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IndigenouscommunitiesandsocialinclusioninLatinAmerica

PreparedfortheUnitedNationsExpertGroupMeetingonFamiliesandInclusiveSocietiesNewYorkHeadquarters,May15-16,2018

MariaAmparoCruz-SacoJoanneToorCummings´50ProfessorofEconomics

ConnecticutCollege

IntroductionPeopleofindigenousbackgroundarepersonswhodescendfromthepopulationswhichinhabitedthecountry—orageographicalregiontowhichthecountrybelongs—atthetimeofconquest,colonization,ortheestablishmentofpresentstateboundaries,andwho,irrespectiveoftheirlegalstatus,retainsomeoralloftheirsocial,economic,culturalandpoliticalinstitutions(ILOConventionNo.169).Anincreasingnumberofpeopleself-identifyasindigenous,andthus,therehasbeenanincreaseintheircensusnumbers.Indigenouspeoplearethemselvesvastlydiverseintermsofculture,language,worldviews,andbeliefs.Soprofoundistheirdiversity,thatinanygivencountrywithalargepresenceofindigenouscommunities,morethan50differentindigenouscommunitiesspeakingdifferentlanguagescanshareacommonland.Theconceptofindigenouspeopleshasfourcoredimensions:identity,commonorigin,territory,andlinguistic/cultural.Thestrugglefortherecognitionofthehumanrightsofindigenouspeoplehasbeenlongandbumpy.InLatinAmerica,onemajorimpedimentarenation-states’effortstonormalizeandhomogenizenationalidentitiesaroundacommoncultureandlanguage.Indigenouscommunities—withtheirdistinctiveculturalandethnolinguisticidentities—becomebarrierstobeovercomebystatesandtheiragencies.1Fromalegalperspective,citizenshipinLatinAmerica,likeinotherregionsoftheworld,isdefinedinasimplisticmanner.Itlacksattentiontohowgender,ethnicity,andclassaffectrelationshipsamongpeopleandbetweenpeopleandthestate.Justasimportanttoconsider,citizenship,broadlydefined,doesnotensureactualaccesstorights,especiallyforthosegroupsthathavebeenhistoricallymarginalizedanddiscriminatedagainst(Carey,2013,p.237).Anotherchallengeisrepresentedbythemixedresultsofsocialmovementsinsupportofindigenouspeople´srights—oftenledbyindigenouswomen.Socialmovementsarearesponsetoglobalizationforcesthatusurpancestrallandanddisregardthepropertyandlivelihoodofindigenouspeople.Theyalsocenteraroundtheneedtoeliminatetheurban/ruralgaps,equalizeaccesstosocialservices,andenhancelivingconditionsofindigenouspeoplewholiveinpoverty.TheUnitedNations(UN)hasrecognizedminimumstandardsofrightswhichincludetherighttobefreefromdiscrimination;toexpressculturalidentity;touseproperty;tocontrolandaccesslands,territories,andresources;topursuedevelopmentandsocialwell-being;toengageinpoliticalparticipation;andtoexpressfree,previous,andinformedconsent(UNDeclaration).In

1French(2010)isanexcellentanalysisofthecontradictionsanddilemmasofbuildingnationhoodinGuatemala.

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somecountries,theactivismofandsupportforindigenouscommunitieshasledtotherecognitionoftheirethnicitiesandtheirownlinguisticandculturaldifferences.Despiterecentlegislationprotectingthehumanrightsofindigenouspeople,theirsocioeconomicsituationandwellbeingcontinuestobedeficientcomparedtonon-indigenouspeople.Thehigherincidenceofpovertyanddestitution,steadilyhighmorbidityrates,andtheirlowerchancesforuppermobilityseverelyhinderindigenousprogress.Inaddition,theyarediscriminatedagainst,marginalized,andexcludedfrommainstreamsociety.Duetotheirprofoundheterogeneity,indigenousfamiliesvaryenormously.Theyinhabitdiversecommunitiesandareasofresidence,withdistinctimmigrationstatuses,levelsofeducation,andsoon.Someindigenouspeopleco-residewithinextendedfamilystructuresandkinrelationshipswithstrongintergenerationalsolidarity,whileothers—whohaverelocatedtourbanareas—havelessfamilismduetogeographicaldistanceandchangingvalues.Furthermore,indigenouspeopleandtheirdescendantshavemigratedtoothercountriesinLatinAmerica,totheUnitedStates(US),andtoEuropeforeconomicandpoliticalreasons.Theirstruggleforenhancingwellbeinghascontinuedinthesehostcountries.Inthispaper,weanalyzethestatusofLatinAmericanindigenouscommunitiesandfactorsaffectingtheirsocialinclusion.Webeginwithanassessmentofthesizeoftheindigenouspopulationineachcountry;weemphasizeitsrichdiversity,andwelookatdependencyratesandaging.Inthesecondsection,wefocusontheincidenceofpoverty,andinthethirdsection,weconsiderthestatusofindigenousgirlsandwomen.Inthefourthsection,weconsiderthehealthandeducationdimension,andfinally,inthefifthsection,weaddresspropertyrights,climatechange,andself-governance.Conclusionsarepresentedattheend.

1. Population,diversityandagingLatinAmericaisaregioncharacterizedbyitsmultiethnic,plurinational,andmultilingualpopulationsthatrevealitsextensivemiscegenation.ItsculturaldiversityresultsfromtheconflictivecolonialsubordinationofthenativepopulationstoEuropeanstatesaswellasthetransatlanticAfricanslavetradebeginninginthe15thcenturytotheendofthe19thcentury.Table1presentstheindigenouspopulationsatthemomentoftheircolonialencounter.

Table1WesternHemispherepopulationca15thcentury

millions %Mexico 21.0 37.3Andeanregion 11.3 20.1SouthernSouthAmerica 8.3 14.8Caribbean 5.7 10.2CentralAmerica 5.6 9.9Canada&USA 4.3 7.7Total 56.3 100.0

Source:NacionesUnidas(2014,FigureI.1,p.21)

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IndigenouscommunitieswereexposedtoEuropeanvirusesandbacteriaagainstwhichtheylackedimmunity.Peoplegotverysickandmortalityratesincreasedsharply.Inaddition,theentireindigenoussocietywasviolentlysubjugatedandrequiredtopayhightributestotheirEuropeancolonizers.Theharsh,ofteninhumane,workingconditionsinminingandplantationsledtosubstantialdropsinlifeexpectancy.SomeindigenouscommunitiesfledcolonialruleandfoundrefugeintheAmazonianforest,remotesitesinhigh-altitudeplanes,orinthesoutherntipofSouthAmerica.Afeworganizedindigenousmovementsthatattemptedrevoltswereruthlesslyputdown.Asaresult,theNewWorldexperiencedadramaticdemographiccollapse:80yearsaftertheencounter,ninetypercentofthepopulationhaddied.EstimatingthecurrentnumberofindigenouspersonsinLatinAmericaisacomplicatedtask.ThehistoryoftheregionissuchthattherehasbeenanintensemixtureofEuropeans,indigenouspeople,Africans,andAsians.Thefollowingsayingcapturesthisreality:“QuiénnotienedeIngatienedeMandinga,”whichtranslatesinto,“WhodoesnothaveInga(nativeDNA)hasMandinga(AfricanDNA).”Thus,officialstatisticsandpolicymakersrelyonself-identification,whosenumberhasgrownasnationalprideonindigenousancestryandsustainabilityeffortshasincreasedamongprogressivesectorsofyouth.However,anunknownnumberofpersons,whomostprobablyhaveindigenousancestry,maynotself-identifyduetostereotypesabouttheculturesandlanguagesofindigenouspeoples.Thereseemstobeawidespreadbeliefthatofficialvaluesontheproportionoftheindigenouspopulationunderestimateitsactualpresence.AccordingtotheUnitedNationsEconomicCommissionforLatinAmericaandtheCaribbean(UNECLAC),CentralandSouthAmericaandtheCaribbeanregionarehometobetween45and50millionindigenouspeople(UnitedNationsDepartmentofEconomicandSocialAffairs,2015,p.084).Inarecentreport,theUnitedNationsDepartmentofEconomicandSocialAffairs(2017,chapterIV)agreedthat—basedon2010censusdata—theindigenousLatinAmericanpopulationwasapproximately45.3million.Thispopulationrepresents826differentindigenouspeopleorcommunities,andinaddition,200othercommunitiesareestimatedtobelivinginvoluntaryisolation(https://www.cepal.org/en/infographics/indigenous-peoples-latin-america).Table2presentstheindigenouspopulationforallseventeenLatinAmericancountriesrankedfromhighesttolowest.Boliviaisthecountrywiththehighestpercentageofindigenouspopulation(62.2%).ItisfollowedbyGuatemala(41%)andPeru(24%).Intermsoftheoverallsizeoftheindigenouspopulation,Mexicohasthelargest(17million),followedbyPeru(7.5million)andBolivia(6.2million).Aswastruefivecenturiesago,bothMexicoandtheAndeancountriesofPeruandBoliviaconcentratetwothirdsoftheindigenouspopulation,up10%from57.4%inthe15thcentury.Again,itshouldbekeptinmindthatthepercentageofindigenousbackgroundandculturemaybemuchlargerthanthevaluesreportedinTable2.Weshouldalsonotethatwhencomparingthetotalregionalindigenouspopulationsizebetween1500and2015,weseeapopulationdropfrom56.3millionto45.3million.Thisdeclineinthesizeofthepopulationreflectstheimpactofcolonizationandsteadymarginalizationofindigenouspeopleoverfivecenturies.

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InMexico—whichhasatotalpopulationof127million—theindigenouscommunities(atleast15%ofthetotalpopulation)speak68differentlanguagesand364registereddialects(Jacqueline-Andersen,2018).Mostofthesecommunitiesresideinthesouthernandsouth-centralregions(http://minorityrights.org/minorities/indigenous-peoples-4/).InGuatemala,asmallercountry—whichhasatotalpopulationof16.7million—morethan20differentindigenouscommunities,withtheirownlanguageandtraditions,representnolessthan40%ofthetotalpopulation(Jacqueline-Andersen,2018).ThemajorityofthemareofMayandescent,althoughtherearenon-Mayancommunitiesaswell(http://minorityrights.org/minorities/maya-2/).Peru(totalpopulation:31million)andBolivia(totalpopulation:11million)arehometoverylargeindigenouspopulations.ThelargergroupsinthesecountriesareQuechuaandAymarabutincludemorethan100additionalcommunitiesinbothcountries.

Table2LatinAmerica.Totalandindigenouspopulation,ca2015

CountryTotalindigenous

population(thousands)

Indigenouspeopleintotalpopulation

(in%)1 Bolivia 6,200.0 62.22 Guatemala 5,900.0 41.03 Peru 7,500.0 24.04 Mexico 17,000.0 15.15 Panama 420.0 12.36 Chile 1,800.0 11.07 Nicaragua 520.0 8.98 Ecuador 1,000.0 7.09 Honduras 537.0 7.010 Colombia 1,600.0 3.411 Venezuela 725.0 2.712 Uruguay 77.0 2.413 Argentina 955.0 2.414 CostaRica 105.0 2.415 Paraguay 113.0 1.816 Brazil 900.0 0.517 ElSalvador 14.5 0.2

Total 45,366.5 7.2Source:https://www.cepal.org/en/infographics/indigenous-peoples-latin-america,

ComisiónEconómicaparaAméricaLatina(2018),andUnitedNationsDepartmentofEconomicandSocialAffairs(2017,chapterIV).

Asindicatedabove,theproportionsofindigenouspopulationsforbothPeruandBoliviainTable2,column3,seemtounderreportactualfigures.Finally,Brazil(totalpopulation:208million)haslessthanonemillionindigenouspeoplebut305indigenouscommunities,mostlyintheAmazon.Morethanhalfofthecommunitiesliveeitheronreservationsorinoneofthefour

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nationalparkslocatedinthenorthernAmazonstates,thenorth-east,orthestatesofMatoGrossodoSulandSaoPaulo(http://minorityrights.org/country/brazil/).Onefifthofthesecommunitiesareindangerofphysicalorculturaldisappearance(https://www.cepal.org/en/infographics/indigenous-peoples-latin-america).And,intheentireregionofLatinAmerica,therearemorethanonehundredindigenouscommunitiesinsimilardanger.Inadditiontoitsindigenousancestry,LatinAmericansmixedwiththeEuropeancolonizers—mostlysouthernEuropeans—aswellaswithAfricansandAsians.Overthespanofthreetofourcenturies,coloniesspecializedintheproductionofrawmaterialsforEuropeanconsumption.Demandforworkgrewincessantlytosatisfytheincreasinggrowthofextractiveactivitiesinmining,rubber,potassiumnitrate,guano(birdandbatdroppings),lumber,andagriculturalcrops(e.g.sugar,coffee,andtobacco).Thedomesticdemographicgrowthwasnothighenoughandlaborshortagesemerged.Toaddressthissituation,morethantwelvemillionAfricanpeoplewereforcedtomigratetotheWesternHemisphereandcompelledtoworkinminesandinplantationsunderslaveryorindenturedservitude.TheslavetradewasinitiallycontrolledbyPortuguesedealers,andinthe18thcentury,byBritishcompanies.InadditiontotheAfricanpresence,Chineseimmigrantsarrivedduringthesecondpartofthe19thcenturyandthroughoutthefirstpartofthe20thcentury.Theyfoundoccupationinplantations,andwhenslaverywasabolished,incommerce.Decadeslater,JapaneseimmigrantssoughteconomicopportunitiesintheUnitedStatesandinLatinAmericancountries,notably,Mexico,Brazil,andPeru.Theintermixingofpeoplefromvariousethnicitiesandtraditionscreatedtheremarkablediversityoftheregion.Since1980,censusdatainmanyLatinAmericancountriescollectinformationthathelpidentifyindigenouspeoples.The2010censusroundwassupportedbytheUnitedNationsEconomicCommissionforLatinAmericaandtheCaribbean(UNECLAC)andtheLatinAmericanandCaribbeanDemographicCentre(CELADE).CELADEdeveloped“TheSocio-DemographicSystemofIndicatorsforIndigenousPeople(SISPPI)”whichisanonlinedatabase.UsingSISPPIwehaveobtainedinformationontheproportionofindigenouspersonsresidinginruralandurbanareasinallcountriesforwhichdataexists.TheinformationispresentedinTable32whichalsoincludesacolumnwithinformationonhowmanytimesthepercentageofruralindigenouspopulationislargerthantheurbanpopulation.Mexico´sindigenouspopulationinruralareasis30%ofthetotalruralpopulation,andinurbanareas,10.7%.Thus,thepercentageofruralindigenouspopulationis2.8timeshigherthantheurban.Thisistobeexpectedgivenfarmingbackgroundandancestralconnectiontorelevantland.InBrazil,wheretheindigenouspopulationisrelativelylow,lessthan1%,itsconcentrationisthehighestinruralareas,3.5%vs.0.4%,8.8timeslarger.Similarsituations,indescendingorder,areexperiencedinEcuador,Panama,Venezuela,andCostaRica.Thereverse,however,istrueinUruguay,wherethepercentofindigenouspeopleinurbanareasismorethaninruralareas.ThisisanoutcomeofhighurbanizationinUruguay.Fortheselectedcountries,we

2TheproportionsofindigenouspopulationpercountryisverysimilartoTable2—thereareslightdifferencesinBrazilandCostaRica.

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observethatindigenouspeoplesrepresentalargerproportioninruralareas,exceptinUruguay.Atthesametime,however,aWorldBankstudyfoundthat,contrarytopopularbelief,morethanhalfofindigenouspersonsinLatinAmericaresideinurbancenters(Freireetal.,2015).Thedata,therefore,isambiguous.

Table3LatinAmerica.Selectedcountries.Percentofindigenouspopulationbyarea,ca2010

Area %Indigenouspopulation Rural/Urban

BrazilUrban 0.4 Rural 3.5 8.8Bothareas 0.9

CostaRicaUrban 1.4 Rural 5.4 3.8Bothareas 2.5

EcuadorUrban 2.4 Rural 14.8 6.2Bothareas 7.0

MexicoUrban 10.7 Rural 30.0 2.8Bothareas 15.3

PanamaUrban 4.5 Rural 26.7 5.9Bothareas 12.3

UruguayUrban 2.5 Rural 1.7 0.7Bothareas 2.4

VenezuelaUrban 1.9 Rural 8.8 4.6Bothareas 2.7

Source:UnitedNationsECLACELADEPopulationDivision(2010).Thisfindinghasthreeimportantfamilyimplications.First,itispossiblethatfamiliesareincreasinglybecomingfragmentedasyoungermembersmigratetourbancentersforeducationalandjobopportunities.Asthishappens,smallervillagesandtownsthatarehometothesecommunitiesareagingrapidly.Second,becauseofthetightrelationshipswithinkinandextendedfamilies,relativesandfriendstransferbothmoneyandgoodstofamilymembersleftbehind.Theseremittancesarenationalandinternationalandrequireaccesstobankingfacilitiesand/orotheragencies.Inthelastfewdecades,thishasbeenanimportantsourceofincomeforhomecommunities.Andthird,asdescendantsofindigenouspeoplegrowandassimilatetothelargersocietyinurbancenters,thereisthepossibilitythattheymaybegintoacquirethevaluesandperspectivesfromnon-indigenouscultures.Oneaspectthathasbeen

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documentedistheincreasedbilingualismofindigenouspersonswhospeaktheirnativelanguageandeitherSpanishorPortuguese.TheSISPPIdatabaseprovidesimportantdemographicinformationondependencyratiosandagingamongindigenouspeoplethatgiveuscluesonfamilypressures.Thedependencyratioismeasuredasthepopulationofchildrenfrom0to14plusthepopulationover65(65+)outoftheworkingagepopulation,from15to64.Whentheratiois10itmeansthat100workingageindividualssupporttenpersonsintheothertwobrackets,0-14and65+.Thisratioshouldbereadasanaverageoftheobligationofworkingpeople,withregardtochildrenandolderpersons.Socialprotectionsystemsvaryfromcountrytocountryandamongregions,andpensionprogramsaswellaspublictransfersmayhelpfundthewellbeingofchildren,youth,andolderpersons.Whenthecoverageislowandpeoplearepoor,however,highdependencyratesareoverwhelmingforfamilies.Theratio,doesnotindicatewhatbracketofthepopulationislarger,childrenorolderpersons.Weusetheagingratio,definedasthepopulation65+overthepopulationofchildren0-14,tomeasure“howold”agivencommunityactuallyis.Avalueof10meansthepresenceof10olderpersons(65+)per100children(0-14).Table4presentsthedependencyratioandagingbyindigenous/non-indigenouspeopleforallLatinAmericancountriesforwhichdataexists.

Table4LatinAmerica.Selectedcountries.Dependencyratioandaging,ca2010

Ratio Dependency Aging

Brazil Indigenous 71.5 15.6Non-indigenous 45.8 30.8

CostaRica Indigenous 53.7 33.7Non-indigenous 46.6 29.4

Ecuador Indigenous 76.3 16.2Non-indigenous 59.6 21.2

Mexico Indigenous 63.2 22.7Non-indigenous 54.0 22.4

Panama Indigenous 94.7 7.8Non-indigenous 53.5 29.3

Uruguay Indigenous 40.6 70.9Non-indigenous 56.1 63.9

Venezuela Indigenous 68.7 10.5Non-indigenous 48.7 22.5

Source:UnitedNationsECLACELADEPopulationDivision(2010).

ThedependencyratioforindigenouspeopleishighestinPanama.Itindicatesthattherearenear95indigenouschildrenandolderpersonsfor100workingageindigenouspeople.ThesignificancehereisthatworkingindigenouspeopleinPanamahavehigherresponsibilitiesregardingsmall

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children.Weknowthatthisistruebecausetheagingvalueshowsthelowest,7.8,whichmeansthat thereare8olderpersonsper100children,0-14.Similar situations regarding indigenouspeopleareobservedinEcuador,Brazil,Venezuela,andMexico.Incontrast,thedataforUruguay,bothforindigenousandnon-indigenouspeople,showadvancedaging.TheagingrateillustratesthatindigenouscommunitiesinBrazil,Ecuador,Panama,andVenezuelaare relatively younger than non-indigenous communities. InMexico, these communities areslightlyolder,inCostaRicasomewhatolder,andinUruguay,theyaretheoldest.Thus,weseethattheagingofthesecommunitiesvariesfromslowtoadvanced.Thissituationhasdifferentimplicationsforfamilies.Inthecasesofindigenouscommunitieswithrelativelyyoungerpeople,thelikelihoodofprivate,intergenerationaltransfersinsupportoffamiliesishigher.ThiscapacityislessinUruguayandinCostaRica,thathavefortunatelybettersocialprotectioncoverage.InthecaseofMexico,indigenouspopulationsareagingrapidly.Weshouldnotethatagingisinitselfadifferentdimensionamongtraditional,indigenousculturesthan inwestern societies. In the former, aging is perceived as a cultural transition that addswisdomand,usually,therespectfromthekinandextendedfamilies.Often,inwesternculture,agingmeansnotonlyalossofabilities,butalso,alossofstatus.

2. Poverty

Inthelasttwodecades,LatinAmericancountrieshaveexperiencedadropofpovertyrates,althoughinequalityremainslarge.Againstthisoutcome,however,indigenouspovertyratesremainmuchhigherthantherestofthenon-indigenouspopulation.Forinstance,inParaguay,thepovertyrateofindigenouspeoplesisalmost8timeshigher,6timeshigherinPanama,3.3timeshigherinMexico,and2.8timeshigherinGuatemala(UnitedNationsDepartmentofEconomicandSocialAffairs,2009).Thereasonsarevaried.First,indigenouspeopleslivepredominantlyinruralareas,ofteninremotevillages,andareengagedinfarmingoflowproductivity.Theyareweavers,fruitcollectors,smallcattleranchers,hunters,andfishermeninlocalrivers.Second,theyhavelimitedaccesstotheprovisionofsocialservices,particularlyhealthandeducation.Third,whentheymigratetourbanandsemi-urbanareas,theyaremarginalizedandlacktheskillstofindproductiveemployment.Indigenousworkers´earningsareonaveragehalfthatofnon-indigenousworkers.Andfourth,mostruralindigenouspeoplecontinuetobesubjectedtoracismandsocialexclusion(UnitedNationsDepartmentofEconomicandSocialAffairs,2017,p.110).Indigenouspeople,however,havenotalwaysbeenhistoricallypoor.Itistheresultofcenturiesofexploitation,disrespectforvalues,usurpationofland,and,ingeneral,fiercecolonization.Thus,itisofparamountimportancethatcivilsocietyandgovernmentsorganizeadecisiveactiontoreversetheirconditionbyrecognizingindigenousidentityandhumanrights.InPeruandBolivia,sustainedgrowthduringthefirstdecadeofthe21stcenturycreatedthefiscalspacefortheimplementationofsocialpoliciesincludingbasicpensionsforolderpersons.Interventionsledtoadropinnationalpovertyrates,andonethirdandone-fourthofindigenoushouseholdsrespectivelywerepulledoutofpoverty(Freireetal.,2015,p.58).However,chronicpovertycontinuesincountrieswithlargeindigenouspopulations,especially

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inruralareas.PovertylevelsamongindigenouspeopleinBolivia,Ecuador,andPerufell,butthiswasnotthecaseinGuatemala.Inthelatter,bothpoverty($4perday)andextremepoverty($2.5perday)increasedby14%and21%respectivelyfromtheearly2000stothelate2000s.But,despiteapparentgainsinthethreeformercountries,thepovertygapbetweenindigenousandnon-indigenouspeopleincreased,whereasitslightlydecreasedinGuatemala(Freireetal.,2015,p.57).Table5showsthepovertygapforindigenousandnon-indigenouspeopleforsixcountries—Brazil,Ecuador,Guatemala,Mexico,andPeru.Theextremelypoorindigenouspopulationlivingonlessthan$1.25/dayrepresents9%ofallindigenouspeople,whilenon-indigenousrepresentonly3%.Thegapforpeoplewholiveonlessthan$2.5/dayis24%forindigenouspeopleand9%fornon-indigenouspeople.Finally,43%percentofindigenouspeoplearepoorandliveonlessthan$4/day.Only21%ofnon-indigenouspeopleliveonlessthan$4/day.

Table5Percentageofpeoplelivingonlessthan$1.25,$2.5and$4,circalate2000s

Lessthan$1.25/day

Lessthan$2.5/day

Lessthan$4/day

Selectedcountries

Indigenous,in% 9 24 43Non-indigenous,in% 3 9 21

Source:Freireetal.(2015,Figure10,p.59).Theprobabilityofremainingpoorforthoseofindigenousbackgroundsishigh.Thisislikelyaconsequenceofindigenousyouthhavinglowerprobabilityofcompletingprimaryandsecondaryeducation.Ontopofthis,genderbarriersandtheurban/ruraldifferencesinaccesstoservicesfurtherreducesthechanceofupwardmobility.Anindigenoushouseholdheadedbyawomanhasahigherprobabilityofbeingpoor.Figure1showstheseprobabilitiesforMexico,Bolivia,Ecuador,andGuatemala.Forexample,inMexicoandGuatemala,theprobabilitythatahouseholdheadedbyanindigenouswomanisextremelypoor($1.25/day)isaround2.5%higher.InEcuadorandBolivia,theprobabilityofbeingpoor($4/day)whenthehouseholdisheadedbyanindigenouswomanis5.8%and3.6%respectively.

Figure1Increaseinprobabilityofbeingpoorifindigenoushouseholdisheadedbyawoman

Source:Freireetal.(2015,Figure14,p.62).

TrendsforpovertyandextremepovertyforBolivia,Ecuador,Guatemala,andPerubyindigenousandnon-indigenouspeoplearepresentedinFigure2.Weobservethat,atthenationallevel,povertyandextremepovertyhavedecreasedforbothpopulations.TheexceptionisGuatemala.Accesstopublicservicesforindigenousandnon-indigenouspeoplearepresentedinFigure3.Thecountryinformationshowsdifferencesinlevelsofdevelopmentandtheprovisionofbasicservices.ChileandCostaRicaprovidedconsistentlyalmostuniversalservicestotheirnon-indigenouspeople,althoughthereareimportantgapsforservicestoindigenouspeople.GapscanbeprettyseveresuchasinthecasesofColombiaandPanama.InBolivia,fourfifthsofindigenoushouseholdsdonothaveaccesstodrinkingwater,morethantwothirdsdonothavesanitationservices,andinfantmortalityratesarethehighestinSouthAmerica(https://www.wikigender.org/wiki/indigenous-women-in-latin-america/).Thesefindingsshowthataddressingpovertynecessitatesmultidimensionalstrategies.Increasingpoverty-targeted,remedialassistanceisnotenough.Itisimperativethatgovernmentsensureaccesstohealthcareandeducation,theremovalofgender-baseddiscrimination,andareductionoftherural/urbangapasnecessaryconditions.Thelatterincludesmakingaccesstopublicservicesuniversal.

62 | The World Bank

Figure 13

Figure 14

Decrease in Probability of Completing Primary and Secondary Education if a Person Belongs to an Indigenous Household

Increase in Probability of Being Poor if Indigenous Household Is Headed by a Woman

Source: SEDLAC (CEDLAS and World Bank).

Source: SEDLAC (CEDLAS and World Bank).

Methodological note: marginal probabilities estimated using OLS regressions on individual’s educational attainment status (completed primary education or higher and completed secondary education or higher), controlling for ethnicity, gender, area of residence (urban/ rural), marital status, and size of the region (defined by population). Observations included only people from 15 to 25 years of age for primary and 20 to 35 for secondary education. These probabilities are statistically significant (at least p<0.01).

Methodological note: marginal probabilities (logit regression) of being poor (using alternative definitions of $1.25, $2.50, and $4, at USD2005), controlling for household location (urban/rural), ethnicity, gender and educational attainment of the household’s head, and number of children under 15 years of age in the household. These probabilities are statistically significant (at least p<0.05).

Mexico Bolivia Ecuador Peru Guatemala

1.2%

-4.8% -5%

-20.0%

-15.0%

-10.0%

-5.0%

0.0%

5.0%2012 2002 2011 2012 2004 2012 2000 2011

Complete primary or higher Complete secondary or higher

-2.6%

-8%

-2.9%

-11.6%

-2.4%

-16.7%-18.8%

-8.7%

-11.9%-12.7%

2.51%

3.3%

2.55% 2.52%2.16%

3.56%

4.53%

5.81%

0%

1%

2%

3%

4%

5%

6%

7%

Poor ($1.25)

Poor ($2.50)

Poor ($4)

Mexico 2012 Bolivia 2011 Ecuador 2012 Guatemala 2011

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Figure2PovertyevolutioninBolivia,Ecuador,Guatemala,andPeru

Source:Freireetal.(2015,Figure11,p.60).

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Figure3LatinAmerica.Accesstopublicservicesbyindigenousstatus,circa2000s

Source:Freireetal.(2015,Figure21,p.71).

Indigenous Latin America in the Twenty-First Century | 71

Source: national censuses.

Figure 21 Access to Public Services by Indigenous Status

Chile(2002)

Bolivia(2012)

Costa Rica(2011)

Ecuador(2010)

El Salvador(2007)

Mexico(2010)

Nicaragua(2005)

Panama(2010)

Peru(2007)

Venezuela(2001)

Brazil(2010)

76%

90%

81% 84%

62%

95%

50%

40%

61%

92%

78%

95% 98% 99% 96%88%

99%

70%

92%

80%

97% 99%

0%10%20%30%40%50%60%70%80%90%

100%

Indigenous Non-Indigenous

Colombia(2005)

58%

94%

Chile(2002)

Bolivia(2012)

Costa Rica(2011)

Ecuador(2010)

El Salvador(2007)

Mexico(2010)

Nicaragua(2005)

Panama(2010)

Peru(2007)

Venezuela(2001)

Brazil(2010)

0%10%20%30%40%50%60%70%80%90%

100%

Chile(2002)

Bolivia(2012)

Costa Rica(2011)

Ecuador(2010)

El Salvador(2007)

Mexico(2010)

Nicaragua(2005)

Panama(2010)

Peru(2007)

Venezuela(2001)

Brazil(2010)

0%10%20%30%40%50%60%70%80%90%

100%

Guatemala(2002)

Colombia(2005)

Acce

ss g

ap fo

r ele

ctric

ityAc

cess

gap

for s

ewer

age

Acce

ss g

ap fo

r pip

ed w

ater

69%

86%

41%

75% 77%

61%

82%

39%

60%53%

61%65%

69%

87%97%

84%

97%

84%76%

93%

65%

94%

74%

87%93%

77%

55%

77%70%

43%34%

69%

10%

20%

40% 44%36%

76%

92% 96%

79%

43%

92%

26%

65% 67%

86%

67%

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3. ThestatusofindigenousgirlsandwomenGirlsandwomenexperiencemultipleformsofdiscriminationbasedontheirethnicityandgender.RoslynnBeighton(MinorityRightsGroupInternational,2018)visitedGuatemalatoconductresearchin2017,whereshelivedwithfemaleactivistsfightingfortheirhumanrights.Beightonreportedthefollowing:

EveryactivistIinterviewedrecountedhowtheyhadbeendiscriminatedagainstfortheirethnicityforaslongastheycouldremember.Belen,ayoungwomanworkinginacommunityradiostationtoldoftimeswhenshehadbeendeniedemploymentoverladinawomen,despitehavingmorequalificationsandexperienceforpositions.Shewasupsetthatshewasseen,firstlyaslowerthanmenbecauseofhergenderandsecondlyaslowerthanotherwomenbecauseofhertrajewhichrepresentsherethnicityasQuiché.(http://minorityrights.org/2017/11/08/female-indigenous-activism-guatemala-inspiration-challenges-women-girls-agents-change-2/)

InmanyLatinAmericancountries,thecultureofmachismoisprevalent,anditstifleswomen´srightsandworkincriticalcauses.AccordingtoBeighton,girlsandwomenlackresourcestoparticipateinspacesthatwouldempowerthem.Socialstructuresthatarebothracistandsexistblockgirlsandwomenfromaccessingservicessuchashealthcareandeducation.InLatinAmerica,asinmanyotherregions,patriarchalstructureshavecementedmaledominanceinthehomeandoutsidethehome.Inheritancebylineageandaccesstorights—frompropertytosuffrage—haveconsistentlyexcludedwomenandlimitedtheirsphereofaction.Womeninsomeindigenouscommunities,however,haverealizedleadership,anddemandworkandresponsibilityfromtheirmalecounterparts.InhisstudyaboutMayanwomenandtheirstruggle,Carey(2013)documentsboththestrongpresenceofpatriarchalsocietiesanditschallengesposedbywomendemandingreciprocitybasedontheirconditionasmothersandpartners.Itisheartbreakingthatindigenouswomenexperienceviolence,beating,feminicide,laborexploitation,harassment,sexualabuse,trafficking,andrape.Itisfurthermoreunacceptablethatthepoliceandthejudiciaryoftenlooktheotherwaywhensuchcrimescometolight.Women’svulnerabilityreflectsdiscriminationandexclusionthatisexacerbatedbyenormouschallengesincludinglanddispossession,displacement,limitedaccesstosocialservices—healthandeducation—aswellassexualandreproductivehealtheducation.Socialmarginalizationimpliesthattheydonothaveaccesstojusticeandothersocialservices(UnitedNations,2015,p.149).Onoccasion,governmentshavetakenuponthemselvestherighttoaffectwomen´sreproduction.InPeru,between1996-2000,thegovernmentofPresidentFujimoristerilizedapproximately270thousandindigenouswomenwithouttheirconsent(Jacqueline-Andersen,2018,p.170).Thisisacrimeagainsthumanitythatwasneverinvestigatedproperly,asthecasewasinexplicablyclosedbythePeruvianjudiciary.Mortalityratesamongpregnantindigenouswomenarethreetimeshigherthanthatofnon-indigenouswomen,andinfantmortalityratesarealsomuchhigher.Illiteracyiswidespreadamongindigenouswomenandalargenumberofwomenofchildbearingagehaveneverattendedschool.Sinceilliteratewomentendtobemonolingual,thisincreasestheirdifficultiesinaccessingpublicservicesevenwhentheymigratetourbanareas.Forthemostpart,public

14

servicesareprovidedinthelanguageofthemajority(https://www.wikigender.org/wiki/indigenous-women-in-latin-america/).Globalizationforceshaveimpactedsocialandgenderrelationsaswellasidentitypoliticsinindigenouscommunities.Manyindigenouspeopleengagedininternationaltradethroughtheirartisanwork,anewformofincomegeneratingactivity.InGuatemala,attheendofthe20thcentury,merchantscontractedartisanhouseholdsforweaving.Often,womentookontheproductiveworkinadditiontotheirhouseholdduties,whilemenworkedoutsidethehome.Withthepassingoftime,somewomenhadmoreaccesstocashandbecameincreasinglymoreorganized.Indeed,theyorganizedthemselvesintocooperativesandacquiredstrongeragency.Theydemandedaccesstopoliticalrepresentationintheirowncommunities.Meanwhile,women´stratificationbecamemorevaried.Newsocialclasstiersemergedwhichwerebasedonthedistributionofcontractedartisanwork,differencesinearnings,orpoliticalparticipation.Classdifferenceswerealsoestablishedonthebasisofmarriagetowell-offorinfluentialmerchants.Afinaldichotomyemergedbetweenwomenwhowerehome-weaversandwomenwhowereexcludedfromartisanwork(thelatterlackedsocialandfinancialcapitalforupwardmobility).Thus,internationaltradingandthesubcontractingofhouseholdwomenweaversincreasedagencyandaffectedtheinternaldivisionsofgenderandsocialstatus(Stephen,2005).Asaresult,aslowyetsubstantialevolutioningenderpoliticsisunfoldingandaffectingtraditionalpatriarchalfamilystructures.Inthe1990s,theempoweringofGuatemalanwomenafterthecivilwartookadvantageofpoliticalopeningsaroundthewritingsofthenewconstitutionof1992andthenegotiationsofthepeaceaccord.Asaresult,women´sorganizationsemphasizedgenderequalityandchallengedexistingpatriarchalstructures.WiththesupportoftheUNandinternationalwomen´sorganizations,peaceaccordsincludedstrongerlanguagesupportingwomen´srights:receiptofland,credit,assistance,eliminationofdiscriminationagainstwomen,supportforgreaterequalityinthehomeandinthejobmarket,andequalaccesstoeducationandtoenrollmentinthearmedforces(Berger,2006).Whilenormativeprogressiscommendable,itisalsotruethatnewlegislationhasfavoredprofessional,middle-incomewomen,thusshowingthatprivilegecontinuesfornon-indigenouswomen.Governments´adoptionofmarketorientedpolicies,aspartoftheglobalizationagenda,impliedretrenchmentoftheStateintheprovisionofbasicservices.Thisresultedinanincreasedburdenonwomenwhoarecareprovidersathome.AsimilarsituationwasexperiencedinEcuadorwhereachallengingpoliticalprocessledtotheimplementationofmarketorientedpolicies.Thesameparadoxemerged.Indigenouswomenwhostruggledfortheirrightstoland,accesstosocialservices,andgenderequityexperiencedanincreasedpressuretocompensateathomeforservicesandsupport,formerlygivenbystateagencies(Lind,2005).Duquette,Levy,Marques-Pereira,andRaes(2005)haveshownthatwomenhaveinitiatedmajorproteststhathaveevolvedintosocialmovementstoattainequalrights.Theyincludeindigenouswomenactivism.Forthemostpart,collectiveactionstargetthedistributiveimplicationsofglobalizationandneoliberalprogramsadoptedbygovernmentsintheregion.Manyactivistshavebeenharassedandpersecuted.Theirwork,however,hasincreased

15

nationalawarenessabouttheneedtochangelegislationandgrantaccesstorights.But,paradoxically,women´sstressastheyfulfilldoubleduty,workersoutsidetheirhomesandcaregiversathome,hasremainedlargelyunchanged.

4. HealthandeducationTheUnitedNationsDepartmentofEconomicandSocialAffairs(2015,p.89)statesthefollowing:

Indigenouspeoplesmakeupto40percentoftheruralpopulationintheregion,wherethereisoftenlittleornoaccesstoconventionalhealthservices.Asaresult,atleast80percentofindigenouspeoplesdependmainlyontraditionaltherapistsformedicalassistance.Theinfantmortalityrateis54per1,000livebirthsexpressed[sic]asprofoundanddisturbingdisparity;´´infantmortalityratesamongindigenouschildrenare60percenthigherthanamongnon-indigenouschildren.

Interculturalhealthmeansthathealthcareprovidersrespectthecollectiverightsofindigenouspeopleandrecognizetheirdiverseknowledgeandwisdomregardinghealth,disease,treatmentandthehealingprocess.Moreresearch,dataacquisition,andchanginghealthapproachesareneededtoincorporateindigenousunderstandingofhealthylifeandhealing.Givingbirthvariesfromculturetocultureandinmanyclinicfacilities,spaceshavebeenspeciallysetasidethatallowrelativesandmidwivestoassistwomenusingtheirownpractices.Indigenouspeoplehavemuchlowerlifeexpectancythannon-indigenouspeople.Thesegapsreflectimportantchildmortality,malnutrition,andmorbidityratedifferencesbetweenthesetwogroups.Globally,lifeexpectancyisupto20yearslowerbetweenindigenousandnon-indigenouspeople(UnitedNationsDepartmentofEconomicandSocialAffairs,2009).InLatinAmerica,thegapis13yearsinGuatemala,10yearsinPanama,and6yearsinMexico.Diseasessuchasupper-respiratoryanddigestiveinfections,tuberculosis,diabetes,cardiovascularillnesses,malaria,dengue,andyellowfeveraffectadisproportionatenumberofindigenouspeople.Inaddition,malnutrition,naturaldisasters,andviolencecontributetoinadequatehealth.Almostallindigenouschildren0-14inHondurassufferfrommalnutrition.Contaminationandthedegradationofsurroundingenvironmentsnegativelyaffectindigenouswellness.Amongcertaingroups,drugdependencyanddepressionaresymptomsofstressfullives.Often,theseproblemsleadtodelinquentbehaviorandhigherratesofincarceration.Inurbanareas—whereindigenouspeoplelackthesupportofkinandextendedfamily—theyfaceacutehealthandmentalhealthconditions.LatinAmericancountriesmadeimportantprogressinprovidinguniversalprimaryeducation(UnitedNationsDepartmentofEconomicandSocialAffairs,2017,pp.,p.111).Fewerindigenouschildrenthannon-indigenouschildren,however,havecompletedprimaryeducationandthus,can´tattendsecondaryandhighereducationschools.Thegapsbetweenyearsofeducationofthesechildrenfluctuatesbetween2.3and4yearsinPeruandBoliviarespectively.Table6showsthatinallselectedcountries,exceptinElSalvador,thereisagapintheproportionofindigenouschildrenwhoaccessprimaryeducation.Thisgapissubstantialin

16

Guatemala,Nicaragua,Panama,Paraguay,andPeru.Factorsthatexplainthisgapincludehigherpovertyrates,distancetoschools,malnutrition,childabuse,andearlypregnancy.

Table6LatinAmerica.Selectedcountries.Proportionofchildrenaged6-11attheprimaryschoollevel,

fallingtwoormoreyearsbehindtheirclassmatesbyethnicgroup,circa2009

Source:UnitedNationsDepartmentofEconomicandSocialAffairs(2017,TableIV.1,p.115)Accesstoprimaryschoolisnotsufficient.Thecurriculashouldrespecttheculturalandethnolinguisticidentityofindigenouspeopleifeducationistocontributetosocialinclusion.Inmanycountries,lackofadequatetextbookcontentandpooreffortsintheinstructionofindigenouslanguagerestrictstheliberatingpowerofeducation.Thelackofdataoneducationalprogressacrosscommunitiespreventsabettermonitoringofprogress.Table7showsthegapsbetweenindigenousandnon-indigenousstudentsregardinghighschoolattendanceandcompletion.Comparisonsincludenationalaswellasruralareas.Itcanbeclearlyseenthatattendanceratesarehigherthancompletionratesinallcountries.TheattendanceratesarethelowestforindigenousstudentsinGuatemalaandParaguay,closelyfollowedbyPanamaandEcuador.Nationally,completionratesareextremelylowinNicaragua,Guatemala,Panama,ElSalvador,Paraguay,andBrazil.Similarsituationsareobservedinruralareas,althoughindigenousstudentsperformbetterthannationally.Itmeansthatthesituationinurbanareasareunfortunatelyworse.Chilescoresthebestwithcompletionratesabove60%forbothindigenousandnon-indigenousstudents.Withsuchlowsecondaryschoolcompletionrates,wecanonlyanticipatelowmatriculationratesinhighereducationandtechnicalschools.Infact,theabilityofindigenousstudentstogainadditionalyearsofschoolingthatcanleadtoproductivejobsislow.Again,thisisanarearequiringurgentandeffectiveinterventions.

115Indigenous peoples and education in Central and South America and the Caribbean

3RD Volume STATE OF THE WORLD’S INDIGENOUS PEOPLES: EDUCATION

TABLE IV.1 Proportion of children aged 6-11 at the primary school level, falling two or more years behind their classmates, by ethnic group and country, circa 2009

Country Indigenous peoples (%)

Mestizo and white

(non-indigenous population, %)

Brazil 3.1 2.8

Chile 7.6 5.7

Ecuador 11.2 6.7

El Salvador 5.4 7.3

Guatemala 16.2 9.3

Nicaragua 23.4 12.7

Panama 13.2 4.7

Paraguay 16.6 6.5

Peru 8.9 3.8

Uruguay 4.9 4.8

Source: Sistema de Información de Tendencias Educativas en América Latina (SITEAL) (2011), table 19.

Table IV.1 indicates that in Guatemala, Nicaragua, Panama and Paraguay, the proportion of indigenous children who experience delays in access to education are significantly higher than the proportion of non-indigenous children who experience such delays. Indigenous peoples also face barriers related to conditions of poverty, which often force them to choose between education and work (United Nations, General Assembly, Human Rights Council, 2012). For example, in Mexico many indigenous boys and girls drop out of school because they start working at a very young age. According to a study by the National Institute of Statistics and Geography (Instituto Nacional de Estadística y Geografía (INEGI)) regarding child labour, 36 per cent of indigenous children between the ages of 6 and 14 years work, a figure that is twice as high as the national average, calculated at 15.7 per cent.84 The choice between education and work is related to the cost of education: families have to choose between paying the expenses related to sending a child to school and keeping that child at home to carry out domestic tasks or take part in activities that generate household income.

In 2010, at a regional level, the dropout rate was 8.31 per cent. Regarding the situation of indigenous children in the northern province of Chaco in Argentina, UNICEF reports that “school repetition and dropout figures are triple compared to the national mean” (United Nations Children’s Fund, 2011c). In Mexico each year, an average of 19,500 stu-dents abandon the indigenous lower-tier system of basic education (Poy Solano, 2013).

84 See UNICEF México, “Niñez indígena en México”. Available at https://www.unicef.org/mexico/spanish/ninos_6904.htm.

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Table7LatinAmerica.Selectedcountries.Netratesofhighschooleducationattendanceand

completion,circa2009

Source:UnitedNationsDepartmentofEconomicandSocialAffairs(2017,TableIV.3,p.120)

5. Land,climatechange,andself-governance

Accesstolandisoneofthetopvulnerabilitiesofindigenouspeople.Despitestates´declarationthatindigenouspeople´srightswillbeprotected(UnitedNationsGeneralAssembly,2014p.170),corporationscontinuetoattempttousurptheirancestralland.Afewcountriesrecognizetherightofindigenouspeopletotheirancestralland,butlandtitlinganddemarcationisslowandincomplete.Ithasbeenthecasethatevenwhenindigenouspeopleownedthelegaltitledeedsoftheirland,governmentsgavethemawaytoallowfornaturalresourceexploitation.InBrazilandPeru,substantialAmazonianforestareashavebeenallocatedfortheexplorationandexploitationofmineral,oil,andtimberindustries,aswellasforthecommercialagriculturalindustryintheformofdeforestation.LandsintheAmazonhadtraditionallybeenprotectedareasinwhichindigenouscommunitieslivedinvoluntaryisolation.Thisisolation,however,iscurrentlyunstableduetothepresenceofheavyequipmentandfoottrafficwhichtransformsthelandandenvironment.

120 Indigenous peoples and education in Central and South America and the Caribbean

STATE OF THE WORLD’S INDIGENOUS PEOPLES: EDUCATION 3RD Volume

States (OEI) (Organización de Estados Iberoamericanos para la Educación, la Ciencia y la Cultura (OEI), 2010), within the framework of the 2021 Educational Goals, shows that, on average, 85 per cent of indigenous children access high school education and attend high school (p. 58, table 2.4a) but only 20 per cent complete their high school education (p. 59, table 2.4b).86

TABLE IV.3 Net rates of high school education attendance and completion in nine Latin American countries

Net rate of high school

education attendance

Rate of high school

education completion

National total National total Rural areas

Country

Indigenous or

Afrodescendant

population

Non-indigenous,

non-Afro-

descendant

population

Indigenous or

Afrodescendant

population

Non-indigenous,

non-Afrodescend-

ant population

Indigenous or

Afrodescendant

population

Non-indigenous,

non-Afro-

descendant

population

Bolivia (2007)

90 94 38 44 55 71

Brazil (2008)

91 93 24 27 47 56

Chile (2006)

94 95 50 63 65 81

Ecuador (2008)

76 86 23 33 31 59

El Salvador (2004)

83 79 17 17 37 36

Guatemala (2006)

61 75 7 12 13 33

Nicaragua (2005)

86 84 5 13 21 32

Panama (2008)

74 89 12 40 12 60

Paraguay (2008)

71 92 21 36 25 62

Total 85 92 20 28 40 56

Source: Organización de Estados Iberoamericanos para la Educación, la Ciencia y la Cultura (OEI), 2010), pp. 58 and 59, tables 2.4a and 2.4b, from ECLAC, based on special tabulations from the household surveys of the nine countries covered in table IV.3.

86 No recent studies or statistics were found that report the number of indigenous children who, after com-pleting primary school, continue their education in high school.

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Duringthelate1990s,severalShipibo-ConibafamiliesfromthedeepPeruvianAmazon(Ucayalistate),crossedtheAndesandmarchedtothecapitalcityofLimatoprotestagainstoilexplorationanddeforestation.Theyalsodemandedaccesstosocialservicesandabetterlifefortheircommunity.TheprotesterscampedinfrontofCongressformonths.Eventually,thegovernmentauthorizedthemilitarytoforciblymoveprotesterstoanabandonedsanitarylandfillsite.Theyerectedacommunity,Cantogrande(CockCrow),betweenahighwayandapollutedriver,RimacRiver,atthefootofCerroSanCristobal.CantograndeisaslumwhichrepresentsthelargesturbansettlementofindigenouspeoplefromtheAmazoninPeru.Intotal,morethan300families—representingtwothousandpeople—liveintentsorwoodcabinswithinCantogrande,withscarcedrinkingwaterandnoelectricity.Tomakemattersworse,currentPeruvianlawdoesofferthesamepropertyrightstoindigenouspeoplewholivecollectivelyinurbanareas.ThismeansthatthedenizensofCantograndehaveevenlessrightsthancommunitiesoftheAmazononancestralterritories.InEcuador,miningactivitysanctionedbygovernmentpermitstakesplaceinindigenouscommunitieswithouttheirconsent.Theseactivitiespollutethewaterandtheenvironment.Similarly,inChileandParaguay,indigenouscommunitieshaveprotestedtheuseoftheirlandforextractivepurpose(Jacqueline-Andersen,2018,p.10).Themorethanfifty-yearlongarmedconflictinColombiahascreatedsubstantialdisplacementofthousandsofindigenouspeople.Thissituationhasbeencompoundedbythepresenceofmilitiasandarmedgroupsengagedindrugcultivationandtrafficking.InBelize,theInter-AmericanCommissiononHumanRights(2004)issuedareportthatrecognizedMayapeople´scollectiverighttolandtraditionallyusedandoccupiedinthedistrictofToledo.TheBelizegovernmenthadviolatedtherightofMayapeopletopropertyandequalityunderinternationallaw.Climatechangeisaglobaldisturbancethatisseverelyaffectingindigenouspeople.ThePotatoPark(Cuzco,Peru)groupssixQuechuacommunitiesoffarmersandweaverswhoseethemselvesinreciprocalrelationshipwitheachother,theland,andthespiritworld.Theyhavebeencultivatingmorethanthreethousandvarietiesofpotatoforthousandsofyears(Argumedo,2011).Inrecenttimes,cultivationandharvestingofpotatoesinthePotatoPark(Cuzco,Peru)hasbeendrasticallyaffectedbyincreasedrainuncertaintyandwarmertemperatures.TheseeventshavepushedthefarmingofpotatoesintohigheraltitudesalreadyreachingthepeaksofAndeanmountains.Givenclimatechangechallengesahead,theagencyofindigenouscommunitiesiscriticallyimportantinupholdingandimplementingtheaccordsoftheParisAgreement.Theonlyviableandsustainablemannerthatindigenouspeoplewillparticipateinglobalgovernanceisbyassertingtheirrighttobeincludedindecisionprocessesthataffecttheirlivelihoodandfuturewellbeing.Thus,theyareorganizing,expressingtheirviewssupportedbythelegalmechanismsofinternationallawandtheUNsystem,gainingincreasedpoliticalrepresentationinlegislativebodies,passinglaws,andattainingtheabilitytoexertself-governanceintheirterritorialdomains.

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Insomecountries(Panama,Mexico,Nicaragua,Colombia,Peru,andBolivia),indigenouscommunitieshaveattainedterritorialself-governancebuildingontheprincipleofself-determination.Thisgivespauseforoptimism.Activistswhodefendtherightsofindigenouspeople,however,haveoftenbeenthreatenedandkilled,thusraisingpublicawarenessonthevulnerabilityofindigenouscommunities.ConclusionsThetotalpopulationofindigenouspeopleinLatinAmericaisaround45million.Thisfiguremayunderestimatetheactualnumberofpersonswhohaveindigenousbackgroundbecausetheyfearthatiftheydefinethemselvesthatwaytheywillbediscriminatedagainst.Indigenouspeoplearevastlydiverseintermsoftheircultureandethnolinguisticidentity.Moststatesintheregionsharecitizenshipdefinitionsthatdonottakeintoconsiderationindigenousidentities.Furthermore,oftennationalgovernmentsareinterestedinnormalizingandhomogenizingtheiridentityandinsodoing,indigenousrightsareexcludedfromanidealized“nationalunity”discourse.TheindigenouspopulationinLatinAmericaisverydiverseandrepresentsmorethanonethousandcommunitieswiththeirownlanguagesanddialects.Somecommunitieswishtobeleftinisolation,othershavebeendisplacedtourbancenters.Forthatreason,increasingly,alargepercentageofindigenouspersonsliveinurbancenters.Themigrationofthispopulationisleadingtothreeimportantimplications.First,indigenouscommunitiesleftbehindareagingrapidly,andfamiliesarebecomingfragmented.Youngermembersmigratetourbancentersforeducationalandjobopportunities.Second,remittancesfromfamilymemberswhomigratedforeconomicandsocialreasonsarehelpingfundthelifeofkinandfamilyathome.Third,descendantsofindigenouspeople,whogrowandareraisedinurbancenters,assimilateandacquirethevaluesandperspectivesfromnon-indigenouscultures.Someindigenouscommunitiesareagingrapidly,butothercommunitiesarestillveryyoung.Thelatterhaveagreaterprobabilityofbeingself-supportingandofdevelopingstrategiestomaintaintheircultureandethnolinguisticidentity.Therearecountries,however,thathaveindigenouspopulationsthatarerapidlyagingandthatlive,forthemostpart,inurbancenters.Aging,amongindigenouspeople,hasaconnotationofwisdomandcarriessocialrespectincontrasttowesternizedperspectives.Onemajorchallengethatindigenouspopulationsfaceispoverty.Incontrasttoitspast,adisproportionatenumberofindigenouspeopleliveinpovertyduetodisrespectfortheirvalues,theirlivingstyle,usurpationoftheirland,andfiercecolonization.Somefactorsexplainthisoutcome.First,ruralareaswhereindigenouspeopleliveareremotevillagesthatlackadequatepublicservices,healthcare,andeducation.Second,indigenouspeopleonaveragelacktheeducationaltrainingtomoveintoproductivejobs.Andthird,evenwhentheyhaveacquirededucationaland/ortechnologicaltraining,theyarediscriminatedagainst.Ahigherpercentageofindigenouspeopleareextremelypoor(i.e.livewithlessthan$1.25/day)orpoor(i.e.livewithlessthan$4/day).Ontopofit,theprobabilityofremainingpoorwhenapersonisof

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indigenousbackgroundishigh.Thisispartiallyaconsequenceofindigenousyouthhavinglowerprobabilityofcompletingprimaryandsecondaryeducation.Accesstopublicservicesbyindigenouspeopleislowandinadequate.ThecultureofmachismoandtheprevalenceofpatriarchalfamilystructuresaboundinLatinAmericaanditisalsoextensiveamongindigenouspeople.Thereareindigenouscommunities,however,wherewomentakeonleadershiprolesandgivedirectiontotheirmalecounterparts.But,theevidenceisoverwhelmingaboutthevulnerabilityofindigenousgirlsandwomenwhoexperienceviolence,beating,laborexploitation,harassment,sexualabuse,andtheriskoftrafficking.Unfortunately,thepoliceandthejudiciarylookoftentheotherway.Globalizationandneoliberalpolicieshaveledtonegativedistributionaleffectssuchasjobdisplacementsandtheretrenchmentfromthestate,especially,intheprovisionofbasicservices.Womenhavetakenontheleadinorganizingproteststhatevolvetobecomesocialmovements.Thesemovementshaveledtotheempowermentofwomenandenactingoflegislationthatensuresindigenouspeople´srightsandgenderequity.Aparadoxhasemerged:althoughindigenouswomenhavedisplayedsignificantactivism,theycarrygreaterburdenfromtheirdoubledutyofworkingoutsidethehomeandprovidingcareathome.Indigenouspeoplehavelowerlifeexpectancy.Theyhavehighermorbidityrates,malnutrition,andareexposedtoenvironmentaldegradationandcontamination.Mortalityratesamongpregnantindigenouswomenarethreetimeshigherthanthatofnon-indigenouswomen.Atthesametime,infantmortalityratesamongindigenouschildrenare60percenthigherthanamongnon-indigenouschildren.Despiteregionalprogressintheprovisionofprimaryeducation,includingindigenouschildren,fewerindigenouschildrencompleteprimaryeducation.Similarly,secondaryschoolenrolmentismuchhigherthanitscompletion.Infact,completionofsecondaryschoolinsomecountriesislessthan10percentoraround20percent.Itmeansthatalargepercentageofindigenousyouthwillnotbeabletoattendhighereducationortechnologicalschools.Accesstolandisatoppriorityforindigenouspeople.Despitegovernmentdeclarationsthattheindigenousrightstotheirlandwillbeprotected,theygrantaccesstocorporationsfortheexploitationofnaturalresourcesandcommercialagriculture.Indigenouscommunitieshavenotbeenconsultedabouttheusurpationoftheirancestrallandandtheyhavebeenforcedtoleavetheirlandortomobilizeagainstgovernments´decisionsand/orcorporations.Severeconflictshavearisenwithincreasedactivismandviolence.Climatechangeisalreadyadamagingchallengeinmanyindigenouscommunities.Lackofpredictionoftherainyseasonandwarmertemperaturesareleadingtochangesinfarmingandeffortstoadjusttotheseclimatechanges.Somecommunities,forexample,Andeanindigenouscommunitiesoffarmersandweavers,havewitnessedsharpirregularitiesthatareleadingtoaccommodationsregardingthetimingforseedingandwhentoexpectforrain.

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Inthiscontext,indigenouspeopleneedtoasserttheirrights,becometightlyorganizedtoexpresstheirviews,andparticipateindecisionprocesses.TheyneedtousetheiragencytosupportthelegalmechanismsofinternationallawandtheUNsystem.Itisimperativefortheirrepresentativetoincreasetheirpoliticalpowerinlegislativebodies,passinglaws,andattainingtheabilitytoexertself-governance.ReferencesArgumedo,A.(2011).TheThrivingBiodiversityofPeru´sPotatoPark.DevelopmentandSociety:

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Carey,D.(2013).IAskforJustice.MayaWomen,Dictators,andCrimeinGuatemala,1898-1944.Austin:UniversityofTexasPress.

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French,B.(2010).MayaEthnolinguisticIdentity.Violence,CulturalRights,andModernityinHighlandGuatemala.Tucson:UniversityofArizonaPress.

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Lind,A.(2005).GenderedParadoxes:Women´sMovements,StateRestructuring,andGlobalDevelopmentinEcuador.UniversityPark:PennsylvaniaStateUniversityPress.

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Stephen,L.(2005).ZapotecWomen.Gender,Class,EthnicityinGlobalizedOaxaca.Durham&London:DukeUniversityPress.

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UnitedNationsDepartmentofEconomicandSocialAffairs.(2017).Stateoftheworld`sindigenouspeoples.Education.3rdvolume.NewYork:UnitedNations.

UnitedNationsECLACCELADEPopulationDivision.(2010).Thesocio-demographicsystemofindicatorsforindigenouspeoples(SISPPI).

UnitedNationsGeneralAssembly.(2014,September15,2014).Outcomedocumentofthehigh-levelplenarymeetingoftheGeneralAssemblyknownastheWorldConferenceonIndigenousPeoples.A/69/L.1.NewYork,NewYork.