criminal justice today, 10e© 2009 pearson education, inc by dr. frank schmalleger pearson prentice...

CRIMINAL JUSTICE TODAY, 10E © 2009 Pearson Education, Inc by Dr. Frank Schmalleger Pearson Prentice Hall

Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458 1

The Crime Picture

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The Value of Data

Data are valuable and can be used to

Shape public policy Analyze and evaluate existing programs

Create new programs Plan new laws Develop funding requests



Sources of Data

Nationally, crime statistics come from twomajor sources:

1. Uniform Crime Reports (also known as the UCR/NIBRS Program)

2. National Crime Victimization Survey (NCVS)

Additionally, data are available from: Professional organizations (example: PERF) Offender self-reports Other regular publications (example: Sourcebook

of Criminal Justice Statistics)



The

Criminal

Justice

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2009 Pearson Education, Inc

The UCR/NIBRS Program

http://www.fbi.gov/



Uniform Crime Reports

The reports began in 1930. Data are collected by F.B.I. Approximately 16,000 police agencies provide data. Only crimes known to the police are included. Law enforcement agencies submit reports voluntarily. Until 2006, the UCR presented data in a Crime Index.



UCR: Crime Index

The Index is made up of Part IOffenses.

Part I Offenses

Violent Crimemurder, rape, robbery, assault

Property Crimeburglary, larceny, motor vehicle theft, arson (1979)



NIBRS: The New UCR

National Incident Based Reporting System

Incident driven, rather than summary based (Table 2.1-Page 41).

FBI started this program in 1988. City, county, state, and federal law enforcement agencies furnish detailed data on crime and arrest activities at the incident level. The NIBRS isn’t a separate report; it’s the new methodology underlying the modern-day UCR system



NIBRS

The new UCR/NIBRS is much more detailed than the old UCR system, including data on:

place of occurrence weapon used type and value of property damaged or stolen the personal characteristics of the victim and

offender nature of victim-offender relationship case disposition

It also replaced the old Part I and Part II offenses with 22 general offenses



UCR/NIBRS

22 offenses include: kidnapping larceny motor vehicle theft pornography prostitution narcotics offenses embezzlement extortion

arson assault bribery burglary counterfeiting vandalism gambling homicide fraud

weapons violations robbery forcible sex offenses non-forcible sex offenses receiving stolen property



UCR/NIBRS

Also collects data on: bad checks vagrancy disorderly conduct driving under the influence drunkenness non-violent family offenses

liquor law violations “peeping Tom” activities runaways trespassing general category of all “other” criminal law violations



UCR/NIBRS: Crime Rates

Crime Rate = number of crimes

100,000 populationRates allow for comparison across areas and times.

Most UCR/NCVS information is reported as a rate of crime.



Major Shifts in Crime Rates

Since the FBI’s Uniform Crime Reporting Program began, there have been three major shifts in crime rates—and we may now be at the start of the fourth.



Major Shifts in Crime Rates

1. Early 1940s—Sharp drop in crime rate as many young men went to WWII.

2. 1960s-early 1990s—Dramatic increase in crime rates as police professionalism and victim reporting grew.

3. 1991-2006—Significant decline in most major crime rates as funding for crime fighting increase and many embrace a “get tough” attitude.

4. 2006-on—Violent crime rates starting to rise again pushed by economic uncertainty, more teens, copycat crimes, and social disorganization.



Actual and Projected Rates of Crime (1950–2010)

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UCR/NIBRS in Transition



The Transition

Reports of crime data available through the UCR/NIBRS program are now going through a transitional phase, as the FBI integrates more NIBRS-based data into its official summaries.

•Uniform Crime Reporting Handbook

http://www.fbi.gov/ucr/handbook/ucrhandbook04.pdf



UCR/NIBRS: Clearance Rates

Clearance Rate = number of crimes solved number of crimes committed

Clearances are based on arrests, not judicial dispositions.



Crimes Cleared by Arrest, 2006

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Major Crimes

UCR Classifications of

Part I Offenses

http://www.fbi.gov/ucr/ucr.htm#cius



Murder

…the unlawful killing of a human being by another.

Includes: All willful and unlawful homicides Nonnegligent manslaughter

Excludes: Suicides Deaths caused by accidents or negligence Attempted murders



Data on Murder

Least likely Part I offense to occur High clearance rate Murders are more common during warmer months and in southern states Most victims and perpetrators are age 20–24 Weapon most often used: firearms Victim and offender are often “acquaintances”



Murder: Multiple Killings

Spree—two or more people, killed on more than one occasion.Mass—three or more people, killed in a single event.Serial—several victims killed in three

or more separate events and over time.



Forcible Rape

…the carnal knowledge of a female forcibly and against her will.

Includes: Assault or attempt to commit rape by force or threat of force

Excludes: Assault if victim is male Statutory rape (without force) Same-sex rapes Other sex offenses



Forcible Rape: One of the most underreported violent crimesMany victims do NOT report because they: Think the police won’t be able to catch the suspect. Believe that the police will be unsympathetic. Want to avoid the embarrassment of publicity. Fear reprisal by the rapist. Fear additional “victimization” by court proceedings. Want to keep family/friends from knowing.



Rate of Reported Rape, 1960–2006



Forcible Rape

Most rapes are committed by acquaintances

of victim, as in the case of date rape. Most rapists appear to be motivated by the need to feel powerful. Use of the “date rape drug” Rohypnol is rising.



Robbery

…the unlawful taking or attempted taking of property that is in the immediate possession of another by force or violence and/or by putting the victim in fear.

Excludes: Pick pocketing Purse snatching



Robbery (2006 Data)

Characteristics of Targets: Most are individuals Banks, gas stations, convenience stores,

and other businesses Residences targeted in less than 15% of

cases Urban areas have a much higher

robbery rate than rural areas.



Robbery (2006 Data)

Characteristics of robbers: Most are male More than half are under age 25 About half are minorities



Aggravated Assault

…unlawful inflicting of serious injury upon the person of another.

Includes: Attempted assaults, especially when a deadly weapon is used The possible use of a gun, knife, or other weapon that could result in serious injuryExcludes: Simple assaults



Aggravated Assault (2006 Data)

54% clearance rate Summer months highest number reported February, November, and December lowest number reported Most were committed with:

Blunt object 34% Hands and feet 25% Firearms 22% Knives 19%



Burglary

…unlawful entry of a structure to commit a felony or theft.

Types of burglaries: Forcible entry Unlawful entry without force Attempted forcible entry



Burglary (2006 Data)

More than 2.1 million reported burglaries: More than half were forcible entries $4 billion in losses (average: $1,834) Almost 2/3 were of residential

structures. Most residential burglaries during the

day The clearance rate was only 12.6%.



Larceny–theft

…unlawful taking or attempted taking, carrying, leading, or riding away of property from the possession of another.

Motor vehicles thefts are excluded.



Larceny–theft

Includes (in declining order of frequency): Theft from motor vehicles Shoplifting Theft from buildings Theft of motor vehicle parts and accessories Bicycle thefts Theft from coin-operated machines Purse snatching Pocket picking



Larceny–theft

Is the most frequently reported crime (yet still greatly underreported). 2006 data

6,947,685 larcenies nationwide $5.1 billion of stolen property Average value of items—$727 per

offense



Motor Vehicle Theft

…the theft or attempted theft of a motor vehicle.

A “motor vehicle” is a self-propelled vehicle that runs on land and not on rails.



Motor Vehicle Theft

Includes automobiles motorcycles motor scooters trucks buses snowmobiles

Excludes trains airplanes bulldozers most farm equipment ships boats spacecraft



Characteristics of Motor Vehicle Theft (2006 Data)

There were an estimated 1.2 million reported motor vehicle thefts: High report rate 12.6% clearance rate

Clearance rates are higher in rural areas

$7.9 billion in losses (average: $6,649) Typical offender: young male



Motor Vehicle Theft

Legally, carjacking is a type of robbery, not a motor vehicle theft. It accounts for just over 1% of all car thefts.

Carjacking...the taking of a motor vehicle directly from the owner by force



Arson

…the burning or attempted burning of property, with or without the intent to defraud.

…does not include fires of unknown or suspicious origins

…became a Part I offense in 1979



Characteristics of Arson

Most common type of arson is the burning of structures, followed by the burning of vehicles

Low clearance rate—18% 40% of cleared arsons involved only

juvenile (<18 years old) Average loss per offense—$13,325



Major Crimes Known to the Police, 2006 (UCR/NIBRS Part I Offenses)

Offense Number Rate per 100,000

Clearance Rate

Personal/Violent Crimes

Murder 17,034 5.7 60.7%

Forcible rape 92,455 30.5 40.9%

Robbery 447,403 149.4 25.2%

Aggravated assault 860,853 287.5 54.0%

Property Crimes

Burglary 2,183,746 729.4 12.6%

Larceny-theft 6,607,013 2,206.8 17.4%

Motor vehicle theft 1,192,809 398.4 12.6%

Arson 69,055 26.8 18.0%

U.S. total 11,470,368 3,834.5



Part II Offenses

Part II offenses are less serious than Part Ioffenses and include many social orderoffenses, such as:

Simple assault Driving under the influence Prostitution Vandalism Receiving stolen property Fraud Embezzlement



UCR/NIBRS Part II Offenses, 2006

OFFENSE CATEGORY

NO. OF ARRESTS

Simple assault 1,305,757

Forgery & counterfeiting

108,823

Fraud 280,693

Embezzlement 20,012

Stolen property 122,722

Vandalism 300,679

Weapons 200,782

Prostitution… 79,673

Sex offenses 87,252

OFFENSE CATEGORY

NO. OF ARRESTS

Drug law violations 1,889,810

Gambling 12,307

Offenses against the family

131,491

DUI 1,460,498

Liquor law violations 645,734

Public drunkenness 553,188

Disorderly conduct 703,504

Vagrancy 36,471

Runaways 159,907

Curfew violations 114,189



NCVS

National Crime Victimization Survey Began operation in 1972 Based on victim self-reports Designed to measure the “dark figure” of crime Uses data collected by the Bureau of Justice Statistics More than 50,000 households are surveyed twice per year Measures “households” touched by crimes

http://www.icpsr.umich.edu/NACJD/NCVS/



Dark Figure of Crime

dark figure

crimes known

to the police all crime



NCVS

Includes data on:

Robbery Assault Burglary Personal and household larceny Motor vehicle theft Rape



NCVS Statistics Reveal

About 1/2 of all violent crime is reported. Slightly more than 1/3 of all property crime is reported. Victims are more likely:

Men Younger people African American City residents Lower income (for violent victimization)



NCVS

Household crime rates are highest for households: Headed by younger people Headed by African-Americans With six or more members Headed by renters Located in central cities



Problems with the UCR/NIBRS and the NCVS

UCR/NIBRS

• Not everyone reports• Some crimes are rarely reported• Victims inaccuracies• Bureaucratic influences • Hierarchical counting system• Contains only data that FBI thinks is appropriate

NCVS

•There is potential for false or exaggerated reports• False reports may be generated by overzealous interviewers• Some people won’t respond• Respondents may suffer from faulty memories• Respondents may misinterpret events• Hierarchical counting system• Contains only data that BJS thinks is appropriate

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SpecialCategoriesof Crime



Special Categories of Crime

Crime against women Crime against the elderly Hate crime Corporate and white-collar crime Organized crime Gun crime Drug crime High-technology and computer crime Terrorism



Women and Crime

Compared to men, women are: Likely to be less victimized in every

major personal crime other than rape.

More likely than men to be injured as a result of crime.

More likely to make lifestyle modifications because of threat of crime.



Findings of the National Violence Against Women Survey (NVAWS)

52% of women surveyed have been physically assaulted as a child or as an adult. Approximately 1.9 million women are physically assaulted in the U.S. each year. 25% of women, compared to 8% of men surveyed, said they had experienced partner violence. 18% of women have experienced a completed or attempted rape; more than half of these were under 18 when first raped. Women are significantly more likely to be injured during an assault. Violence against women is primarily partner violence. 8% of women have been stalked.



Bureau of Justice Statistics

Women living in central cities are more likely to be victimized than suburban women. Suburban women are more likely to be victimized than women in rural areas. Low-income women experience the most violent crime. Women age 20–24 are most at risk for violent victimization. Victimization of women falls as family income rises. Women who are unemployed, students, or in the armed forces are most likely to experience violent victimization. African-American women are most likely to be victims of violent crime. Hispanic women are victimized more frequently than whites.



Violence Against Women Act (VAWA)

Seeks to eliminate violence against women. Act extends the Rape Shield Law to civil cases and to all criminal cases. Provided federal funding to:

1. Educate police, prosecutors, and judges about special needs of female victims.

2. Encourage pro-arrest policies in cases of domestic abuse.

3. Provide specialized services for female victims of crime.

4. Fund battered women's shelters.5. Support rape education.



Anti-Stalking Laws

All states have anti-stalking laws, which give additional protection to women.

80% of stalking victims are women.

Cyberstalking involves using the internet, email, or other electronic communication technologies to stalk another person.



Elderly Crime Victims

The elderly generally experience the lowest rate of victimization—both violent and property—of any age group.



Elderly Crime Victims

Elderly victims are more likely than younger victims to: Be victims of property crime than of violent

crime. Face offenders who are armed with guns. Be victimized by strangers. Be victimized in or near their homes during

daylight hours. Report their victimization to the police. Be physically injured. Be less likely to try to protect themselves during

victimization.



Hate Crimes

Hate crimes are motivated by hatred, bias, or prejudice, based on the actual or perceived race, color, religion, national origin, ethnicity, gender, or sexual orientation of another individual or group of individuals.

Most consist of intimidation, but they may also include vandalism, simple and aggravated assault, and murder.

Most are motivated by racial bias.



Corporate Crime

A violation of a criminal statute by a corporate entity or by its executives, employees, or agents acting on behalf of and for the benefit of the corporation, partnership, or other form of business entity. Corporate criminals are called white- collar criminals.



Sarbanes-Oxley Act of 2002

Created tough provisions to deter and punish corporate and accounting fraud and corruption and to protect the interests of workers and shareholders.



Organized Crime

The unlawful activities of members of a highly organized, disciplined association engaged in supplying illegal goods and services, including gambling, prostitution, loan-sharking, narcotics, labor racketeering, and in other unlawful activities.



Guns, Crime, and Gun Control

Each year, approximately 1 million serious crimes involve the use of a handgun. In a typical year, there are 10,000 murders in the United States using firearms.



The Brady Handgun Violence Prevention Act (1994)

Prior to purchasing a handgun, there will be a

5-day waiting period Instant criminal background check

Licensed importers, manufacturers, and dealers are required to:

Check photo ID Submit purchaser’s application Acquire a unite identification number

authorizing the purchase



Brady Law Impact

Most offenders obtain weapons from friend or family or “on the street.” Some applicants try to circumvent Brady Law by using fake identification. Problems may lead to ballistic fingerprinting.



Drug Crime

The rate of drug related crime has more than doubled since 1975. Federal drug prosecutions increased from 11,854 in 1984 to nearly 40,000 in 2001. Studies link drug abuse to other serious crimes.



Cybercrime

Cybercrime—any crime perpetrated through the use of computer technology. Also, any violation of a federal or state computer crime statute.



Terrorism

To assist in the developing protection of U.S. infrastructure, The Homeland Security Act of 2002 created the Department of Homeland Security and made its director a Cabinet member.

criminal justice today, 10e© 2009 pearson education, inc by dr. frank schmalleger pearson prentice...

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