cuaderno 5. tramil ethno-pharmacological survey in the southeast region of puerto rico
TRANSCRIPT
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CUADERNOS DE INVESTIGACIN
TRAMIL Ethno-pharmacological Survey in the
Southeast Region of Puerto Rico
INSTITUTO DE INVESTIGACIONES INTERDISCIPLINARIAS
UNIVERSIDAD DE PUERTO RICO EN CAYEY
Jos A. Alvarado-Guzmn
Jannette Gavilln-Surez
Lionel Germosn-Robineau
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Instituto de Investigaciones InterdisciplinariasUniversidad de Puerto Rico en Cayey205 Ave. Antonio R. BarcelCayey, PR 00736
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Preliminary manuscriptIf cited, please contact the corresponding author [email protected]
TRAMIL Ethno-pharmacological Survey in the Southeast Region of Puerto Rico
Jos A. Alvarado-Guzmna, Jannette Gavilln-Surez,
a,b,*Lionel Germosn-Robineau
c
aInstitute of Interdisciplinary Research, University of Puerto Rico at Cayey, #205 Antonio R.
Barcel Ave., Cayey, PR 00736
bDepartment of Chemistry, University of Puerto Rico at Cayey, #205 Antonio R. Barcel
Ave., Cayey, PR 00736
cDepartment of Biology, Faculty of Science, University of French Antilles and Guyana, UAG
UFR SEN BP 592, 97159 Pointe Pitre, Guadeloupe (FWI) Guadeloupe
Abstract
An ethno-pharmacological survey based on TRAMIL methodology was conducted in the
southeast region of Puerto Rico to record medicinal plants commonly or frequently used to
treat ten common health conditions of prevalence in the region and the trends in medicinal
plant use among the study population. The results were analyzed using univariate and
multivariate statistical analysis. One hundred and eighteen herbal remedies were recorded for
the treatment of depression, nervousness, chronic sinusitis, gastritis, gastroesophagus reflux
disease, allergic rhinitis, rhinofaryngitis, asthma, arthritis and migraine. Among the most
frequently used plants were Citrus aurantium L. (depression and nervousness), Citrus
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in the use of conventional medical care and to self medication with over-the-counter
pharmaceutical products.
Keywords: Puerto Rico; TRAMIL; ethno-pharmacological survey; urban medicinal plants use
1. Introduction
TRAMIL network (Traditional Medicines in the Islands) was founded in 1982 in order to
understand, validate and expand health practices based on the use of medicinal plants in the
Caribbean. At present, 48 TRAMIL ethno-pharmacological surveys have been completed in 27
territories in the Caribbean region. TRAMIL also organizes outreach activities (TRADIF)
aimed at disseminating the results obtained from scientific validation (based on efficacy and
toxicity studies) on the use of medicinal plants reported during the surveys. TRADIF
workshops have been offered at community, primary health care (providers and promoters) and
governmental levels. At present, over 90 medicinal plants evaluated by TRAMIL are
recognized in Cuba, Dominican Republic, Honduras, Nicaragua and Panam as effective
mechanisms in devising primary health care programs (DaSilva, 1999). The TRAMIL
Program also leads to the protection and conservation of traditional knowledge that is now
endangered by: the lack of verbal transfer to new generations, irrational use of some species
and degradation of natural resources (Longuefosse, 1996; Katewa, 2004). Puerto Rico joined
TRAMIL in 1994 by conducting a field survey in the southwest region of the Island. Seven
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commonly use as medicinal plants and 170 less known for their therapeutic value (Nuez,
1989; Martnez, 2002). Since the 1994 survey, additional activities designed to continue the
field work in other islands of the Puerto Ricanarchipelago and in the US Virgin Islands, or to
join the TRAMIL network in the validation of plants with (medicinal) significant use have not
been undertaken. From December 2006 to January 2007, a TRAMIL-based survey was
conducted in the southeast region of the Island. The region includes eleven municipalities in
the service area of the University of Puerto Rico at Cayey (UPR-Cayey), Institute of
Interdisciplinary Research. An important demographic characteristic of this region is its
transformation during the last two decades from a rural to an urban area (US Census Bureau,
2000). This report describes the herbal remedies with significant use and examines the trends
in medicinal plant use in the region.
2. Methodology2.1 Geographic coverage
Puerto Rico has three main physiographic regions: the mountainous interior, the coastal
lowlands, and the karst area in the North. The mountainous interior (covering 60% of the
islands territory) is formed by a central mountain range that transects the island from East to
West. The second main physiographic feature are the coastal lowlands, which extend 13 to 19
Km inward to the North and 3 to 13 Km to the South. This study was conducted in the
southeast region of Puerto Rico, including eleven municipalities located in mountainous and
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2.2 Study population
The US Bureau of Census definition for families was used to identify the number of family
households in each town/municipality. The Decennial Census of Puerto Rico (2000) was used
to determine the number of family households in each town (US Census Bureau, 2002). The
total number of family households (sample unit) in the 11 municipalities was 123,855. Based
on the total family households in the region, a study population of 270 households was
calculated using equation 1:
(Equation 1)
where, n = minimum simple size; N = total population size (123,855); Z2= 1.645
2( =.10);
p =expected proportion (50%); q = 1- p = 1 0.5 = 0.5 and d = precision (5%).
To adjust for the design effect of the sample methodology, the size of the sample was increased
by 30% (Cornelius, 2006). Cluster, stratified and systematic sampling techniques were
combined to select the family households (sample unit) in the survey. The cluster technique
allowed to select the barrios (town subdivisions) that included 10% or more of the family
households in the town. For example, in Cayey, three town subdivisions were selected
(Pueblo, Rincn and Tota) since they have 34%, 12.3% and 13.5% (more than 50% of the
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town subdivision was going to be surveyed, (US Bureau of Census, 2000b). Figure 2b
illustrates an example of the selected block groups in Barrio Pueblo, Cayey. The block groups
were also stratified by family income. Each interval had an amplitude of ten thousand (US$).
From each income strata the block group with the most family households was selected to
conduct the survey. Finally, since the rate of occupied house units to family households was 2
to1, the sample units included in the survey were those that were identified as multiples of
three. Figure 2c illustrates this mapping. Maps were created using Maptitude Geographic
Information System for Windows (version 4.8, Caliper Corp., Newton, Massachusetts, USA).
Protocols that established the working definition of family and the condition that at least one
family member had suffered from one or more of the ten ailments included in this study, were
developed to guide the interviewers during the selection of the sample unit.
2.3 Prevalence of diseases surveyed
The Puerto Rico Continuous Health Study which provides disease prevalence data for each of
the seventy eight municipalities of Puerto Rico was used to identify the specific health
conditions surveyed (Ramos, 2003). Only self-limiting conditions that might be treated with
medicinal plants were considered (TRAMIL). From the data for each town, the 10 ailments
(excluding diabetes and hypertension) that were prevalent in at least 5 towns were selected for
the study. These conditions were asthma, arthritis, chronic sinusitis, allergic rhinitis,
depression, rhinopharyngitis, gastritis, nervousness, migraine and gastroesophagus reflux
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clinical presentation of the ailments selected for the survey were obtained and used in the
survey questionnaire to describe some of the ailments. For example, rhinopharyngitis was
described as nasal secretion with sore throat and hoarseness, chronic sinusitis as nasal
congestion and inflammation, allergic rhinitis as nasal allergy with frequent sneeze,
gastroesophagus reflux disease as reflux and nervousness as nerves.
2.4 Interviewing methods
TRAMIL methodology aims to reach the knowledge shared among all members of a
community about the use of medicinal plants to treat simple ailments and to document the
perceptions of these ailments by the study population. Following TRAMIL methodology, the
mother or woman in the family was interviewed with preference to other members of the
family after seeking prior informed consent. Studies about gender roles in relation to the
knowledge about medicinal plants use support the notion that the utilization and responsibility
of transferring this knowledge is traditionally womens domain (Singhal, 2005; Arango Caro,
2004; Quinlan and Quinlan, 2007). To be eligible for participation in the study, participants
had to be at least 18 years of age. Prior to the field work, an interdisciplinary team of
undergraduate research assistants at the UPR-Cayey majoring in general science, biology,
English and business administration, were offered workshops in ethno-botany, voucher
preparation and how to conduct interviews. The research assistants approached potential
participants in their homes, determined their willingness to participate in the study and
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Guzmn) reviewed the questionnaires and received the vouchers. Field work was supervised
by the second author (J. Gavilln-Surez).
2.5Survey instrument
The questionnaire used was approved by the Internal Review Board at the UPR-Cayey, field-
tested in a pilot study in a nonparticipating block group and individual items were refined as
needed. The questionnaire was adapted from the one published by TRAMIL (www.tramil.net)
which has two sections: the first section collects specific demographic and socio-economic
information from a given community, and in the second, following a structured interview
participants were asked to provide information about the medicinal plants used by the family as
the first treatment for the ailments included in the survey (see Table 1). When the participant
stated the use of a medicinal plant as the first treatment, open-ended questions were used to
obtain a detailed description of the treatment, the form of preparation and application,
including combinations with other plants, dosage and contraindications or side effects for
adults and children. The place where the plant was collected or obtained was also identified.
The data collected in this section allowed researchers to compare the use of medicinal plants
reported in the study with the use in other Caribbean locationsas reported in the Caribbean
Herbal Pharmacopoeia (2005).
2.6 Collection of plants
http://www.tramil.net/http://www.tramil.net/ -
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and Head of the PR Department of Natural and Environmental Resources Herbarium. The
vouchers were deposited at the George Proctor Herbarium (SJ) in Puerto Rico.
2.7Statistical analysisData from the questionnaires were entered into Access (Microsoft Office 2003 Suite)
database and imported into SPSS 13.0 (SPSS Inc. Chicago, Ill.) for Windows. Frequencies
and cross tabulation tables were used to describe the socio-demographic characteristics of the
study participants interviewed in the family households. Family income was excluded from
the analysis since one third of the families refused to offer this information.
The Continuity Correction of the Chi Square Test was applied to evaluate associations with
medicinal plant use (1 if the family use medicinal plants for at least one of the conditions and
2 if not) and the independent variables: age (less or equal to 50 years and more than 50
years), marital status (single, which includes divorced and widowed; and married, which
includes living in common-law marital union), education (below college degree which
includes 6th to 12th grades and technical degrees; and college degree which includes, 2-
year college, baccalaureate and higher degrees), and employment status (unemployed; and
employed, a category that includes part time and full time employment). To measure the
strength of the statistically significant associations, odd ratios (OR) and 95% confidence
intervals (95% CI) were estimated from the corresponding 2 x 2 tables. Based on previous
studies (Kuo, 2004; Nahim 2007) that showed significant relations between medicinal plants
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variables: age less or equal to 50 years, below college degree, married, and unemployed. The
Backward Stepwise method was use to eliminate non-significant factors from the model.
The Index of Agreement on Remedies (IAR) was calculated for the 10 health conditions
surveyed in this study based on the following equation: IAR = (na nr)/ (na 1), where na
is the citation frequency of the health condition and nr is the number of different plant
remedies cited to treat that health condition (Vanderbroek, et. al., 2007). The IAR values
offer a consensus index by participants about the use of remedies cited for a given health
condition.
3. Results3.1 Description of the study population
Three hundred and fifty one families were surveyed. The woman in charge of the household
was interviewed in all families except in one family where a male was interviewed. Median
age was 47 years old ( 1.4 years). Approximately half of the study population interviewed
(51.5%) had less than a college education and 64.8% were married. Approximately 42% of the
participants had full or part-time jobs, while 58% were either unemployed or studying.
Consulting a physician (48%), self medication with pharmaceutical products (32%) and use of
medicinal plants (14%) were described as the first treatments used by the study population for
the health conditions surveyed.
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medicinal plants are summarized in Table 2. Participants in the age group 50 years) with 67.0% and 48.0% usage,
respectively. The majority of the participants reported to having a college degree and being
single (65.0 and 62.0 percent, respectively). Almost an equal number of the sample population
that uses medicinal plants reported to be either employed or unemployed. Thus, women in the
family households that reported use of medicinal plants in the region are mostly single, aged
under 50 years, have college education and are either employed or unemployed.
3.2 Factors associated with medicinal plants use
In this study socio-demographic variables demonstrating a significant univariate association (p
< 0.05) with medicinal plant use were education (p = .036) and marital status (p = .002)
(seeTable 2). Significant relations were not found between medicinal plant use and age or
employment status. Based on the OR values, the percentage of families who treated a disease
with medicinal plants if the woman holds a college degree is 66.5% (OR = 1.67, 95%CI, 1.10
2.62) higher than the odd for families where the women have not completed a college degree.
The odd of families that use medicinal plants when the woman is single is twice the OR of
families where the woman is married (OR 2.09, 95% CI, 1.37 3.31). Families where the
woman is single and holds a college degree are three times more likely to use medicinal plants.
A stratified analysis was conducted to measure the association and estimate the OR in each
category by age and employment status. Statistical analysis showed that there is no difference
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(results not shown), education (OR = 1.61, S.E. = 0.27) and marital status (OR = 2.22, S.E. =
0.24) remained significant predictors of medicinal plants use (p < 0.05). The effect of
education on medicinal plant use is weakened by inclusion of the variable employment status
in the model, while marital status was not affected when the variable was discarded from the
model.
3.3 Medicinal Plant Use
Two hundred and thirteen plant remedies were used the last time one of the health problems
surveyed was suffered. The number of ailments treated with medicinal plants varied from one
to seven in a given family, with an average of two medicinal plants per family. Table 3 lists the
citation frequency of plant remedies, IAR-values for the health conditions surveyed, and the
number of different (medicinal) plants that were reported for the treatment of a given health
condition. The ailments most frequently cited affect the respiratory (36% used for asthma,
rhinopharyngitis, allergic rhinitis and sinusitis) and gastrointestinal (28% used for gastritis and
reflux) systems. Plant remedies were also use for nerves (13.6%), migraine (12.2%),
depression (5.2%) and arthritis (4.7%). Fifty eight medicinal plants were used for the
preparation of herbal remedies. Average consensus in the use of medicinal plants were
obtained for rhinopharyngitis (0.58), nervousness (0.54), depression (0.50), gastritis (0.49),
sinusitis (0.40) and migraine (0.40). Most of the treatments (78 %) were reported just once for
a given health problem and are therefore not described in this report. Most of the plants were
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The families best represented were Lamiaceae and Rutaceae with 2 species each. For each
species, the common name, parts of the plant used for a given disease, form of preparation and
administration and frequency of use are presented in Table 4. The preparation methods
included decoction in water of fresh or dried leaves, poultice or juice. Dosages are variable
with most of the families reporting to use 1 cup of tea prepared as a decoction from one to
three times a day during several days. Plants were used without restrictions, especially for
children except for the use of the fresh juice ofCitrus aurantifolia (Christm.) Swingle) where
the dosage is half of that used by adults to treat the symptoms of rhinofaryngitis.
4. Discussion4.1 Relative importance of the species with significant use
TRAMIL defines a remedy with significant use as that combination of plant species, plant part
and form of preparation that is identified by 20% or more of the participants that use that
treatment as the primary resource to treat a given disease the last time it was presented in a
family member. Based on TRAMIL methodology, only six medicinal plant species (9.0% of
the total medicinal plants recorded) resulted to have significant use for the treatment of the
symptoms of depression, nervousness, rhinofaryngitis, migraine and sinusitis (Table 4). The
decreasing order of significant use was Citrus aurantifolia (Christm.) Swingle (40.0%), Citrus
aurantiumL. (33.0%), Pluchea carolinensis (Jacq.) (30.0%) and Mentha piperita L. (25.0%).
Two species with significant use for depression (36%) and nervousness (21%) were obtained in
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2006). C. aurantifolia (Christm.) Swingle for rhinopharyngitis, C. aurantiumL. leaves have
significant use for depression and nervousness, M. piperita L. for sinusitis and P. carolinensis
(Jacq.) for migraine. The use of the juice ofC. aurantifolia (Christm.) Swingle for cold, flu and
cough have been reported in TRAMIL surveys at Colombia, Honduras, Panam, Guyana,
Dominica and Puerto Rico (TRAMIL). The essential oil obtained from the leaf, flower, fruit
and bark ofC. aurantifolia (Christm.) Swingle is rich in monoterpenoid derivatives limonene,
linalool or nerol. The fresh juice ofC. aurantifolia (Christm.) Swingle exhibited antimicrobial
activity against Staphylococcus aureusand Candida albicans, and caused stimulation of gastric
secretion (TRAMIL). The natural occurring (-)-linaool induced a reduction of carrageenin-
induced edema in rats at 25 mg/Kg suggesting its potential anti-inflammatory activity (Peana,
et. al., 2002). These biological activities have been associated to the antiseptic, antitusive and
expectorant action of essential oil-rich herbs and their efficacy in clinical phytotherapy to treat
respiratory ailments (CONAPLAMED, 2000). Citrus auratium L. leaves contain linalool and
flavonoids. The fruit contains triterpenes and the isoquinoline alkaloid synephrine, an
adrenergic agonist related to ephedrine (TRAMIL). Activities upon the central nervous system
(CNS) attributed to Citrus auratium L. include its usage to treat anxiety and hysteria, and cases
of depression. Sedative effects include hypnotic, anticonvulsant and hypothermic properties
(Costa, 2002; Emamghoreishi, 2006). The sedative activity (sleeping time induced by sodium
pentobarbital; SPB: 40 mg/Kg i.p.) have been reported for extracts and essential oil from
Citrus auratium L. (Costa). The hexane and dichloromethane fractions of the hydroethanolic
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the effects reported cannot be extrapolated to validate the traditional use since the
pharmacokinetics of the active components and the therapeutic doses may be affected
(Emamghoreishi). TRAMIL applied research addresses the need to validate the biological
activity according to the traditional use of the (medicinal) plants with significant use in order to
determine their use in primary medical care. Isolation and concentration of the synephrine
content in the pulp of whole fruit ofCitrus auratium L. from 0.33 mg/g to 20 mg/g in some
dietary supplements and to 35 mg/g in extracts, poses potential cardiovascular effects and
shows a misuse of this otherwise safely food plant for weight loss. Weight loss have been
documented in rodent, but is weakly supported in humans (Chvez, 2008 ). Linalool, found in
the leaves ofCitrus auratium L. has shown to have sedative and anticonvulsant activity in
animal studies, and anxiolitic and sedative activity in human studies. Linalool slows and
inhibits the release of acetylcholine, reducing the length of time that the channels are open in
the mouse neuromuscular junction (Perry, et. al., 2003). These findings could provide
evidence to confirm the traditional use of linalool-producing medicinal plants. Sedative effects
of flavonoids, quercetin, chriyn and apigenin, and flavonoid glycoside isoquercitrin have also
been reported (Emamghoreishi). The internal use of M. piperita L. oil for catarrhs of the
respiratory tract and inflammation of the oral mucosa and cough have been reported
previously (Blumenthal, 2000; ESCOP, 1997). A flavonoid glycoside, luteolin-7-O-
rutinoside, isolated from the aereal parts ofM. piperita L. has shown to be effective inhibiting
histamine release from rat peritoneal mast cells and a dose-related inhibition of the antigen-
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expands the uses reported by TRAMIL for this plants. C. aurantium L., C. aurantifolia
(Christm.) Swingle and M. piperitaL. are plants of a cosmopolitan nature that can be found in
use in the United States, Europe and Mexico and have been extensively studied for therapeutic,
pharmacologic and toxicologic effects (Hernndez, et. al., 1984). Ethnobotanical accounts in
Puerto Rico forC. aurantifolia (Christm.) Swingle and C. aurantiumL. to treat hoarseness and
restlessness, symptoms used to describe rhinofaryngitis and nervousness have been
documented previously, (Benedetti, 2001; Benedetti, 2004; Nuez 1989). Hernndez et. al.
(1984) reported C. aurantium L. as the most frequently used plant as sedative and for
gastrointestinal disorders, among the patients visiting out patient clinics on the Island. Contrary
to mainstream beliefs that herbal remedies are often harmful or toxic, the medicinal plants with
higher frequency in this report are common, edible food plants. These plants are designated by
the US Food and Drug Administration (FDA) as generally recognized as safe (GRAS)
(FDA). A second group of plants with less than 20% in the frequency of use (Annona
muricataL., Mentha nemorosaWilld. Ex L. and Lippia stoechadifolia (L.) Kunth) was reported
for the treatment of gastritis, the ailment where the use of medicinal plants was most cited (42
citations; IAR 0.49). Although we expected to find a decrease in the number of useful plants
cited due to cultural erosion, the ethno-pharmacological use of these plants at the population
level poses one of the constraints of TRAMILs definition of significant use, reflecting
TRAMILs aim to address specifically-applied primary health care objectives. Nevertheless,
the decoction of leaves ofMentha sp. (yerbabuena) to treat some of the symptoms described
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4.2 Trends in medicinal plant use
Our data show that the traditional knowledge on the use of medicinal plants is decreasing due
to an increase in the use of conventional medical care. Overall, about 14% of the families in
the southeast region of Puerto Rico used at least one herbal remedy the first time one of the 10
ailments surveyed was suffered. This report is consistent with the reports in the use of herbal
medicine (9.6%; Hanyu, 2002) or natural products that include herbal medicine and functional
food supplements (18.9%; Nahir, 2004) among US adults according to data from the
complementary and alternative medicine (CAM) section of the National Health Interview
Survey. The reports based on NHIS data, describe the use of CAM as most prevalent among
women, persons with education of >= 16 years and persons aged 35 to 54. Unlike other
reports, we did not find a significant relationship between age and medicinal plant use.
Positive and negative associations between education as predictor of medicinal plant use have
been reported. In our study employment status tended to reduce this interaction. A similar
effect on medicinal plant knowledge was reported in rural Dominica where education was
marginally significant only when related to parenthood (Quinlan and Quinlan, 2007) and
participants with commercial occupations (e.g. wage salary) that could be related with
employment status knew fewer plants for each additional year of education.
One limitation of our study is that participants were not asked the reasons for using a specific
herbal remedy nor if they use herbal remedies concomitantly with prescription medications.
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the use of conventional medical care practices and self medication. However, ethno-
pharmacological knowledge and use of herbal treatments is higher among single women with
college degrees. This suggests an emerging health care paradigm that blends conventional
medicine with alternative remedies concordant with personal values and cultural beliefs about
health care. Sixbotanical species with significant uses, not previously recorded in the
Caribbean Herbal Pharmacopoeia have been identified. This report will be followed by the
scientific validation and toxicity studies by the academic research laboratories that collaborate
with TRAMIL. The survey will be expanded to include Vieques (one of the islands of the
archipelago of Puerto Rico) and the US Virgin Islands. In future studies, economic and cultural
reasons will be examined to understand the prevailing use of medicinal plants in the region of
study and to better tailor TRADIF activities to our communities.
5. AcknowledgmentsThe authors wish to thank all the families who participated in this survey from the eleven
municipalities served by the University of Puerto Rico at Cayey. Special thanks to the UPR-
Cayey students who conducted the interviews: Carlos Marzant, Jos I. Lpez, Melissa
Guzmn, Melissa Olivieri, Mercedes Lpez, Orly Santos, Rosngela Rosario, Yahaira Rosario
and Yasmn Prez; and to the students who completed the data entry: Dalixis Rivera and Mara
del C. Rodrguez. Thanks to Mr. Jos Sustache, botanist and Director of the Puerto Rico
Department of Natural and Environmental Resources, who helped in the identification of the
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Cayey Institutional Research Fund and the National Institutes of Health RIMI Program #1-
P2MD001112-0.
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Costa, M. And Carvalho-Freitas, M. I. R., 2002. Anxiolytic and sedative effects of extracts and
essential oils ofCitrus aurantium L. Biol. Pharm. Bull. 25, 1629-1633.
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Emamghoreishi, M. and Heidari-Hamedani, G., 2006. Sedative-hypnotic activity of extracts
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Nahir, R. L., Dahlhamer, J. M., Taylor, B. L., Barnes, P. M., Stussman, B. J., Simile, C. M.,
Blackman, M. R., Chesney, M. A., Jackson, M., Miller, H., McFann, K. K., 2007. Health
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areas. This number decreased to only 7.3% in 2000. Urban area is define as a densely
populated territory with 2,500 to 50,000 habitants or more.
US Census Bureau, 2001. Puerto Rico 2000 Resumen de caractersticas Sociales,
Econmicas y de Vivienda, Appendix B, 17 18, (a) Familys Households: Habitual residence
of two or more persons who are related through blood (birth), marriage or adoption; Appendix
A, 13 14, (b) Block Group is define as an area with a population between 600 and 3,000
inhabitants, with an optimum population of 1,500 inhabitants.
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vivienda, 127 145.
Vandebroek, I., Balick, M.J., Yukes, J., Durn, L., Kronenberg, F., Wade, C., Ososki, A.,
Cushman, L., Lantigua, R., Meja, M., Robineau, L., 2007. Use of Medicinal Plants by
Dominican Inmigrants in New York City for Treatment of Common Health Problems A
Comparative Analysis with Literature Data from the Dominican Republic. In: Traveling
Cultures and Plants. The Ethnobiology and Ethnopharmacy of Human Migrations (Eds. A.
Pieroni and I. Vandebroek). Volume 7. Studies in Environmental Anthropology and
Ethnobiology. Oxford, UK: Berghahn Books.
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Figure 1: Eleven municipalities surveyed in the Southeast region of Puerto Rico: Aguas
Buenas, Aibonito, Arroyo, Barranquitas, Caguas, Cayey, Cidra, Coamo, Guayama, Patillas and
Salinas; Estimated total population: 467,339 (US Bureau of Census).
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(a)
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Figure 2: (a) Selected town subdivisions (barrios) in the region; (b) Selected block
groups in Barrio Pueblo, Cayey and (c) House units that could be surveyed in a block
group with id 720352608002 at Barrio Pueblo, Cayey. Maps were created using
Maptitude Geographic Information System for Windows (version 4.8, Caliper Corp.,
Newton, Massachusetts, USA).
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Table 1: Ethnopharmacological survey questionnaire_________________________________Part I. Socioeconomic Information1. Age2. Gendera. femaleb. male3. Marital status:a. singleb. marriedc.
divorced. widow
e. living with a partner4. Education:a. first to six gradeb. seventh to nine gradec. tenth to twelve grade (High School diploma)d. technical degree (specify):e. college/university degreef. None5. Monthly Family Income6. Laboral Statusa. housewifeb. studentc. full time employeed. part time employeePart II. Ethnopharmacological Survey1. You or anyone in your family has suffered from one of the following health problems?a. asthmab. migrainec. nasal allergy with frequent sneezed. gastritise. depressionf. refluxg. nasal secretion with sore throat and hoarsenessh. nasal congestion and inflammation (sinusitis)i. nervesj. arthritis2. Give a brief description of the problem
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4. What plants or combination of plants you used the last time that you suffered thecondition? If several plantsare mentioned complete Part II for each plant.5. What part(s) of the plant you use to prepare the remedy?a. leavesb. barkc. rootd. pulpe. flowerf. fruitg. seed6. Describe how you prepare the treatment?a. decoctionb. infusionc. aqueous steepingd. juicee. raw7. Describe the administration of the treatment:a. oralb. bathc. inhalationd. poultice, compress8. In what quantity or dosage you use the treatment?9. For how long?10. Where do you get the plant(s)?a. garden around the houseb. in the marketc. forestd. other (specify):Take photographs and request a botanical sample if the plant is obtained in the garden.Prepare voucher on site.11. Have you used this treatment?a. Yesb. No12. What results did you obtained?
13. Are there any precautions/ contraindications when using this remedy?14. Do you use this remedy for children? What is the dosage? Are there anyprecautions/contraindications?______________________________________
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Table 2: Descriptive characteristics of the families (n=118) that reported the use of herbalremedies
a) Single includes women that are single, divorced or widow; Married includes women
living with a partner or married. The distinction between married and living with a
partner was made by the respondent.
VariablesWomen in
families usingherbal
remedies(n=118)
Percentagewithin herbalremedies use
2p-
valueOR 95% CI
Age Groups
50Marital Status
a
singlemarriedEmployment Statusemployedunemployed
Level of Educationcollege degree
< college degree
6748
6254
5657
6549
58.641.4
46.653.4
49.650.4
57.043.0
.522
.002
.061
.036
1.19
2.09
1.59
1.67
.758 1.87
1.37 3.31
1.01 2.50
1.1 2.62
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Table 3: Index of Agreement on Remedies (IAR) Values for Common Health ConditionsHealth Condition (ICD-10 Code)a
(Description of symptons in spanish)Number of times theailment was cited
(n = 118)
b
Percent Number ofMedicinal plants
cited for the ailment
IAR-valuec
Gastritis (ICD K29)dolor/ardor en el estmago, dolor/ardor en la boca del estmago,acidez, vmitos
42 19.7 22 0.49
Nervousness (ICD R45)susto, ansiedad, asfixia, calores repentinos, temblor, intranquilidad, coraje
29 13.6 14 0.54
Migraine (ICD G43)presin en la cabeza, dolor de cabeza bien fuerte, latidos en la cabeza,punzadas en los ojos, pesadez y presin en la cabeza
26 12.2 16 0.40
Asthma (ICD J45)fatiga, presin en el pecho, asfixia, pito en el pecho
24 11.3 24 0.0
Rhinopharyngitis (ICD J31)sangrado nasal, gotereo, secrecin, ardor y congestin nasal, inflamacin,picor y ardor de garganta, estornudo, flema, tos, ronquera, dolor en la cara
20 9.4 9 0.58
Gastroesophagus reflux disease (ICD K21)
calentn en el esfago, saliva agria, acidez, suben jugos gstricos,ardor que sube y baja en la garganta
18 8.5 15 0.18
Allergic Rhinitis (ICD J30)Gotereo nasal, picor en ojos y nariz
17 8.0 14 0.19
Chronic Sinusitis (ICD J32)dolor de cabeza, hinchazn en cavidad nasal, calambres, corriente en lanariz
16 7.5 10 0.40
Depression (ICD F32)ansiedad, nerviosismo, asfixia, dificultad respiratoria, ganas de irse delmundo, hablar
11 5.2 6 0.50
Arthritis (ICD M05)dolor en coyunturas, huesos, articulaciones, inflamacin coyunturas,hinchazn
10 4.7 10 0.0
a) International Classification of Diseases (ICD-10) classifies diseases and other health problems recorded on health and vital recordsincluding hospital records. Source http://www.who.int/classifications/apps/icd/icd10online/b) Out of 351 interviews, 118 mentioned the use of medicinal plants as the first treatment.c) IAR values range from 0 to 1, with 0 representing no consensus, 0.5 average consensus and 1 total consensus.
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Table 4: Plant with medicinal use in the Southeast Region of Puerto Rico
Scientific Name(voucher specimen)
Local name Parts used/Preparation
Administration Diseases treated Frequencya
(%)
AnnonaceaeAnnona muricataL.(GAV- )
guanbano Fresh leaves/ Decoction Oral Gastritis 14
AsteraceaePluchea carolinensis (J acq.)G. Don in Sweet
(GAV- )
salvia Fresh leaves/Cataplasm
Topical Migraine 27
LaminaceaeMentha piperita L.(GAV- )
menta Fresh leaves/ Decoction Oral Sinusitis 25
LaminaceaeMentha nemorosa Willd. Ex L.(GAV- )
yerbabuena Fresh leaves/ Decoction Oral Gastritis 14
RutaceaeCitrus aurantiumL.(GAV-506)
naranja Fresh leaves/ DecoctionFresh ordry leaves/ Decoction
Oral
Oral
DepressionNervousness
3320
RutaceaeCitrus aurantifolia (Christm.) Swingle(GAV-606)
limn Fresh pulp/Juice Oral Rhinopharyngitis 40
VerbenaceaeLippia stoechadifolia (L.) Kunth
(GAV-
poleo Fresh leaves/ Decoction Oral Gastritis 10
a Percentage of the families using this plant for this health problem
29