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INTRODUCCIN a la LENGUA INGLESA

MDULO de GRAMTICA

INGLESA

Mgtr. Mara Fernanda Casares

Prof. Mara del Rosario Tartaglia

Prof. Roco Albornoz

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ILI - GRAMMAR MODULE - CONTENTS

(1) WORD CATEGORIES:

a) pronouns - personal subjective and objective - demonstrative - indefinite - reflexive - interrogative

b) determiners - possessive - general / indefinite - definite - demonstrative

c) nouns

- grammatical properties: number

d) adjectives

- grammatical properties: invariability, formation of comparative and superlative forms

- position and order e) quantifiers

(2) VERB TYPES:

a) Auxiliaries: DO HAVE - BE (in progressive forms and in passive

structures)

b) Modals

c) Link verbs: V+AP; V+NP; V+PP

d) Transitive verbs: V+NP; V+Clause

e) Intransitive verbs

f) Prepositional verbs

g) Phrasal verbs (transitive and intransitive)

(3) GRAMMATICAL FUNCTIONS:

a) subject, predicate

b) head, complement, modifier

(4) WORD ORDER IN STATEMENTS AND IN QUESTIONS

(5) IMPERATIVES

(6) VERB FORMS IN REPORTED SPEECH

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Students will be expected to :

- Identify and classify word categories.

- Classify verbs according to the type of complements they select.

- Identify the typical grammatical functions of phrases within a sentence.

Students will be initiated in syntactic argumentation.

Evaluation :

- 2 (tw0) mid-term exams

- Attendance : 75%

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A) THE IMMEDIATE CONSTITUENTS OF A SENTENCE: SUBJECT and PREDICATE

A sentence is an independent structure; it is not part of a larger unit. The

minimal structure of a sentence is made up of two main parts or constituents:

The subject: It denotes the most important participant in the event

described by the verb and it represents what the sentence is about.

The predicate: It generally contains a verb which describes an event.

(1) SUBJECT [My children] PREDICATE [have studied English].

The subject of the sentence precedes the verb and it agrees in number and

person with it. It is obligatory and explicit in finite sentences in English.

Compare:

(2) Peter is sleeping. *Is sleeping.

Pedro est durmiendo. Est durmiendo.

(3) It is raining. *Is raining.

Est lloviendo.

The subject in (3) is realized by an expletive pronoun which has no meaning.

Even though this pronoun is semantically empty, it is an obligatory constituent

in this type of sentences in English, because it must fulfil a syntactic function:

subject.

What follows the subject is what is said about it. The structure that follows the

subject is the predicate. The predicate contains a verb as in (4) - or verbal

group as in (5) and (6). This verb or verbal group may appear alone or be

followed by other phrases.

(4) Mary goes to her office by bus every Monday.

(5) Paul is working.

(6) Paul has studied English for ten years.

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B) GRAMMATICAL CATEGORIES WORD CLASSES

Words can be grouped according to the characteristics they have in common

into the following classes:

CATEGORY

MAIN CHARACTERISTICS EXAMPLES

NOUNS

They inflect for number: singular and plural.

cat, dog, house

PRONOUNS

They replace nominal structures. she, him, nobody

DETERMINERS

They precede and specify nouns. the, this, my

QUANTIFIERS

They precede and quantify nouns.

many, two, first, each

ADJECTIVES

They modify nouns or they can be placed after link verbs.

happy, short, important

ADVERBS

They modify verbs or sentences.

quickly, immediately

VERBS

Full

They appear on their own in the predicate.

study, live, smell, write, know

Auxiliaries

They precede other verbs. They cant appear on their own. They are used to form questions and negative sentences.

be, have, do

Modals

They express modality: ability, obligation, suggestion, etc. They

precede other verbs.

must, can, should,

will

PREPOSITIONS

They relate entities. They typically take a NP complement.

in, on, under, with

Table 1: Typical characteristics of word classes

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1. NOUNS

Nouns may be preceded by determiners (i-ii) and quantifiers (iii-iv). These

words specify the nouns they precede.

i. the cat ii. that boy

iii. some flowers iv. three students

Nouns can also be preceded by adjectives, for example difficult, strong,

abdominal. Adjectives qualify or classify the nouns they precede (v-vi).

v. beautiful girls vi. financial help

Grammatical Properties of Nouns: Number

Most nouns inflect for number, they have the grammatical property of forming

the plural by the addition of the suffix s: cat cats. These nouns are regular

nouns. However there is a group of nouns which do not take -s to form the

plural. There is a change in the form of the word: mouse-mice, tooth-teeth,

louse-lice child-children. These nouns are called irregular nouns. Some nouns

have the same form for the singular and for the plural: sheep, fish. These nouns

are called invariable nouns.

RULE SINGULAR PLURAL

N -s table boy

tables boys

N ending in ch, sh, s, ss or o -es

church brush bus class tomato

churches brushes buses classes tomatoes

N ending in y (preceded by a consonant) -ies party family

parties families

N ending in f /fe -ves knife leaf life

knives leaves lives

Internal vowel change mouse tooth woman

mice teeth women

A different word person child

people children

Invariable sheep fish

sheep fish

Table 2 Rules to form Plural Nouns

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2. DETERMINERS

Determiners precede and specify nouns. Words like the, my, this, a/an, belong

to this group: the book, my dictionary, this article, his pencil.

In some grammars, especially older school grammars, words such as my and

this in phrases like my family and this dictionary are called adjectives because

they are placed in front of nouns. However, it is easy to show that this is wrong.

Adjectives can be placed one after the other, as in: I have an old fat brown

dog, but this is impossible with determiners: *this my book.

Whats more, determiners have no comparative or superlative forms (*this-er /

*this-est, *my-er / *my-est) and cannot be preceded by a degree adverb (*very

the / *very a). The conclusion we are led to is that this and my belong to a

separate word class called determiners.

3. QUANTIFIERS

We use quantifiers to indicate the quantity of something. Words such as some,

any, another, other, all, both, either, each, every, etc. belong to this class. The

traditional cardinal adjectives such as: one, two, three, and ordinals such as

first, second, third, next, last also belong to this class. Like determiners,

quantifiers may also precede nouns.

Quantifiers and the number of the noun they follow

Some quantifiers are followed by nouns in the singular:

another: It is used to talk about an additional person or thing.

Do you want another cup of coffee?

each: It is used to talk about the members of a group as individuals.

Each essay must have its title.

either: It is used to talk about two things, but usually indicates that only one of

the two is involved.

You can use either chair.

every: It is used to express a general statement about the members of a group.

Every boy in the club should bring sport clothes.

much: It is used with uncountable nouns.

Do you drink much coffee?

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Some quantifiers are followed by nouns in the plural:

all: It includes every person or thing of a particular kind.

All students must sit for the written assignment.

both: It is used to say something about two people or things.

I need both suitcases.

many: It is used to refer to more than one entity. It is used with countable

nouns.

She has many friends.

other: It is used to refer to something not already named or implied.

You can buy other books.

Some quantifiers are followed by either nouns in the plural or uncountable

nouns:

any: It refers to the quantity of something which may or may not exist.

There arent any tomatoes. Is there any sugar in that cup?

no: It indicates that there is a lack of something.

I have no money. There are no chairs in the classroom.

some: It indicates that there are a number of things or people.

some books, some students or a quantity of something: some rice,

some cheese.

QUANTIFIER

SINGULAR OR PLURAL?

+sing noun +pl noun +pl or uncount

noun

another all any

each both no

either many some

every other much (+uncount N)

Table 3 Combination of Quantifiers and Nouns

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4. PRONOUNS

The bracketed nominal structures in (7) can be replaced by pronouns as shown

in (8):

(7) [The teacher] told [the students] that [her husband] had bought [a new car].

(8) She told them that he had bought it.

Pronouns appear on their own, i.e. they do not precede nouns (Cf. determiners).

They belong to a fixed set made up of a finite number of members.

Types of Pronouns

a. Personal pronouns refer to the first, second and third person in the discourse,

singular or plural. They can occupy two positions: subject and object (after a

verb or after a preposition). According to the place they occupy in the sentence,

personal pronouns are sub classified into:

i. Subjective pronouns occupy the subject position.

I study Linguistics. I 1st person singular

You are making a great effort. you 2nd pers sing or pl

He / She / It doesnt like milk. he/she/it 3rd pers sing

We are preparing a party. we 1st person plural

They will go to London next month. they 3rd person plural

ii. Objective pronouns are placed after a verb or after a preposition.

Why is she looking at me? me 1st person singular

He will give you the book I recommend. you 2nd pers sing or pl

I have bought a new cup for him / her / it. him/her/it 3rd per sing

They are waiting for us. us 1st person plural

You have to put them on that desk. them 3rd person plural

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b. Possessive pronouns indicate possession.

This book is mine / yours / hers / his / ours / theirs.

c. Demonstrative pronouns are used to point out a person or a thing.

Look at that!

Listen to this.

These are my books.

Please, give me those.

d. Reflexive pronouns are used when the subject and the object of the action are

the same.

I hurt myself.

She saw herself in the mirror.

We enjoyed ourselves very much.

e. Interrogative pronouns introduce a question.

Whos knocking at the door?

Where are you going?

When are you coming?

g. Indefinite pronouns are used when the person or thing referred to is not

defined: every, some, any, no, + body, one, thing:

Somebody is knocking at the door.

She likes nobody.

Is there anything in the fridge?

Everything was understood.

I dont know anyone in this city.

Everyone heard the fight.

i. the expletive pronouns It and There: When the pronoun it is used to make

a statement about the weather or time, it has no meaning. This pronoun is the

subject of the sentence as this position cannot be left empty in English.

Its raining. Its Monday. Its two oclock.

The pronoun there is used to show that someone or something exists.

Theres someone at the door. There are three books on this shelf.

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5. ADJECTIVES

Adjectives precede and modify nouns: a beautiful girl, short answers, a hopeless

situation, an old car, etc. They are invariable, i.e. they do not inflect for plural.

A tall boy Tall boys singular N plural N

Adjectives are used to describe nouns, they give information about qualities or

classes/types of these nouns, and they answer the question What is it like?

(Cmo es algo?).

Adjectives typically occupy two positions in English: they precede nouns or

they follow link verbs (such as be).

(9) He had rich parents. attributive adjective (before a N)

(10) Martin Parkmen is rich. (predicative adjective) link verb + predicative adjective

Adjectives which describe a quality have comparative and superlative forms, e.g.

darker, darkest. The comparative form of an adjective indicates a greater

extent to which the normal form of the adjective applies, while the superlative

form indicates the maximal extent, e.g. bigbiggerbiggest. The forms good

betterbest and bad worse worst are exceptional.

Some adjectives form comparatives and superlatives analytically. This means

that there is no single word-form for the comparative and superlative. Instead,

the words more/less and most/least are used. The general rule is that adjectives

with two or more syllables take analytical comparative and superlative forms:

beautiful, eager, hopeless, interesting, practical, etc.

(11) Some books are more interesting than others.

(12) Those grammar exercises are the most difficult ones.

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The Order of Adjectives

Adjectives which describe a quality precede those which describe a class:

soft classical music QUALITY TYPE

a new round table QUALITY TYPE

6. VERBS

A verb is a word which refers to an action or a state.

(13) Susan works in a supermarket. action

(14) The students know the answer. mental state

Verb forms

A full verb may appear in different forms. The following chart illustrates that:

INFINITIVE

with TO

BARE

INFINITIVE

(after

modals)

PAST PRESENT

PARTICIPLE

(in progressive

tenses)

PAST

PARTICIPLE

(in perfect

tenses)

study

(reg)

to study study studied studying studied

see

(irreg)

to see see saw seeing seen

Table 4: verb forms

Verbs can be classified into: auxiliaries, modals and main.

a. Auxiliaries

There are three auxiliary verbs in English: be, do and have. These are used to

form verb tenses (continuous/progressive and perfect) questions and negative

sentences or to express emphasis. Auxiliary verbs can never appear alone in a

sentence, that is, without a main verb. They always precede another verb.

Auxiliaries carry grammatical information about number, person and tense.

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For example, in Peter is working, the auxiliary is carries information about

number: singular, person: third and tense: present. Auxiliary verbs can also be

negated and inverted to form questions.

CHARACTERISTICS OF AUXILIARY VERBS

1. They precede another verb. Paul is working.

2. They carry grammatical information

(number, person and tense).

Paul is working. is singular, third

person, present

3. They can be negated. Paul is not / isnt working.

4. They can be inverted (precede the

subject) to form questions.

Is Paul working?

Table 5 - Auxiliaries

BE (am, is, are, was or were)

This auxiliary is used to form continuous tenses and passive structures. The

verb they combine with may be in the ing form for continuous tenses or in the

past participle form for passive structures.

(15) I am talking to you. am: 1st person, singular, present + -ing form

(16) The letter was written. was: 3rd person, singular, past + -en form

HAVE (has or had)

This auxiliary is used to form perfect tenses. The verb they combine with is

always in the past participle form.

(17) Paul has finished his homework. 3rd person, singular, present

(18) I had already written the composition. 1st person, singular, past

DO (does or did)

This auxiliary is used to form negative sentences, questions and emphatic

statements. The main verb they combine with is always in the base form. The

auxiliary do precedes the negative particle:

(19) I dont study. 1st person, singular, present

(20) He doesnt study. 3rd person, singular, present

(21) We didnt study. 1st person, plural, past

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It also precedes the subject in questions:

(22) Do you study? 2nd person, singular/plural, present

(23) Does she study? 3rd person, singular, present

(24) Did they study? 3rd person, plural, past

It precedes the main verb in emphatic structures and the main verb is in the

base form:

(25) A: I didnt offer you chocolate because I thought you didnt like it.

B: But I do like chocolate. 1st person, singular, present

(26) A: You didnt come to the party.

B: I did come but nobody answered the door! 1st person, singular, past

The auxiliaries be and have are used to form tenses. They can be combined to

form compound tenses as well. The following chart illustrates continuous and

perfect tenses:

Present continuous

I am studying English now.

He is studying English now.

They are studying English now.

Past continuous I was studying English at that moment.

They were studying English at that moment.

Present perfect

I have studied English for three years.

He has studied English for three years.

Past perfect I had studied English for three years.

Present perfect continuous I have been studying English for three years.

Past perfect continuous I had been studying for three years.

Table 5 Auxiliaries BE and HAVE alone Auxiliaries BE and HAVE combined

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Be, have and do are used as auxiliary verbs when they precede another verb and

help to form verb tenses. But they are main verbs when they appear alone. See

the table below:

AUXILIARY MAIN

BE He is studying. He is a student. (link)

DO Does he study? He does his homework every day. (transitive)

HAVE Have you seen him? He has your folder. (transitive)

Table 6: BE, DO and HAVE as auxiliaries or main verbs

b. Modals

Modal verbs precede main verbs in the base form. They are used to express

modality: ability, permission, requests, advice, suggestions, necessity, choice,

regret and deduction among others. They can be negated and precede the

subject in questions. They are invariable: *cans, *canned, *canning. Modals

cannot combine: *I will can go. This group includes: can, could, shall, should,

must, will, would, may, might and must.

(27) He can play the guitar. (ability)

(28) You mustnt drive without the safety belt on. (prohibition)

(29) Would you open the window, please? (request) Combination of modals and auxiliaries

When both auxiliaries and modals precede main verbs, the order is fixed: modal + auxiliary + main verb

COMBINATIONS

EXAMPLES

Modal + Aux + Verb English can be taught.

Modal + Aux + Aux + Verb English must have been taught there.

Table 7: Combinations of auxiliaries and modals

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c. Main Verbs

Main verbs appear on their own or combined with auxiliaries and modals. Link

Verbs join the subject and the predicate. They are also considered main verbs

because they appear alone. The typical link verb is the verb to be (when it is

alone, not preceding another verb): He is a good student. She seems sad. They

appear angry. We were at school last night.

1. Intransitive Verbs

They select only one participant which functions as the subject of the sentence, as

shown in the examples in (30). They do not select complements (objects).

(30) SUBJECT [John] is laughing.

SUBJECT [The famous writer] died in 1987.

SUBJECT [The little baby] is crying because he is hungry.

SUBJECT [The rice] is cooking.

Yesterday SUBJECT [an abandoned car] appeared near our school.

SUBJECT [My dog] barks all the time.

SUBJECT [The butter] has frozen.

SUBJECT [John, my brother] is working in Neuqun for an important firm.

Suddenly, SUBJECT [the door] opened.

2. Transitive Verbs

Most transitive verbs select two participants, as shown in the examples in (31).

The first participant initiates the event which functions as the subject and the

second participant receives the action and functions as the complement. The

complement of transitive verbs is called Direct Object (DO).

(31) Mary is painting DO[her bedroom].

The rain destroyed DO[the crops].

Meg loves DO[her husband].

You can draw DO[a picture of your family].

The snow blocked DO[the roads].

The children know DO[the rules of the game].

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The complement of transitive verbs is typically realised by a nominal structure (a

Noun Phrase) or by a clause:

(32) +NP She wanted [some help].

The children enjoyed [the party].

(33) +Clause She wanted [to buy a book on grammar].

He said [that his father was coming tomorrow].

Ditransitive verbs

Some transitive verbs take two complements: the Direct Object (DO) and the

Indirect Object (IO). While the DO answers the question What, the IO answer the

question Who(m)? When the Indirect Object follows the Direct Object, it is

realised by a Prepositional Phrase.

(34) He gave DO[the car] IO[to Peter].

Paul bought DO[a present] IO[for Jack].

When the Indirect Object precedes the Direct Object, the preposition is omitted.

(35) He handed IO[David] DO[a sheet of paper].

He had lent IO[him] DO[the money].

That man promised IO[my husband] DO[a job].

He gave IO[me] DO[his summary].

Transitive Prepositional verbs

Some verbs take an obligatory prepositional phrase as complement.

(36) Look [at the blackboard].

My family believes [in God].

Mary is waiting [for her friends].

Peter is listening [to the radio].

You can rely [on your friends].

3. Intransitive and Transitive Phrasal verbs

A phrasal verb is a verb which consists of two parts: the verb and an adverbial

particle (or intransitive preposition). An intransitive preposition is a

preposition that appears alone, without a complement.

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By combining a verb and an adverbial particle, the meaning of the verb can be

extended or a new meaning -different from any that the verb has on its own-

may be created. For example, the meaning of eat up is to eat completely. The

adverbial particle up extends the initial meaning of eat. Furthermore, the

meaning of the phrasal verb give up is not the combination of the meaning of

give plus the meaning of up. When give and up are combined to form the

phrasal verb give up the combination gives a new lexical unit: to abandon or

quit. Therefore, you cannot always guess the meaning of a phrasal verb from the

individual meanings of the verb and the adverbial particle or intransitive

preposition that combines with the verb.

Intransitive Phrasal verb: verb + intransitive preposition

(37) The plane has taken [off].

Transitive Phrasal verb: verb + intransitive preposition + NP complement

(38) Paul turned [on] [the computer].

Please, take [off] [your shoes].

In these cases, the ones illustrated in (38), the NP complement and the

preposition are interchangeable. The following structures may be found:

(39) Paul turned [the computer] [on].

Please, take [your shoes] [off].

How to distinguish between prepositional and phrasal verbs?

(40) He is listening to the radio.

(41) He put on his coat.

Both structures (40) and (41) seem to be the same because they both have:

- a subject: He

- a verb: is listening /put

- a preposition following the verb: to / on

- a noun phrase following the preposition: the radio / his coat

But the verbs in those sentences belong to different types: listen to is a

prepositional verb and put on is a phrasal verb. Lets discuss their differences:

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Prepositional verbs are considered transitive verbs followed by a prepositional

complement. This prepositional phrase is made up of a preposition + a NP

complement as in: He is listening [to the radio]. In this example, the

preposition to takes a noun phrase complement, the radio. The preposition and

its complement make a unit and they are not interchangeable, i.e. we cannot

say: * He is listening the radio to.

On the other hand, phrasal verbs are followed by a prepositional phrase made

up of a preposition alone as in: The plane took [off]. Or by a preposition plus a

noun phrase as in: He put [his coat] [on]. This preposition and the noun phrase

do not form a unit. They are independent they are interchangeable: He put [his

coat] [on].

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ILI - ENGLISH GRAMMAR MODULE TEXTS FOR PRACTICE

TEXT 1: HEALTHY SELF-IMAGES

ACTIVITY 1: Describe and classify the underlined Nouns.

ACTIVITY 2: Underline the Determiners used in the text. Then, classify them.

ACTIVITY 3: Classify the Pronouns in bold and italics.

ACTIVITY 4: Classify the Adjectives in bold type.

1The way you think about your own body is called your body image. If you have a

negative body image, it means you dont like your body. If you dont like your body,

you probably dont like yourself. In this way, body image is connected to self-esteem.

Self-esteem is how much you value yourself. There are several ways to improve your

body; however, they dont always result in higher self-esteem.

2Plastic surgery is one way of changing your body. In the past, people thought only

famous people had plastic surgery. But now, millions of people have plastic surgery

each year. Some people with a negative body image think plastic surgery can solve their

problems. In fact, people who have low self-esteem are often disappointed after

plastic surgery. They expect the surgery to change their body image, but many patients

are still not happy with their appearance. Sometimes, the real reason for a negative

body image is psychological, not physical. So plastic surgery alone cannot help

them. They need to learn to appreciate everything about themselves, not just their

appearance.

3You can also try to improve your body through how and what you eat. A good diet

consists of eating the proper amounts of good foods. If you follow a good diet for a long

time, you can lose weight and feel better about yourself over time. Unfortunately,

many people are impatient. They have a negative body image, and they want to

change their body immediately. To lose weight, they stop eating for one or two days.

This is called crash dieting. It never works. They lose weight temporarily, but gain it

back immediately. Gaining the weight back makes people feel like they failed, which

actually lowers their self-esteem more. Proper dieting can help people improve their

body image, but crash dieting is usually not successful.

4A third way to change your body is through exercise. Exercise can change the shape

of your body. It can also make you feel more energetic and relieve your stress. These

are important because changing how you feel can change your body image, too. But

too many people go to a health club and then stop after a few days because exercise is

difficult. Their muscles hurt, and they do not see immediate results, so they give up.

They think they have failed, and this can lower their self-esteem. Exercise, like a

proper diet, can take a long time to have a noticeable effect. People who include

regular exercise in their daily life experience the benefits over a long time. Just a few

days of exercise cannot produce the desired effects.

5People with a negative body image might benefit from plastic surgery, diet or

exercise. However, these methods are most successful when people use them

correctly. Adapted from: Eric Prochaska (2005): Reading for the real world pp: 38, 39, 40. Compass Publishing

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TEXT 2

ACTIVITY 1: Find examples of Nouns: proper and common; regular and irregular;

compound.

ACTIVITY 2: Provide questions for the underlines phrases.

1It was after midnight. Adam sat on the sofa in his tiny apartment. The room was dark,

except for the light from the television screen. The video he was watching was one he

had pieced together over the years. The Adventures of a Klan Bomber, he called it. It

started with a television news report from 1967 about the bombing of a Jewish church.

The Kramer bombing was next. People were seen running to the remains of Marvins

office, while the police tried to push them back. A cloud of dust and smoke hung over

the ruins. Voices shouted and the camera rocked as it captured the shocking scene.

2The video cut from the bombing scene to the front of the jail, where Sam Cayhall was

being led to a car. It was 1967, twenty-three years ago. Sam was forty-six years old. At

the time, Adam was a little boy, known as Alan Cayhall; soon after that, he was taken to

a distant state where he was given a new name. Now Adam pressed the pause button

and stared for the millionth time into the face of his grandfather.

3The video continued with more pictures of Sam outside various jails and courthouses.

One scene showed Marvin Kramer after the second trial. He was in his wheelchair on

the sidewalk outside the courthouse. He suddenly saw two Klansmen dressed in white

and began shouting at them. They made some cruel remark, and Marvin went crazy,

screaming and cursing. He spun the metal wheel of his chair, chasing after them, the

cameras recording it all.

4The wheelchair turned over, and Marvin fell out on to the grass, crying in an odd high-

pitched voice.

5When the video ended, Adam stared at the blank screen. Behind the sofa were three

large boxes which contained the rest of the stories, endless pages of notes on all three

trials; copies of all the documents relating to the case since the last trial; hundreds of

newspapers stories about Sam; notes from the law school. Adam knew more about his

grandfather than anyone alive. But he also knew that the man was a mystery to him.

Taken from: The Chamber, by John Grisham

TEXT 3

ACTIVITY 1: Classify the underlined words.

1Art told him that the investigation into the death of Carl Heine had led him, quite

naturally, to ask questions of Carls relatives. Hes gone to see Etta Heine, and from her

to Ole Jurgensen. After that, he felt he had to go and search Kabuo Miyamotos boat.

2To have the right to make such a search, Art Moran had gone to Judge Fielding. He

had gone to see him at the end of the afternoon and had persuaded him that he had

good reasons for seeing Miyamoto this way. Judge Fielding was not happy about him

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making the search there was still no evidence that Carl Heines death was not an

accident. And he insisted that the sheriff should only search the boat.

3When Kabuo Miyamoto came to the waterside that evening, he saw thirty or forty

seagulls sitting on his boat. He started to get on, and they seemed to rise as one being, a

great white mass of wings beating above his head. They flew overhead five or six times

in a great circle that took in the entire port and settled on the sea.

4Kabuos heart worked hard in his chest he had never seen anything like this before

and did not know whether it was a good or bad sign. He went down into the boat and

opened the battery cover. He slid his new battery into place and connected it. Finally he

started the engine.

5Sheriff Moran and his deputy arrived as Kabuo was preparing to leave the port. The

sheriff told him they had to search the boat. Kabuo had asked why and was told that

they had come because of the death of Carl Heine and that they were looking for a

murder weapon. Kabuo read the document that gave them authority and told them to

go ahead hed not killed Carl Heine and they were wasting their time.

Taken from Snow Falling on Cedars, by David Guterson

TEXT 4

ACTIVITY : GROUP WORK

Group 1: Find examples of Adjectives.

Group 2: Find examples of Pronouns.

Group 3: Find examples of Determiners and Quantifiers.

1Gradually the family began to settle down in the new home. The Crogheda lands were

enormous, and the nearest small town, Gillanbone, was forty miles away. Paddy and

the boys loved the life. They often spent days away from home, riding their horses and

sleeping under the stars.

2Although it was still early spring, the weather was hot. Then in the middle of January,

black rainclouds appeared. Paddy and the boys worked long hours, moving the sheep

away from the river onto higher ground. Father Ralph came to help. He rode a horse

that Mary Carson had given him, as he went with Frank and the dogs to move the sheep

from the banks of the river. Frank looked at the priest and envied him his beautiful

horse and his expensive clothes. Of all the boys, Frank was the least happy at Crogheda.

He wanted to leave and go to Sydney.

3On the evening of the second day, when Frank and Father Ralph had managed to move

all the sheep, the rains fell. Within minutes the ground was a sea of mud, and as they

approached the river, they had to get down from their horses. When they got to the

river the horses were able to cross but the men couldnt; it was too deep and too fast. At

last Paddy came with a rope and pulled them across.

4Mary sat in her chair and wished that she was a younger woman. When at least the

rain stopped and Father Ralph returned to Gillanbone, he had a cheque for one

thousand pounds in his pocket. The bishop would be pleased with him.

Taken from The Thorn Birds, by Colleen McCullough

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TEXT 5: ELIZABETH IN DERBYSHIRE

ACTIVITY: Classify the underlined verbs.

1The next morning, the Darcys carriage stopped outside the inn where Elizabeth and

the Gardiners were staying. Elizabeth saw their carriage from the window of the inn.

She blushed and looked very anxious. The Gardiners were surprised at her

embarrassment.

Miss Darcy and her brother came in. Then Mr. Darcy introduced her sister to Elizabeth

and the Gardiners. Miss Darcy was tall. She had a pretty face and her manners were

very good. Georgiana Darcy was not proud but very shy and polite. Elizabeth was

delighted.

2Darcy told Elizabeth that Bingley was also hoping to see her. In a few minutes, Bingley

arrived. He spoke to Elizabeth politely and kindly and asked about her family.

Bingley said to Elizabeth, We last met on the 26th of November no more than eight

months ago. As the young people talked to each other, Mr. and Mrs. Gardiner watched

with great interest. They could see that Mr. Darcy admired Elizabeth. And they decided

that he was in love with her. They were not sure that Elizabeth was in love with him.

3Bingley told Elizabeth that he had many questions to ask about his friends in

Hertfordshire. He wanted to talk to Elizabeth about Jane! Before they left the inn, Mr.

Darcy invited Mr. and Mrs. Gardiner and Elizabeth to dinner at Pemberley.

4That night, Elizabeth lay awake for two hours. How did she feel about Mr. Darcy? She

did not hate him. She now believed he was a kind and intelligent man. It was clear that

Mr. Darcy wanted to please her. And he wanted her uncle and aunt to think well of him.

He must still love her! Taken from: Pride and Prejudice, by Jane Austen (2005) Macmillan Readers, intermediate

TEXT 6

ACTIVITY 1: Provide examples of different verb types.

ACTIVITY 2: Find examples of combination of auxiliaries.

1From the air, all that could be seen were two ordinary-looking wooden houses, set

among the rolling wheat fields. The security wire fences that surrounded the site were

hidden with hedges. But below, deep in the hills, were two tunnels with elevators

leading deep underground, caves connected by underground passages. One had a

printing press, another was full of weapons. There were living spaces. One was a

library. The largest was the central hall where members gathered for speeches, films

and meetings.

2The newspapers that arrived each day were first read by a man named Roland Forchin.

He lived in his hiding secret place most of the time. If a story in one of the papers

caught his attention, he would mark it and later make a copy of it and leave it on the

computer desk. Mostly he collected stories about right-wing groups similar to his.

23

3This particular morning was different. He first smelled trouble when he saw a picture

of Sam Cayhall in a San Francisco daily. The news was that the oldest man on death

row in America would now be represented by his grandson. Roland read it three times.

After an hour, hed read the same story in several different papers.

4Roland had followed the case of Sam Cayhall for many years. It was the type of case

that interested his organization, but he had a more personal interest in the case. He

wanted Sam Cayhall dead. One of Rolands other names, known only to himself, was

Rollie Wedge. He had left the United States in 1967, after the Kramer bombing, and

since then had lived in many different countries.

5He had been dreaming of Cayhalls death for twenty-three years. He and Sam shared a

secret. When Sam was finally executed, Rolland would no longer have to fear that the

secret would be ever revealed. This kid worried him. Rolland hadnt managed to trace

Sams son and his family. He knew about the daughter in Memphis, but the son had

disappered. And now this nice-looking, well-educated young lawyer had arrived from

nowhere to save his grandfather. Over the years, Sam had refused to say anything. If he

was going to talk, it would be now.

6Roland would have to go to Memphis. Taken from The Chamber, by John Grisham.

TEXT 7: TOWARDS THE MANTRA PASS

ACTIVITY 1: Identify subjects and Predicates in paragraphs 1, 6 and 7.

ACTIVITY 2: Reported Speech. Work with paragraphs 2, 3 and 5.

1The expedition left Khalid quickly and started to go up the mountain paths. The paths

were stony and it was not easy to walk on them. But there was no snow. Sometimes the

expedition met travelers on the road. They were coming from the north. Their tired

horses were carrying heavy goods. They were going to sell their goods in the markets of

Kabul.

2Professor Lugner talked to the travelers about the Toruk. Have you seen the Toruk or

the Toruks claw marks? the Professor asked them. The travelers talked quietly to each

other before they replied.

3We have not seen the Toruk, they said at last. But they told the Professor about men

who had been killed by the Toruk.

4Afterwards, Abdul talked to the travelers and asked them about their journey.

5The weather has been very bad, Abdul said to Larry. The Manta Pass is full of snow.

It is very dangerous.

6The expedition climbed higher up the mountain paths. Larry was very happy. He was

in the mountains. He had a job which he liked. Every day was different. Larry

sometimes thought about his job in England.

7After dinner, Larry went to his tent. He got out his notebook and wrote the date at the

top of the page. Then he wrote down what had happened that day.

Adapted from: Claws, by John Landon (2005). Macmillan Readers, elementary.

24

TEXT 8: WHATS IN YOUR BOTTLED WATER?

ACTIVITY 1: Identify transitive verbs.

ACTIVITY 2: Describe the underlined verbs.

ACTIVITY 3: Classify the words in bold type.

1Why do people drink bottled water? Most people say they drink bottled water

because it is healthy. But is it really? Bottled water is marketed as a pure product, but

that is not always what you find in the bottle.

2In North America, about 40 percent of all bottled water comes from city water

supplies. Sometimes, the bottled water receives treatment to clean it, but some of

this water is not actually purified because it does not receive treatment! In North

America, they dont have laws requiring companies to clean the bottled water they

sell. A company can fill all the bottles with the same water that we use in our sinks

and showers at home, and sell it to us at a higher price!

3Bottled water is labeled in three different ways. The first kind, spring water, really

comes from a natural spring. The second class is mineral water. This only indicates

that the water contains some minerals. It does not mean that the water is purified or

that it comes from a natural source. Finally, there is purified water. This kind is

water that has been cleaned in some way. However, consumers cannot know where

the water came from only by this name.

4So, when you pick up a bottle of refreshing water, do you really know what you are

drinking?

Adapted from: Eric Prochaska 2005. Reading for the real world- Intro.Compass Publishing. Unit 5:

Enviromental issues 2, pp. 84

TEXT 9

ACTIVITY: Provide the corresponding questions for the underlined phrases.

At 6:15 soft classical music wakes me up. For five minutes I stretch and touch my toes.

Then I meditate in a quiet garden beside my large bedroom. After a hot shower I put on

my jeans and a silk shirt. Next, I have fresh orange juice and hot tea with my husband

and son. After this delicious breakfast I jump into my car and go to school. In class I

never feel shy when I speak English. After school I do my homework. In the evening I

am with my lovely family. We go to bed late because we need only four hours of sleep.

25

TEXT 10: BELLE

ACTIVITY 1: Identify Subjects and Predicates.

ACTIVITY 2: Identify Link verbs and classify the complements that follow them.

1Scrooge and the Ghost were in another room. It was not very large but it was very

comfortable. A beautiful young girl sat by the fire. She looked like Belle and Scrooge

thought it was Belle. Then he saw Belle. She was now an attractive woman, and she was

sitting opposite her daughter. They were laughing happily. The room was very noise.

There were more children than Scrooge could count.

2Just then, there was a knock at the door and everyone ran towards it. The father came

in. He was carrying lots of Christmas toys and presents. With happiness, the children

dived into his pockets. Their happiness was indescribable. Then one by one the children

left the room, climbed to the top of the house and went to bed. And now Scrooge saw

the master of the house. She was sitting happily with her daughter and her mother by

the fire. She could be my daughter, he thought, and his eyes filled with tears.

3Ghost, said Scrooge in a sad voice, Take me away from this place. I cant bear it!

He turned to the Ghost. It looked down at him. And he saw pieces of all the faces from

his past in its face. The Ghosts light was very bright. Scrooge grabbed the cap, and

quickly pressed it down on the Ghosts head.

4Scrooge pressed the cap down with all his strength, but he could not hide the light. He

felt very tired. He gave the cap one last squeeze. Then his hand relaxed. He was in his

bedroom now. He was exhausted so he got into bed and fell asleep. Adapted from: A Christmas Carol, by Charles Dickens (2008) Helbling Languages

TEXT 11

ACTIVITY 1: Prepositional or Phrasal? Classify the underlined verbs

ACTIVITY 2: Are the verbs in bold type link verbs? Why / Why not?

1Meggie and Luke were married very quietly in Gillanbone and they left the same

evening on the long train journey to North Queensland.

2They spent the first night of their marriage sitting on a crowded slow train which went

from north-east to Goondiwindi. When they got there they had to wait for another

train. There was nothing to eat or drink at the station because it was Sunday. They

changed trains again at Brisbane. Once again they had to sit up because Luke had

bought second class seats.

3Meggie sat beside the window and looked out. Luke seemed to think that she was a

child, but she was too young to argue. She wanted to be a good wife, and she

remembered how her father had loved her mother. In time, Luke would be the same.

The train was crowded as it made its way slowly northwards. Meggies head ached,

and she felt sick. It grew hotter and hotter and her lovely new dress became dirty.

She almost hated Luke, who didnt seem to be tired at all.

4Late on Thursday afternoon they got off the train. Meggie could hardly walk. Luke

asked at the station for the address of a cheap hotel, picked up their cases and went off

down the street. Their room was small and full of ugly old furniture, but it seemed

like heaven to Meggie. She fell onto the bed. Taken from The Thorn Birds, by Colleen McCullough.

26

TEXT 12

ACTIVITY: Reported Speech: Work with the underlined sentences.

Tibor: One of those days, huh? Shut the door, please!

Roberta: Yeah, Im just a little angry because no one seems to understand my English.

T: Oh, dont you hate that? Every time I go out people ask me, Where are you from?

R: I hate when that happens. The other day I said Good morning to the doorman and

he said Buon giorno. That really made me angry.

T: I can imagine. But if it makes you feel any better, this morning I had to ask the

woman at the post office to write down the price for the stamps because I couldnt

understand her accent.

R: Ouch. That mustve been really embarrassing.

T: Very. Im going to go to a different post office next time.

R: I dont blame you. Sometimes I wonder if my English will ever sound perfect.

T: Tell me about it.

R: Sometimes I feel like giving up.

T: I know the feeling. At first I felt like I was learning a lot, and now

(Tibor shakes his head)

R: I know what you mean. I want to be treated as a native speaker of English- not as a

woman from Italy.

T: Yeah, I can relate. Adapted from Martinez, R. (1997) Conversation Lessons- An Intermediate Course. LTP.

TEXT 13

1Mr. Wormwood kept his hair looking bright and strong, or so he thought, by rubbing

into it every morning large quantities of a lotion called OIL OF VIOLETS HAIR TONIC.

A bottle of this smelly purple mixture always stood on the shelf above the sink in the

bathroom alongside all the toothbrushes, and a very vigorous scalp massage with OIL

OF VIOLETS took place daily after shaving was completed. This hair and scalp massage

was always accompanied by loud masculine grunts and heavy breathing and gasps of

Ahhh, thats better! Thats the staff! Rub it right into the roots! which could be clearly

heard by Matilda in her bedroom across the corridor. 2Now, in the early morning of the privacy of the bathroom, Matilda unscrewed the cap

of her fathers OIL OF VIOLETS and tipped three-quarters of the contents down the

drain. Then she filled the bottle up with her mothers PLATINUM BLONDE HAIR DYE

EXTRA STRONG. She carefully left enough of her fathers original hair tonic in the

bottle so that when she gave it a good shake the whole thing still looked reasonably

purple. She then replaced the bottle on the shelf above the sink, taking care to put her

mothers bottle back in the cupboard. 3At breakfast time Matilda sat quietly at the dinning-room table eating her cornflakes.

Her brother sat opposite her with his back to the door devouring lots of bread

smothered with a mixture of peanut-butter and strawberry jam. The mother was just

out of sight around the corner in the kitchen making Mr. Wormwoods breakfast which

always had to be two fried eggs on fried bread with three pork sausages and three strips

of bacon and some fried tomatoes. Adapted from: Matilda, by Ronald Dahl (1996) Scholastic

27

What are you expected to do at the end of this subject?

Here you have a sample text with typical activities and the key.

We recommend you do the exercises before looking at the key!!!!

CHANGE FOR A DOLLAR

Make yourself a blessing to someone. Your kind smile or pat on the back just might pull

someone back from the edge.

All he wanted was some juice. As tables full of high school students sat in Cafeteria B2

on that cloudy afternoon, he was thirsty. We sat near yet away from him, fixing our hair

and worrying about the test next period we hadnt studied for. He was far away from

our world, yet forced to be a part of it.

He stood at the drink machine with purpose, fumbling through his fake leather wallet

for some change. He came up with a wrinkled dollar bill, and nervously glanced back at

his table where other students in their special need class were sitting. With the

coordination of a six-year-old, he tried to make the machine accept his money. After a

few unsuccessful attempts, the snickers and comments began. People were laughing.

Some were even throwing things at him. He began to quiver, and his eyes misted with

tears. I saw him turn to sit down, defeated. But for some reason, he decided against it.

He wasnt leaving until he got a drink.

With a determined expression, he continued to aimlessly thrust the dollar bill in the

machine. Then something terrific happened. A popular senior rose from her seat, and

with a look of genuine compassion, went over to the boy. She explained how the

machine had a hard time accepting dollars, then gave him some change and showed

him where to place it. The boy gave her his dollar and chose a flavor of fruit juice. Then

the two walked off in different directions.

Although it was clear that they were from very different worlds, for one moment, theyd

shared a real understanding. As I walked away from my lunch table that day, I looked at

the boy. I remember thinking how he and the dollar were very much alike. They both

werent accepted where the world said they were supposed to be. But just as the dollar

had found a place in a caring girls pocket, I was sure the boy would eventually find his,

too.

Taken from: Canfield J.,Hansen M., Kirberger K.2002. Chicken Soup for the Teenage Soul II. Scholastic

Inc.Part 3: pp. 98, 99

1) Read the text and classify the underlined words:

Nouns Pronouns Determiners Quantifiers Adjectives

28

2) Look at the following Noun Phrases taken from the text. Identify the

determiners and explain their use.

a) a blessing d) the drink machine b) your kind smile e) high school students c) that cloudy afternoon

3) The same word can belong to different categories depending on the

elements around it. Explain the difference between the words in bold

type. Can you think of some other word that behaves in this way?

a. A popular senior rose from her seat, and with a look of genuine compassion, went over to the boy

b. I looked at the boy.

c. He wanted some change. d. Some were even throwing things at him.

e. He tried to make the machine accept his money. f. but just as the dollar had found a place in a caring girls pocket, I was sure the

boy would eventually find his, too.

g. The boy gave her his dollar. h. A popular senior rose from her seat.

4) Look at the following sentences, concentrate on the words in italics and

explain the difference between them.

a. I remember thinking how he and the dollar were very much alike. b. Some were even throwing things at him.

c. She explained how the machine had a hard time accepting dollars. d. We sat near yet away from him, fixing our hair and worrying about the test next

period we hadnt studied for.

Auxiliary Verbs Main Verbs Adverbs Prepositions

29

5) Read the text again and make questions for the following answers:

a. __________________________? He wanted some juice.

b. __________________________? Yes, they were. People were laughing and throwing things at him.

c. _________________________? A popular senior helped him.

d. _________________________? Yes, he did. He finally managed to get some juice from the drink machine.

6). Correct these ungrammatical sentences. Explain why they are wrong.

a. *Peter can drove a car.

b. * I gave to my mother a present.

c. *Susan likes swim.

d. * Some people is watching the football match.

e. *Yesterday I saw Mary and told about my birthday.

-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

KEY

1) Read the text and classify the highlighted words:

Nouns Pronouns Determiners Quantifiers Adjectives

wallet he our some cloudy

coordination his a thirsty

look him his caring

compassion they the alike

understanding some my wrinkled

it that unsuccessfu

l

her hard

all

30

2) Look at the following Noun Phrases taken from the text. Identify the determiners and explain their use.

a) A blessing: a is an indefinite determiner that specifies and precedes the noun blessing It assigns general reference to it.

b) Your kind smile: your is a possessive determiner that specifies and precedes the noun smile. It assigns specific reference to it.

c) That cloudy afternoon: that is a demonstrative determiner that specifies and precedes the noun afternoon. It assigns specific reference to it.

d) The drink machine: the is a definite determiner that specifies and precedes the noun machine. It assigns specific reference to it.

e) High school students: The zero determiner () specifies the noun students and it assigns generic reference to it.

3) The same word can belong to different categories depending on the elements around it. Explain the difference between the words in italics.

Can you think of some other word that behaves in this way?

a. A popular senior rose from her seat, and with a look of genuine compassion, went over to the boy

b. I looked at the boy. In sentence a, the word in italics look is a noun because it is preceded by a

determiner which specifies it. Besides, the suffix s can be added to it to form

the plural which means that look inflects for number (a typical property of

nouns).

In sentence b, the word in italics look is a verb which takes two participants:

an NP (I) which functions as the subject of the sentence and a PP (at the boy)

which functions as complement of the verb.

c. He wanted some change. d. Some were even throwing things at him. In sentence c, the word in italics some is a quantifier which quantifies and

precedes the noun change.

In sentence d, the word in italics some is a pronoun because it appears alone

and it can be replaced by a full noun phrase: His classmates were even throwing

things at him.

e. He tried to make the machine accept his money. f. but just as the dollar had found a place in a caring girls pocket, I was sure the

boy would eventually find his, too.

In sentence e, the word in italics his is a possessive determiner which specifies

and precedes the noun money. It assigns specific reference to it.

Auxiliary

Verbs

Main Verbs Adverbs Prepositions

had(nt) looked nervously about

had studied aimlessly from

were found at

was(nt) laughing near

leaving

31

In sentence f, the word in italics his is a possessive pronoun which appears

alone and can be replaced by a full noun phrase: I was sure the boy would

eventually find his place too.

g. The boy gave her his dollar. h. A popular senior rose from her seat. In sentence g, the word in italics her is a personal objective pronoun which

functions as complement (indirect object) of the verb give.

In sentence h, the word in italics her is a possessive determiner which specifies

and precedes the noun seat. It assigns specific reference to it.

Some other words that behave in the same way are: answer, colour, film, etc.

I cant give an answer to your question. / I cant answer your question. NOUN VERB

I dont have a favourite colour. / My children were colouring their notebooks. NOUN VERB

Lets watch a film. / They were filming a new documentary about the immigrants. NOUN VERB

4) Look at the following sentences, concentrate on the words in italics and explain the difference between them.

a. I remember thinking how he and the dollar were very much alike. b. Some were even throwing things at him. In sentence a, the word in italics were is a link verb which joins the subject and

the predicate. It is considered a main verb because it appears alone.

In sentence b, the word in italics were is an auxiliary verb used to form the

continuous tense. It precedes the main verb throwing and it carries grammatical

information about person (3rd), number (plural) and tense (past).

c. She explained how the machine had a hard time accepting dollars. d. We sat near yet away from him, fixing our hair and worrying about the test next

period we hadnt studied for.

In sentence c, the word in italics had is a transitive verb which selects two

participants: the NP the machine which functions as the subject of the sentence

and the NP a hard time which functions as complement of the verb.

In sentence d, the word in italics had(nt) is an auxiliary verb used to form the

perfect tense. It precedes the main verb studied and it carries grammatical

information about tense (past).

5) Read the text again and make questions for the following answers:

a. What did he want? He wanted some juice. b. Were people laughing and throwing things at him? Yes, they were. People were

laughing and throwing things at him.

c. Who helped him? A popular senior helped him. d. Did he finally manage to get some juice from the drink machine? Yes, he did. He

finally managed to get some juice from the drink machine.

32

6) Correct these ungrammatical sentences. Explain why they are wrong.

a. *Peter can drove a car. This sentence is ungrammatical because the verb drove is conjugated and

preceded by a modal (can). Modals are always followed by verbs in the base form.

The correct version would be Peter can drive a car.

b. * I gave to my mother a present. This sentence is ungrammatical because the verb gave is a ditransitive verb which

selects two complements: the direct object (a present) and the indirect object (to my

mother). When the IO (indirect object) is realised by a prepositional phrase, the DO

(direct object) precedes it. The correct version would be I gave a present to my

mother.

c. *Susan likes swim. This sentence is ungrammatical because verbs which express likes or dislikes (love,

like, hate, enjoy, etc.) are followed by verbs in the to infinitive or in the ing form.

A possible correct version is Susan likes swimming.

d. * Some people is watching the football match. This sentence is ungrammatical because there is no agreement between the subject

(people) and the auxiliary verb (is). The subject is realised by an NP whose head is

the plural noun people whereas the auxiliary verb is is used with singular nouns.

The correct version would be Some people are watching the football match

e. *Yesterday I saw Mary and told about my birthday. This sentence is ungrammatical because the verb told is a ditransitive verb which

selects two complements: the direct object and the indirect object. In this case, the

IO (indirect object) is missing. The correct version would be Yesterday I saw Mary

and told her about my birthday.