culture in istanbul

Akademik Arajtirmalar Dergisi, Sayi 47-48. 2010-2011. s. 177-202

Cuiture in istanbui as seen iiyWestern Eurepeans^

Alain Servantie""

1. European Capitals of Culture^

This year 2010, the EU institutions celebrated the 25"' anniversaryof the European capital of culture action, a high profile cultural eventfor cities in Europe. Since 1985, more than 40 cities have been desig-nated European Capitals of Culture, from Stockholm to Genoa, Athensto Glasgov f, Cracow to Porto. For this year 2010, the cities of Istanbul,Essen in Germany, Pecs in Hungary were chosen European Capital ofCulture.

25 years ago in December 1984, during the first Greek Presidencyof the European Community, the Greek Minister for Culture, the famo-us actress Melina Mercouri, who had played a major role in the movieTopkapi (1964) shot in Istanbul- invited her colleagues to a meetingforeseen at the European Cultural Centre based in the historical site ofDelphi, on the north shore of the Corinth gulf. The Centre was placedin 1962 under the auspices of the Council of Europe and aimed to "de-velop common cultural principles that will unite the peoples of Europe"through the "publication of studies on European culture, the organiza-tion of cultural assemblies and other artistic activities. In the Antiquity,Delphi was a religious center famous for the worship of the god Apollo,a worship imported from the region of Xanthos in Southern Anatolia. ASybil, called the pythia, was delivering oracles on life and political issu-es, praised in the whole Greek world. Greek cities were offering statuesand treasuries to the sanctuary. Thus a tripod was made from a part ofthe spoils taken from the Persian army after the battle of Plataea (479BC). It consisted of a golden basin, supported by a bronze statue of threeserpents intertwined, with a list of the States that had taken part in thewar inscribed on the coils of the serpent. The statue was brought bythe Roman emperor Constantine to his newly chosen capital, which wasgoing to bear his name Constantinople, in 324, and put it in the middleof the then brand new hippodrome, the Atmeydani. One of the headsof the serpents is still on display at the Istanbul Archaeology Museum.

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Culture in Istanbul as seen by Western Europeans

Thus there is a direct cultural connection between Istanbul and this oldGreek place. However the conference planned by Melina Mercouri didnot take place in Delphi: the Cultural Centre was not enough equippedfor interpretation into the various languages used by the Ministers, andhotels were not offering the same level of comfort than in Athens, whe-re they finally met at the Zappion palace. There Melina Mercouri andthe Erench culture minister Jack Lang had the opportunity to discussthe suggestion of launching the idea for the "European city of culture",which was endorsed by the EU Culture Ministers in a resolution of 1985,designating Athens as the first Cultural Capital.

Decisions of the Culture Ministers and of the European Parliamenton 25 May 1999 and 13 April 2005 have precised the objectives of theprogramme and the organisation of the choice of the European Capitalsof Culture. The programme should foster cooperation between culturaloperators, artists and cities from host country and other EU countriesin any cultural sector; raise the interest of their own inhabitants for cul-ture and boost tourism; it should highlight the richness of cultural di-versity in Europe, stress the common bonds and provide a space wheremutual understanding between European citizens could grow; it shouldbe sustainable and an integral part of the long-term development of thecultural life in the city. Candidate cities, introduced by their nationalgovernment, must present the role they have played in European cul-ture, their links with Europe, their European identity. They must alsodemonstrate current involvement in European artistic and cultural life,alongside their own specific features.

In practice, some cities have emphasized international relations andparticipation in cultural events (Athens, Cork), some promoted cross-border cultural cooperation (Luxembourg, Pecs in Hungary), some sho-wed more cultural historical past and wealth (Elorence), some focussedon cultural elites (Berlin), while in big cities like Paris, new activities gotsomewhat lost in the general flow of cultural activities (1989: 200"' anni-versary of the Erench Revolution). In Linz, 7700 events were generated,involving 5000 artists. Public sector intervention run between 100 mil-lion € (Copenhagen), 300 million € (Thessaloniki, Liverpool, Linz), and442 million € (Vilnius). Erom the beginning, the European Commissi-on gave financial support to the events. Cultural events have increasedthe flows of visitors by 12 % in Copenhagen and Stockholm, multipliedthree times in Antwerp, brought 10 million people to Liverpool. Madrid1992 attracted tourists who also went to visit Seville EXPO 92 and theOlympic Games in Barcelona. Years passing, the concept of EuropeanCapital of Culture has become a vehicle for regional economic develop-ment through the financing of new infrastructure, the restoration of

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Alain Servantie Yil: 1 2, Sayi: 47-48 Kasim 2010-Nisan 201 1

historical or old industrial buildings (Lille- refurbishment of the opera-,Liverpool) and places for the organisation of huge events to attract audi-ences. In fact, cultural economy appeared more and more to be strategicin post industrial societies, contributing to 2.6% of EU GDP, more thancar industry, ICT manufacturing or food and beverage manufacturingsector'. The event can be used as a catalyst for the cultural developmentand the transformation of a city . The average population of Capitalshas been declining from major cities - 1.5 million population as an ave-rage between 1985-1994, to just over 200,000 since 2005.

European Capitals of Culture have already been chosen for the nextfour years: 2011 Turku (Finland) and Tallinn (Estonia); 2012 Guimarâes(Portugal) and Maribor (Slovenia); 2013 Marseille (France) and Kosice(Slovakia); 2014 Umea (Sv eden) and Riga (Latvia).

2. What does Istanbul culture means forWestern Europeans?

The KEA study tries to delineate the activities of the cultural & creati-ve sector: visual arts (Paintings - Sculpture -Photography), performingarts (Theatre - Dance - Circus - Festival), heritage (Museums, Librari-es, Archaeological sites. Archives); cultural industries aimed at massivereproduction (Film and Video, Television and radio. Music, Books andpress; creative industries and activities (Design Fashion design, graphicdesign, intedor design, product design. Architecture, Advertising). Cu-isine art is not mentioned, although Southern European countries havea different appraisal of the cultural impact of cooking (as shovm themovie Political cuisine).

The choice of medium size cities like Cork in Ireland, Sibiu in Roma-nia, Pecs in Hungary, Turku in Finland brings European citizens to getmore aw are of the diversity of European population centres and cultu-re, and discover local original aspects. Everybody has heard of Istanbul,with one of its names. The size itself and the rich history of Istanbul maybring fiows visitors more with the idea of discovering a city of splendourboth Byzantine and Ottoman, as well having a touch with new activities.This article will try to identify the shaping of the concepts westernersmay have of Istanbul culture, whatever are cultural activities actuallycarried.

1. Byzantium

When Byzantium was chosen by Constantine as the capital of theRoman Empire in 324 , the emperor intended clearly to consider thecity as the centre of the Roman world, as the place from where the whole

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empire under his control could be better ruled. In Tilsitt in 1807, Napo-leon, when the tsar Alexander 1 ' discussed to divide the Ottoman Empi-re, refused to let Istanbul - the "key of the world"- falling into Russianhands.

The first known Western pilgrim travelled in 330 from Bordeauxto the holy city of Jerusalem through Constantinople; there, he feelsat home: he could meet teachers coming from Gallia to educate theemperor's nephews. The pilgdm's Itirenarium mentions that at thattime "Europe" designated just a province, covering the present provin-ces of Istanbul and Tekirdag.

Two centuries later, while the western empire was falling and disban-ded following German invasions, in Byzantium, the reign of Justiniancould be considered as the apogee of the Roman Empire with models ofarchitecture which still are considered as chef d'oeuvres like Aya Sofia,Aya Irene, Kûçûk Aya Soíya, the wall of Theodosius, or the now disappe-ared church of the Holy Apostles, the hippodrome.

Furthermore Justinian ordered a codification of the empire's lawsin Latin, which was carded on in Constantinople in the 6"" century. Thecodification, called Digesta, Pandecta and Institutiones, was elaboratedby 39 lawyers, accumulating and ordering all the regulations of ancientRome including the edicts of the emperors. It became the basis for lawteaching in the law schools, nourished again among Western lawyersin 11-12"' centuries who drafted codes of written law. It can fairly besaid that the intellectual work to formalize law conceptualisation andcodification in the Roman Empire actually took place in Byzantium. TheTurkish nickname of Suleiman, Kanûnî, may be considered as a hint tothe continuation of Justinian (we know that Suleiman wanted that hismosque, built by Sinan, be bigger than the Aya Sofia of Justinian).

The extraordinary marvels of architecture - churches and palaces-,the splendours of the Byzantine emperors were astonishing all westerntravellers , who considered impossible to exceed or even to reach thewealth of the Byzantine emperors in the 8-13"" centuries*". Liutprand ofCremona, ambassador of the Western Emperor in Constantinople in946, 968 and 971 - remains stupefied in front of the complex workingof the automates around the imperial throne in the palace then on theHippodrome^. Such amazement is reflected in reports written by Odonde Deuil in 1147 "Constantinople is richer than its fame"- , by Bert-randon de la Broquière in the first half of the 15"" century, by a Jewishtraveller like Benjamin of Tudela, who had come from Spain and metthe Jewish community in Galata in 1173**, by Russian or Ukrainian pilg-rims specially interested in religious places - churches, monasteries,

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relies^. Religious modes in architecture (cupolas, mosaics) were copiedfrom Venice to Angoulême or Périgueux; luxury jewellery objects madein Constantinople enjoyed a tremendous success among the westernEuropean aristocracy (enamels, goldsmith art, etc.) In modern French,the expression "it's Byzantium" still means an extremely luxurious andeasy life.

The fourth Crusade, in 1204-1205, the occupation of Byzantium byFrank crusaders and their temporary rule gave the opportunity of ad-mirers like Geoffrey of Villehardouin or Robert of Clari"'. The lootingand plundering of Byzantium and its monasteries led to the transfer toWestern castles, churches and monasteries of innumerable pieces of art,objects of luxury, and relics. The deep conflict between the OrthodoxChurch and the Catholics apparently prevented intellectual and culturalexchanges during this period, and finally the Latins were expelled fromConstantinople.

The capture of Constantinople by Fatih Mehmed II led to multiplereports in all western languages and interest to the changes; historiansquickly translated into Latin, Italian" or French. A curious cultural mo-vement in the duchy of Burgundy led to composition of music by Guilla-ume Dufay, in 1454 - Lamentation on the fall of Constantinople - whilethe duke was dreaming of a Crusade to retake Constantinople, whichnever materialised; the Lamentation was performed at a banquet calledof the Pheasant, hold in Lille in 1454, gathering the whole aristocracyand clerics of Burgundy and Low Countries, where the members of thenewly created Order of the Golden Fleece, referring to the Argonauts,who according to the Greek legends had sailed through the Bosporus toGeorgia. The members of the Order swore to take part in the envisagedCrusade.

The first western visitors- tourists, sent by the French king, Francis1", ally to Suleiman were more interested in Byzantine remains or Greekmanuscripts. One of them who stayed in the years 1545-1549, PierreGilles, described what was remaining of the old capital, area by area, hillby hill, inspired from old descriptions of the city dating from the 7-9"'centuries; he had read everything written in Latin or Greek. He depictshow the population growth in one century had changed the city, tentimes more populous than what Fatih had conquered it, with its variouscomponents - Greeks, Jews, Armenians, Muslims coming from all pro-vinces of the Empire. His Topography of Constantinople and his desc-ription of the Bosporus, first comprehensive guides on the city, werestill used three centuries later by travellers like Chateaubriand. The fistguides published end of the 19"' century like "Guide Bleu", Murray orBaedeker give more room to Byzantine remains than to Ottoman'^

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Paradoxically, in the middle Ages, the Greek ancient lore passed toWestern academics mainly through the Arabic adaptations translatedin Spain and Sicily. Greek old literature was mainly kept by Byzanti-ne intellectuals (imperial and monasteries' libraries, intellectuals likePhotius and Psellos, hand copying at the Studion monastery- now themined Imrahor mosque). After the conquest in 1453, several Greek in-tellectuals like John Lascaris, who worked with the Medicis, emigra-ted to Italy where they arose the interest of Renaissance intellectualsfor ancient Greek culture, at a time when the discovery of the pdntingtechnology encouraged publishing old books, particularly in cities likeVenice, Antwerp or Basel. This growing interest led to the search of oldmanuscripts; Istanbul thus became a centre for the trade of manusc-dpts carded by western intellectuals in Istanbul like Pierre Gilles orGuillaume Postel in the years 1545-48. A hundred fifty years later, theFrench embassy secretary Antoine Galland gathered a library of Arabicand Turkish books for the Royal Library, visiting all bookshops in thecity - one famous Mahmud Pa§a-, or buying the whole library of Musta-fa Haci Kalfa, at his death in 1682- he wrote a catalogue of Haci Kalfa.He writes in his journal when he buys the Gülistan and the Bostan anddescribes the miniatures; he is shown chess books. A few years later,around 1728, Abbot François Sevin is charged to gather manuscripts.He rehes on the patriarch of Constantinople, and the voyvod of Valachia,Nicholas Mavrocordato. Sevin considers the price of this later's booksexcessive - they may reach 400-500 piasters-. He finally mainly buysArmenian manuscripts - he finds a library of 160 Armenian manusc-ripts in Constantinople, 'more than all Armenian works you can findin all European libraries'. He drafted the first catalogue of odental andGreek manuscripts of the French Royal Library"

Although Byzantium has been described as a place of decadence, forcenturies - like in Edward Gibbon's famous History of the Decline andFall of the Roman Empire- , the ancient Greek spirit is looked at byWesterners having received a classical Latin-Greek education. PrincessBibesco, of Fanadot odgin, wdtes in French: "the fall of Constantinopleis a personal misfortune which stroke us last week"'".

2. Ottoman Empire

The development of pdnting in the 16th century lead to more than2000 books of travels to the Ottoman empire, a lot of them includingdescdption of Istanbul, as explained by the histodan Stéphane Yerasimoswho lists 449 travel books, of which 136 Italian, 80 German, French, Eng-lish, Spanish, etc.' Most of reports deal either with trade or with diploma-tic relationships, sometimes descdbing the peculiadties, for a Westerner,

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of the landscape. The reprint of some of these reports show the successof travel compilations in Italian (Erancesco Sansovino seven reprints bet-ween 1560 and 1564), English (Hackluyt, and Purchas), Erench (abbéPrévost and La Harpe)'^ followed in the mid 19"" century by magazinesspecialized in travels (Le Tour du Monde, National Geography).

The first missions, which can be nowadays qualified a socio-culturalenquiry, was ordered by the Erench king, Erancis P*\ At a time of deepsocial and religious changes in Western Europe, the king was curiousto learn more about his new allies against the German emperor Charles5'^ partly in order to find arguments justiiying the alliance (however weare told by historians that Charles 5"" planned without success to retakeIstanbul and was keeping a print of the city in his bedroom) "•. Guilla-ume Postel, a companion of Pierre Gilles, learnt Arabic and Turkish inIstanbul, carrying back books in those languages to Erance; he was ap-pointed the first teacher of Greek, Hebrew and Arabic literature at thenewly created Royal College in Paris.

Postel wrote the first detailed political description of the Ottomanpower organisation in De la République des Turcqz published in 1560,as he could have observed in Istanbul. His book will inspire the Turkishpages the Erench first western political scientist, Jean Bodin, wrote oncomparative regimes in La République.'^ This is more a description ofpolitical culture, of protocol and formal customs in the capital, as la-ter will give other writers like the Italian Ottaviano Bon'" or the BritishPaul Ricaut ". The reports of the Venetian baglios (ambassadors) werewidely circulated and sold printed in Italy '. The report of the missi-on of Daniele Ludivisi on a visit to Istanbul in spring 1534 exposed tothe Venetian Senate inspired Libri tre delle cose dei Turchi (Three bo-oks on Turkish affairs), published in 1539 by Benedetto Ramberti, themission's secretary^^ Extensive negotiations with the Seraglio, leadingto peace and trade treaties (capitulations) imposed to Western Embas-sies to learn well both languages and customs practices and for this torecruit drogmans: Navagero, the Venetian baglio in 1550-1552, reportsthe importance for legations to have drogmans speaking Turkish, Gre-ek and Italian''*. The Venice Republic was the first administration tostart training of translators-interpreters Turkish/Italian (and Latin) fortheir administrative purposes - "giovani di langue" (language youth).Erench will follow on the same line; the on spot training lead in the 17""century to the creation of the School of Oriental Languages in Paris. Thediplomatic reports note the progressive change in the use of languagesaround the sultans: along Turkish, Greek, Italian and Serbo-Croatian(Slavonian) were quite commonly spoken in the palace - particularlyat the apogee of the dev^irme system, noted by a number of observers,

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which was recruiting young Slav, Albanian or Italian boys from SouthEastern Europe, educating them in Istanbul and integrating them intothe Ottoman Army or Administration up to the highest job of sadrazam.Turkish became predominant in the l/"" century in the palace.

Diplomats resident for a long time in Istanbul got a more intimateknowledge of the life in the city. Thus the ambassador of the French KingHenry 4' , Gontaud Biron, fond of hunting joined local hunting partiesand between 1605 and 1610, presented greyhounds, spaniels and hawksbrought from France to the sultan ''. Hunting was part of the commonculture shared between Western princes and Ottoman sultans; a firstdrawing of Turkish hunting around Istanbul appears in Peter Coeck'srepresentation of the imperial palace.

The Observations of Pierre Belon, published in 1553 in Pads, cons-titute a kind of encyclopaedia of physical and social knowledge on theEmpire Ottoman, and in particular Istanbul, lively and exhaustive testi-mony on the Turkish baths, the caravanserais, the medicine, education.It was widely copied by his fellows and successors like Luigi Bassano- aspy of the Spanish ambassador in Venice, Nicolas de Nicolay, AndréThevet^^ Bertrand de la Bordede, in 1537-1538^*, Favolio accompanyingthe impedal ambassador Veltwyck, Nicolas de Nicolay, Gassot, Chesne-au with French ambassador d'Aramon, Palerne, impedal ambassadorslike Cornelius de Schepper, Busbecq.

Busbecq admires tulips and bdngs them back to Western Europe.The Italian priest Sestini describes vineyards, gardens, fiower culturesaround the Bosporus in the second half of the lS"" century^ . The Frenchambassador in 1813-15, Andreossy^ , draws an inventory of plants andtrees along the Bosporus shores. The French merchant, Jean-ClaudeFlachat, worked in Istanbul between 1740 and 1755, bezergân ba§i sel-ling mirrors to the seraglio, describes the tulip feasts called çiragan^'^ atYenisaray; he notes that tulip onions grow in vases provided specially byVenetians. The names of varieties were registered. In April, the gardensaround the Sultan's kiosk were illuminated, while musicians were pla-ying for his "ladies". Flowers thus appear like a precious part of the lifein Istanbul, as will confirm the translations of the Divan poetries intoWestern languages.

In this context, Peter Coeck of Aalst, who in 1533 had unsuccessfullytried to sell Flemish tapestdes to Suleiman, spent his time drawing land-scaped of Istanbul, which were pdnted in Antwerp in 1553 under the titleMœurs & Fâchons des Turcz, as a kind of first picture reportage on thecity3°. His prints got a tremendous success in Western Europe and werecopied by other artists like Nicolas de Nicolay, and up to Ingres.

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[Fig. 1 Peter de Coecke van Aalst, View from Kasimpaça, 1533]

Diplomats were accompanied by artists like Nicolas de Nicolay, theauthor of the Codex vindobonensis with Bartelemeo di Pezzana whodrew a splendid sedal of coloured drawings of life in Istanbul- ' or Melc-hior Lorichs. Again, cloths and typical street situations are predominant:men and women whose cloths vary with religion (Jews, Armenians, Gre-eks); Ramadan, feasts and ceremonies like circumcision, weddings, bu-dals, dervishes. The French ambassador Nointel established a paintingworkshop in the embassy, and ordered the painter Rombaud Faidherbeto prepare a kind of picture reportage for king Louis XIV' Jean-BaptisteVanmour, born in Valenciennes in 1671, painted Istanbul from 1699 tillhis death in 1737; his paintings, ordered by the French or Dutch am-bassadors, Ferriol, Bonnac, and Cornelis Calkoen, give a vivid pictureof the official ceremonies and of the easy life of palaces; a big part of hisworks are now in the Rijksmuseum of Amsterdam»». French AmbassadorChoiseul-Gouffier ordered painters Cassât and Hilaire to draw landsca-pes in Istanbul, the Bosporus and the Marmara Sea, which got a successin France and were used as models for china plates in Creil or Bordeaux.Antoine Melling, who worked in Istanbul between 1784 and 1802 - hedrew palace plans for the sultan's sister- published a Picturesque travelof Constantinople and the Bosporus in Paris in 1806, which got a tremen-dous success". F. Ziem, the son of a Croatian soldier of Napoleon, aftera stay in Istanbul, continued to paint the city his whole life with a stylebetween Turner and impressionists^^. The Maltese Preziosi, marded toa Greek lady of Istanbul, published in 1858 an album Stamboul, Souve-nir d'Orient, including many bazaar scenes, women, coffee houses withnarghilehs' *. Russian painters like Ayvazovsky or Bogolubkov spread thetaste of Bosporus landscapes in the Russian circles. More than 500 "od-entalist" French painters have been identified in the 19"' century; in 1893they gathered in a kind of club, the Société des peintres orientalistes^'^.

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These paintings were popularised in the 19th century by albums of printsand by the magazines on travels (Le Tour du Monde, L'lllusti'ation).

Food traditions appear in Gian Maria Angiolello, prisoner for severalyears in Constantinople published a Historia Turchesca in 14803**, inCantacuzene, - which can be found also in Belon or Busbecq (fish). Be-lon notes with interest the use of ice brought from the Uludag to Istan-bul in order to prepare sherbets in the middle of the summer. The coffeesuccess in Istanbul stroke Western travellers: the Italian Pietro dellaValle, in Istanbul in 1614-15, who had learned Turkish because he foundit a "easy and beautiful language, rare in his country"- he even compo-sed poetries in Turkish- he had discussions with dervishes-^", and theFrench Jean Thévenof»", in 1655-1656, competed in bringing back thisdrink to Western Europe. Thévenot frequents coffee-houses (kahveha-ne), where coffee is served with cardamom and cloves while musiciansplay. "When our French tradesmen must write many letters and want towork the whole night, they take one or two cups of coffee in the evening;it's also good for the stomach, and helps the digestion." Fréquentationof kahvehane, place of social meetings and discussions, is still describedby Grenville Murray" or a must in Pierre Loti's novels.

Tobacco became part of Turkish culture in the 17"" century, and morein 18-19"' centuries, admired by the travellers when çubuk were offeredin official receptions: Sestini admires the liileci, (pipo manufacturers),the çubukçu, manufacturing tubes made of cherry timber and tips ofamber imported from the Baltic area. This taste appears again in Sala-berry, Théophile Gautier, Pierre Loti, smoking narghilehs ' , and in thebook of Jules Verne- Keraban the Inflexible: Adventures in the Euxi-ne, the hero is a tobacco merchant in Istanbul meeting his unfortunateDutch colleague, and teaching him the pleasure of smoking.

Trade exchanges give a hint on the local tastes. Istanbul was impor-ting from Venice in the 15-16"' centuries, later from Marseille or Eng-land*' scarlet or purple wool fabrics, corduroy, silks from France, Eng-land, Italy, Florence, oil from Puglia, pewter from Flanders, white soaps,also glasses, mirrors, needles, clocks, paper from Milan or Germany. TheOttoman Empire was exporting to Italy and France wax, biscuits, leat-her, carpets, pearls, caviar, and several herbs, seeds and drugs supposedto cure all kinds of illnesses particularly those with reviving or purgativevirtues, like rhubarb, scammony, amber spirit, manna, semencine, vari-ous balsams, musk, civet. Belon describes their trade handled by Jewishor Greeks merchants in the Egyptian Bazaar (Misir Çar§isi).

Westerners staying for a period in Istanbul could discover the Ra-madan entertainments or feasts organised on the Atmeydani for

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circumcisions of §ehzade: swings, fireworks, acrobats and Karagöz(Chesneau, Belon, della Valle, Palerne). Karagöz became a very popu-lar attraction for visitors, well till the end of the 19* century; some likeNerval were amused by his freedom of language and attitude, some likepriests or du Loir in 1639-1640'''», Sevin in 1728 pretended to be scanda-lised by his wantonness and sexual frankness.

Local music attracted visitors as soon as the 16"" century as can be seenfrom Peter Coecke's print. The description of the Turkish music- eitherdervishes by Covers or musiki In 1786, Lady Craven, estranged wife ofthe margrave of Ansbach (Bayern)''*, one of the firm women to travel byherself to Istanbul ; while she enjoys German musicians brought by theFrench Ambassador Choiseul- Gouffier playing classical western music,she does not appreciate the Greek music played with a lyre, a violin andtwo guitars on a kayik on the Bosporus. Laurent d'Arvieux started toinspire western composers like Lully in his Turkish interlude of the Bo-urgeois Gentihomme^\- reflected later in Campra's La Turquie, last actof the Europe galante. It became fashionable to represent love stodes inharems like in L'incontro improvviso, of Haydn (1775), Die Entführungaus dem Seraglio of Wolfgang Mozart (1781) or // serraglio di Osmanoo le tre sultane, oí Giuseppe Gazzaniga (1784 Venice), etc"^. While the

[Fig. 2 Codex Vindobonensis. Acemoglan musicians, around 1580]

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scenery is inspired from Istanbul views and harem scenes which willinduce tourists to come and visit Topkapi, the composers use Turkishthemes or music instruments deemed to be typically Turkish (cymbals,triangles). Sufi music inspired directly the Erench Eélicien David for hisDesert (1844) or Elorent Schmitt for Salomé (1905). Istanbul landsca-pes inspired even the composition of the Portuguese Erancisco de La-cerda (1869-1934) : Levantinas, Travel Impressions, including a Sun-set in

Oil wrestling (yagli güre§) became a popular sport well representedby Nicolay or the Codex vindobonensis.

Fig. 3. Nicolas de Nicolay, Pehlivan, 1550

Travellers in the 17"' century, quite often already somewhat informedon Istanbul through their readings, were more curious meeting people- Greek orthodox to gather old manuscripts still kept in monasteries,dervishes, and Jews established since their expulsion from Spain (1492)at Istanbul where they continued to speak ancient Spanish intermingledwith Turkish and Italian (ladino) till now. Jewish doctors like Hamon

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were curing women in the seraglio and giving lectures of geography toSuleiman. The Jews were thus part of European culture settled in Tur-key. Istanbul became an example of religious freedom at a time when,at the end of the religious wars between Protestants and Catholics, on aspecific territory, only one religion was tolerated, and Jews were perse-cuted, heretics and former Muslims in Spain were burnt.

An interesting case : Balthasar de Monconys, a judicial officer inLyons, travelled across Europe trying to discover scientific novelties,and stayed in Istanbul in May-September 1648. Curious in old philo-sophy, in a variety of religious creeds and astrology, he was looking forwhat was remaining of Zoroaster, Hermes Trismegistus, the Kabbalah,attending hurling dervishes, was trying to meet people having someknowledge of cabbalistic secrets, describing a chemical clock, a kiosk(the word thus got into the French language as a typical element of Tur-kish house building) '".

Fig. 4. Balthasar de Monconys, a kiosk, 1648

Antoine Galland worked for several years secretary at the French Em-bassy in Istanbul between 1672 and 1688. Very famous for the transla-tion into French of the One-Thousand Nights, he made famous all overEurope, good connoisseur of Turkish, Arabic and Persian ; he He wasthe main contributor of the Bibliothèque orientale, an encyclopaedia onthe Eastern world, launched by d'Herbelof-'. Recognized as one of thefounders of Orientalism, Galland was probably one of Western intellec-tuals who had the deepest knowledge of Istanbul culture. His Frenchedition oí One-Thousand Nights was translated in all European langua-ges, and two centuries later, was considered as a description of Istanbul:

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von Moltke feels the One Thousand Nights, in a kahvehane with narg-hilehs at a sunset on the Bosphorus^^ Thornbury thinks he meets theheroes of the One Thousand Nights in the streets of IstanbuP'^. Fran-ces Elliot sees them in the Grand bazaar* . This is still used in modernadvertisement: "a bazaar of One Thousand Nights coffeehouses whereyou can smoke narghilehs, Turkey"^^. In thrillers, young women mee-ting enquiry agents look like princesses of one thousand Nights Galatabridge looks like described by Galland^ . Carpet merchants evoke alsothe One thousand nights and its flying carpets.

The letters of Lady Montagu, who accompanied her husband, theBritish Ambassador in Istanbul in 1717-1718 are not only interesting forthe descdption of women's life seen by a woman, emphasizing the free-dom of life under the veil, for her taste for women's clothes and fashion,but also for the curiosity she shows for the divan literature and religiouslife.s Translations of Divan poetry inspired the West-östlicher Diwanof the German poet Goethe. Countess Dora d'Istria, born Eleni Ghikafrom a famous Fanariot family, wrote on Ottoman poetry, published in18775®, where she compares Turkish poetesses to famous French womenwriters like Louise Labbé or George Sand- and defending that educationwould put women to the same level than men.

The follow up of the visit made by the Ottoman Ambassador Yirmi-sekizinci Mehmet Efendi to Paris and Versailles on Istanbul culture hasbeen widely noted by French visitors in Istanbul : the architecture of Sa-adabad at Kâgithane was copied on a French model - it was called "thesmall Versailles" v^ites ToUot who visited it in 1731''''; then new mos-ques took features from barock art (Nuru-osmaniye). The launching

Fig. 5- Jean-Baptiste Vanmour, Saadahad

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of printing activities in Istanbul by Ibrahim Muteferrika was hailed asa step towards the westernisation of Istanbul by Western visitors likeJean Otter*"' in 1734-36 or by Kumbaraci Bonneval pasha, a French aris-tocrat who converted to Islam and settled in Istanbul busy with artilleryrenovation*'.

3. Istanbul under Tanzimat

The cultural and political changes which accompanied Tanzimat re-forms were considered by Westerners as new bright developments ofOttoman culture in Istanbul. Several elements combined to increase theinterest of Westerners:

- easier transportation first through steamers, then trains, and finallyplanes, which developed tourism;

- industrialisation bringing investors to Istanbul for railway develop-ment, mining, food industries, etc.

- cultural changes in the city, with interest of the sultans, the rulingclasses and the various communities for music, theatre, painting.

Tanzimat brought the industrial revolution to Istanbul, and thusopened the city to increased exchanges with Western European culture.

Steamers regular connections start in 1833 between Naples and Is-tanbul, in 1836 between Vienna and Istanbul. In 1850, Lamartine obser-ves 150 steam ships in anchored around Istanbul, and writes: "the pre-sent roads of Constantinople are the centre where East and West merge,the pot where divergences melt to constitute civilization unity." The firstcruises to Istanbul are offered by the Peninsular & Oriental, in 1844, asdescribes William Thackeray*^ The first travel of the Orient-Express in1888 is accompanied by several journalists in charge of promoting thisnew travel means. Tourism to Istanbul became more popular again withthe train connection inaugurated by the Orient Express in 1888*3. Onlyin France, in the 19th century, about 2000 Travel reports en Onenf werepublished, 331 in Russia dealing v«th Turkey*''. The first tourist guides(Joanne, Baedeker, Murray) started in the mid-1850, more attachedto classical monuments - palaces (Topkapi, Dolmabahçe, Beylerbey),churches and mosques (Aya Sofia, Kariye mosque, Eyüp), cisterns andaqueducts, walls, fortresses and columns, and to a lesser extent physi-cal landscape (Bosporus) '' some peculiar places like the "sweet waters"(Kagithane)- cemeteries (Kinglake in Eothen), prisons and timarhane(Michaud, Thornbury), hammams (Thackeray, Edmondo de Amicis, Ga-utier), Grand Bazaar or Egyptian Bazaar (Lamartine, Gautier, Amicis),slave market, narghileh smoking, both whirling and yelling dervishes

AKADEMiK ARASTIRMALAR DERGlSl


in Beyoglu or Üsküdar (countess de Gaspadn). P. Théroux: "A day forwalls and fortifications, a few days in pursuit of aqueducts and cisternsin and outside the city, a week for palaces, another for museums, a dayfor columns and towers, weeks for churches and mosques... Days maybe spent on tombs and cemeteries and the décor of death will be foundto be gayer than one thought..." The first museums - dress museum,then the Archaeology museum, once open, immediately started to att-ract tourists, revealed an other side of the cultural life.

Visitors to Istanbul as early as 1830 like the French poet and poli-tician Lamartine in 1833 and again in 1850''*' or the histodan JosephMichaud*^ in 1830 showed a strong interest in the cultural evolutionof the capital. Louis-Marie de Marcellus, secretary of the French Em-bassy between 1816 and 1820, who recuperated the statue of the Venusof Milo describes his extensive contacts in Tarabya with Greek intellec-tuals reviving classical literature in their language***. Von Hammer took30 years to write his History of the Ottoman Empire, after he consultedmore than 15.000 documents. His work, translated into several langu-ages, including his edition of other works like the translation of EvliyaÇelebi into English, was a source for all western writers on the Ottomanempire and particularly Istanbul'"'. Real analysis of the cultural life ap-pears in the letters of Ubicini ", dealing with education reform in theState schools, the state of the flowering press after the launching of thenewspaper Moniteur Ottoman with the help French Blacque (in Frenchfrom 1831), {Takvim-i vakai : calendar of events since 1832 in Turkish,with an Armenian version . Ubicini gives also an inventory of publicand uaA:!/libraries in Istanbul. Interest is shovra in political changesemerging from the Turkish elite, in application of Tanzimat; interest inTurkish society to follow the Western fashions (introduction of pianosin harems, of tennis end 19"' century, etc.)

The development of the Turkish press exploded after the Revolutionof 1908. The Crimean war (1854-56) lead to the first telegraph connec-tion between Istanbul and the main European cities, to the first presscoverage of a war, and subsequently to a flow of information on Istan-bul - development of hospitals with Florence Nightingale and later ofcemeteries (in Fedköy or Üsküdar).

Western architects developed Art Nouveau architecture in Istanbul:Raimondo d'Aronco, Alexandre Vallaury ', followed by Turkish archi-tects like Vedat Tek, Kemaleddin bey. However a famous architect likeLe Corbusier, visiting Istanbul in 1912; does not show an interest fortheir original style combining fashionable features of Art nouveau withtraditional Istanbul features.

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The taste of sultans for Western musicians is well known: GiuseppeDonizetti composed marches for Mahmud II (1831) and Abdulmecid(1839), while his successor, Callisto Guatelli composed a March for thebig Ottoman exhibition (1863), the first big industrial fair organised inIstanbul on the model of similar fairs organised in Erance and England.Theatres like theatre Nahum in Beyoglu started to represent the Wes-tern repertoire.

While Erench had been introduced in Imperial military schools alre-ady in the 18"" century, the contribution of Erance to reforms followingthe visit of Abdülaziz to Paris in 1867 particularly in the education fieldin Istanbul (creation of Galatasaray Lyceum), has to be underlined. Asa follow-up of this visit, the prefect of Paris, Haussmann, was invited tocontribute to the modernisation of Istanbul. He came after the fall of theErench IF Empire, in 1873, but could not find enough financial resour-ces to carry in Istanbul the same construction policy he had lead underNapoleon III in Paris, and left the capital city without a master plan. Hisstay reflects the Erench interest for the modernisation of the city.

The Erench Gérard de Nerval explains the reasons of the absence ofpictures and painting by the Muslim prohibition. However, photographyquickly flourished in Istanbul during the second half of the 19"' century:the prince of Brabant (King Leopold I" of Belgium) during his trip ini860 ordered pictures of the city^^ Postal cards of monuments and oftypical scenes - including representation of women photographed asodalisques in studios- proliferated at the end of the century, while famo-us photographers like Carlos Naya, Basil Kargopoulo, the Hunarian RaifEfendi, the Swedish photographer Guillaume Berggren Sebah & Joailli-er, the Gülmez Brothers hold a prosperous business in Beyoglu. Postalcards were to a certain extent giving a universal character to Istanbul.

However, many writers note that the 'local colour' is disappearing, aswestern fashions in clothes, western uniforms are adopted, and sport isintroduced. Mahmud II looks like a European, except for his fez, writesLamartine. Pierre Loti, famous in Erance for his romantic descriptionof women in Istanbul (Aziyade, The Disenchanted) complaints heavilyabout the modernisation of the city; the Erench writers like Earrère orRoland Barthes suggest to use Aziyade as a guide to visit Istanbul^*. Ena-ult writes that the new palace of Dolmabahçe «is a European statementof belief written with marble... it's the first palace of a new town... » thefurniture comes fiom Erance in Louis XIV style, arranged by the deco-rator of Paris Opera . However, several travellers noted that Abdulazizliked to Western European and traditional Turkish styles: his bathroomis a grotto carved in Egyptian 'trimed' alabaster, in a flourished Moorishstyle with small columns, capitals in calices, etc.

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4. Republic

The end of the Ottoman Empire lead to a proliferation of books onthe death of Istanbul, the end of local color -». Losing its rank of capitalin 1923, visitors consider it's a 'decaying but charming city' (Willemart),which has lost its old prestige (Huxley) ; the city has fallen at the sametime the empire disappeared (French writer Butor). For the Americandirector odginary from Kayseri Elia Kazan, or for the Russian poetBrodsky, Istanbul is a city from where people emigrate.

The adoption of western dresses is criticised by western travellerssince Tanzimat: Turks loose their nice traditional clothes - uniforms forsoldiers, loss of fez or kaftans for women (Marmier, Thornbury in 1859,Théroux, Godin de Souhesmes en 1896, Mauclair, Julian Huxley, Gös-set, Lawlor, Seal, Aurenche); but it should be considered that travellers,tourists come to find some exotics and regret to see people dressed likethemselves. The Canadian Lemieux wishes that Turks don't become toofast modern Europeans.

On the opposite, the adoption of the Latin alphabet by Atatürk washailed by most travellers as a step towards the westernisation of the co-untry, at least easing their life in reading the names of streets or shops.

The development of tourism - 3 million visitors in 1996, more than6 million in 2008 - has lead to a diversification of toudst places, givinga bigger place to Beyoglu, Çiçek Pasaji, to the palaces of Dolmabahçe,Yildiz and Çiragan^ , to the 19* century hotel Pera Palas, or to Istanbulstations (Haydarpa§a), which became a symbol of Istanbul local colour.

New guides extensively quote modern Turkish writers like Ya§ar Ke-mal, Orhan Pamuk or Nedim Gürsel. The translation of their books intomost Western languages, the Nobel Prize given to Orhan Pamuk havespread a quite new image of Istanbul in the Western world. ModernIstanbul theatre has been brought to Western theaters by the actor Ge-orges Daniel who translated Aziz Nesin and Melih Cevdet Anday intoFrench. Recent films of Crossing the Bridge or On the other side by Fa-tih Akin , Hammam by Ferzan Özpetek or A Touch of Spice (or Politikikouzina) by Tassos Boulmetis contdbuted to give an other image of Is-tanbul culture.

The cinema, in the 20* century, uses Istanbul as an exotic landscapefor spy or love movies: The Virgin of Stamboul, of Tod Browning (1920),Murder on the Orient Express taken from Agatha Christie, Backgroundto Danger of Raoul Walsh (1943), Dimitrios' mask of Jean Negulesco,after a novel of Eric Ambler; The man of Istanbul (Operación Estam-bul) of Antonio Isasi-Isasmendi (1964), Five Fingers, From Russia with

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Love with James Bond, The customers ofAvrenos, telefilm inspiredfrom Simenon's novel ; Madame De... , L'Immortelle of Alain Robbe-Grillet. While none of Hergé's famous comics, Tintin, happens in Istan-bul, a movie inspired from them, Tintin and the Mystery of the GoldenFleece, begins in the golden Horn.

Fig. 6 Codex Sinaiticus : street scene (comics, 2010)

Fig. 7. Sophialetta : Karaköy (comics, 2009)

AKy\DEMiK AR/\5TIR;V1A1J\R DERC.ÍSI 1 9 5


Istanbul has become a fashionable place for popular literature^'',-thrillers and comics, particularly in French, since Bécassine chez lesTurcs published in 1919, just at the end of First World War. Most ofcomics take Istanbul as an exotic landscape for spy stories -Bosporus,Grand Bazaar, Pera Palas.

Although nowadays most of travellers reach Istanbul by plane, thepresence of the Sea is a must of all tours: crossing or sailing upwards theBosporus or taking a ferry to the islands.

Cosmopolitan city, where remains of the various ancient communiti-es can be found in the Fener, in Balat, city which the geography multip-lies in two or three (see Butor)

Most tourists however are mainly staring at what may look exotic :hamals, shoe blacks, water or simit street merchants, local food - ke-bab vñth raki, belly dancers, backgammon players, narghilehs, etc.

The excavations of the Theodosius harbor at Yenikapi have beencovered by many newspapers; the restoration of the Fener-Balat area,particularly of the house of Dimitri Kantemir, with the support of theEuropean Union, is attracting more visitors. The recent developmentsin cultural life, new museums like the Museum of Modern Art, the Koçindustrial museum, festivals of music, exhibitions are more and morementioned about Istanbul life. Television programs, particularly onArte, show a very diversified and lively cultural life. Western Europeansare now discovering a city where culture is evolving, changing, diversif-ying, where life never stops.

Endnotes* Advisor at the DG Enlargement, European Commission (Avrupa Komisyonu,

Geniçleme Genel Müdürlügü Mü§aviri).

1 The views expressed in this article don'et necessarily represent those of the ins-titution to which its author belongs.

2 See Greg Richards, "Cultural Tourism in Europe", CABI, Wallingford, 1996, andwww.atlas-euro.org. European Cultural Capital Report, A report by Robert Pal-mer and Greg Richards, TRAM (Tourism Research and Marketing), N" 1, Octo-ber 2007.

3 See Greg Richards, "The European Cultural Capital Event: Strategic Weapon inthe Cultural Arms Race?", in Journal of Cultural Policy, 6 (2), 159-181. Urbanmindscapes of Europe , edited by Godela Weiss-Sussex with Franco Bianchini.Weiss-Sussex, Godela. Amsterdam : Rodopi, 2006. Series European studies: aninterdisciplinary series in european culture, history and politics ; 23

4 Palmer/RAE Associates, European Cities and Capitals of Culture, Study preparedfor the European Commission 2004. See www.palmer-rae.com and ec.europa.eu/culture/key-documents/doc926_en.htm . See also the study Economy and


Alain Servantie Yil: 1 2, Sayi: 47-48 Kasim 201 O-Nisan 201 1

Culture in Europe, 2006, by KEA European Affairs, (http://www.keanet.eu/ecoculture/studynew.pdO whicb bighlights the role of culture in the EU projectand the socio-economic benefits of this sector in Europe.

5 See Gilbert Dagron, Naissance d'une capitale: Constantinople et ses institu-tions de 330 â 451 , Paris: Presses universitaires de France, 1974, Constanti-nople imaginaire: étude sur le recueil des Patria Paris : Presses universitairesde France, 1984. Stephane Yerasimos. La Fondation de Constantinople et deSainte-Sophie dans le traditions turques, Paris : IFEA & Librairie d'Amériqueet d'Orient, 1990.

6 Jean Ebersolt, Constantinople byzantine et les Voyageurs du Levant, ErnestLeroux, Paris, 1919

7 Liutprand of Cremona, Antapodosis, The Embassy to Constantinople and otherWritings, J.M. Dent, Londres & Charles E. Tuttle Co. Rutland, Vermont, 1993.

8 In Voyages faits principalement en Asie dans les XII, XIII, XIV et XV siècles parBenjamin de Tudele, etc., Pierre Bergeron, The Hague,i735.

9 See Le Livre du Pèlerin (Itinéraires russes en Orient), translated Mme B. deKhitrowo, Geneva, 1889.

10 Villehardouin Geoffroi de Ville-Hardouin, La conquête de Constantinople, Fir-min Didot, Paris, 1872. Robert de Clari, in Ch. Hopf, Chroniques gréco-romainesinédites ou peu connues, Berlin, 1873.

11 Cf La caduta di Costantinopoli. Le testimonianze dei contemporanei, ed. Agos-tino Pertusi, Fondazione Lorenzo Valla, Amoldo Mondadori Editore, Milan,1976.

12 De Constantinopoleos Topographia, Lyon, 1561; Engl translation. The Antiqu-ities of Constantinople, 1729, London; reprint. Itálica Press: New York, 1988.De Bosporo Tracio, libri IH, Lyon, 1561. Pierre Gilles. Itinéraires byzantins, ed.Jean-Pierre Grelois, Collège de France-CNRS, Paris, 2007.

13 Lettres sur Constantinople de M. l'abbé Sevin, de l'Académie Royale des Ins-criptions et Belles Lettres, écrites pendant son séjour dans cette ville, au comtede Caylus 1746. See Henri Omont, Missions archéologiques ftançaises en Ori-ent aux XVir et XVIir siècles, Paris, Imprimerie Nationale, 1902,

14 See; Abel Hermant, Le nouvel Anarchasis, Promenade au jardin des lettresgrecques, Grasset, Paris, 1928; Timour à Byzance and Les sentinelles de lanuit.

15 Stéphane Yerasimos, Les Voyageurs dans l'Empire Ottoman (XlVe-XVIe siècles).Bibliographie, itinéraires et inventaire des lieux habités. Conseil Suprêmed'Atatürk pour Culture, Langue et Histoire, Publication de la Société Turqued'Histoire, Ankara, 1991. C. GöUner, Turcica : Die Europäische Türkendruckedes XVI. Jahrhunderts, I & II, Berlin-Bucarest, 1961-1968 lists 901 titles of Eu-ropean publications on Turkey between 1501 and 1551.

16 Abbé Prévost, Histoire des Voyages; Jean-François de La Harpe, Abrégé del'histoire des voyages, contenant ce qu'il y a de plus remarquable... dans lespays où les voyageurs ont pénétré; les moeurs des habitans, la religion, les usa-ges, arts et sciences, commerces... Paris, 1780-86, 32 volumes. Ternaux Com-pans. Bibliothèque Asiatique et Africaine ou Catalogue des Ouvrages relatifs àl'Asie et à l'Afrique qui ont paru depuis la découverte de l'imprimerie jusqu'en1700, Paris, 1841

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17 Frédéric Tinguely, L'écriture du Levant à la Renaissance. Enquête sur les voya-geurs français dans l'Empire de Soliman le Magnifique, Droz, Geneva, 2000 ;Raia Zaimova, « Les Intellectuels français et les études orientales (fm du XVII-XVIIIe s.) », Etudes balkaniques, 1995, n° 3-4, pp. 132-139-

18 Cf. William J. Bouwsma, Concordia mundi, The Career and Thought ofGuillaume Postel, Cambridge, MA, 1957 ; Guillaume Postel, De la républiquedes Turcs, et là où l'occasion l'offrera, des meurs et loy de tous les Muham-medistes. Histoire et considération de l'origine, loy, et coustume des Tartares,Persiens, Arabes, Turcs, & tous autres Ismaélites ou Muhamediques, dits parnous Mahométains ou Sarrazins. La tierce partie des orientales histoires, Poi-tiers, E. de Marnef, 1560 ; Frank Lestringant, «Guillaume Postel et l'»ObsessionTurque», Ecrire le monde à la Renaissance, Paradigme, Caen, 1993, 201 ; C.Postel, Les écrits de Guillaume Postel, Geneva, 1992.

19 Ottaviano BON, "The Sultan's Saraglio, An intimate Portrait of Life at the Otto-man Court", Saqi Books, London, 1996

20 Histoire de l'état présent de l'Empire Ottoman; contenant les Maximes Politi-ques des Turcs, les principaux Points de la Religion Mahométane, ses Sectes,ses Hérésies & ses diverses sortes de Religieux; leur Discipline Militaire, avecune supputation exacte de leurs Forces par mer & par terre, & du revenu del'Etat, Paris: Sebastien Mabre-Cramoisy, 1670.

21 Cochrane Eric, Historians and Historiography in the Italian Renaissance,Chicago : University of Chicago Press, 1991, pp. 324-337 •

22 Libri Tre delle cose de Turchi. Nel primo si descrive il viaggio da Venetia aConstantinopoli, con gli nomi de luoghi antichi & moderni : Nel secondo la Por-ta, doé la corte de Soltan Soleymano, Signor de Turchi : Nel terzo il modo delreggere il stato & imperio suo, Venice, Aide Manucci, 1539,.

23 Harvard Library, MS Riant 56, Relationi di Constantinopoli, Bernard Navagero,1549,34 ff

24 Journal de Dangus et lettres. Archives historiques de la Gascogne, XVIII et XIX,«Voyage à Constantinople, séjour en Turquie, Paris-Auch, 1888; Th. de Gontaut-Biron: Ambassade en Turquie de Jean de Gontaut-Biron, baron de Salignac,1605 à 1610- Paris, 1888-1889, 2 vol. See a drawing of hunting dogs in Codexvindobonensis.

25 Pierre Belon, Les observations sur plusieurs singularitez et choses memorablestrouvées en Grèce, Asie, Judée, Egypte, Arabie et autres pays estranges, Paris,1553. Luigi Bassano, Costumi et i modi particolari de la vita de Turchi, Rome1545 (reprint: 1963); André Thevet, Cosmographie du Levant, 1554 Lyon ; rep-rint, 1985.

26 Bertrand de la Borderie, Le Discours du voyage de Constantinoble envoyédudict lieu à une damoyselle françoise, Lyon, 1542; see http://www.sjsu.edu/depts/foreign_lang/Constant/.

27 Lettres du Baron de Busbec, Ambassadeur de Ferdinand I Roy des Romains,de Hongrie, etc. auprès de Soliman II, Empereur des Turcs. Paris : Cl. J. BteBauche et Laurent d'Houy, 1748, 3 vol. Sestini, Domenico, Opuscoli del signorabate Domenico Sestini. I. Descrizione del littorale del canale di Costantinopoli,e délia coltura delle vigne lungo le coste del medesimo. IL Delia coltura di variecose geoponiche lungo le coste medesime. III. Idea dei giardini Turco-Bizantini,e coltura dei varifiori che si fa nei medesimi. IV. Delia cacda turca... Florence,

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1785. Domenico Sestini Della coltura delle vigne lungo le coste del canale delMar Nero o sia di Costantinopoli ... - Siena : Vincenzo Pazzini Carli e Figli,1784.

28 Comte Antoine-François Andreossy. Voyage à l'embouchure de la Mer-Noire ouEssai sur le Bosphore, et la partie du Delta de Thrace comprenant le systèmedes eaux qui abreuvent Constantinople; Précédé de Considérations généralessur la Géographie physique avec un atlas composé d'une carte nouvelle duBosphore et du canal de la Mer Noire, et de plusieurs autres nouveaux dessins,Paris, Plancher, 1818.

29 Jean-Claude Flachat, Observations sur le commerce et sur les arts d'une partiede l'Europe, de l'Asie, de l'Afrique et même des Indes orientales, Lyon, Jacque-nod père et Rusand, 1766.

30 Anvers, 1553. Baron Jules de Saint-Génois, Les voyageurs belges, XIII auXVIème siècles. Ajamar, Bruxelles, pp. 41-42.

31 Codex Vind. 8626, Bibliothèque Nationale d'Autriche, FMR, N° 5, October 1984,pp. 89-114.

32 Albert Vandal, L'Odyssée d'un Ambassadeur, Les voyages du marquis de Noin-tel (1670-1680), Librairie Pion, Paris, 1900,114,192-199, 281.

33 Oeuvres au Musée de Bordeaux et au Rijksmuseum. Cf. Milliyet Sanat Dergisi,22/5/1978. R. Van Luttervelt, De «Turkse» schilderijen van Jan-Baptist Vanmo-ur (1671-1737) en zijn school. Editions de l'Institut Historique et ArchéologiqueNéerlandais d'Istanbul, 1958.

34 Cornelis Boschma & Jacques Perot, Antoine-Ignace Melling (1763-1831), artiste-voyageur. Editions Paris-Musées, Paris, 1991, The Voyage pittoresque de Cons-tantinople et des rives du Bosphore, published between 1806 and 1819, in Paris,was conterfeited in Brussels, Leipzig and Leghorn.

35 Cf. Les Maîtres illustres, F. Ziem, ed.Henri Rougon, Paris, s. d.

36 Osman Öndes, Istanbul a^igi ressam Preziosi, Milliyet Yay., Istanbul, 1972; Ca-roline Juler, Les Orientalistes de l'école italienne, ACR, Courbevoie, 1994,128-131. Eduardo Dizy Caso, Les Orientalistes de l'école espagnole, ACR Edition,Paris, 1997.

37 See Christine Peltre, L'atelier du voyage. Les peintres en Orient au XIXe siècle,Paris : Gallimard, 1995, Auguste Boppe, Les peintres du Bosphore au XVIIIesiècle. Les éditions de l'amateur, 1989.

38 J.M. Angiolello (1452-1525), Ses manuscrits inédits, publiés et annotés par JeanReinhard, Besançon, 1913 . Giovan Antonio Menavino, Trattato de costumi evita de Turchi, Genovese da Vultri, Florence, 1548

39 Viaggi di Pietro della Valle il Pellegrino... Descritto da lui medesimo in letterefamiliari all'erudito suo amico Mario Schipiano. Rome : Biagio Deversin, 1658 ;.

40 Jean Thévenot, Relation d'un Voyage fait au Levant, en Perse et aux Indes,et des singularités particulières de l'Archipel, Constantinople et Terre Sainte,Egypte, Paris, 1664; L'Empire du Grand Turc vu par un sujet de Louis XIV,Paris: Calmann-Lévy, 1965

41 E.C.G Grenville Murray, Les Turcs chez les Turcs, Traduit de l'anglais par J.Butler, Paris, 1878

42 Sallabeny, Voyage à Constantinople, en Italie et aux îles de l'Archipel parl'Allemagne et la Hongrie, Paris : Maradan, 1799.

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43 See Michael Rogers, « Europe and the Ottoman Arts: Foreign Demand and Ot-toman Consumption », in Europa e Islam tra i Secoli XlVe XVI. Europe andIslam Between 14"' and 16"' Centuries, Naples: Istituto Universitario Orientale,2002, t. 2, pp. 709-736; Bartolommeo di Paxi, Tariffa de pesi e misure corris-pondenti dal Levante al Ponente e da una terra e luoga all'altro quasi p. tuttele parti dil mondo, con la dichiaratione, e notificatione di tutte le robbe : che sitragono di uno paese per l'altro, Venice; 1540, Paul Masson, Histoire du Com-merce français dans le Levant au XVIIe siècle, Paris: Hachette, 1896.

44 Les Voyages du Sieur du Loir, ensemble de ce qui se passa à la mort du feuSultan Mourat dans le Serrail, les ceremonies de ses funérailles; & celles del'auenement à l'Empire de Sultan Hibraim son frère, qui luy succéda. Paris:François Clouzier, 1654.

45 Theodore J. Bent (Edits), Early Voyages and Travels in the Levant. II. Extractsfrom the Diaries of John Covel 1670-1679. With some Account of the LevantCompany of Turkey Merchants. Hakluyt Society. London. 1893

46 Lady Craven, Journey through the Crime to Constantinople, 1789;.

47 L. d'Arvieux- W.H. Lewis, Levantine adventurer. The travels and missions ofthe Chevalier d'Arvieux, 1653-1697, New York, 1963.

48 http://it.wildpedia.org/wiki/Giuseppe_Gazzaniga

49 Coriolan, Le Piano Portugais, 1999.50 Journal des voyages de Monsieur de Monconys, conseiller du Roy- 1ère Partie.

Voyage du Portugal, Provence, Italie, Egypte, Syrie, Constantinople & Natolie,publié par Gasp, de Monconys, Lyon : Horace Boissat & Georges Remeus, 1665.

51 Antoine Galland, Journal pendant son séjour à Constantinople (1672-1673),Paris, éd. Scheffer, 1881. Henri Omont, Missions archéologiques françaises enOrient aux XVII' etXVHF siècles, Paris, Imprimerie Nationale, 1902, L 201. A.Galland, Les paroles remarquables, les bons mots, et les maximes des Orienta-ux. Traduction de leurs ouvrages en Arabe, en Persan, & en Turc. La Haye, L. etH. van Dole, 1694.

52 V. Moltke, Unter dem Halbmond, Erlebnisse in der alten Türkei, 1835-1839,Erdmann, Stuttgart, 1984,103. Loti also uses the term 1001 Nights to describecoffee houses.

53 Walter Thornbury, Turkish Life and Character, I, 34,49, 73,118.

54 Frances Elliot, Diary of an Idle Woman in Constantinople, Leipzig, B. Tauch-nitz, 1893, 29

55 Flash de publicité, Europe N° 1,16 octobre 1995.56 Docteur Henri Aurenche, La mort de Stamboul, J. Peyronnet & C' Paris, 1930,

31-57 The Letters and Works of Lady Mary Wortley Montagu, edited by her Great

Grandson Lord Wharncliffe, Londres, Richard Bentley, 1837.

58 Dora d'Istria,: La Poésie des Ottomans, Paris : Maisonneuve, 1877.

59 ToUot, Nouveau voyage fait au Levant es années 1731 et 1732, contenant lesdescriptions d'Alger, Tunis, Turquie, Tripoly de Barbarie, Alexandrie en Egy-pte, Terre Sainte, Constantinople, etc. Paris, 1742.

60 Otter, Jean, Voyage en Turquie et en Perse, avec une relation des expéditions deTahmas Kouli-Khan, Paris, Frères Guerin, 1768.



61 Prince Charles de Ligne, Mémoire sur le comte de Bonneval par le Prince deLigne, suivi des lettres de la comtesse de Bonneval à son mari, et de celles ducomte à son frère, etc. etc. Paris, Hérissant et Delaunay, 1817. On French mili-tary assistance, see : Mémoires sur les Turcs et les Tartares de M. de Tott, Paris,1784.

62 William Makepeace Thackeray, Eastern Sketches, A Journey from Cornhill toCairo, The Complete Works, Volume XI, Houghton, Mifflin and Co., Boston andNew York, 1889.

63 See my article « Les voyageurs de I'Orient-Express »

64 Nadir Devlet, "Tsarist and Soviet Russia's Approach to Turkish History", Eura-sian Studies, 4, Winter 1995/96, TICA, Ankara, 92-104.

65 Mamhoury, Strolling through Istanbul, Istanbul at your Fingertips66 Lamartine, Souvenirs, Impressions, Pensées et Paysages pendant un Voyage

en Orient, 1832-1833 ou Notes d'un Voyageur, Œuvres complètes, VII; Voyageen Orient, Paris : Pagnerre-Hachette-Furne, 1856,2 vol. Alphonse de Lamartine,Nouveau Voyage en Orient, 2 vol. Alp. Lebègue, Bruxelles, 1851.

67 M. Michaud et M. Poujoulat, Correspondance d'Orient 1830-1831, P. Ducollet,1833-1835, 7 vol.; Correspondance d'Orient (1830-1831), Bruxelles : N.J. Grego-ir, V. Wouters et Cie, Imprimeurs-Libraires, 1841, 8 vol.

68 Vicomte de Marcellus, Souvenirs de l'Orient, Paris : Debécourt, 1839,.

69 Histoire de l'Empire Ottoman d'après la grande histoire de M. de Hammer,racontée à la Jeunesse Chrétienne, J.L. Vincent, Limoges-Paris : Librairie desBons Livres, 1851.

70 M. A. Ubicini, Lettres sur la Turquie ou Tableau statistique, religieux, politi-que, administratif, militaire, commercial, etc. de l'Empire Ottoman, depuisle Khatti-Cherif de Gulkhanè (1839), Paris : Librairie militaire de J. Dumaine,1853. See also Enault, Louis, Constantinople et la Turquie, tableau historique,pittoresque, statistique et moral de l'Empire ottoman, Paris : Hachette, 1855.

71 See Diana Barillari & Ezio Godoli, Istanbul 1900. Architecture et intérieurs Artnouveau. Seuil: Paris, 1997.

72 OZTUNCAY Bahattin, The Photographers of Constantinople : Pioneers, Studiosand Artists ftom 19th Century Istanbul, Istanbul, Aygaz, 2003, www.engino-zendes.com.

73 Guide Gallimard suggest a « Loti tour » of the city.

74 Gillon, Crépuscule des sultans ; Mylès, La Fin de Stamboul ; Victor Bérard,, Lamort de Stamboul

75 Guide Gallimard, Autrement

76 See my article : « Parcours d'Istanbul des Guides à la Bande Dessinée. Du décordu désir interdit a celui de l'angoisse ».

AKADEMiK AR/\STlRiV1ALAR DERGlSl 2 O I


ÖZET

Bati Avrupalilann Gözüyle istanbul'da Kültüristanbul 2010 Avrupa Kültür Ba§kentlerinden biri oldu. Bu tanitim ve ona iliç-

kin olarak düzenlenen etkinlikler §ehre bu yil fazladan birçok turist çekmiç olabi-lir. Uzun geçmiçine bakildiginda birçok isimler aldigi görülen istanbul çebrinin, 4.yüzyilda Dogu Roma tmparatorlugunun baçkenti seçilmesinden bu yana, kültüreletkinlikler için her zaman büyük bir merkez i§levi üstlendigini görürüz. Bati Romaparçalara ayrihrken Bizans edebiyat ve sanatsal yaratimin bariz bir temsilcisi ha-line gelmiçtir. istanbul'un Osmanli imparatorlan tarafindan 15. yüzyilda baçkentseçilmesi. Batí Avnipalilar için ilgi odagini degiçtirmekle birlikte, çehri, gezginlerinkültürel faaliyetleri gözlemlemek üzere geldikleri bir merkez haline dönü§türmü§-tür. Osmanh imparatorlugu'nun Tanzimat sirasinda yaçadigi modernleçme, Batíve Dogu Avrupa'da sanat icra edenler arasindaki ili§kiyle desteklenmiçtir. istanbulbugün Avrupa'nm en nüfuslu §ehri olarak sürekli sanatsal yaratimin bir merkezihaline gelmiftir.

Anahtar kelimeler: Roma imparatorlugu, istanbul, Osmanh, Ba§kent, Bizans,Türkiye, Kültür

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