio-psychological

infrastructure evolve a Culture of

Conflict.

Culture • Culture can be considered as "a

historically transmitted pattern of meaning embodied in symbols, a system of inherited conceptions expressed in symbolic forms by means of which men communicate, perpetuate, and develop their knowledge about and attitudes towards life" (Geertz, 1973, p. 89).

• Also culture can be seen as “a 'tool kit' of rituals, symbols, stories, and world views that people use to construct "strategies of action" (Swidler, 1986, p.273)

Evolvement of Culture of Conflict A culture of conflict evolves when societies

saliently integrate into their culture tangible

and intangible symbols which are created to

communicate a particular meaning about the

prolonged and continuous experiences of

living in the context of conflict (Geertz, 1993,

Keesing, 1974; Ross, 1993).

Culture of Intractable Conflict

Symbols of conflict become hegemonic

elements in the culture of societies involved in

intractable conflict: They provide a dominant

meaning about the present reality, about the

past, and about future goals, and serve as

guides for practice.

In this case, a society may be characterized as

being dominated by culture of conflict.

Additional Themes Violent confrontations with the rival (events)

The fallen society members

Characteristics of the Culture of Conflict • The general themes are universal.• The specific content varies from society to society. • The culture of conflict evolves through a long

process.• The culture of conflict changes dynamically in

accordance with experiences. • The specific symbols (e.g., sacrifice) are expressed

through different content (e.g., stories about heroes, old myths, aspirations, prescriptions, stories about events).

• The content is expressed through different modes (books, ceremonies, art, films, speeches, monuments, etc.).

Expressions of the Culture of Conflict

• Society members extensively share the conflict repertoire.

• The conflict repertoire is used widely in the society (in public discourse, physical space, ceremonies, speeches).

• Expressions of the conflict repertoire in cultural products.

• Appearance of the conflict repertoire in educational materials.

Where We Should Look for the Symbols of Culture of Conflict?

Shared beliefs of society membersLanguageSpeeches of leadersMass media School books and curricular materialsProtocols of public and governmental meetings Documents and other written materialCeremonies Commemorations LiteratureTheatrical playsFilmsPaintings and sculpturesStatues and memorial sitesAdvertisements

Symbols of the Culture of Conflictin Northern Ireland

Symbols of the Culture of Conflictin Israel

http://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%AA%D7%9E%D7%95%D7%A0%D7%94:BB02.jpg

http://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%AA%D7%9E%D7%95%D7%A0%D7%94:Political_poster.jpg

Nature of the Culture of Conflict • It is characterized by a supply of information,

symbols, and knowledge that confirm and validate the hegemonic themes of the culture of conflict.

• It leads to selective, biased and distorted information processing by society members, which perpetuates and eternalizes the hegemonic themes of the culture of conflict.

• The culture evolves societal mechanisms to maintain and preserve the hegemonic themes of the culture of conflict.

• Societies socialize the younger generations within the hegemonic themes of the culture of conflict.

Effects of the Culture of Conflict Issues related to the conflict receive major

status and weight in decision-making. Problems that direct attention away from the

conflict are set aside. Emergence of a powerful and influential

military stratum in the society. Crystallization of the traditional gender roles

and gap between them. Deterioration of moral standards and

disregard for human rights and codes of international behavior.

Weakening of the democracy. Penetration of violent modes of behavior and

illegality into the society.

Vicious Cycle of Intractable Conflict

Culture of Conflict

Socio-psychological Infrastructure(Societal beliefs, collective emotions,

social identity)

Acts of Intractable Conflicts

(Verbal hostile statements, violent acts, wars, atrocities)

Proposition 3

A conflict begins in the human mind

and therefore its ending also has to

be initiated in the human mind.

Appearance of Seeds of Peace

• Emergence of ideas stating that continuation of the intractable conflict harms societal goals and needs.

• Emergence of ideas stating that the conflict causes unbearable losses, suffering, and hardship.

• Emergence of ideas stating that the violent conflict violates moral norms and international codes.

• Emergence of ideas about the need to resolve the conflict peacefully.

• Emergence of a minority that begins to promote these ideas and struggles to legitimize and institutionalize them.

EndingStriving towards peace should not be a dream or a wish, but a continuous struggle to mobilize peace supporters which leads to the signing of a peace agreement and eventually to the development of a culture of peace.

“We will pursue the course of peace with determination and fortitude.

We will not let up.

We will not give in.

Peace will triumph over all our enemies, because the alternative is grim for us all.

And we will prevail.

We will prevail because we regard the building of peace as a great blessing for us, and for our children after us.”

Assassinated Prime Minister of Israel Yitzhak Rabin, upon receiving the Nobel Peace Prize in Oslo

Thank You