cultural diplomacy: what is it? what is it not? and …...1 cultural diplomacy: what is it? what is...
TRANSCRIPT
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CulturalDiplomacy:Whatisit?Whatisitnot?AndwhyshouldTaiwancare?
ProfessorGaryRawnsley1
UniversityofNottinghamNingboChina
‘…theideaofsoftpowerdatesbacktoancientChineseandIndianphilosophers
suchasLaoTsuandKavtilya.KungFuandYogacametoAmericalongbefore
MacDonald’swenttoTiananmenSquareanddiscothequescametoDelhi’
(ChidanandRajghatta,‘Sweetarethewaysofmangodiplomacy,’TimesofIndia,
22November,2009).
AsChidanandRajghattaobservesinthequotationabove,culturaldiplomacyhas
longbeenrecognisedasameansofinternationalengagementandhasitsorigins
farbeyondEuropeorAmerica.ThefirstrecordedexampleofChina’s‘panda
diplomacyoccurredinin685whenEmpressWuZetiangaveapairofpandasas
agifttoJapan’sEmperorTenmu.NicholasJ.Cull(2019:63)remindsusthatthe
IndianrulerAshokatheGreatpracticedculturaldiplomacybyexporting
Buddhismtoneighbouringkingdoms,whiletheFrenchEnlightenmentofthe18th
CenturyinspiredthewholeofEurope.Meanwhile,MichaelL.Krenn(2017:
Chapter1)datesthebeginningofAmerica’sculturaldiplomacyto1787when
ThomasJeffersonsentGeorges-LouisLeclerc,ComteDeBuffon,adeadmooseto
challengehisthesisofAmerican‘degeneracy’.
1IwishtothanktheSchoolofInternationalStudiesatUNNCforprovidingaSmallResearchGrantthathelpedfundthisproject.Also,IamindebtedtomyResearchAssistantAbbieKuoPin-Yu,aUNNCstudent,forherinvaluablehelpincollectingup-to-datematerialaboutTaiwan’sculturaldiplomacy.
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Despite–orperhapsbecauseof–thislonghistoryculturaldiplomacy
remainsanelusiveandcontestedconceptandpractice.Usedinterchangeably
with‘culturalrelations’and‘culturalexchange’,culturaldiplomacyisoften
confusedwithpublicdiplomacyandsoftpower.Governmentsaroundtheworld,
includingthoseofTaiwanandthePeople’sRepublicofChina(PRC),privilegethe
attractionofculturalprogrammestogeneratefamiliaritywiththeircountries
andelicitsupportfortheirnationalvalues,politicalagendas,andforeignpolicy
ambitions.However,itisnotclearthatgovernmentsalwaysunderstand
adequatelyhowtomobilisethetalentsoftheculturalindustriestofurther
engagewithaudiencesoverseas.InthispaperIwilloutlinetheconceptof
conceptofculturaldiplomacyanddifferentiateitfromothertypesofstrategic
communications.Inparticular,Iwillconsiderthelimitationsofcultural
diplomacyandsuggestthatgovernmentsworkbestbyfacilitatingcultural
relations,nurturedbytheculturalindustriesthemselveswithlittlepolitical
involvement.Thisinturnconnectswithmyunderstandingofsoftpowerthat
focusesmoreonpoliticalculturethanotherdefinitionsthatconvergeonitsmore
‘soft’andculturalaspects.
Thepaperdrawuponavarietyofcase-studiestointroducethese
concepts,butwillfocusspecificallyonTaiwanwhichisonlyjustbeginningto
appreciatethevalueofbothculturaldiplomacyandculturalrelations.Iwill
proceedtoanswerthreequestions:
1. Whatisculturaldiplomacyandhowdoesitrelatetosoftpower
andculturalrelations?
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2. Whyareculturaldiplomacyandculturalrelationsimportantfor
Taiwaninparticular?
3. HowhasTaiwanpracticedculturaldiplomacyandcultural
relations,andcanweassesstheirvalueandimpact?
Whatisculturaldiplomacy?In2006,AmbassadorCynthiaP.Schneiderpublishedapaperwiththetitle,
‘CulturalDiplomacy:HardtoDefine,ButYou’dKnowItIfYouSawIt’–hardly
helpfulandlackingtheprecisionsobelovedofthesocialsciences.However,the
vaguecharacterofculturaldiplomacyispartproblem,partopportunity.It
challengesthesocialscientistwholikestocategoriseandboxtheconceptsshe
encounters,butitalsoopensupnewlayersofanalysisthatdefyrestrictionand
permitsfluidity.Certainlyweneedtobeawareofthefluidnatureofcultural
diplomacyandculturalrelationsandbewareattemptstoclassifystrictlythe
culturalactivitieswewitness,forculturaldiplomacysurvivesandthrives
throughinteractionsamongmultipleactorsonmultiplelevels.Onewayto
understandthisisbyexploringtheconnectionbetweenculturaldiplomacyand
softpower.AsIwillargueinthispaper,thisisaparticularlyrelevantdiscussion
forTaiwanthatisrichinbothsoftpowerandculturalassets.Understandingthis
relationshipwillhelpusappreciatehowTaiwanmayuseitsculturalcapacityto
communicatebetteritssoftpower.
Culturaldiplomacyisnotsoftpower.Softpowerisaresource,while
culturaldiplomacyisaninstrument.Softpowermaybebasedontheattractive
qualities–theideas,principles,values,andultimatelythebehaviourand
thereforecredibilityandmoralauthority–oftheagentinquestion.Itisa
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politicalconceptandadvocatesmustrecognisethatgeneratingsoftpowerturns
onthepoliticalratherthantheartisticculture.Itssuccessispredicatedonthe
factthatactionsspeaklouderthanwords,andthathowgovernments,states,
politicalinstitutionsandactorsorganise,behave,treatpeopleathomeand
abroad,andthefriendstheychooseallcommunicateafarmorecommanding
narrativethanwordsorartalone.Itisthepowerofexample,ofmoralauthority.
Culturaldiplomacy,aninstrumentforcommunicatingsoftpower
generatedelsewhere,isdefinedasthedeliberateactofculturalengagement
overseasdesignedtoachievepurposesbeyondartforart’ssake.Theterm
describespurposefulprogrammesoractivitiessponsoredororganisedbythe
governmentanditsagenciesthatwishtousecultureasawayofadvancing
political,strategic,ornationalinterests.Itisagovernment-ledpracticedesigned
toreinforcethenationalandinternationalrepresentationundertakenbyenvoys.
Itsnearcousin,culturalrelationsrepresentformsofengagementwithout,
andsometimesdespitegovernmentintervention.Theytendtobeorganisedand
undertakenbytheculturalindustriesthemselvesandaremoreconcernedwith
artsforart’ssake,ratherthanpursuingspecificpoliticalobjectives.NickCull
describesthiskindofactivityashaving‘outcomesthatcanbelooselybeneficial
ratherthanspecificallygoaloriented’(Cull,2019:62).Culturalrelations,
workinginthelong-term,aremosteffectivewhentheymaintainadistancefrom
governmentandpoliticalagendas.
Culturalrelationshipsmayalsobeforgedineverydayarenasof
engagement,forexamplethroughthepresenceofoverseasstudentsinanation’s
highereducationsystem,orthroughinteractionwithdiasporacommunities.By
workingthroughcivilsocietyratherthanthroughgovernmentsponsored
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activitiesandprogrammes,culturalrelationsprovideopportunitiestopromote
mutualunderstandingthatarenotpresentinculturaldiplomacythatmay
proceedwithsignificantpoliticalbaggage.Onenotableandsuccessfulexampleof
howsuchengagementcanpromoteinterculturalinteractionandunderstanding
istheEast-WestDivanOrchestra,foundedbyDanielBarenboimandEdward
SaidtobringtogethermusiciansofArabandJewishbackground.
Ofcourse,thedistinctionbetweenculturaldiplomacyandcultural
relationsisonemajorsiteoffluidity.Politicalforces,bothdomesticandforeign,
dointerferewiththeactivitiesoftheculturalindustries,therebyerodingtheidea
thatculturalrelationsarebynaturealwaysnon-political.
First,somegovernmentsbelievethatthepursuitofforeignpolicy
objectivesthroughculturalmeansrequiresalevelofinterventionifnotcontrol.
IntheUS,tensionsbetweenofficialparticipantsinculturaldiplomacy,especially
theDepartmentofState,andtheprivateculturalsectorhavebeenacutesince
theStateDepartmentdecidedtointerfereintheirorganisationandactivities
after9/11(Krenn:154).
Second,somegovernmentsbelieveitisnecessarytobuildandprotect
localculturalindustries:SouthKorea,Franceandelsewhereusequotasystems
tolimitthenumberofHollywoodmoviesshowninlocalcinemas(Freeman,
2003).
Third,governmentsareenablersforculturalrelations.Theyhelpbuild
andmaintainthesystemsandprocessthatallowthecreativeandcultural
industriestoworkandengageinoutreachactivities.Thismaybeachievedvia
thecreationofmorelenienttaxregimes,orhelpingtosecurevisasfortravelinto
oroutofthecountry,buildingstadiums,subsidiesformuseumsandheritage
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sites,etc.ItisdifficulttoimaginetheregionalsuccessoftheHalyuWaveand
KPopwithoutsubstantialgovernmentinvestmentfollowingthe1997financial
crisis(Hong,2014).
Fourth,culturehasbeenusedasatacticalinstrumentinotherwaysto
achievespecificpoliticalgoalsorobjectives.Themostvisiblearecultural
boycottsthatareorganisedtoprotestthepoliticalbehaviourofgovernments.
Thisgoesagainsttheideathatculturepromotesmutualunderstanding,
preferringinsteadtorestrictnormalculturalrelations(Mitchell,1986:6).
ExamplesincludeartisticandculturalboycottsinApartheid-eraSouthAfrica;
andthetit-for-tatboycottbytheUSandUSSRofthe1980and1984Olympic
Games.
Fifth,thethreatof‘culturalimperialism’givesgovernmentsapowerful
incentivetointerveneintheculturallifeoftheircountryandlimitaccessto
culturalproductsfromoutsidenationalborders.AsLeehasnoted,‘Atargetmay
findasender’spromotionofculturalandpoliticalvalues(suchasdemocracy)to
beanactofcoercion,notpersuasion.Asender’sculturalandpoliticalvalues
themselvesmaybeinterpretedbyatargetstatetobethepotentialsourceof
threattosociety’(Lee,2011,p.22).Thusitisimportanttorecognisethat
audiencescaninterpretculturaldiplomacyinanentirelydifferentwayfromhow
itscreatororsourceintended.Afterall,cultureishighlysubjectiveandwillbe
interpretedbyaudiencesindifferentways,eitherbecauseofartisticdifferences
orpoliticalconviction.Thepurposeofculturaldiplomacyorculturalrelations
maybemutualunderstandingandrespect,butrecipientsmayseethemotivation
inaverydifferentlight.Consumingaculturalproductdoesnotnecessarilyresult
inachangeinopinionorbehaviourtowardsthesource(McConnell,2008).
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Fraser(2003:229)remindsusthataftertheendoftheSecondWorldWar,
‘ManyFrenchintellectualslikedAmericanjazzmusic,butpoliticallythey
embracedtheslogan“YankeeGoHome!”FortheFrench,Americawasatonce
fascinatingandrepugnant.’
Maintainingasmuchdistanceaspossible–betweenbothgovernments
andtheculturalindustries,andbetweenpromotingcultureforspecificpolitical
agendasandengaginginartforart’ssake-iscertainlyworthwhileand
contributestothesuccessofculturaldiplomacy.However,ifweacceptthatthe
successofculturaldiplomacyisinthegiftoftheaudience(infact,audiences
decidewhethertointerpretaparticularprogrammeasculturaldiplomacy,
propaganda,orsomeotherformofinfluence)thenitisclearthatcreatinga
robustfirewallbetweengovernmentsandtheculturalindustriesisnota
panacea.
FortheremainderofthispaperIwillusethetermculturaldiplomacyto
encompassculturalrelations,unlessinlookingatdiscretepracticesIwishtobe
specificabouttheirdistinction.
Inunderstandinghowactors,organisationsandstatesinteractculturallywith
audiencesoverseas,wearealsoobtainingaglimpseintothepoliticalcultures
thatgeneratesoftpower.Thusweshouldnotfocusexclusivelyoncultural
products–films,televisionprogrammes,art,literature,theatre,food,etc.–but
wealsoneedtoappreciatethesocialandpoliticalideasthathelpshapethese
products:freedomofthought,expressionandmovement,equality,socialjustice,
transparencyandaccountability,andastrongandautonomouscivilsociety.For
ademocraticsocietylikeTaiwan,thepoliticalcultureprovidesarobust
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foundationforitsculturalindustriestocreate,experiment,challengeexisting
narratives,andreachoutbeyondnationalborders;andtoconfrontpolitical
interferencefromitsmoreauthoritarianneighbourswhilepresentingastark
contrasttothem.Protectingartisticandculturalendeavoursoftenmeanshaving
toalsoprotectsocialandpoliticalvalues.
Whyisculturaldiplomacyconsideredsuchavaluableactivitythatstatesdevote
toitsuchhugeamountsofresourcesandcreateinstitutionsandgovernment
departmentstaskedwithitspractice?Culturaldiplomacyreflectsanormative,
somemayclaimidealist,approachtointernationalrelations,onethatreflectsthe
significantcontributionofsocialconstructivismtointernationalrelationstheory.
BasedonAlexanderWendt’sSocialTheoryofInternationalPolitics(1999)social
constructivismintroducesculture,ideas,andidentityasimportantbuilding
blocksinhowweunderstandeachotherandourselves.Mostimportantly,it
acknowledgesourcapacityassocialcreaturestointeractbasedonshared,
understood,andrespectednormsandidentities.Suchapproacheshavefound
theirwayintotheliteratureonsoftpower.Forexample,CraigHaydendescribes
howthevalueofsoftpowerliesinits‘recognitionthattraditionalmetricsof
“power”ininternationalaffairsshouldbeinclusiveofideationalfactors:what
peoplebelievecanshapeorconstraintheagencyofapoliticalactorandtheir
abilitytoeffectchange’(Hayden,2011:5).
Thediscourseonculturaldiplomacyrefersrepeatedlytoitscapacityto
facilitate‘mutualunderstanding’.Forexample,MiltonC.Cummingsdefines
culturaldiplomacyas‘theexchangeofideas,information,art,andotheraspects
ofcultureamongnationsandtheirpeoplesinordertofostermutual
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understanding’(Cummings,2003:1).ParvanVarma,theheadoftheIndian
CouncilforCulturalRelations,hasnotedthatculture‘canshape,alter,and
impacttheideasandopinionsofpubliccommunities.Fromawide-raging
perspective,’saysVarma,
culturehasthecapacitytoresolvetensionsandprejudices–ethnic,
religious,communal,nationalandinternational.Itcancreateaclimateof
tolerance,respectandunderstandingamongnations,religionsand
entireregions.Itisthusanessentialmediumforpeacefulandtolerant
contactandcommunication(Varma,2007:128).
JacquesDelorsnotedthatculturaldiplomacypromotesgreatertolerance,mutual
respectandunderstanding,helpingsocietiesinteractin‘anewspiritwhich,
guidedbyrecognitionofourgrowinginterdependenceandacommonanalysisof
therisksandchallengesofthefuture,wouldinducepeopletoimplement
commonprojectsortomanagetheinevitableconflictsinanintelligentand
peacefulway’(Delors,et.al.,1996:23).CynthiaSchneider(2006:1)described
culturaldiplomacyas‘theuseofcreativeexpressionandexchangesofideas,
information,andpeopletoincreasemutualunderstanding’.
Othersobserveinculturaldiplomacyanexplicitstrategicagendathat
goesbeyondserving‘mutualunderstanding’.ThomasJeffersonwrotetoJames
Madisononthesubject:
YouseeIamanenthusiastonthesubjectofthearts.Butitisan
enthusiasmofwhichIamnotashamed,asitsobjectistoimprovethe
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tasteofmycountrymen,toincreasetheirreputation,toreconcilethem
totherespectoftheworld,andprocurethemitspraise(quotedin
Schneider,2006:1).
PresidentTheodoreRooseveltbelievedthat‘anationwithastrongculture(and
acommonone)willbeabletowinmorebattlesbydiplomaticbargainingthanby
forceofarms’(Collin,1985:5).WhenhewastheForeignMinisteroftheFederal
RepublicofGermany,WillyBrandtfamouslycalledculturethe‘thirdpillarof
foreignpolicy’afterpoliticsandtrade.AsMitchell(1986:1)pointsout,cultureis
thefourthpillarfor‘some’Americans‘afterpolitics,tradeanddefence’.Myown
researchrevealsthatculturaldiplomacyisahighpriorityforthegovernmentof
Vietnam,supportingtradeandeconomicpower-thesecondpillar?(Rawnsley
andNgac,2017).
AftertheColdWarculturaldiplomacywasexiledtothewildernessbythe
USgovernment,believingthatwiththecollapseofCommunisminEuropeits
missionwascomplete.NataliaGrincheva’simportant2010surveyofAmerican
culturaldiplomacyrevealsacontinuousfallinfundingforculturalprogrammes
sincetheendoftheColdWar(Grincheva,2010).
However,after9/11thegovernmentrediscoveredculture,butasawayof
combatingextremismand‘winningheartsandminds’(adecidedlyColdWar
phrase).IntheconclusionstohishistoryofAmericanculturaldiplomacy,
MichaelL.KrennquotesHelenaFinn,aseniordiplomat,whoin2003
summarisedthisturninAmericanthinking.Culturaldiplomacy,shesaid,‘isone
ofthemostpotentweaponsintheUnitedStates’sarmory’,andshehopedthe
governmentwouldappreciatethat‘inwagingitsself-proclaimedwaragainst
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extremism,winningforeigners’voluntaryallegiancetotheAmericanprojectwill
bethemostimportantprizeofall’(Krenn,2017:154-5.Emphasisadded).
In2005,theUSDepartmentofStatepronouncedculturaldiplomacythe
‘linchpinofpublicdiplomacy’:
…foritisinculturalactivitiesthatanation’sideaofitselfisbest
represented.Andculturaldiplomacycanenhanceournationalsecurity
insubtle,wide-ranging,andsustainableways.Indeedhistorymay
recordthatAmerica’sculturalrichesplayednolessarolethanmilitary
actorsinshapingourinternationalleadership,includingthewaron
terror.Forthevaluesembeddedinourartisticandintellectualtraditions
formabulwarkagainsttheforcesofdarkness(USDepartmentofState,
2005:1).
FedericaMogherini,HighRepresentativeoftheEuropeanUnionforForeign
AffairsandSecurityPolicy,broughttogetherthestrategicandthenormative
dimensionsinJune2016:
Culturehastobepartandparcelofourforeignpolicy.Cultureisa
powerfultooltobuildbridgesbetweenpeople,notablytheyouth,and
reinforcemutualunderstanding.Itcanalsobeanengineforeconomic
andsocialdevelopment.Andaswefacecommonchallenges,culturecan
helpallofus,inEurope,Africa,MiddleEast,Asia,standtogethertofight
radicalization,andbuildanallianceofcivilizationsagainstthosetrying
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todivideus.Thisiswhyculturaldiplomacymustbemoreandmoreat
thecoreofourrelationshipwithtoday’sworld.2
Asidefromstrengtheningspecificstrategicorforeignpolicy-orientedobjectives,
thenormativedimensionofculturaldiplomacyremainsasignificantassetfora
nation’ssoftpowercapacity.Culturaldiplomacybuildsrelationships,credibility,
andtrustoverthelong-term,andisespeciallyimportantwhentheformal
relationsbetweengovernmentsordiplomaticenvoysarestrainedordamaged.
Whileitcannotcompensateforunpopularpoliciesormisguidedbehaviourby
governments–thinkofthedamagetoUScredibilityandmoralauthorityafter
imagesofGuantanamoBayandAbuGhraibwereposted-itcanforgean
emotionalconnectionbetweenartistandaudienceandbetweensocietiesthat
maybridgeandpossiblyhealpoliticaldivisions.WritingontheAmerican
experienceof‘artsdiplomacy’,JohnBrownsaysthatculturalengagement
‘providesaudienceswithuniqueandmemorableexperiences.…Artcreates
powerfulimpressionsthatareoftenrememberedforever…artsdiplomacycan
makepeopleabroadassociateAmericawiththekindofuniquemomentsthat
maketheirlivesworthliving’(Brown,2009:57).
Andyet…
2‘AnnewstrategytoputcultureattheheartofEUinternationalrelations’,8June2016,https://ec.europa.eu/malta/news/new-strategy-put-culture-heart-eu-international-relations_en
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Culturehaslongbeentheleastfundedaspectofnationalexpenditureinmany
partsoftheworld,includingthoseareaswhereculturaldiplomacyiswell
developed.TheUSCongressionalBudgetJustificationfortheDepartmentofState,
ForeignOperationsandRelatedPrograms,FiscalYear2019,showsayear-on-
yeardecreaseinfundsallocatedtoculturalprogrammes3;whilePresident
Trump’s2018budgetplancut$971millionfromthenationalbudgetby
eliminatingfourindependentculturalagencies(theNationalEndowmentforthe
Arts,theNationalEndowmentfortheHumanities,theInstituteofMuseumand
LibraryServices,andtheCorporationforPublicBroadcasting).IntheUK,
governmentcutstoartsfundinghadreachedover£100millionbyMarch2019,a
fallof13%injustadecadeofausterity.Incomparison,America’smilitarybudget
increasedbyover10%in2018/19,whiletheUK’sdefencespendingincreased
by£1.6billionin17/18andgrewbyafurther1.4%in18/19.Despiterhetoricto
thecontrary,itseemsthathardwillalwaystrumpsoftpower,andgovernments
indemocraticsocieties–facedwithregularelectoralcycles,pluralism,short-
terminterests,andtheneedtoshowimmediatereturnsongovernment
investment-willalwaysstrugglejustifyspendingonculture,anoftenephemeral
areasometimeslackingtangibleoutcomesandoperatinginthelong-term.
Culturaldiplomacy:Taiwan’sstrategicrationale
AsIhavearguedelsewhere(Rawnsley,2012;2014;2017)Taiwanhas
considerablesoftpowercapacitybutoftenstrugglestoknowhowtouseit
3Seehttps://www.state.gov/wp-content/uploads/2018/12/FY-2019-Congressional-Budget-Justification-Department-of-State-Foreign-Operations-and-Related-Programs.pdf
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effectively.Theliberal-democraticpoliticalculture,consolidatedaftera
successionofdirectpresidentialelectionsthathaveestablishedtheroutine
turnoverofpowerbetweencompetingpoliticalparties,setsTaiwanapartfrom
itsmoreauthoritarianneighbours.Mostrecently,thedecisiontofurtherLGBT
rightsandlegalisegaymarriageisasignifierofTaiwan’sdemocraticprogress;
whilethevigorousdebatesintheLegislature,inthemedia,andonTaiwan’s
streetsaboutmajorpoliticalandsocialissues–includinggaymarriage–are
likewiseimportantmarkersthataliberal-democracyhastakenroot.The2014
nationwideSunflowerMovementwasperhapsthemostdramaticsignifierof
Taiwan’sdemocraticconsolidationandcommunicatedapowerfulnarrativeto
theinternationalcommunity.InfindingthesourcesofTaiwan’ssoftpower,one
needlooknofurtherthanthepoliticalcultureandespeciallytheactivismofcivil
societyandtheraucousdiscussionsanddisagreementsaboutmajorpolicyissues
thatoccureachdayinmultiplepublicspaces.Whetheroneagreesordisagrees
withthepropositioninquestionislessimportantthanrecognisingthefreedom
toownandvoicedifferentopinions.Thisshouldbethecentralnarrativeof
Taiwan’sinternationalcommunications.
Taiwan’sculturaldiplomacyperformstwovaluableservicesingenerating
andcommunicatingtheisland’ssoftpowercapacity.First,itisaninstrumentof
statecraft,organisedbythegovernmentanditsagencies(includingits
diplomaticmissions)topersuadeglobalaudiencestopaymoreattentionto
Taiwan,sympathisewithitsseclusionfrommainstreamworldpolitics,and
supportitsforeignpolicyagenda.Thus,culturaldiplomacythenhasastrong
strategicdimension;andgivenTaiwan’spredicament–itsrelationswiththePRC,
thedecliningnumberofformaldiplomaticallies,itsexclusionfromtheworld’s
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majormultinationalorganisationsandfora,anditslackofvisibilityinthe
world’smedia(whatIhavecalledthe‘disablingenvironment’.Rawnsley,2017)
–theroleofculturaldiplomacyinbuildingTaiwan’sprofileisimperative.
Aprimaryconcernwithculturaldiplomacyisencouraginginternational
audiencestobecomemorefamiliarwithTaiwan(fordataonglobalfamiliarity
withTaiwanseeRawnsley,2017).Wecanrefertothe‘hierarchyofimpacts’
developedbyLeonard,SteadandSmewingintheirstudyofpublicdiplomacyto
demonstrateTaiwan’spredicament.Thehierarchyenvisagesfourpossible
resultsofpublicdiplomacy:increasingfamiliarity;increasingappreciation
(seeinganissueorchallengefromtheperspectiveofanotheractor);engagement
(whichmayleadtoattractionandthenpossiblyimpactontradeandinvestment,
tourism,educationetc.);andfinallyinfluence(Leonard,SteadandSmewing,
2002:9-10).Ofcourseweshouldnotexpectpublicdiplomacyprogrammesto
followthishierarchyinlinearfashion,butitisimpossibletoinfluenceanother
stateoritspeoplewithoutfirstmakingsuretheyarefamiliarwithwhoyouare.
Taiwan’sculturaldiplomacyisfocusedonincreasingvisibilityandfamiliarity,
buildingtheprofileandrelationshipsthatmayhelpTaiwan’sinternational
engagementclimbthehierarchytowardsinfluence.
CulturecanhelpTaiwanexplainitselftotheworld,increaseprestige,and
encouragerespectfromtheinternationalcommunity.Itwillnotsolveallthe
problemsTaiwanfacesinthehardpowerdomain–consumingTaiwan’sculture
willnotpersuadegovernmentstoswitchtheirdiplomaticrecognitionfromthe
PRC–butitmaycontributetogreaterunderstandingabout,andempathyfor
Taiwanthatmighthavelong-termpositiveeffects.Culturaldiplomacycanhelp
explainWhyTaiwanMatters(Rigger,2011).
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Second,culturaldiplomacyconnectsthepoliticalsystemtocivilsociety.
Asnotedabovethecreativeindustries,thefoundationofculturalrelations,
requirealevelofsocial,politicalandartisticautonomytofunction,buttheyalso
needgoodrelationswiththegovernmentwhenpoliticalassistanceisnecessary.
Itgoeswithoutsayingthatthecreativeindustriesareareflectionofthepolitical
cultureinwhichtheyoperate.Asculturecanhelpusunderstand,engagewith,
cometotermswith,satirise,andchallengepowerwhereveritisencountered,art
canbeapowerfulpoliticalinstrument.Taiwan’sculturaldiplomacyandcultural
relationsrevealsociety’sliberalcharacter.
PresidentMaYing-jeouseemedtounderstandthis.Heclaimedthat‘the
mostimportantasset’ofTaiwan’sforeignpolicy‘isourdemocracy,ourwayof
life,ourwillingnesstomaintaincross-Straitstability,andourdeterminationto
fulfilourobligationstotheinternationalcommunity’–everythingoneexpects
fromasoftpowerrichsociety.TheproblemwasthattheMagovernment
privilegedthecommunicationofculture,andespeciallytraditionalChinese
culture,overallothernarratives.Taiwanthussquanderedtheopportunityto
showcaseitsliberal-democraticpoliticalcultureanditsvibrantcivilsociety,
exceptbyaccidentwhen,throughtheSunflowerMovement,civilsociety
communicateditsownnarrative.
UnderPresidentTsaiIng-wen’sleadershippublicdiplomacyhas
improved.ManyoftheproblemsIidentifiedinmy2017paperpublishedinThe
ChinaQuarterlyhavebeen(albeitpartly)remedied,especiallyintermsof
Taiwan’sgovernmentnowoccupyingalargerspaceinsocialmedia.
RepresentativeOfficestooaretakingfarmoreseriouslyhowtheycommunicate
withtheirhostcountries,withtheofficeinLondonhostingregularlyarangeof
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culturalevents(althoughagainwithroomforimprovementintermsofoutreach
andintendedaudience).WhilemuchofTaiwan’sculturaldiplomacystilloccurs
intraditionalcentresofactivity,namelytheUS,Europe,andJapan,President
Tsai’sSouthboundPolicymeansthatfarmoreprogrammesarenowdeveloped
for,andinco-operationwithTaiwan’sneighboursinSoutheastAsia.Moreover,
theculturaldiplomacyhasturnedawayfromshowcasingTaiwanasthe
‘preserveroftraditionalChineseculture’,thedominantthemeunderPresident
Ma,toculturalandethnicdiversity,withmanyactivitiesandprogrammes
celebratingTaiwan’sencounterwithmultiplelanguages,culturesandtraditions.
Iwillprovidesomeexamplesoftheseactivitiesbelow.
Taiwan’spractice
IhavepreviouslybeencriticaloftheMinistryofCulture(MoC),itsformation,
organisationandwork.WhileImaintainthattheabolitionin2012ofthe
GovernmentInformationOffice(GIO)wasamistake(theGIOprovideda
valuablenexusfortheinter-governmentalcoordinationofexternal
communicationsthusprovidingconsistencyinmessagingandresource
allocation.Rawnsley,2017)–Iacceptthat,withhindsight,myjudgementofthe
MoChasbeenalittleharsh.Thelevelofactivityandinvestmentundertakenby
theMoCsinceitscreationin2012,togetherwithitscommitmenttobuilding
strategicrelationshipswiththeculturalindustriesatbothhomeandoverseas,
indicatesastrongawarenessofhowculturaldiplomacyandculturalrelations
workandhowtheyshouldbeorganised.InthelimitedspaceavailablehereI
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cannotdofulljusticetothewiderangeofactivitiesundertakenbytheMoCand
itspartnersinsideandoutsidegovernment.NorcanIdiscussindetailthe
considerablenumberofprogrammes,activities,tours,etc.thatareorganisedby
theculturalsectoritselfwithoutgovernmentintervention.Anypieceofartthat
travelsoutsideTaiwan–adancegroup,amovie,acraftexhibition–isan
exampleofculturalrelations,justasallvisitstoTaiwanbyculturalproducers
andartistsprovidesanopportunityforinteraction,exchange,andthewider
appreciationofTaiwan.‘Inbound’culturaldiplomacyisjustasimportantas
exportedactivities,especiallygiventhelowfamiliaritywithTaiwanoverseas.
Inthissection,IwillhighlightjustsomeofthewaysTaiwan’sMinistryofCulture
practicesculturaldiplomacybyconnectingtheirpracticestotheoverview
providedinprevioussectionsofthepaper.However,itisworthnotingherethe
sizeoftheMinistryofCulture’sbudget.Whileexactdataisnoteasytoobtain,it
isinstructivethatthereportspreparedbythe2018NationalConferenceon
CulturalGovernancerevealedthatin2019,theMoC’sbudget‘willforthefirst
timeaccountforover1%ofthecentralgovernment’sannualbudget,whilethe
budgetforsupportingtheculturalagenciesoflocalgovernmentsissettogrow
by300%’(emphasisadded).4ThefactthattheMoCchoosestocelebratea
budgetofoverjust1%indicatesfirsthowsmallthebudgethadbeenuntil2019;
andsecond,justhowmuchtheMoChadaccomplishedwithinadequatefinances,
usuallyduetodevelopinglucrativepublic-privatepartnerships.5
4‘NationalconferenceoutlinesvisionforTaiwan’sculturalgovernance’,26September2018,https://english.moc.gov.tw/information_196_89635.html5AccordingtoinformationavailablefromtheNationalStatisticsBureaueducation,scienceandculturehavespentmoreannuallysince1976.In2013,expenditureintheseareasamountedtoNT$599,058million,growingtoNT$690,852millionin2017.However,thefactthatthisdatadoesnot
19
TheMoCasfacilitator
Governmentsandgovernmentagenciesperformafacilitativeroleincultural
relations.Byprovidingfundingandsubsidies,lenienttaxregimesandaccessto
travelvisas,andlegislationdirectedspecificallyatbuildingandprotectingthe
culturalandcreativeindustries,governmentshelpconstructandmaintainan
environmentinwhichtheculturalorganisationscandeveloptheirown
programmesandrelationships.In2015,theArtTaipeifestivalattracted
participantsfromNorthAmerica,Europe,EastandSoutheastAsia(aswellas
China),andwasco-organisedbytheMoCwiththeTaiwanArtGallery
AssociationandtheTaiwanExternalTradeDevelopmentCouncil.
Suchpartnershipsarethebasisofthe2018NationalConferenceon
CulturalGovernance,organisedbytheMoCandinvolvingparticipantsfromlocal
governmentsaswellastheprivateculturalsector.Suchpartnershipalsoinforms
theworkoftheTaiwanCreativeContentAgency(TCCA),establishedbytheMoC
inJanuary2019.Atitslaunch(astheCulturalContentInstituteinDecember
2018),theMoCpledgedtheTCCAwould‘supportthenation’screativeindustries
andhelpintroduceTaiwan’sculturaloutputtotheworld’.With$NT10billion
fromtheMinistrytheAgencywould‘serveasaproxybetweenthegovernment
andprivatesectors…dedicatedtofacilitatingresourceintegration,
interdisciplinarycollaboration,andinvestment’.6
disaggregatescience,educationandartsmeanswehavetotreatsuchdatawithcautionwhenconsideringculture.https://eng.stat.gov.tw/public/data/dgbas03/bs2/yearbook_eng/y091.pdf6‘Taiwan’sCulturalContentInstitutetobeLaunchedin2019’,25December2018,https://english.moc.gov.tw/information_196_96249.html
20
OtherfacilitativedevelopmentsincludetheMoC’ssuccessfulnegotiation
withothergovernmentagenciesonarangeofchangestolegislationthatbenefit
theartsandculture.Forexample,in2017theMinistrysecuredagreementfrom
theCouncilofLaborAffairstosoftentherulesforforeignpassportholderswho
areemployedinTaiwan’sculturalsector.TheMoChasalsooverseen
amendmentstotheCulturalHeritagePreservationAct,aswellasmoving
towardsnewlegislationaroundthemanagementofTaiwan’shistoricalbuildings
andmonuments.
Intermsoffunding,theMoCalsooffersarangeofverygenerousgrants
andscholarshipsdesignedspecificallyforinterculturalengagement.These
includegrantsfortranslationsofliteraturewrittenbyTaiwaneseauthors,to
allowpublisherstoparticipateininternationalbookfairs(mostnotablythe
annualFrankfurtBookFair),andtodevelopcollaborativeculturalprojectswith
partnersinotherpartsoftheworld,includingSoutheastAsia(theEmerald
Initiative)andwithWestandSouthAsia(theLazuriteInitiative).
Thegovernment’sroleasfacilitatoriscapturedinthe2018CultureWhite
Paper:‘Creativefreedomanddiversification’,itsaid,‘arethetwodrivingforces
behindculturaldevelopment.Thegovernmentwill[create]afertileand
supportiveecosystemforcreativeadvancement,artisticgrowth,andeveryday
accesstocultureandthearts’.7
Strategy
7Availablefromhttps://mocfile.moc.gov.tw/files/201812/541fdcce-38ef-435e-8856-0b79e2110ef0.pdf?fbclid=IwAR1xUZkkAP_XA57t5emq2NsQzC5v9bBcLuYmSf-XJoThB9SB6rvb0xcMdw4
21
IncontrasttotheMaYing-jeoupresidencywhenexternalengagementfocused
oncommunicatingTaiwanasthepreserveroftraditionalChineseculture,under
TsaiIng-wenculturaldiplomacyactivitiesreflecttwokeystrategicareas:
(i)promotingindigenousculturestoreflectTaiwan’sdemographicdiversity;and
(ii)strengtheningthroughculturalprogrammesthegovernment’sSouthbound
Policy.
Examplesoftheformerincludeprogrammesorganisedthroughthe
SpotlightTaiwaninitiative.SponsoredbyentrepreneurSamuelYinwiththe
explicitaimofhelping‘promoteTaiwan’ssoftpowertotheworld’,Spotlight
Taiwanco-operatedwiththeNationalMuseumofEthnologyinOsaka(Japan)to
showcaseHakkaculturein2015.InSeptember2018,Taiwan’sMinisterof
Culture,ChengLi-chun,signedanaccordinFrancetodisplayTaiwan’s
indigenousheritageatthenewmuséedequaiBranlyinParis.Hakkaart
decoratedtheTaiwanPavillionatthe2015FrankfurtBookFair(whichhosted
KaoYi-feng,anauthorofHakkaliterature),whileHakkaculturefeatured
alongsideNangyuan,Taiwaneseandaboriginalculturesatthegrandopeningof
theTaiwanCulturalCentreinTokyo.Theseinitiativesarewrappedupina
greaterconcernwithheritagepreservation,includingprofessionaltrainingby
boththeVaticanandtheIronbridgeInstituteattheUniversityofBirmingham
(UK).
CulturalcommitmenttotheSouthboundPolicyisinstitutionalised
throughthecreationin2015oftheSoutheastAsianAdvisoryCommitteetohelp
build‘mutuallybeneficialpartnerships’(notethecustomarynormative
language).ArangeofinitiativeshelpdeepenrelationswithTaiwan’ssouthern
neighbours,includingbothinboundandoutboundculturalprogrammes.
22
ExamplesincludetheMoC’ssponsorshipofauthorsfromSoutheastAsiatovisit
andtourTaiwantomeetreaders,organisationofthemonth-longAsia-Pacific
ArtsFestival,andaseriesofagreementswithmuseumsinThailandtoshowcase
thereTaiwan’sculturalheritageanddiversity.Oneofthekeyprogrammes
designedtostrengthentheSouthboundPolicyistheYouthCulturalGardeners
programmewhich,buildingonthesuccessoftheYouthAmbassadorprogramme,
facilitatesexchangesofyoungpeoplefromTaiwanandSoutheastAsia.Beginning
in2016,theprogrammesent49youngartiststocommunitiesinCambodia,
Thailand,Myanmar,thePhilippines,andMalyasiatointeractwithlocalresidents
throughart,dance,filmandotherformsofculturalexpression.Theprogramme
connectswiththeMekongCulturalHubthat,withseedmoneyfromtheMoCand
Cambodianpartners(CambodianLivingArts),helpscreativepractitionersfrom
TaiwanandacrosstheMekongregion,makeconnectionsinCambodia,Laos,
Myanmar,ThailandandVietnam.8EventsorganisedinApril2019werethemed
around‘Diversity,Inclusivity,Southbound’andbroughttoTaiwanculturalactors
fromacrossSoutheastAsiaand,forthefirsttime,AustraliaandNewZealand.
Politicalinterference
TaiwanistrappedwithinadisablingenvironmentdefinedchieflybythePRC.
ThismeansTaiwanisdeniedmembershipofsuchinternationalorganisationsas
theUnitedNationsandtheWorldHealthOrganisation,whileformaldiplomatic
alliescontinuetodwindle.ThePRC’sinterferenceinTaiwan’sculturalsphere
shatterstheillusionthatartandcultureexistindependently,imperviousto
8The2018report,TheMekongMappingProject,isavailableathttps://mekongculturalhub.org/wp-content/uploads/MekongCulturalHub-MappingProject.pdf
23
politicalinterventionforpoliticalambitions.
InJuly2018,theMinistryofCultureissuedastronglywordedstatement
criticisingthePRC’spoliticalintrusionintwoculturalprogrammesoverseasin
whichartistsfromTaiwanwereparticipating.Thestatementbegan:‘Respectfor
artisticcreationandfreedomofexpressionhavealwaysbeenatthecoreofthe
MinistryofCulture’spolicies.’ItexplainedthattheFangShiangDanceTheatre
hadbeeninvitedtoperforminItalyandhadbeenissuedidentificationcards
depictingtheflagofthePRC;whiletheperformanceoftheJuannChoiratthe
WorldPeaceChoralFestivalinViennawascancelledafterpressurefromChina.
Thestatementconcluded:‘Wecallontheinternationalcommunitytosupport
theuniversalvaluesoffreedomofartisticcreationandfreedomofexpression,
andnottoletthepurityofinternationalculturalexchangeeventsbesulliedby
politicalmanipulationbyChina.’9
TheninApril2019,thePRC’sMinistryofCultureannounceditwas
cancellingseveralscheduledtriptoChinabyCzechculturalorganisations,
includingthePraguePhilharmonicOrchestra.ThiswasinresponsetotheCzech
MinistryofIndustryrefusingtoexcludefromameetingadiplomatfrom
Taiwan.10
Finally,inAugust2019,theTwitterfeedofTaiwan’sPresidentialOffice
SpokespersonreactedtotheChinaFilmAdministration’sdecisiontoprohibit
Chinesefilmsandfilmmakersfromattendingthe56thGoldenHorseAwards:
9MinistryofCulture,‘WhyshouldculturalexchangesbesulliedbyChina’sinterference?’,28July2018,availablefromhttps://english.moc.gov.tw/information_196_8840.html10ItjustsohappenedthattheMayorofPrague,ZdenekHrib,hadbeenaexchangestudentinTaiwanandsaidtheorchestracouldperforminTaipeiinstead.
24
‘Politicalinterventioninart,’saidthestatement,‘isnotacceptable.Taiwanwill
continuetosparenoefforttosafeguardthefreedomofartisticexpression.’
Inadditiontodemonstratingthecloseconnectionbetweenpoliticsand
culture,theseexamplesalsosuggestfurtherthesoftpowergeneratedbyartistic
endeavours.Theculturalproductitselfislessimportantthanthevalues–artistic
autonomy,freedomofcreativeexpression–thatrequireprotection.
Conclusions:DoesitWork?
Assessingtheimpactofculturaldiplomacyisdifficult,sometimesimpossible.
Unlikeotherattributesofastate’spowercultureisdifficulttoquantify.Wecan
countgunsandtanks,measurethesizeoftheeconomy,andevencalculatehow
manyforeigntouristsorinternationalstudentshavecrossedourborders.But
culturalengagementworksonanemotionallevel,oftenacrossmanyyearsifnot
decades,anddependsonbuildingrelationshipsbasedontrust,respectand
understanding.PerhapsFrankNinkovich(1966:58)wascorrecttoconcludethat
attheendofthedayculturaldiplomacyisan‘actoffaith’.
Ofcoursethisassumesthatthepurposeofculturaldiplomacy,cultural
relations,andculturalexchangeisto‘movetheneedle’ofopinionaboutthe
sourceandhelpachieveforeignpolicyambitions.Whilethisdoesguidemuchof
whatwemightcallculturaldiplomacy,itisonlyapartialpartofthestory.Artfor
art’ssake,seekingconnectionswithpeoplethroughculture,canhelprealisethe
morenormativedimensionofculturalrelations:mutualrespectand
understanding,tolerance,familiarity,andempathy.Thesemayinthelongterm
contributetoforeignpolicysuccess,butwhatiftheydon’t?Doesthatmeanall
theactivities,programmes,initiatives,andexchangesorganisedinthenameof
25
culturaldiplomacyareawasteoftime?Isallthatgovernmentsponsorship,all
thoseagreementswithmuseums,galleriesandtheatregroupsoverseas,allthose
partnershipsbetweenthegovernmentandtheprivatesectormerelyfutile
gestures?
ForsocietieslikeTaiwan,trappedinitsown‘disablingenvironment’,
culturaldiplomacyisanessentialwayofmanagingtheexternalchallengesit
faces.Culturecangrowthefamiliaritythatwillhelppeopleacrosstheworld
knowTaiwanbetterandhelpTaiwanadvanceupthe‘hierarchyofimpacts’.
Moreover,culturaldiplomacyreflectsTaiwan’ssoftpowercapacity.By
helpingdevelopmentofautonomousculturalexpressionwithincivilsociety,the
MinistryofCultureissendingapowerfulmessageaboutthegovernment’s
commitmenttoliberal-democraticvalues.Itwouldbewrongtosaysimplyand
clearlythatartsandculturedonothavearoletoplayingeneratingsoftpower,
evenifwedoacceptthatthesourceofsoftpowerliesinthepolitical,ratherthan
theartisticculture.Thelatterisaclearreflectionoftheformer.TheMoC
facilitatesthefreedomofcreativityinTaiwanand,throughinboundand
outboundculturaldiplomacy,throwsaspotlightonthewayaliberal-democracy
worksandprogresses,andhowgovernmentscanworkwith,butwithout
interferingincivilsociety.
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