cuestionarios economía
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Cuestionarios EconomíaTRANSCRIPT
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Escasez de Recursos-Teorías Económicas
Es necesario entonces analizar las ideas más trascendentales en la historia,
hechas por economistas o expertos en el área, de esa manera podemos
concluir cual es el punto común del uso de recursos alimentarios.Seleccionamos a Smith, y a Marx por ser los padres de cada una de las más
fuertes ideas económica. Además presentamos a Keynes y a Stalin por ser
expertos en el área de economía y por crear planes de coniencia de los
po!ladores de los países. "inalmente Malthus demuestra matemáticamente
el dilema de la alimentación. Eidentemente, el análisis no es su#ciente,
hay $ue ser críticos y concluir o!%etiamente so!re la información
presentada, para sintetizar los datos en una sola idea.
&na de las o!ras más importantes de Keynes, en esta relaciona el empleo y
su contraparte' el desempleo con la escasez y la correcta utilización de los
recursos y las inersiones
Esta pá(ina muestra diersos documentos $ue nos explican como los
soi)ticos, !a%o el mando de Stalin, lo(raron con planes $uin$uenales a!atir
muchos pro!lemas
Malthus presenta todas las ertientes del aumento po!lacional y como )ste
afecta a la producción y la alimentación en el mundo, pro!a!lemente el más
importante pues esta!lece directamente causas $ue afectan los recursos
alimentarios en el mundo.
Adam Smith, en el capítulo * de su o!ra maestra ha!la de los recursos y
como estos lo(ran ser aproechados, al i(ual $ue Marx, su análisis es
esencial por$ue )l es uno de los padres de la economía.
"inalmente esco(imos a Marx puesto $ue su teoría socialista es esencial
para la distri!ución de recursos, como ha ido e ira eolucionando y además
esta!lece ideas esenciales acerca del uso de todo tipo de recursos.
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Fragmento- “An Inquiry into the Nature and Causes of the Wealth of Nations by
Adam Smith 1776 oo! 1" Cha#ter $ %f the Wages of &abour'
()* #rodu+e of labour +onstitutes the natural re+om#ense or ,ages of labour
“ In that original state of things" ,hi+h #re+edes both the a##ro#riation of land and
the a++umulation of sto+!" the ,hole #rodu+e of labour belongs to the labourer )e
has neither landlord nor master to share ,ith him
)ad this state +ontinued" the ,ages of labour ,ould ha.e augmented ,ith all those
im#ro.ements in its #rodu+ti.e #o,ers to ,hi+h the di.ision of labour gi.es
o++asion All things ,ould gradually ha.e be+ome +hea#er (hey ,ould ha.e been
#rodu+ed by a smaller quantity of labour/ and as the +ommodities #rodu+ed by
equal quantities of labour ,ould naturally in this state of things be e0+hanged for
one another" they ,ould ha.e been #ur+hased li!e,ise ,ith the #rodu+e of a
smaller quantity
ut though all things ,ould ha.e be+ome +hea#er in reality" in a##earan+e many
things might ha.e be+ome dearer than before" or ha.e been e0+hanged for a
greater quantity of other goods &et us su##ose" for e0am#le" that in the greater#art of em#loyments the #rodu+ti.e #o,ers of labour had been im#ro.ed to ten
fold" or that a days labour +ould #rodu+e ten times the quantity of ,or! ,hi+h it
had done originally/ but that in a #arti+ular em#loyment they had been im#ro.ed"
only to double" or that a days labour +ould #rodu+e only t,i+e the quantity of ,or!
,hi+h it had done before In e0+hanging the #rodu+e of a days labour in the greater
#art of em#loyments for that of a days labour in this #arti+ular one" ten times the
original quantity of ,or! in them ,ould #ur+hase only t,i+e the original quantity in
it Any #arti+ular quantity in it" therefore" a #ound ,eight" for e0am#le" ,ould
a##ear to be 2.e times dearer than before In reality" ho,e.er" it ,ould be t,i+e as
+hea# (hough it required 2.e times the quantity of other goods to #ur+hase it" it
,ould require only half the quantity of labour either to #ur+hase or to #rodu+e it
(he a+quisition" therefore" ,ould be t,i+e as easy as before
ut this original state of things" in ,hi+h the labourer en3oyed the ,hole #rodu+e of
his o,n labour" +ould not last beyond the 2rst introdu+tion of the a##ro#riation of
land and the a++umulation of sto+! It ,as at an end" therefore" long before the
most +onsiderable im#ro.ements ,ere made in the #rodu+ti.e #o,ers of labour"
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and it ,ould be to no #ur#ose to tra+e further ,hat might ha.e been its e4e+ts
u#on the re+om#ense or ,ages of labour
As soon as land be+omes #ri.ate #ro#erty" the landlord demands a share of almost
all the #rodu+e ,hi+h the labourer +an either raise" or +olle+t from it )is rent ma!es
the 2rst dedu+tion from the #rodu+e of the labour ,hi+h is em#loyed u#on land
It seldom ha##ens that the #erson ,ho tills the ground has ,here,ithal to maintain
himself till he rea#s the har.est )is maintenan+e is generally ad.an+ed to him from
the sto+! of a master" the farmer ,ho em#loys him" and ,ho ,ould ha.e no interest
to em#loy him" unless he ,as to share in the #rodu+e of his labour" or unless his
sto+! ,as to be re#la+ed to him ,ith a #ro2t (his #ro2t" ma!es a se+ond dedu+tion
from the #rodu+e of the labour ,hi+h is em#loyed u#on land
(he #rodu+e of almost all other labour is liable to the li!e dedu+tion of #ro2t In all
arts and manufa+tures the greater #art of the ,or!men stand in need of a master to
ad.an+e them the materials of their ,or!" and their ,ages and maintenan+e till it
be +om#leted )e shares in the #rodu+e of their labour" or in the .alue ,hi+h it adds
to the materials u#on ,hi+h it is besto,ed/ and in this share +onsists his #ro2t
It sometimes ha##ens" indeed" that a single inde#endent ,or!man has sto+!
su5+ient both to #ur+hase the materials of his ,or!" and to maintain himself till it
be +om#leted )e is both master and ,or!man" and en3oys the ,hole #rodu+e of his
o,n labour" or the ,hole .alue ,hi+h it adds to the materials u#on ,hi+h it is
besto,ed It in+ludes ,hat are usually t,o distin+t re.enues" belonging to t,o
distin+t #ersons" the #ro2ts of sto+!" and the ,ages of labour
Su+h +ases" ho,e.er" are not .ery frequent" and in e.ery #art of *uro#e" t,enty
,or!men ser.e under a master for one that is inde#endent/ and the ,ages of labour
are e.ery,here understood to be" ,hat they usually are" ,hen the labourer is one
#erson" and the o,ner of the sto+! ,hi+h em#loys him another
What are the +ommon ,ages of labour" de#ends e.ery,here u#on the +ontra+t
usually made bet,een those t,o #arties" ,hose interests are by no means the
same (he ,or!men desire to get as mu+h" the masters to gi.e as little as #ossible
(he former are dis#osed to +ombine in order to raise" the latter in order to lo,er the
,ages of labour
It is not" ho,e.er" di5+ult to foresee ,hi+h of the t,o #arties must" u#on all
ordinary o++asions" ha.e the ad.antage in the dis#ute" and for+e the other into a
+om#lian+e ,ith their terms (he masters" being fe,er in number" +an +ombine
mu+h more easily/ and the la," besides" authories" or at least does not #rohibit
their +ombinations" ,hile it #rohibits those of the ,or!men We ha.e no a+ts of
#arliament against +ombining to lo,er the #ri+e of ,or!/ but many against
+ombining to raise it In all su+h dis#utes the masters +an hold out mu+h longer A
landlord" a farmer" a master manufa+turer" a mer+hant" though they did not em#loy
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a single ,or!man" +ould generally li.e a year or t,o u#on the sto+!s ,hi+h they
ha.e already a+quired any ,or!men +ould not subsist a ,ee!" fe, +ould subsist a
month" and s+ar+e any a year ,ithout em#loyment In the long run the ,or!man
may be as ne+essary to his master as his master is to him/ but the ne+essity is not
so immediate
We rarely hear" it has been said" of the +ombinations of masters" though frequently
of those of ,or!men ut ,hoe.er imagines" u#on this a++ount" that masters rarely
+ombine" is as ignorant of the ,orld as of the sub3e+t asters are al,ays and
e.ery,here in a sort of ta+it" but +onstant and uniform +ombination" not to raise the
,ages of labour abo.e their a+tual rate (o .iolate this +ombination is e.ery,here a
most un#o#ular a+tion" and a sort of re#roa+h to a master among his neighbours
and equals We seldom" indeed" hear of this +ombination" be+ause it is the usual"
and one may say" the natural state of things" ,hi+h nobody e.er hears of asters"
too" sometimes enter into #arti+ular +ombinations to sin! the ,ages of labour e.en
belo, this rate (hese are al,ays +ondu+ted ,ith the utmost silen+e and se+re+y"
till the moment of e0e+ution" and ,hen the ,or!men yield" as they sometimes do",ithout resistan+e" though se.erely felt by them" they are ne.er heard of by other
#eo#le Su+h +ombinations" ho,e.er" are frequently resisted by a +ontrary
defensi.e +ombination of the ,or!men/ ,ho sometimes too" ,ithout any
#ro.o+ation of this !ind" +ombine of their o,n a++ord to raise the #ri+e of their
labour (heir usual #reten+es are" sometimes the high #ri+e of #ro.isions/
sometimes the great #ro2t ,hi+h their masters ma!e by their ,or! ut ,hether
their +ombinations be o4ensi.e or defensi.e" they are al,ays abundantly heard of
In order to bring the #oint to a s#eedy de+ision" they ha.e al,ays re+ourse to the
loudest +lamour" and sometimes to the most sho+!ing .iolen+e and outrage (hey
are des#erate" and a+t ,ith the folly and e0tra.agan+e of des#erate men" ,ho musteither star.e" or frighten their masters into an immediate +om#lian+e ,ith their
demands (he masters u#on these o++asions are 3ust as +lamorous u#on the other
side" and ne.er +ease to +all aloud for the assistan+e of the +i.il magistrate" and the
rigorous e0e+ution of those la,s ,hi+h ha.e been ena+ted ,ith so mu+h se.erity
against the +ombinations of ser.ants" labourers" and 3ourneymen (he ,or!men"
a++ordingly" .ery seldom deri.e any ad.antage from the .iolen+e of those
tumultuous +ombinations" ,hi+h" #artly from the inter#osition of the +i.il
magistrate" #artly from the ne+essity su#erior steadiness of the masters" #artly
from the ne+essity ,hi+h the greater #art of the ,or!men are under of submitting
for the sa!e of #resent subsisten+e" generally end in nothing" but the #unishment or
ruin of the ringleaders
ut though in dis#utes ,ith their ,or!men" masters must generally ha.e the
ad.antage" there is" ho,e.er" a +ertain rate belo, ,hi+h it seems im#ossible to
redu+e" for any +onsiderable time" the ordinary ,ages e.en of the lo,est s#e+ies of
labour
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A man must al,ays li.e by his ,or!" and his ,ages must at least be su5+ient to
maintain him (hey must e.en u#on most o++asions be some,hat more/ other,ise
it ,ould be im#ossible for him to bring u# a family" and the ra+e of su+h ,or!men
+ould not last beyond the 2rst generation r Cantillon seems" u#on this a++ount" to
su##ose that the lo,est s#e+ies of +ommon labourers must e.ery,here earn at
least double their o,n maintenan+e" in order that one ,ith another they may beenabled to bring u# t,o +hildren/ the labour of the ,ife" on a++ount of her
ne+essary attendan+e on the +hildren" being su##osed no more than su5+ient to
#ro.ide for herself ut one half the +hildren born" it is +om#uted" die before the age
of manhood (he #oorest labourers" therefore" a++ording to this a++ount" must" one
,ith another" attem#t to rear at least four +hildren" in order that t,o may ha.e an
equal +han+e of li.ing to that age ut the ne+essary maintenan+e of four +hildren"
it is su##osed" may be nearly equal to that of one man (he labour of an able-
bodied sla.e" the same author adds" is +om#uted to be ,orth double his
maintenan+e/ and that of the meanest labourer" he thin!s" +annot be ,orth less
than that of an ablebodied sla.e (hus far at least seems +ertain" that" in order to
bring u# a family" the labour of the husband and ,ife together must" e.en in the
lo,est s#e+ies of +ommon labour" be able to earn something more than ,hat is
#re+isely ne+essary for their o,n maintenan+e/ but in ,hat #ro#ortion" ,hether in
that abo.e mentioned" or in any other" I shall not ta!e u#on me to determine
(here are +ertain +ir+umstan+es" ho,e.er" ,hi+h sometimes gi.e the labourers an
ad.antage" and enable them to raise their ,ages +onsiderably abo.e this rate/
e.idently the lo,est ,hi+h is +onsistent ,ith +ommon humanity
When in any +ountry the demand for those ,ho li.e by ,ages" labourers"
3ourneymen" ser.ants of e.ery !ind" is +ontinually in+reasing/ ,hen e.ery year
furnishes em#loyment for a greater number than had been em#loyed the year
before" the ,or!men ha.e no o++asion to +ombine in order to raise their ,ages (he
s+ar+ity of hands o++asions a +om#etition among masters" ,ho bid against one
another" in order to get ,or!men" and thus .oluntarily brea! through the natural
+ombination of masters not to raise ,ages
(he demand for those ,ho li.e by ,ages" it is e.ident" +annot in+rease but in
#ro#ortion to the in+rease of the funds ,hi+h are destined for the #ayment of
,ages (hese funds are of t,o !inds/ 2rst" re.enue ,hi+h is o.er and abo.e ,hat is
ne+essary for the maintenan+e/ and" se+ondly" the sto+! ,hi+h is o.er and abo.e
,hat is ne+essary for the em#loyment of their masters
When the landlord" annuitant" or monied man" has a greater re.enue than ,hat he
3udges su5+ient to maintain his o,n family" he em#loys either the ,hole or a #art
of the sur#lus in maintaining one or more menial ser.ants In+rease this sur#lus"
and he ,ill naturally in+rease the number of those ser.ants
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When an inde#endent ,or!man" su+h as a ,ea.er or shoema!er" has got more
sto+! than ,hat is su5+ient to #ur+hase the materials of his o,n ,or!" and to
maintain himself till he +an dis#ose of it" he naturally em#loys one or more
3ourneymen ,ith the sur#lus" in order to ma!e a #ro2t by their ,or! In+rease this
sur#lus" and he ,ill naturally in+rease the number of his 3ourneymen
(he demand for those ,ho li.e by ,ages" therefore" ne+essarily in+reases ,ith the
in+rease of the re.enue and sto+! of e.ery +ountry" and +annot #ossibly in+rease
,ithout it (he in+rease of re.enue and sto+! is the in+rease of national ,ealth (he
demand for those ,ho li.e by ,ages" therefore" naturally in+reases ,ith the
in+rease of national ,ealth" and +annot #ossibly in+rease ,ithout it
It is not the a+tual greatness of national ,ealth" but its +ontinual in+rease" ,hi+h
o++asions a rise in the ,ages of labour It is not" a++ordingly" in the ri+hest
+ountries" but in the most thri.ing" or in those ,hi+h are gro,ing ri+h the fastest"
that the ,ages of labour are highest *ngland is +ertainly" in the #resent times" a
mu+h ri+her +ountry than any #art of North Ameri+a (he ,ages of labour" ho,e.er"are mu+h higher in North Ameri+a than in any #art of *ngland In the #ro.in+e of
Ne, 8or!" +ommon labourers earn three shillings and si0#en+e +urren+y" equal to
t,o shillings sterling" a day/ shi# +ar#enters" ten shillings and si0#en+e +urren+y"
,ith a #int of rum ,orth si0#en+e sterling" equal in all to si0 shillings and si0#en+e
sterling/ house +ar#enters and bri+!layers" eight shillings +urren+y" equal to four
shillings and si0#en+e sterling/ 3ourneymen tailors" 2.e shillings +urren+y" equal to
about t,o shillings and ten#en+e sterling (hese #ri+es are all abo.e the &ondon
#ri+e/ and ,ages are said to be as high in the other +olonies as in Ne, 8or! (he
#ri+e of #ro.isions is e.ery,here in North Ameri+a mu+h lo,er than in *ngland A
dearth has ne.er been !no,n there In the ,orst seasons they ha.e al,ays had a
su5+ien+y for themsel.es" though less for e0#ortation If the money #ri+e of labour"
therefore" be higher than it is any,here in the mother +ountry" its real #ri+e" the
real +ommand of the ne+essaries and +on.enien+ies of life ,hi+h it +on.eys to the
labourer must be higher in a still greater #ro#ortion
ut though North Ameri+a is not yet so ri+h as *ngland" it is mu+h more thri.ing"
and ad.an+ing ,ith mu+h greater ra#idity to the further a+quisition of ri+hes (he
most de+isi.e mar! of the #ros#erity of any +ountry is the in+rease of the number of
its inhabitants In 9reat ritain" and most other *uro#ean +ountries" they are not
su##osed to double in less than 2.e hundred years In the ritish +olonies in North
Ameri+a" it has been found that they double in t,enty or 2.e-and-t,enty years Norin the #resent times is this in+rease #rin+i#ally o,ing to the +ontinual im#ortation of
ne, inhabitants" but to the great multi#li+ation of the s#e+ies (hose ,ho li.e to old
age" it is said" frequently see there from 2fty to a hundred" and sometimes many
more" des+endants from their o,n body &abour is there so ,ell re,arded that a
numerous family of +hildren" instead of being a burthen" is a sour+e of o#ulen+e and
#ros#erity to the #arents (he labour of ea+h +hild" before it +an lea.e their house"
is +om#uted to be ,orth a hundred #ounds +lear gain to them A young ,ido, ,ith
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four or 2.e young +hildren" ,ho" among the middling or inferior ran!s of #eo#le in
*uro#e" ,ould ha.e so little +han+e for a se+ond husband" is there frequently
+ourted as a sort of fortune (he .alue of +hildren is the greatest of all
en+ouragements to marriage We +annot" therefore" ,onder that the #eo#le in North
Ameri+a should generally marry .ery young Not,ithstanding the great in+rease
o++asioned by su+h early marriages" there is a +ontinual +om#laint of the s+ar+ity of hands in North Ameri+a (he demand for labourers" the funds destined for
maintaining them" in+rease" it seems" still faster than they +an 2nd labourers to
em#loy
(hough the ,ealth of a +ountry should be .ery great" yet if it has been long
stationary" ,e must not e0#e+t to 2nd the ,ages of labour .ery high in it (he funds
destined for the #ayment of ,ages" the re.enue and sto+! of its inhabitants" may be
of the greatest e0tent/ but if they ha.e +ontinued for se.eral +enturies of the same"
or .ery nearly of the same e0tent" the number of labourers em#loyed e.ery year
+ould easily su##ly" and e.en more than su##ly" the number ,anted the follo,ing
year (here +ould seldom be any s+ar+ity of hands" nor +ould the masters be obligedto bid against one another in order to get them (he hands" on the +ontrary" ,ould"
in this +ase" naturally multi#ly beyond their em#loyment (here ,ould be a +onstant
s+ar+ity of em#loyment" and the labourers ,ould be obliged to bid against one
another in order to get it If in su+h a +ountry the ,ages of labour had e.er been
more than su5+ient to maintain the labourer" and to enable him to bring u# a
family" the +om#etition of the labourers and the interest of the masters ,ould soon
redu+e them to this lo,est rate ,hi+h is +onsistent ,ith +ommon humanity China
has been long one of the ri+hest" that is" one of the most fertile" best +ulti.ated"
most industrious" and most #o#ulous +ountries in ,orld It seems" ho,e.er" to ha.e
been long stationary ar+o :olo" ,ho .isited it more than 2.e hundred years ago"des+ribes its +ulti.ation" industry" and #o#ulousness" almost in the same terms in
,hi+h they are des+ribed by tra.ellers in the #resent times It had #erha#s" e.en
long before his time" a+quired that full +om#lement of ri+hes ,hi+h the nature of its
la,s and institutions #ermits it to a+quire (he a++ounts of all tra.ellers"
in+onsistent in many other res#e+ts" agree in the lo, ,ages of labour" and in the
di5+ulty ,hi+h a labourer 2nds in bringing u# a family in China If by digging the
ground a ,hole day he +an get ,hat ,ill #ur+hase a small quantity of ri+e in the
e.ening" he is +ontented (he +ondition of arti2+ers is" if #ossible" still ,orse
Instead of ,aiting indolently in their ,or!houses" for the +alls of their +ustomers" as
in *uro#e" they are +ontinually running about the streets ,ith the tools of their
res#e+ti.e trades" o4ering their ser.i+e" and as it ,ere begging em#loyment (he
#o.erty of the lo,er ran!s of #eo#le in China far sur#asses that of the most
beggarly nations in *uro#e In the neighbourhood of Canton many hundred" it is
+ommonly said" many thousand families ha.e no habitation on the land" but li.e
+onstantly in little 2shing boats u#on the ri.ers and +anals (he subsisten+e ,hi+h
they 2nd there is so s+anty that they are eager to 2sh u# the nastiest garbage
thro,n o.erboard from any *uro#ean shi# Any +arrion" the +ar+ase of a dead dog
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or +at" for e0am#le" though half #utrid and stin!ing" is as ,el+ome to them as the
most ,holesome food to the #eo#le of other +ountries arriage is en+ouraged in
China" not by the #ro2tableness of +hildren" but by the liberty of destroying them In
all great to,ns se.eral are e.ery night e0#osed in the street" or dro,ned li!e
#u##ies in the ,ater (he #erforman+e of this horrid o5+e is e.en said to be the
a.o,ed business by ,hi+h some #eo#le earn their subsisten+e
China" ho,e.er" though it may #erha#s stand still" does not seem to go ba+!,ards
Its to,ns are no,here deserted by their inhabitants (he lands ,hi+h had on+e been
+ulti.ated are no,here negle+ted (he same or .ery nearly the same annual labour
must therefore +ontinue to be #erformed" and the funds destined for maintaining it
must not" +onsequently" be sensibly diminished (he lo,est +lass of labourers"
therefore" not,ithstanding their s+anty subsisten+e" must some ,ay or another
ma!e shift to +ontinue their ra+e so far as to !ee# u# their usual numbers'
Fragmento- An *ssay on the :rin+i#le of :o#ulation by (homas althus
“ C)A:(*; 1
<uestion stated--&ittle #ros#e+t of a determination of it" from the enmity of the
o##osing #arties--(he #rin+i#al argument against the #erfe+tibility of man and of
so+iety has ne.er been fairly ans,ered--Nature of the di5+ulty arising from
#o#ulation--%utline of the #rin+i#al argument of the *ssay
(he great and unloo!ed for dis+o.eries that ha.e ta!en #la+e of late years in natural
#hiloso#hy" the in+reasing di4usion of general !no,ledge from the e0tension of the
art of #rinting" the ardent and unsha+!led s#irit of inquiry that #re.ails throughout
the lettered and e.en unlettered ,orld" the ne, and e0traordinary lights that ha.e
been thro,n on #oliti+al sub3e+ts ,hi+h dale and astonish the understanding" and
#arti+ularly that tremendous #henomenon in the #oliti+al horion" the Fren+h
;e.olution" ,hi+h" li!e a blaing +omet" seems destined either to ins#ire ,ith fresh
life and .igour" or to s+or+h u# and destroy the shrin!ing inhabitants of the earth"
ha.e all +on+urred to lead many able men into the o#inion that ,e ,ere tou+hing on
a #eriod big ,ith the most im#ortant +hanges" +hanges that ,ould in some measure
be de+isi.e of the future fate of man!ind It has been said that the great question is
no, at issue" ,hether man shall hen+eforth start for,ards ,ith a++elerated .elo+ity
to,ards illimitable" and hitherto un+on+ei.ed im#ro.ement" or be +ondemned to a
#er#etual os+illation bet,een ha##iness and misery" and after e.ery e4ort remain
still at an immeasurable distan+e from the ,ished-for goal 8et" an0iously as e.eryfriend of man!ind must loo! for,ards to the termination of this #ainful sus#ense"
and eagerly as the inquiring mind ,ould hail e.ery ray of light that might assist its
.ie, into futurity" it is mu+h to be lamented that the ,riters on ea+h side of this
momentous question still !ee# far aloof from ea+h other (heir mutual arguments do
not meet ,ith a +andid e0amination (he question is not brought to rest on fe,er
#oints" and e.en in theory s+ar+ely seems to be a##roa+hing to a de+ision
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(he ad.o+ate for the #resent order of things is a#t to treat the se+t of s#e+ulati.e
#hiloso#hers either as a set of artful and designing !na.es ,ho #rea+h u# ardent
bene.olen+e and dra, +a#ti.ating #i+tures of a ha##ier state of so+iety only the
better to enable them to destroy the #resent establishments and to for,ard their
o,n dee#-laid s+hemes of ambition" or as ,ild and mad-headed enthusiasts ,hose
silly s#e+ulations and absurd #arado0es are not ,orthy the attention of anyreasonable man=
(he ad.o+ate for the #erfe+tibility of man" and of so+iety" retorts on the defender of
establishments a more than equal +ontem#t )e brands him as the sla.e of the
most miserable and narro, #re3udi+es/ or as the defender of the abuses of +i.il
so+iety only be+ause he #ro2ts by them )e #aints him either as a +hara+ter ,ho
#rostitutes his understanding to his interest" or as one ,hose #o,ers of mind are
not of a sie to gras# anything great and noble" ,ho +annot see abo.e 2.e yards
before him" and ,ho must therefore be utterly unable to ta!e in the .ie,s of the
enlightened benefa+tor of man!ind
In this unami+able +ontest the +ause of truth +annot but su4er (he really good
arguments on ea+h side of the question are not allo,ed to ha.e their #ro#er ,eight
*a+h #ursues his o,n theory" little soli+itous to +orre+t or im#ro.e it by an attention
to ,hat is ad.an+ed by his o##onents
(he friend of the #resent order of things +ondemns all #oliti+al s#e+ulations in the
gross )e ,ill not e.en +ondes+end to e0amine the grounds from ,hi+h the
#erfe+tibility of so+iety is inferred u+h less ,ill he gi.e himself the trouble in a fair
and +andid manner to attem#t an e0#osition of their falla+y
(he s#e+ulati.e #hiloso#her equally o4ends against the +ause of truth With eyes20ed on a ha##ier state of so+iety" the blessings of ,hi+h he #aints in the most
+a#ti.ating +olours" he allo,s himself to indulge in the most bitter in.e+ti.es
against e.ery #resent establishment" ,ithout a##lying his talents to +onsider the
best and safest means of remo.ing abuses and ,ithout seeming to be a,are of the
tremendous obsta+les that threaten" e.en in theory" to o##ose the #rogress of man
to,ards #erfe+tion
It is an a+!no,ledged truth in #hiloso#hy that a 3ust theory ,ill al,ays be +on2rmed
by e0#eriment 8et so mu+h fri+tion and so many minute +ir+umstan+es o++ur in
#ra+ti+e" ,hi+h it is ne0t to im#ossible for the most enlarged and #enetrating mind
to foresee" that on fe, sub3e+ts +an any theory be #ronoun+ed 3ust" till all thearguments against it ha.e been maturely ,eighed and +learly and +onsistently
refuted
I ha.e read some of the s#e+ulations on the #erfe+tibility of man and of so+iety ,ith
great #leasure I ha.e been ,armed and delighted ,ith the en+hanting #i+ture
,hi+h they hold forth I ardently ,ish for su+h ha##y im#ro.ements ut I see great"
and" to my understanding" un+onquerable di5+ulties in the ,ay to them (hese
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di5+ulties it is my #resent #ur#ose to state" de+laring" at the same time" that so far
from e0ulting in them" as a +ause of trium#h o.er the friends of inno.ation" nothing
,ould gi.e me greater #leasure than to see them +om#letely remo.ed
(he most im#ortant argument that I shall addu+e is +ertainly not ne, (he #rin+i#les
on ,hi+h it de#ends ha.e been e0#lained in #art by )ume" and more at large by >rAdam Smith It has been ad.an+ed and a##lied to the #resent sub3e+t" though not
,ith its #ro#er ,eight" or in the most for+ible #oint of .ie," by r Walla+e" and it
may #robably ha.e been stated by many ,riters that I ha.e ne.er met ,ith I
should +ertainly therefore not thin! of ad.an+ing it again" though I mean to #la+e it
in a #oint of .ie, in some degree di4erent from any that I ha.e hitherto seen" if it
had e.er been fairly and satisfa+torily ans,ered ?@
C)A:(*; B
(he di4erent ratio in ,hi+h #o#ulation and food in+rease(he ne+essary e4e+ts of
these di4erent ratios of in+rease-- %s+illation #rodu+ed by them in the +ondition of
the lo,er +lasses of so+iety--;easons ,hy this os+illation has not been so mu+h
obser.ed as might be e0#e+ted--(hree #ro#ositions on ,hi+h the general argument
of the *ssay de#ends--(he di4erent states in ,hi+h man!ind ha.e been !no,n to
e0ist #ro#osed to be e0amined ,ith referen+e to these three #ro#ositions
I said that #o#ulation" ,hen un+he+!ed" in+reased in a geometri+al ratio" and
subsisten+e for man in an arithmeti+alratio
&et us e0amine ,hether this #osition be 3ust I thin! it ,ill be allo,ed" that no state
has hitherto e0isted Dat least that ,e ha.e any a++ount ofE ,here the manners ,ere
so #ure and sim#le" and the means of subsisten+e so abundant" that no +he+!
,hate.er has e0isted to early marriages" among the lo,er +lasses" from a fear of
not #ro.iding ,ell for their families" or among the higher +lasses" from a fear of
lo,ering their +ondition in life
Consequently in no state that ,e ha.e yet !no,n has the #o,er of1B #o#ulation
been left to e0ert itself ,ith #erfe+t freedom
Whether the la, of marriage be instituted or not" the di+tate of nature and .irtue
seems to be an early atta+hment to one ,oman Su##osing a liberty of +hanging in
the +ase of an unfortunate +hoi+e" this liberty ,ould not a4e+t #o#ulation till it
arose to a height greatly .i+ious/ and ,e are no, su##osing the e0isten+e of a
so+iety ,here .i+e is s+ar+ely !no,n
In a state therefore of great equality and .irtue" ,here #ure and sim#le manners
#re.ailed" and ,here the means of subsisten+e ,ere so abundant that no #art of
the so+iety +ould ha.e any fears about #ro.iding am#ly for a family" the #o,er of
#o#ulation being left to e0ert itself un+he+!ed" the in+rease of the human s#e+ies
,ould e.idently be mu+h greater than any in+rease that has been hitherto !no,n
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In the nited States of Ameri+a" ,here the means of subsisten+e ha.e been more
am#le" the manners of the #eo#le more #ure" and +onsequently the +he+!s to early
marriages fe,er" than in any of the modern states of *uro#e" the #o#ulation has
been found to double itself in t,enty-2.e years
(his ratio of in+rease" though short of the utmost #o,er of #o#ulation" yet as theresult of a+tual e0#erien+e" ,e ,ill ta!e as our rule" and say" that #o#ulation" ,hen
un+he+!ed" goes on doubling itself e.ery t,enty-2.e years or in+reases in a
geometri+al ratio ?@
C)A:(*; G
(he sa.age or hunter state shortly re.ie,ed--(he she#herd state"B1 or the tribes of
barbarians that o.erran the ;oman *m#ire(he su#eriority of the #o,er of
#o#ulation to the means of subsisten+e--the +ause of the great tide of Northern
*migration
In the rudest state of man!ind" in ,hi+h hunting is the #rin+i#al o++u#ation" and theonly mode of a+quiring food/ the means of subsisten+e being s+attered o.er a large
e0tent of territory" the +om#arati.e #o#ulation must ne+essarily be thin It is said
that the #assion bet,een the se0es is less ardent among the North Ameri+an
Indians" than among any other ra+e of men 8et" not,ithstanding this a#athy" the
e4ort to,ards #o#ulation" e.en in this #eo#le" seems to be al,ays greater than the
means to su##ort it (his a##ears" from the +om#arati.ely ra#id #o#ulation that
ta!es #la+e" ,hene.er any of the tribes ha##en to settle in some fertile s#ot" and to
dra, nourishment from more fruitful sour+es than that of hunting/ and it has been
frequently remar!ed that ,hen an Indian family has ta!en u# its abode near any
*uro#ean settlement" and ado#ted a more easy and +i.ilied mode of life" that one,oman has reared 2.e" or si0" or more +hildren/ though in the sa.age state it rarely
ha##ens that abo.e one or t,o in a family gro, u# to maturity (he same
obser.ation has been made ,ith regard to the )ottentots near the Ca#e (hese
fa+ts #ro.e the su#erior #o,er of #o#ulation to the means of subsisten+e in nations
of hunters" and that this #o,er al,ays she,s itself the moment it is left to a+t ,ith
freedom
It remains to inquire ,hether this #o,er +an be +he+!ed" and its e4e+ts !e#t equal
to the means of subsisten+e" ,ithout .i+e or misery ?@'
Fragmento- ar0s Crises (heoryH S+ar+ity" &abor" and Finan+e
“2
MARX, MALTHUS, AND THE CONCEPT OF NATURAL RESOURCE SCARCITY
MARX AND MALTHUS
ar0s usual #ra+ti+e ,as to #ro.ide an e0hausti.e +ritique of falla+ious do+trines of
#oliti+al e+onomy" no matter ho, obs+ure their origin might be >es#ite the
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immense inuen+e of althus theory of #o#ulation" ar0s dis+ussion of that
sub3e+t ,as remar!ably brief *0+e#t for the referen+es to its ahistori+al nature
Dar0 1J77" +h B= se+ G/ and ar0 1J7G" 6K$E" he did little to +onfront it dire+tly
ore- o.er one of his relati.ely fe, referen+es to althus ,as do,nright attering
)e generously #raised althus as the only +lassi+al #oliti+al e+onomist to re+ognie
that longer hours of ,or! ,ere an im#ortant determinant of the rate oi #ro2tH LAllhonour to althus" that he lays stress on the lengthening of the hours of labourL
Dar0 1J77" 666nE Ne.ertheless" the s#e+tor of althusian s+ar+ity haunted ar0
%f althus “libel on the human ra+e"L he ,rote" “if this theory is +orre+t
so+ialism +annot abolish #o.erty" ,hi+h has its base in nature" but +an only ma!e it
general distribute it simultaneously o.er the ,hole of so+ietyL Dar0 1$7=" BGE
ar0" then" a##arently assigned more ,eight to the sub3e+t than the e0tent of his
+ritique might suggest In-deed" in the “After,ordL to his se+ond edition of Ca#ital"
for e0am#le"he too! the trouble to mention that a fa.orable re.ie,er had
s#e+i2+ally #raised his stan+e on the question of #o#ulation Dar0 1J77" 1K1-BE In
general" ho,e.er" so+ialistsM ob3e+tions to #o#ulationism ha.e not e0+luded their
,illingness to a++e#t that regulation of numbers might be bene2+ial under +ertain
+ir+umstan+es So+ialists understood the im#ortan+e of #o#ulation balan+e"
although other +on+erns may ha.e ta!en a higher #riority In this sense" &enins
attitude on
althusianism is instru+ti.e )e o##osed birth +ontrol only be+ause it ,ould tend to
redu+e the number of “#roletarian ,arriorsL in the +oming battle against +a#italism
D&enin 1J1GE
ar0 ,as +on.in+ed that the #roblems of #o#ulation and s+ar+ity" as ,ell as
en.ironmental abuse" +ould best be sol.ed by so+ialism D:erelman 1J7=E *ngels"
for e0am#le" obser.ed that on+e so+ialism ,as established" the rational +ontrol of
human #o#ulation ,ould be signi2+antly eased D*ngels to auts!y" February 1"
1$$1/ in ar0 and *ngels 1J7=+" G1=E ar0 and *ngels ,ere not alone in this
regard For e0am#le" Oohn Stuart ill seemed to agree ,ith them Dill 1$P$" b! B"
#t B" se+ GE
Among 9erman so+ialists the question of #o#ulation ,as es#e+ially tou+hy" sin+e
&assalle had in+or#orated althusianism as a dogma of the 9eneral Asso+iation of
9erman Wor!ers In *ngland so+ialists ,ere less in+lined to a++e#t althus
do+trines D>Ar+y 1J77E" but in 9ermany &assalle reinfor+ed the theoreti+al hold of
althusianism ,ithin the 9erman ,or!ersQ mo.ement by means of his in.ention ofthe term Lthe Iron &a, of WagesL Dsee *ngels to F A &ange" ar+h BJ" 1$6=" in
ar0 and *ngels 1J7=+" 161/ and *ngels to ebel" in ar0 and *ngels 1J7=+" B7P/
ar0 1$7=/ aumol 1J$GE
For ta+ti+al reasons" ho,e.er" any detailed e0amination of the #arti+ulars of
so+ialist so+iety ,as +onsistently a.oided by both ar0 and *ngels/ it ,ould only
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ha.e o#ened them u# to endless nit#i+!ing by their o##onents" both ,ithin and
outside the so+ialist mo.ement
*ngels des+ribed his attitude on the sub3e+t in a letter to auts!yH
*.en though the atheder-So+ialists #ersistently +all u#on us #roletarian so+ialists
to tell them ho, ,e +an #re.ent o.er#o#ulation and the +onsequent threat to the
e0isten+e of the ne, so+ial order" l see no reason at all ,hy I should do them the
fa.or I +onsider it a sheer ,aste of time to dis#el all the s+ru#les and doubts of
those #eo#le ,hi+h arise from their muddled su#er- ,isdom" or e.en to refute" for
instan+e" the a,ful t,addle ,hi+h S+haeRe alone has +om#iled in his numerous big
.olumes D*ngels to auts!y" February 1" 1$$1" in ar0 and *ngels 1J7=+" G1=E
Was ar0 +orre+t to ha.e a.oided an o#en dis+ussion of his inter#reta- tion of
althusianism ar0s ,ritten re+ord on the sub3e+t of althusianism has to be
understood in light of the stated #ur#ose of his #ubli+ations )e +onsidered e.en his
most theoreti+al ,or! to be a #oliti+al a+t In this s#irit" he ,rote to Weydemeyer
about “the #oliti+al reasons' that di+tated the organiation of Ca#ital Dar0 to
Weydemeyer" February 1" 1$=J" in ar0 and *ngels lJ7=d" 1K6E In ad- dition" letters
,ritten to +lose friends" after both the +om#letion of his
Critique of :oliti+al *+onomy and of Ca#ital" refer to his ,or!s in terms su+h as “a
.i+tory for our :artyL Dar0 to Weydemeyer" February 1" 1$=J" in ar0 and *ngels
1J7=K" 1K6E and as an attem#t “to raise the :arty as high as #ossibleL Dar0 to
ugelmann" %+tober 11" 1$67" in ar0 1JGP" =KE
ar0 had other reasons to a.oid a dire+t +onfrontation ,ith althusianism )is
analysis of the labor theory of .alue ,as di5+ult enough to e0#lain in its o,n terms
Im#ortant +ategories" su+h as rent" had to be #ut o4 until the third .olume of
Ca#ital (o ha.e broa+hed as emotional a sub3e+t as althusianism in the 2rst
.olume +ould ha.e been a #edagogi+al mista!e (hus to ans,er althus and
althusianism entailed a +ons+ious #oliti+al +hoi+e 9i.en the situation in 9ermany
alluded to abo.e ar0 ,as reti+ent to laun+h an all-out at- ta+! on the la, of
#o#ulation
(his ta+ti+ has +aused serious misinter#retations of ar0s ,or!s *.en today"
unsym#atheti+ readers +ommonly assume that be+ause only labor +reates .alue
,ithin the +onte0t of the labor theory of .alue" ar0 had ignored the role of natural
resour+es
(hough a++used of besto,ing inadequate attention to natural resour+es in his
theory" ar0 a+tually ga.e mu+h more em#hasis to them than his theory suggests
on 2rst reading )ollander argued a similar #oint" but his ,or! ,as a,ed by a
narro, reading of ar0 D)ollander 1J$PE y ta!ing isolated statements and #ie+ing
them together" )ollander gi.es the im#ression of #rodu+ing a +oherent and
+om#lete re+ord of ar0s analysis )ollanderMs thesis is that ar0Ms do+trine of
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immiseration strategi+ally turns u#on demogra#hy )ollander is" no doubt" +orre+t"
but only in a limited sense ar0 agreed that #o#ulation gro,th" in and of itself" ,ill
#robably ha.e a detrimental e4e+t on ,or!ersQ ,elfare"
+eteris #aribus (his 2nal quali2er is e0+eedingly im#ortant %f +ourse" other things
,ere not equal for ar0 Note *ngelsQ analysis of the lesson to be dra,n fromar0Qs analysis of #o#ulationH “No, ar0 has #ro.ed in detail in Ca#ital that the
la,s regulating ,ages are +om#li+ated" that sometimes one #redominates and
sometimes another" a++ording to +ir+umstan+es" that therefore they are in no sense
iron but on the +ontrary .ery elasti+" and that the matter +an by no means be
dismissed in a fe, ,ordsL D*ngels to ebel" ar+h 1$-B$" 1$7=" in ar0 and *ngels
1J7=+" B7PE In fa+t" ar0s .ery +om#le0 analysis of the nature of the labor mar!et
#ro.ides a model of ho, s+ar+ity" in general" should be analyed %b.iously" the
natural in+rease in #o#ulation adds to the su##ly of labor (he su##ly of labor +an
also be
augmented by dra,ing u#on di4erent segments of the #o#ulation
ar0s ta0onomy of the reser.e army of the unem#loyed des+ribes this #ro+ess in
great detail In addition" the demogra#hi+s of the labor mar!et ,ere sub3e+t to
substantial so+ial +ontrol *nglish +a#ital +ould in+rease or de+rease its
labor su##ly at ,ill by +ontrolling the s#igot of Irish labor Dsee :erelman 1J77" +h
1BE (his realiation #rom#ted ar0 to ,rite to *ngels" “(he *nglish ,or!ing +lass
,ill ne.er a+hie.e anything before
it has gotten rid of IrelandL Dar0 to *ngels" >e+ember 1K" 1$6J" in ar0 and *ngels
1J7=+" B1$E In addition" +a#ital +ould and did regulate its labor su##ly by the
degree of en+ouragement that it ga.e to #rimiti.e a++umulation or emigration Dsee
:erelman 1J$GE In short" be+ause of his method of reading ar0" )ollander
+onfuses #artial and general equilibrium in ar0Ms analysis I am +on.in+ed that one
+ould +arry )ollanderMs method to absurd lengths A diligent reader +ould sele+t and
organie hundreds or e.en thousands of e0- tra+ts from ar0 that" ,hen ta!en
together" ,ould a##ear to be a most +on.entional" +onser.ati.e +om#endium of
#oliti+al e+onomy Su+h a ,or! ,ould a++urately ree+t elements of ar0Qs analysis
but the sum of these #arts ,ould amount to +onsiderably less than the ,hole What
ma!es ar0s ,or! so .aluable is the manner in ,hi+h he ,as able to in+or#orate
the di4erent #ie+es of +lassi+al #oliti+al e+onomy into a body of analysis that
+hallenged +lassi+al #oliti+al e+onomy In short" )ollanders ,or! ree+ts ar0s+olle+tion of the #arts of
+lassi+al #oliti+al e+onomy ,ithout demonstrating any +ons+iousness of the +onte0t
in ,hi+h these #arts ,ere #la+ed
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MARX AND POPULATION
(he stan+e ar0 ado#ted to,ard the la, of #o#ulation +an be brief- ly summaried
In the 2rst #la+e" he em#hasied that “?an abstra+t la, of #o#ulation e0ists only for
#lants and animals and e.en then only in
the absen+e of any histori+al inter.ention by man' Dar0 1J77" 7$PE Ne.ertheless"
#o#ulation +ertainly does e0ert a large inuen+e in those so+ieties ,ith largely
underde.elo#ed #o,ers +ons+iously to af- fe+t the en.ironment Dsee ar0 1J7G
P$6/ ar0 and *ngels 1$P=-P6" GGE ar0 and *ngels e.en e0#lained the di.ision of
labor in terms of #o#ulation in+rease As so+iety de.elo#s the means to manage its
en- .ironment more e4e+ti.ely" ho,e.er" the gro,th of #o#ulation and it im#a+t are
in+reasingly determined by so+ial relations nder the +a#italist mode of #rodu+tion"
an histori+ally s#e+i2+ Lla, of #o#ulationL +omes into #lay" one that is bound u#
,ith the
Critique of :oliti+al *+onomy and of Ca#ital" refer to his ,or!s in terms su+h as “a
.i+tory for our :artyL Dar0 to Weydemeyer" February 1" 1$=J" in ar0 and *ngels
1J7=K" 1K6E and as an attem#t “to raise the :arty as high as #ossibleL Dar0 to
ugelmann" %+tober 11" 1$67" in ar0 1JGP" =KE
ar0 had other reasons to a.oid a dire+t +onfrontation ,ith althusianism )is
analysis of the labor theory of .alue ,as di5+ult enough to e0#lain in its o,n terms
Im#ortant +ategories" su+h as rent" had to be #ut o4 until the third .olume of
Ca#ital (o ha.e broa+hed as emotional a sub3e+t as althusianism in the 2rst
.olume +ould ha.e been a #edagogi+al mista!e (hus to ans,er althus and
althusianism entailed a +ons+ious #oliti+al +hoi+e 9i.en the situation in 9ermany
alluded to abo.e ar0 ,as reti+ent to laun+h an all-out at- ta+! on the la, of#o#ulation
(his ta+ti+ has +aused serious misinter#retations of ar0s ,or!s *.en today"
unsym#atheti+ readers +ommonly assume that be+ause only labor +reates .alue
,ithin the +onte0t of the labor theory of .alue" ar0 had ignored the role of natural
resour+es
(hough a++used of besto,ing inadequate attention to natural resour+es in his
theory" ar0 a+tually ga.e mu+h more em#hasis to them than his theory suggests
on 2rst reading )ollander argued a similar #oint" but his ,or! ,as a,ed by a
narro, reading of ar0 D)ollander 1J$PE y ta!ing isolated statements and #ie+ingthem together" )ollander gi.es the im#ression of #rodu+ing a +oherent and
+om#lete re+ord of ar0s analysis )ollanderMs thesis is that ar0Ms do+trine of
immiseration strategi+ally turns u#on demogra#hy )ollander is" no doubt" +orre+t"
but only in a limited sense ar0 agreed that #o#ulation gro,th" in and of itself" ,ill
#robably ha.e a detrimental e4e+t on ,or!ersQ ,elfare"
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+eteris #aribus (his 2nal quali2er is e0+eedingly im#ortant %f +ourse" other things
,ere not equal for ar0 Note *ngelsQ analysis of the lesson to be dra,n from
ar0Qs analysis of #o#ulationH “No, ar0 has #ro.ed in detail in Ca#ital that the
la,s regulating ,ages are +om#li+ated" that sometimes one #redominates and
sometimes another" a++ording to +ir+umstan+es" that therefore they are in no sense
iron but on the +ontrary .ery elasti+" and that the matter +an by no means bedismissed in a fe, ,ordsL D*ngels to ebel" ar+h 1$-B$" 1$7=" in ar0 and *ngels
1J7=+" B7PE In fa+t" ar0s .ery +om#le0 analysis of the nature of the labor mar!et
#ro.ides a model of ho, s+ar+ity" in general" should be analyed %b.iously" the
natural in+rease in #o#ulation adds to the su##ly of labor (he su##ly of labor +an
also be augmented by dra,ing u#on di4erent segments of the #o#ulation
ar0s ta0onomy of the reser.e army of the unem#loyed des+ribes this #ro+ess in
great detail In addition" the demogra#hi+s of the labor mar!et ,ere sub3e+t to
substantial so+ial +ontrol *nglish +a#ital +ould in+rease or de+rease its
labor su##ly at ,ill by +ontrolling the s#igot of Irish labor Dsee :erelman 1J77" +h1BE (his realiation #rom#ted ar0 to ,rite to *ngels" “(he *nglish ,or!ing +lass
,ill ne.er a+hie.e anything before
it has gotten rid of IrelandL Dar0 to *ngels" >e+ember 1K" 1$6J" in ar0 and *ngels
1J7=+" B1$E In addition" +a#ital +ould and did regulate its labor su##ly by the
degree of en+ouragement that it ga.e to #rimiti.e a++umulation or emigration Dsee
:erelman 1J$GE In short" be+ause of his method of reading ar0" )ollander
+onfuses #artial and general equilibrium in ar0Ms analysis I am +on.in+ed that one
+ould +arry )ollanderMs method to absurd lengths A diligent reader +ould sele+t and
organie hundreds or e.en thousands of e0- tra+ts from ar0 that" ,hen ta!en
together" ,ould a##ear to be a most +on.entional" +onser.ati.e +om#endium of#oliti+al e+onomy Su+h a ,or! ,ould a++urately ree+t elements of ar0Qs analysis
but the sum of these #arts ,ould amount to +onsiderably less than the ,hole What
ma!es ar0s ,or! so .aluable is the manner in ,hi+h he ,as able to in+or#orate
the di4erent #ie+es of +lassi+al #oliti+al e+onomy into a body of analysis that
+hallenged +lassi+al #oliti+al e+onomy In short" )ollanders ,or! ree+ts ar0s
+olle+tion of the #arts of
+lassi+al #oliti+al e+onomy ,ithout demonstrating any +ons+iousness of the +onte0t
in ,hi+h these #arts ,ere #la+ed
MARX AND POPULATION
(he stan+e ar0 ado#ted to,ard the la, of #o#ulation +an be brief- ly summaried
In the 2rst #la+e" he em#hasied that “?an abstra+t la, of #o#ulation e0ists only for
#lants and animals and e.en then only in
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the absen+e of any histori+al inter.ention by man' Dar0 1J77" 7$PE Ne.ertheless"
#o#ulation +ertainly does e0ert a large inuen+e in those so+ieties ,ith largely
underde.elo#ed #o,ers +ons+iously to af- fe+t the en.ironment Dsee ar0 1J7G
P$6/ ar0 and *ngels 1$P=-P6" GGE ar0 and *ngels e.en e0#lained the di.ision of
labor in terms of #o#ulation in+rease As so+iety de.elo#s the means to manage its
en- .ironment more e4e+ti.ely" ho,e.er" the gro,th of #o#ulation and it im#a+t arein+reasingly determined by so+ial relations nder the +a#italist mode of #rodu+tion"
an histori+ally s#e+i2+ Lla, of #o#ulationL ?@
A fe, #ages later" in a se+tion" entitled “(he :rogressi.e :rodu+- tion of a ;elati.e
Sur#lus :o#ulation or Industrial ;eser.e Army"L ar0 alluded to althus less
obliquely )e had been #ressing his theory that the in+rease in +onstant +a#ital
redu+es the demand for .ariable +a#italH “(he ,or!ing #o#ulation therefore
#rodu+es both the a++umulation of +a#ital and the means by ,hi+h it is itself made
relati.ely su#eruous (his is a la, of #o#ulation #e+uliar to the
+a#italist mode of #rodu+tionL Dar0 1J77" 7$PE ar0 then +ontinued ,ith the#re.iously +ited ideasH “An abstra+t la, of #o#ulation e0ists only for #lants and
animals and e.en then only in the absen+e of any histori+al inter.ention by manL
Dibid" 7$P/ em#hasis addedE althus is mentioned only t,i+e in this +ha#ter %n
one o++asion" ar0 ,rote"
“*.en althus re+ognies that a sur#lus #o#ulation is a ne+essity of modern
industryL Dar0 1J77" 7$7E %n the other o++asion" the referen+e to althus is
+ontained in a long footnote that begins “If the reader thin!s at this #oint of althus
I ,ould remind him that this ,or! in its 2rst form is nothing more than a
s+hoolboyish #lagiarismL Dibid" 766E
ON THE IMPORTANCE OF SCARCITY
For ar0 the s#e+tor of althusianism had to be e0or+ised at all +osts 8et s+ar+ity
,as still an im#ortant +onsideration In an e4ort to ans,er althus on+e and for all"
ar0 fell into the #ra+ti+e of using his +ategory of +onstant +a#ital" ,hi+h he
understood to be se.erely limited" if not outright ,rong Dsee Cha#ter =E )ad he
merely demonstrated the eynesian lesson that the mar!et +ould +reate
unem#loyment and #o.erty" he ,ould ha.e been more su+- +essful )ad he sho,n
that the +ombination of re+urrent +rises and s+ar- +ities +an +ause so mu+h hardshi#
for the ,or!ing +lass/ that the u#rooing of traditional so+ieties faster than they
+ould be in+or#orated into the labor mar!ets ensures #o.erty for a large #ortion of
the ,or!ing +lass/ that +a#ital requires #o.erty and unem#loyment to maintain a
tra+table labor su##ly" his +ontribution ,ould ha.e been unquestioned Instead"
un,illing to +on+ede any ground to althus" ar0 refused to admit the +on+e#t of
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s+ar+ity dire+tly in +ha#ter =" .olume 1 of Ca#ital )e e.en failed to address the
,ides#read hardshi# brought on by the Cotton Famine in this +ha#ter" e0+e#t for
dating s#e+i2+ e.ents )is analysis of te+hnologi+al unem#loyment ,as e0+essi.ely
me+hani+al" almost undiale+ti+al e+ause this +ha#ter" in s#ite of its undeniable
im#ortan+e" ,as a,ed" it detra+ted from the rest of his ,or! :erha#s sensing its
short+omings" ar0" ,hose boo! had #re.iously e.ol.ed in a .ery )egelian fashionDsee Cha#ter PE abru#tlyturned to his se+tion on #rimiti.e a++umulation +ontaining
his analysis
of e.olution of +a#italist agri+ulture S+ar+ity" for ar0" ,as an im#ortant +ategory"
,ith substantial theoreti+al and #oliti+al im#li+ations Consequently" he treated it
Do.erlyE +autiously" so mu+h so that he su##ressed it altogether in his$ most dire+t
analysis of althus in his +ha#ter" “(he 9eneral &a, of Ca#italist A++umulationL
%f +ourse" one might ,ell res#ond that the Cotton Famine ,as an o++urren+e unique
to the #eriod of the S Ci.il War %ne +annot raise s+ar+ity to a ma3or theoreti+al
status on the basis of ar0s referen+es to an indi.idual e.ent of more than a+entury ago
ee# in mind that ar0 did not e0#li+itly assert the im#ortan+e of +otton Oust the
o##ositeT Cotton" or e.en resour+e s+ar+ity" ty#i+ally a##ears in his ,or! as an
e0am#le of a more general #rin+i#le" one ,hi+h is a##arently unrelated to natural
resour+e s+ar+ity (hus" the signi2+an+e of ar0s dis+ussion of the Cotton Famine is
that he did not em#hasie its im#ortan+e Instead he under#layed it
ar0 a##arently did not feel free to assert dire+tly that shortages of ra, materials
,ere res#onsible for +rises (o ta!e that #osition ,ould #lay into the hands of the
althusians ;ather than ris! getting bogged do,n in debates that he ho#ed toa.oid" he used .ery abstra+t +ategories that seemed to ha.e little to do ,ith natural
resour+e s+ar+ity" e.en ,hen addressing the momentous im#a+t of the Cotton
Famine
For ar0" ra, materials shortages ree+ted the inability of +a#ital to master the
en.ironment )e ,as +on2dent that under so+ialism su+h #roblems +ould be
o.er+ome" but the s#e+i2+s of that .i+tory +ould not be gi.en in detail %ther,ise"
he ,ould ha.e to begin a series of endless debates about the s#e+i2+s of the
a##ro#riate form of so+ial- ist organiation (hat sort of a+ti.ity +ould only di.ert
energies from more im#ortant tas!s (he “hidden so+ialist tenden+yL ,ould ha.e to
remain hidden ,ithin the formulae of the rising organi+ +om#osition of +a#ital (heinability of +a#ital to obtain a su5+ient su##ly of ra, materials +an e0#lain the
rising organi+ +om#osition of +a#ital" 3ust as easily as the in+reasing relian+e on
hea.y ma+hinery Oudging by ar0s e0am#les" e0#ansion in the organi+
+om#osition of +a#ital ,as" to a great e0tent" the result of the lagging #rodu+ti.ity
of +otton ?@'
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Cuestionario Adam Smith
1E U>e que temas trata #rin+i#almente el +a#Vtulo $ de la riquea de las
na+iones" de Adam Smith
BE *l traba3ador re+ibir su salario" y se le dar lo que sea que #rodu3o +omo
ganan+ia e0tra@ .erdadero" o falso
GE &as +ondi+iones de alianas entre em#resas grandes y los #re+ios ba3os"
afe+tan a la so+iedad/ y de3an de haber em#leos dis#onibles" +ausando
menos dinero y ms #roblemas e+onXmi+os U<uY #asa +uando un #aVs no
tiene su2+ientes lugares #ara satisfa+er la demanda de em#leados
PE SegZn Smith" U<uY ha+e un em#leador +uando hay abundan+ia de materias
#rimas Dno es+aseE
=E U:or quY es im#ortante que las riqueas de un #aVs se utili+en" y es terrible
de3arlas aisladas[ahorradas
6E U<uY habr ms" una es+ase en fueras #rodu+ti.as" o una es+ase en la
+a#a+idad de darle em#leos a los traba3adores 8 segZn Smith" UCXmo estoafe+ta a las na+iones y su desarrollo de riqueas
7E SegZn Smith U#or quY hay es+ase
$E :ara Smith" U*s im#ortante +onsiderar la Yti+a en el #ro+eso de la riquea de
las na+iones
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JE *n la Y#o+a en la que Smith es+ribiX la riquea de las na+iones" U:or quY fue
una teorVa e+onXmi+a tras+endental
1KE UCXmo rela+iona Adam Smith su teorVa e+onXmi+a +on la es+ase de
re+ursos
11E UCXmo rela+ionas la teorVa e+onXmi+a de Smith +on la que se utilia en
la a+tualidad
1BE Smith" el llamado #adre de la e+onomVa" inuen+iX los traba3os de
mu+hos autores e+onXmi+amente liberales" y fue refutado #or mu+hos
autores que a#oyaban el so+ialismo De3 ar0E U:or quY
1GE EXTRA 2: Después de leer la teoría de Marx, Malthus, y Smith
!u"l es la rela!i#n m"s importante de entre ellas$
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Cuestionario Teoría Malthusianista:
1E UCul es el #roblema que althus ha +onsiderado ser siem#re #resente en la
historia de la humanidad
BE UCundo althus men+iona que siem#re ha habido una bZsqueda #or el
#rogreso y el futuro del #rogreso humano" #or quY esto es im#ortante #ara su
teorVa
GE UCXmo +re+en demogr2+amente las #obla+iones humanas
PE UCXmo +re+e los re+ursos" en es#e+ial los alimentos en las so+iedades
humanas
=E UCul es la #remisa ms im#ortante de la teorVa de althus" y #orque se
rela+iona +on el +re+imiento de re+ursos
6E UCXmo di+e althus que las +ostumbres so+iales" sobre todo las de modales
en #are3a" afe+ta al rendimiento #obla+ional en+iona un #aVs +omo
e3em#lo
7E U:or quY la #rodu++iXn del alimento +re+e de manera lineal y #or quY no es
#osible lograr que +re+a realmente de manera e0#onen+ial
$E SegZn althus" a tra.Ys de la historia UCXmo ha +ambiado[e.olu+ionado la
distribu+iXn alimentarVa en las so+iedades
JE :ara athus" U*s im#ortante el +ontrol de #obla+iXn Si asV lo es" U#or quY esim#ortante mantener la #obla+iXn +ontrolada
1KE UCXmo inuye la Yti+a en la teorVa de athus
11E &a teorVa althusianista ha deri.ado teorVas y #olVti+as demogr2+as
alrededor del mundo" men+iona una so+iedad o un #aVs que re+ientemente ha
im#uesto una teorVa de limita+iXn demogr2+a DSiendo que la teorVa de
athus men+iona limita+iXn de #obla+iXn naturalE
1BE en+iona otra #obla+iXn donde la teorVa neomalthusianista e0ista
D&imitar la #obla+iXn arti2+ialmenteE
1GE U:or quY es im#ortante +ono+er la teorVa de althus al hablar de la
es+ase de re+ursos
1PE EXTRA %: Después de leer la teoría de Marx y Malthus, !u"l es
la rela!i#n m"s importante de entre ellas$
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(eorVa de ar0
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Keynes, +. M. -/01. 2eoría (eneral del empleo, el inter)s y el dinero.
2he 3u!lic4s 5i!rary and 6i(ital Archie. n.d.1. 7ollectiization and
8ndustrialization. 9ecuperado el /: de ;oiem!re del <:-< de=
http=>>???.i!i!lio.or(>expo>soiet.exhi!it>collect.html
Malthus, 2. -@*1. An Essay on the 3rinciple of 3opulation. 9ecuperado el
- de diciem!re del <:-< de de Medellin.(o=
http=>>???.medellindi(ital.(o.co>Mediateca>repositorioB<:de
B<:recursos>Malthus,B<:2homas>MalthusC2homasDAnB<:EssayB<:on
B<:theB<:3rincipleB<:ofB<:3opulation.pdf
Smith, A -@@01. An 8n$uiry into the ;ature and 7auses of the ealth of
;ations. 9ecuperado el - de diciem!re del <:-< de=
http=>>(eoli!.com>smith.adam>?on-D:*.html
Marx, K. -*FF1. Marx4s 7rises 2heory= Scarcity, 5a!or, and "inance.
9ecuperado el - de diciem!re del <:-< de 6i(amo "ree=
htt#H[[digamofreefr[#erel$7B#df