cultural differences pt3
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Part 3 of the Cultural Diff classTRANSCRIPT
Tal AvivFeb 2011
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➲ 1- InequalityMore equal than others
Inequality & SocietyExists in every societyAthletes, artists enjoy status, wealth in some
societiesPoliticians enjoy power & wealth without
status in other societiesInequality considered good in some societies
while equality a law in others.
PDI scores informs dependence relationship in a country
Power distance defined as the extent to which the less powerful members of institutions and organizations within a country express and accept that power is distributed unequally
Power Distance Index
Countries Power Index (PDI)
Family, School, Workplace, Country.Nature and NurtureRole TransitionHigher EducationEffectiveness
Social Class OccupationEducational LevelOccupations with lowest status and
educational level – highest PDI values
Power Distance Difference in Countries
Large power distance situationsObedient, respect towards parentsNot allowed to experiment themselvesParental authority continuesMental software: Dependence on seniors
Power Distance Difference in Countries:Roots in the family
Small–Power distance situations Treated as equals Take control of their own affairs Active experimentation encouraged Parent make their own provision when old Mental software: Need for independence
Power Distance Difference in Countries:Roots in the family
Large Power DistanceStudents respect teachers, even outside the
classTeachers takes all the initiativeTeachers are gurus who transfers personal
wisdomQuality of learning depends on excellence of
students
Power Distance In School
Small Power distanceStudents treat teachers as equalsTeachers expect initiative from studentsTeachers are experts transferring impersonal
truthsQuality depends on communication and
excellence of students
Power Distance In School
Large Power distance situation Subordinates and superiors- existentially
unequal Organizations centralized Subordinates takes no initiative Wide gap between salary systems Manual work has lower status than office work
Power Distance at Workplace
Small Power Distance Situations Subordinates and superiors- existentially equal Organizations fairly decentralized Subordinates expects to be consulted Relatively small gap between salary systems Manual work has equal status compared to
office work
Power Distance at Workplace
Small Power Distance Use of power is legitimateSkills, wealth power and status need not go
togetherMost wealthier countries with a large middle classAll have equal rightsWay to change the political system- changing the
rulesPluralist government based on outcome of majority
votesSmall income differentials
Power Distance at State
Large Power Distance Whoever holds the power is right and good Skills, wealth power and status go together Most wealthier countries with a small middle
class Powerful have privileges The way to change the political system-
revolution Autocratic government based on cooptation Large income differentials
Power Distance at State
Corruption: When people use their position to illegally enrich themselves or when citizens buy the collaboration of authorities for their private purposes.
More in large PDI countriesAccording to Bribe Payers Index
Exporting countries with large PDI more likely to use side payments
Power Distance And Corruption
Dimensions of natural cultures
I, We, and They.The individual and collective in society.The degree of individualism in society.
Cross-National studies.Two separate dimensions?Individualism index (IDV) vs. Power index
(PDV)
Individualist / Collectivist Poles
Individualist Pole:Personal time.Freedom.Challenge.
Collectivist Pole:Training.Physical conditions.Use of skills.
Individualism Index (IDV)
Cross National StudiesIndividualist:
Tolerance to others.Harmony with others.No competitiveness.Close intimate friends.Trustworthiness.Solidarity with others.Being conservative.
Collectivist:Filial piety.Chastity in women.Patriotism.
Two Separate Dimensions ?
Large PDI collectivist.Small PDI
individualist.Power Distance vs.
Individualism figure.Third factor in
correlation: Economic Development.
Context
Comparison between individualist and collectivist societies:
OccupationFamilyLanguage, Personality, and BehaviorSchoolWorkplaceStateIdeasOrigins of Individualism-Collectivism
Differences.The future of Individualism and Collectivism.
Collectivist & Individualist Societies: Occupation
To distinguish occupation cultures:Intrinsic factors are real motivatorsExtrinsic factors represent the psychological
hygiene of the job.High education occupations: intrinsic
elements are more important.Lower-status & lower education occupations:
extrinsic elements preferred.
Collectivist & Individualist Societies: General Norm and Family
Collectivist:Extended families /in-
groupsThink of “we”.Maintain harmony /
avoid confrontations.Predetermined
friendships.Shared resources.High-context
communication prevails.Trespassing shame
and loss of face.Young, industrious and
chaste brides / Older grooms.
Individualist:Nuclear family
Think of “I”.Speaking one’s mind /
honest person.Voluntary friendships.Individual ownership.Low-context
communication prevails.Trespassing guilt and
loss of self respect.Criteria for marriage
are not predetermined.
General Norm & Family
Examples:Indonesian Javanese noble family.
No appointment needed to visit relatives.Marriage in different societies (ex. India).
Importance of love vs. other considerations.
Language, Personality, and Behavior in Individualist and Collectivist Cultures
Key aspects to compare:Use of word “I”.Ways people experience their self.Personality tests.Emotions.Walking speed.Consumption patterns.Primary sources of information.Health care.Disabled persons.
Language, Personality, and Behavior in Individualist and Collectivist Cultures (Summary)
Collectivist societyUse the word “I” is avoided.Interdependent self.On personality tests, people score
more introvert.Showing sadness is encouraged,
and happiness discourage.Slower walking speed.Dependence on others.Social network is the primary
source of information.A smaller share of both private and
public income is spent on health care.
Disabled person is a shame on the family.
Individualist societyUse of the word “I” is encouraged.Independent self.On personality tests, people score
more extrovert.Showing sadness is discouraged,
and happiness encourage.Faster walking speed.Dependence on yourself.Media is the primary source of
information.A lager share of both private and
public income is spent on health care.
Disabled person should have the same range of activities as a normal person.
Individualism and Collectivism at School
Key aspects to compare:Behavior at class (participation).Preferential treatment.Confrontations and open discussions.Adaptation to the new skills and methods.Purpose of education.Purpose of diploma.
Individualism and Collectivism at School (Summary)
Collectivist classroom Hesitation to speak up. Ways to increase students’
class participation:Ask personallyAssign a spokesperson Expect preferential treatment. Conflicts are unacceptable. Stress on adaptation to the
new skills and methods. Diploma as a “ticket” to be
socially accepted.
Individualist classroom
Expect to be treated as individuals.
Confrontations and open discussions are norms.
Easy adaptation in groups.
Positive attitude toward what is new.
Diploma as a sense of self achievement.
Individualism and Collectivism at Workplace
Key aspects to compare:Occupational mobility.Employees’ and company's interests.Hiring and promotion process.Employees’ earnings.Employee’s performance.Management (appraisal interviews).Customers treatment (in-group vs. regular).Relationship vs. task
Individualism and Collectivism at Workplace (Summary)
Collectivist society Sons follow their fathers’
occupations. Employee acts according to
the interest of the group. Earnings are often shared
with relatives. In-group hiring. Poor performance is not
the reason for termination. Management of groups.
Personal relationship prevails over the task.
Individualist society Sons of fathers choose
personally preferred occupation.
Employed persons act as “economic man.”
Hiring a family member is undesirable.
Poor performance is unacceptable.
It is normal to leave the company for the better pay.
Management of individuals. The task prevails any
personal relationship.
Individualism, Collectivism and State
Key aspects to compare:Personal opinion.Personal interests.Economic system.Gross National Product (GNP).Ownership of companies.Private life.Laws and rights.Human rights.
Individualism, Collectivism and State (Summary)Collectivist society
Opinions are predetermined by group membership.
Collective interests prevail over individual interests.
The state holds s dominant role in the economic system.
Per capita Gross National Product (GNP) tends to be low.
Companies are owned by families or collectives.
Private life invaded by group(s).
Laws and rights differ by group.
Lower human rights rating.
Individualist society Private opinion. Individual interests prevail
over collective interests. The role of the state in the
economic system is restrained.
Per capita Gross National Product (GNP) tends to be high.
Joint stock companies are owned by individual investors.
Everyone has a right to privacy.
Laws and rights are supposed to be the same for all.
Higher human rights rating.
Individualism, Collectivism and Ideas
Key aspects to compare:Ideologies (individual freedom vs. equality).Economic theories.Ultimate goals of society.Psychological experiments.
Individualism, Collectivism and Ideas (Summary)
Collectivist society Ideologies of equality
prevail over ideologies of individual freedom.
Imported economic theories are unable to deal with collective and particularist interests.
Harmony and consensus in society are ultimate goals.
Patriotism is the ideal. Outcome of psychological
experiments depends on in-group-out-group distinction.
Individualist societyIdeologies of individual
freedom prevail over ideologies of equality.
Native economic theories are based on pursuit of individual self-interest.
Self-actualization by every individual is an ultimate goal.
Autonomy is the ideal.Outcome of psychological
experiments depends on ego-other distinction.
Origins of Individualism-Collectivism Differences
Types of society:• Hunter-gatherer tribes.• Agricultural.• Urbanized.Individualism index value (IDV) can be
predicted from:• The country’s wealth.• The country’s geographical latitude.
The Avoidance of Uncertainty
Different approaches in in different cultures◦ The unexpected behavior of the British army with
the German soldier◦ Britain and Germany are so much alike: Power
Distance both 36, Masculinity 66◦ Britain has higher individualism index◦ The major dimension of difference: Uncertainty
Avoidance
The Avoidance of Uncertainty (cont’d.)Human beings have to face the fact that they
do not know what hill happen tomorrowExtreme ambiguity brings intolerable anxietyWays of handling uncertainty are part and
parcel of any human institution in any countryFamily, school and state can transfer ways of
handling uncertainty Human societies have developed ways to
handle the anxietyTechnologyLawReligion
Technology, Law, and ReligionTechnology from the most primitive to
the most advanced helps to avoid uncertainties caused by nature
Laws and rules try to prevent uncertainties in the behavior of other people
Religion is a way of relating to the transcendental forces that are assumed to control man’s personal lifeLife after death
The Uncertainty Avoidance Index (UAI) Power Distance Index Individualism- Collectivism Masculinity- Femininity Uncertainty Avoidance Index
By product of power distance The question was: “How often do you feel
nervous or tense at work?” UAI for Germany: 65 UAI for Britain: 35
Uncertainty Avoidance and AnxietyAnxiety is taken from psychology that expresses a diffuse “ state of being uneasy or worried about what may happen.”
Different from fear, because fear has an object
Anxiety levels differ from one culture to another
High UAI countries are more anxious than low UAI
High UAI cultures are expressive, aggressive, busy, and emotional
Low UAI cultures are quiet, controlled, lazy, and dull
Difference Between Uncertainty Avoidance and AnxietyRisk and fear are both focused on something
specificAn object in the case of fearAn event in case of risk
Risk is expressed through a percentage of a probability
Example of speed limit:Higher UAI, higher speed limit, more fatal
accidents , more riskssaving time over saving life
Uncertainty Avoidance According to Occupation, Gender, and Age
For occupation and gender, the study on three questions (stress, rule orientation, and intent to stay), was not conclusive
The study on age showed correlation between high UAI and higher age
In higher UAI countries people intended not to change their employer more frequently
Uncertainty Avoidance in The FamilyCultural interpretation of safe and danger, clean
and dirtyRacism and Ideas to be categorized --- Clean and
dirty races, or safe and dangerous ideas are taught to children by their familiesAngel/ Evil; Truth/ Sinful
Xenophobia: What is Different is Dangerous vs. What is different is Curious
Children in high UAI societies tend to learn that the world is a hostile place, more solid rules, less freedom to discover
Low UAI countries also have their own interpretation of safe and danger/ clean and dirt, but they are less precise, give benefit of the doubt, more flexible rules
Uncertainty Avoidance, happiness, and HealthHappiness is negatively correlated with UAI
based on the 1999 World Values surveyNowadays wealth has no effect on happiness!
Very happy people live in both high UAI and low UAI, but very UNHAPPY people live in high UAI (according to the study done by Veenhoven before 1990)
Health is also negatively correlated with UAIIn high UAI societies patients can spend
more time with the doctors than nursesPeople in low UAI societies live longer!
Uncertainty Avoidance at SchoolLow UAIStudents are comfortable
with open-ended learning situations and concerned with good discussions
Teachers may say, “I don’t know”
Results are attributed to a persons’ own ability
Teachers involve parents
High UAIStudents are
comfortable in structured learning situations and concerned with the right answers
Teachers are supposed to have all the answers
Results are attributed to circumstances or luck
Teachers inform parents
Uncertainty Avoidance in Shopping
Low UAI In shopping the
search is for convenience
Used cars, do-it-yourself home repairs
Fast acceptance of new products such as internet and email
More books and newspapers
Risky Investment Appeal of humor in
advertising
High UAI In shopping the search is
for purity and cleanlinessNew cars, homes, repairs
by expertsThere is a hesitance
towards new products and technologies
Fewer books and newspapers
Conservative investmentAppeal of expertise in
advertising
Uncertainty Avoidance in The Workplace
Laws, rules, and regulations are supposed to prevent uncertain events
In high UAI societies, there are more formal law and internal regulations in order to control work process and duties of employers and employees
People are programmed since their early childhood to work in structured environments, belief in expertise on the work floor
Emotional need for rules can lead to a rule-oriented behavior that sometimes is ritual, inconsistent, and maybe dysfunctional
Uncertainty Avoidance in The Workplace (cont’d.)Low UAI countries have less formal laws.
They establish formal laws if necessaryIn low UAI cultures many problems can
be solved without formal rulesGermans: Very disciplinary
Equally dispersed expertise as workforceIn Britain top managers occupied
themselves with more strategic problems and less with daily operations (unlike France and Germany)
Uncertainty Avoidance in The Workplace (cont’d.)
In high UAI countries, less trademarks were granted due to many regulations, the result can lead to less creativity and innovation
However, low UAI countries may be stronger in the basic steps of innovation, but they do not have the detailed structure in order to implement those innovations into real products or serviceBritain has produced more Nobel prize winners
than Japan, but Japan has produced more new products on the world market
Uncertainty Avoidance, Masculinity and MotivationDavid Mc Clelland from Harvard School of
Psychology conducted a study base on combining UAI and masculinity- femininity factor
Three types of motives:AchievementAffiliationPower
Uncertainty Avoidance, Masculinity and Motivation (cont’d.)
Low UAIMotivation by achievement
and esteem or belongingThere are fewer self-
employed people Intrapreneurs are
relatively free from frameworks
High UAIMotivation by security
or esteem or belonging
There are more self-employed people
Intrapreneures are constrained by existing rules
Uncertainty Avoidance, The Citizen, and The State
In societies with weak UAI if feelings prevails that laws don’t work, they should be withdrawn or changed
In societies with strong UAI laws need to fulfill a need for security even if they are not followed, very similar to to religious commandments
Case study: ◦ Collecting a bounced check◦ Evicting a tenant for nonpayment of rent
More uncertainty avoidance are well provided with laws, but for the citizens to make them work, takes more time
Uncertainty Avoidance, The Citizen, and The State (cont’d.)Low UAI
Fast Result in case of appeal to justice
There is high participation in voluntary associations and movement
Citizen protest is acceptable
Citizens are interested in politics
Liberalism Positive attitude toward
young people Tolerance, even of
extreme ideas
High UAI Slow result in case of
appeal to justice There is low participation
in voluntary associations and movement
Citizens protest should be repressed
Citizens are not interested in politics
Negative attitude toward young people
Extremism, and repression of extremism
Uncertainty Avoidance, Xenophobia, and Nationalism The case of student exchange program between
The Netherlands and Austria◦ Racism
Data from the European Commission report Racism and Xenophobia in Europe (1997) showed that the immigrants should be sent was strongly correlated with UAI. In IBM data it was already found out that foreign managers were less accepted in high UAI cultures
Fascism and racism are often found in high UAI countries that have high value of masculinity as well
Uncertainty Avoidance, Xenophobia, and Nationalism (cont’d.)
The relationship between uncertainty avoidance and individualism/ collectivism:Collectivist countries try to eliminate intergroup
conflicts by denying or repressing it such as Serbia, Arab countries, and Turkey
Some other countries with lower individualism attribute but have different ethnic groups try to be more tolerant and give each other complements such as Malaysia
The United States in theory a majority try to support integration of minorities and equal rights
Uncertainty Avoidance, Religion and IdeasReligious beliefs and rituals help us to accept
the uncertainties we can not defend ourselves against◦ The ultimate certainty: Life after death
UAI review:◦ Most Orthodox and Roman Catholic Christian countries score
high, except for Philippines and Ireland◦ Muslim countries tend to score in the middle◦ Protestant Christian countries below average◦ Buddhist and Hindu countries medium to very low, except for
Japan Different regions, different religious beliefs under the
same religion such as Indonesian, Iranian, Saudi, and Balkan Muslims
Uncertainty Avoidance, Religion and Ideas (cont’d.)
Low UAIMore ethnic toleranceDefensive nationalismOne religion’s truth
should not be imposed on others
Human rights: no one should be prosecuted for their beliefs
Scientist opponents can be personal friends
High UAI More ethnic prejudice Aggressive nationalism In religion, there is
only one truth and we have it
More religious, political, and ideological intolerance and fundamentalism
Scientist opponents can not be personal friends
ASSERTIVENESS VERSUS MODESTY
Masculine pole
Earnings Recognition Advancement challenge
Feminine pole
ManagerCooperationLiving areaEmployment
security
Masculine Culture
Challenge and earning are important
Men should be assertive and tough
Women are supposed to be tender and take care of relationship
Father deal with fact and mother with feeling
Feminine Culture
Relationship and quality of life are important
Both men and women should be modest
Both men and women can be tender and take care of relationship
Both father and mother deal with fact and feelings
Sales Representatives Engineers and Scientists Technicians and skilled craftspeople Managers of all categories Semiskilled and unskilled workers Office workers
Both boys and girls learn their place in society
Children controlled by Parents Children socialize in family Role distribution between husband and
wife Role of men and women
Masculine culture
According to research the teachers don’t praised for the effort
Failing in school is a disaster
Job choices are guided by career opportunities
They follow the same academic curricula
Feminine culture
Teachers rather praised weaker students to encourage them
Failing is a minor incident
Job choices are guided by the interest in subject
academic curricula vary if the country is wealthy or poor
Masculine Culture
People buy more expensive watches and jewelry
People more often fly on business class on pleasure trips
People prefer foreign good than local product
Women shop for food, men shop for cars
More nonfiction is read
Feminine Culture
People spend more on the products for home
People take their carven or trailer with them for vacation
People spend more on making their own stuff
Women and men shop for food and cars
More fiction is read
Masculine Culture Feminine Culture
Resolution of conflicts: by the strongest
Rewards are based on equity
Live in order to work More money preferred
over more time Careers are
compulsory for men, optional for women
Resolution: by compromise and negotiation
Rewards are based on equality
Work in order to live More time preferred
over more money Careers are optional
for both
The masculinity-femininity dimension affects priorities: Solidarity with the weak VS reward for the
strong Aid to poor countries VS investing in armaments Protection of the environment VS economic
growth
Do you know which culture is which and why?What do you conclude?
Masculine Culture Feminine Culture
Tough religions In Christianity: stress
on believing in God Dominant religions
stress the male privilege
Religions approve sex for reproduction rather than recreation
Tender religions In Christianity: stress
on loving one’s another
Dominant religions stress balancing of the sexes
Religions are positive or neutral about sexual pleasure
ReferenceHofstede, Geert (1997). Culture and Organizations: Software of the Mind. New York: McGraw