creative marxism - gramsci

8/18/2019 Creative Marxism - Gramsci

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Valeriano Ramos, Jr.

The Concepts of Ideology, Hegemony,

and Organic Intellectuals in

Gramsci’s Marxism

First Published: Theoretical Review No. 27, March-April 1982Transcription, Editing and Markup: Paul Saba

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!ntroduction

The three concepts "iscusse" herein constitute perhaps the!ost i!portant co!ponents o# $ra!sci%s &philosoph' o# pra(is.)*or one thin+, the three concepts represent the earliestelaborations on the #oun"ations o# class power, a""ressin+ thelatter #ro! the point o# iew o# superstructural as well asin#rastructural consi"erations. Moreoer, b' "e#inin+ the natureo# class power in capitalist societ' throu+h an elaboration o# the"ialectical relationship between the base an" the superstructure,an", speci#icall', b' outlinin+ the essentials o# soun"reolutionar' strate+' which a""ress the co!ple( nature o# class

power an" he+e!on', these concepts !eet the #irst criteria o# &pra(is,) na!el', the proper i.e. "ialectical un"erstan"in+ o# class rule an" class power #ro! which soun" reolutionar' practice can eole. That is, practice that can success#ull' challen+e an" shake the #oun"ations o# capitalist class rule an"capitalist societ'. Nee"less to sa', the un"erstan"in+ o# these

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concepts is the !ost i!portant step in the stu"' o# $ra!sci%sMar(is!.

The unit' o# the three concepts, itsel# strikin+, shoul" "irectthe rea"er to a #act $ra!sci #re/uentl' e!phasi0e", that i"eolo+'

an" the superstructure o# ciil societ' !ust be "ealt with asobectiel' as econo!ic consi"erations. $ra!sci%s linkin+ o# therealit' o# class rule an" class power with the e/uall' reala!al+a! o# practices an" i"eal principles o# behaior,con#or!it', an" law, is well s'nthesi0e" in the speci#icconnection between his concepts o# i"eolo+' an" he+e!on', inparticular, the concepts o# &or+anic i"eolo+') an" the &or+anicintellectual.) t shoul" not be oerlooke" that con#errin+ uponthe superstructures an" in"ee" i"eolo+' a +reat "e+ree o# e##icac' an" een !aterialit' within the social totalit' o# class

societ' is in the tra"ition o# Mar(%s notion o# i"eolo+'. Thisreco+ni0e", it cannot be i+nore" that $ra!sci was instru!entalin recti#'in+ the notion o# i"eolo+', as was hel" then b' the&!ar(ist) theoreticians o# the Secon" nternational an" the3olsheik Part' o# the Stalin perio".

# 4enin stresse" the i!portance o# political lea"ership o# the workin+ class in the class stru++le, $ra!sci went a bit #urther b' also e!phasi0in+ !oral an" intellectual lea"ership an" thei!portance o# non-econo!ic relations between classes. Also in

the "ialectical tra"ition, $ra!sci was !ost perceptie in+raspin+ the peculiar "i##erences that e(iste" between 19175ussia an" the !ore "eelope" 6estern capitalist countries.

Accor"in+l', he "i" not "ownpla' the i!portance o# i"eolo+icalstru++le in the totalit' o# the class stru++le, inclu"in+ econo!ican" political stru++le. n"oubte"l', $ra!sci !ust hae thecre"it #or brin+in+ the notion o# i"eolo+' within the real! o# trul' +enuine, reolutionar' Mar(is!.

*inall', it !ust be borne in !in" that $ra!sci%s conception o#

the "ictatorship o# the proletariat !ust be elaborate" out o# whathe outline" throu+h the concepts o# i"eolo+', he+e!on', power,an" or+anic intellectuals. n"ee", #or $ra!sci power reste" on

what was +ien, an" what was +ien, i.e. the network o# ciilsociet', coul" not be oerlooke" an" circu!scribe" in the courseo# the class stru++le. ence, power #or a class reste" not onl' onthe econo!ic leel an" on the si!ple capture an" s!ashin+ o#


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the "o!inant state apparatus, but was hi+hl' "epen"ent on thele+iti!ac' the class +aine" #ro! subor"inate classes in ciilsociet' throu+h e##ectie i"eolo+ical stru++le therein.

!. The Concept o" !deolog in #ramsci$s Mar%ism

$ra!sci%s concept o# i"eolo+' was "istinctie an" #ar !ore"eelope" than that o# his pre"ecessors an" conte!porariesessentiall' because it oerca!e both epipheno!enalis! an"class re"uctionis!. "eolo+ical epipheno!enalis! consiste"

basicall' o# the clai! that the i"eolo+ical superstructure was"eter!ine" !echanicall' b' the econo!ic in#rastructure, an"that i"eolo+', bein+ si!pl' illusor', pla'e" no role whatsoeer inthe econo!ic li#e o# societ' or in reolutionar' chan+e #or that!atter. 5eolutionar' chan+e, it was asserte", resulte" #ro! the

"'na!ics an" tensions o# econo!ic contra"ictions +roun"e" inthe !o"e o# pro"uction. More speci#icall', the contra"ictions o# the relations o# pro"uction an" #orces o# pro"uction, couple"

with the econo!ic contra"ictions o# anta+onistic classes in thereal! o# pro"uction was sai" to "eter!ine eer' /ualitatietrans#or!ation o# the institutional #abric an" the i"eolo+ical#or!ation o# the social s'ste! in crisis. This notion o# socialreolution brou+ht about an ulti!ate i!plication #or capitalistsociet', na!el', the so-calle" &catacl's!ic) interpretation o# capitalist crisis capitalist societ' woul" ineitabl' collapse as a

result o# its own econo!ic laws an" contra"ictions o# increase"proletariani0ation an" pauperi0ation. This crisis woul" onl' beresole" throu+h the "ecisie capture an" s!ashin+ o# the stateapparatus b' the proletariat, the reolutionar' class then to hol"le+iti!ate power. This success#ul appropriation o# state power

was construe" to preclu"e an' #or! o# class alliance base" on a"e#ine" hierarch' o# i"eolo+ical, econo!ic, an" political interestsle" b' the +enuine #un"a!ental interests o# the proletariat.ence, the interpretation o# state power was one o# purecoercion an" #orce as to other classes without consi"erations #or

their consent.

This conception o# i"eolo+' an" reolution was o#tenco!bine" with a re"uctionist interpretation o# i"eolo+' whichar+ue" that i"eolo+ies necessaril' ha" a class character, so thatthere was an i"eolo+' o# the capitalist class an" an i"eolo+' o# the workin+ class, both i"eolo+ies anta+onistic, "e#ine", an"


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!utuall' e(clusie in their totalit'. The ulti!ate i!plication o# this conception was, o# course, that classes at the econo!icleel:at the leel o# pro"uction:were &"uplicate") at thei"eolo+ical leel throu+h i"eolo+ical "iscourses e(clusiel' o# their own. The co!bination o# these notions le" to #or!ulations

in which i"eolo+' was conceie" to hae a class nature an" wasconsi"ere" to pla' no si+ni#icant role in social an" reolutionar' "'na!ics ;autsk'.


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i"eolo+ical ele!ents coul" be articulate" in the "i##erenti"eolo+ical "iscourses o# those classes conten"in+ #or he+e!on'.

The !ost "istinctie aspect o# $ra!sci%s concept o# i"eolo+' is,o# course, his notion o# &or+anic i"eolo+'.) >learl', i"eolo+' was

"e#ine" in ter!s o# a s'ste! o# class rule, i.e. he+e!on', in which there was an or+anic arran+e!ent o# all i"eolo+icalele!ents into a uni#ie" s'ste!. This co!ple( arran+e!entconstitute" an &or+anic i"eolo+',) the e(pression o# theco!!unal li#e o# the +ien social bloc wherein a class hel" statepower an" hence social he+e!on'. n a +ien he+e!onic s'ste!,there#ore, a he+e!onic class hel" state power throu+h itsecono!ic supre!ac' an" throu+h its abilit' to hae, a!on+other thin+s, success#ull' articulate" or e(presse" in a coherent,uni#ie" #ashion the !ost essential ele!ents in the i"eolo+ical

"iscourses o# the subor"inate classes in ciil societ'.

n this respect, we coul" sa' that an or+anic i"eolo+' is"i##use" throu+hout ciil societ' social institutions an"structures such as the #a!il', churches, the !e"ia, schools, thele+al s'ste!, an" other or+ani0ations such as the tra"e unions,cha!bers o# co!!erce, an" econo!ic associations b' irtue o# the inte+ration o# "ierse class interests an" practices into auni#ie" s'ste! o# socioecono!ic relations. Si!ilarl', it woul"see! that &i"eolo+ical "iscourses) hae !ore o# a class character

than &i"eolo+ical ele!ents) woul". Accor"in+l', particularclasses coul" clai! particular i"eolo+ical ele!ents as theirs onl'

when these ele!ents are articulate" in their &class) "iscourses.

Now, an &or+anic i"eolo+') e!anates #ro! the "'na!ic#unction o# articulation per#or!e" b' social a+ents $ra!scicalle" &or+anic intellectuals) o# a he+e!onic or potentiall' he+e!onic class. An or+anic i"eolo+' was #or!ulate" b' these&or+anic intellectuals) throu+h an &articulatin+ principle) which,upon uni#'in+ the arious i"eolo+ical ele!ents #ro! the

"iscourses o# subaltern +roups classes an" in"ii"uals an"#or!in+ #ro! the! a uni#ie" i"eolo+ical s'ste!, beca!e a&he+e!onic principle.) n"ee", since two classes or, #or that!atter, two !e!bers o# "i##erent classes, coul" a"here to ora"ocate the sa!e i"eolo+ical ele!ent an" articulate it in theirparticular i"eolo+ical "iscourses, it was conceiable #or a soli"class alliance to be #or+e" throu+h this process o# i"eolo+ical


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absorption. This was possible i# a +roup or class coul" "eelopor+anic intellectuals an" an articulatin+ principle capable o# absorbin+ i"eolo+icall', econo!icall', an" politicall' otherclasses in the he+e!onic s'ste!. The success o# such a task

woul" "epen", howeer, on the perception b' these classes that

the he+e!onic class no lon+er assu!es a representatieappearance is-a-is the subaltern class ele!ents.

t re!ains to be sai" that the or+anic intellectuals, responsible#or the #or!ulation an" sprea"in+ o# or+anic i"eolo+ies, aresocial a+ents hain+ a #or! o# alle+iance to a he+e!onic class ina &balance") he+e!onic s'ste! or to a class aspirin+ #orhe+e!on' in a he+e!onic s'ste! in crisis an" ulti!ate statepower. 6hile #urther "iscussion in another section will eluci"ate!ore on this, we coul" now un"erstan" that it is precisel'

because o# their articulation throu+h the &he+e!onic principle)that i"eolo+ical ele!ents e!bo"ie" in an or+anic i"eolo+' ac/uire a he+e!onic class character.

!!. #ramsci$s Concept o" &egemon

The concept o# he+e!on' #irst appeare" in $ra!sci%s Notes onthe Southern ?uestion 192@, where it was "e#ine" as a s'ste!o# class alliance in which a &he+e!onic class) e(ercise" politicallea"ership oer &subaltern classes) b' &winnin+ the! oer.) The

concept !a"e allusion to the proletariat in tal' in ter!s o# sucha &winnin+ oer) the proletariat ha" to #ree itsel# o# its classcorporatis! so as to e!brace other classes, notabl' the peasants,in a s'ste! o# alliances within which it coul" then +enuinel'

beco!e the lea"in+ ele!ent in the societ'. The concept wasintro"uce" in the #ollowin+ wa'

The Turin co!!unists pose" concretel' the /uestion o# the %he+e!on' o# the proletariat% i.e. o# the social basis o# the proletarian "ictatorshipan" the workers% State. The proletariat can beco!e the lea"in+ "iri+entan" the "o!inant class to the e(tent that it succee"s in creatin+ a s'ste!

o# alliances which allows it to !obili0e the !aorit' o# the workin+population a+ainst capitalis! an" the bour+eois State. n tal', in the realclass relations which e(ists there, this !eans to the e(tent that it succee"sin +ainin+ the consent o# the broa" peasant !asses.[1]

As presente" to us here the concept is in a relatiel' pri!itiesta+e. t is in the Prison Notebooks that $ra!sci presents us

with an a"ance" "e#inition o# the concept, this ti!e +oin+

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be'on" a si!ple class alliance an" political lea"ership b' inclu"in+ intellectual an" !oral lea"ership an" elaboratin+ onthe process o# #or+in+ the class alliance.

ence, in the !ore "eelope" elaboration &e+e!on') entails

two thin+s. *irst o# all, it presupposes that the &he+e!onic class)takes into consi"eration the interests o# the classes an" +roupsoer which it e(ercises its &he+e!on'.) A""e" to this, so!ee/uilibriu! between the he+e!onic class an" the subalternclasses is entaile" whereb' the he+e!onic class will be #orce" to!ake so!e sacri#ices tan+ent to its corporate interests. Secon"l',&he+e!on') entails econo!ic lea"ership besi"es ethico-politicallea"ership. n other wor"s, it entails that the he+e!onic class bea un"a!ental class):that is, a class situate" at one o# the two#un"a!ental poles in the relations o# pro"uction owner or non-

owner o# the !eans o# pro"uction. t woul" see!, there#ore, thathe+e!on' entails #or a class its e(ecution o# a lea"ership role onthe econo!ic, political, !oral, an" intellectual leels is-a-isother classes in the s'ste!, couple" with the sacri#icin+ o# so!eo# its corporate interests as a #un"a!ental class precisel' to#acilitate its an+uar" role. Noticeable in this notion is theabstract notion o# balance sacri#ice #or consensus or strictcorporatiis! #or a coercie i!peratie. n"ee", this notionun"erlies $ra!sci%s "e#inition o# the concept o# he+e!on', an"the notion itsel# is e!bo"ie" in $ra!sci%s elaborate concept o#

power.

$ra!sci%s concept o# power is base" si!pl' on the two!o!ents o# power relations:o!inio or coercion an"ire0ione or consensus. These two !o!ents are essentialele!ents, in"ee" the constitutie ele!ents o# a state o# balance,a state o# e/uilibriu! between social #orces i"enti#ie" as thelea"ers an" the le". This state o# balance consists o# a coalition o# classes constitutin+ an or+anic totalit' within which the use o# #orce is risk' unless there e!er+es an or+anic crisis which

threatens the he+e!onic position an" the rulin+ position o# thelea"in+ class in the he+e!onic s'ste!. >learl', political or staterule b' a he+e!onic class so "e#ine" woul" be rule in whichconsensus pre"o!inates oer coercion. Accor"in+ to $ra!sci,consensus rests at the leel o# ciil societ' an" hence !ust be

won there.


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Accor"in+l', he+e!onic rule, characteri0e" b' the pre"o!inanceo# consensus oer coercion, represents in broa" ter!s a balance,an e/uilibriu! between &political societ') an" &ciil societ'.)Nee"less to sa', #or $ra!sci the state e!bo"ies &the he+e!on' o# one social +roup oer the whole o# societ' e(ercise" throu+h

so-calle" priate or+ani0ations, such as the church, tra"e unions,schools, etc.,)[2] in balance with the ense!ble o# public coercieor+ani0ations such as the state, the bureaucrac', the !ilitar', thepolice, an" the courts. Thus, state power rests in a he+e!onice/uilibriu! with alternate" !o!ents o# #orce an" consensus but

without the necessit' o# pre"o!inance b' coercion oerconsensus.

n an' +ien he+e!onic s'ste! un"er+oin+ or+anic crisis, asubaltern but #un"a!ental class aspirin+ #or state power in that

s'ste! !ust strie to attain he+e!on' in ciil societ' b' !akin+its challen+e a+ainst the "o!inant class while con#or!in+ itsel# to the interests an" aspirations o# other subaltern classes. This

woul" constitute class &pre"o!inance b' consent) an" theattain!ent o# le+iti!ac' o# rule is-a-is the other subalternclasses. 3ut, !a' we ask, what "oes &consent) !ean That is,how is this &pre"o!inance) le+iti!ac' o# rule obtaine" b' consent t is here that $ra!sci%s concept o# i"eolo+' helps us toun"erstan" the real! o# the stru++le #or power in a perio" o# crisis.

Accor"in+ to $ra!sci, he+e!on' &pre"o!inance b' consent)is a con"ition in which a #un"a!ental class e(ercises a political,intellectual, an" !oral role o# lea"ership within a he+e!onics'ste! ce!ente" b' a co!!on worl"-iew or &or+anic i"eolo+'.)The e(ercise o# this role on the ethico-political as well as on theecono!ic plane inoles the e(ecution o# a process o# intellectualan" !oral re#or! throu+h which there is a &trans#or!ation) o# the preious i"eolo+ical terrain an" a &re"e#inition) o# he+e!onic structures an" institutions into a new #or!. This

trans#or!ation an" re"e#inition is achiee" throu+h arearticulation o# i"eolo+ical ele!ents into a new worl"-iew

which then seres as the uni#'in+ principle #or a new &collectie will.) n"ee", it is this new worl" iew, which uni#ies classes intoa new he+e!onic bloc, which constitutes the new or+anici"eolo+' o# the new he+e!onic class an" s'ste!. Bet it is not a

worl"-iew i!pose", as a class i"eolo+' in the re"uctionist

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sense, b' the new he+e!onic class upon the subaltern +roup.Moreoer, in the trans#or!ation o# the i"eolo+ical terrain thereis no co!plete replace!ent o# the preiousl' "o!inant worl"

iew. 5ather, the &new) worl" iew is &create") or &!oul"e") b' the aspirin+ he+e!onic class an" its consensual subalterns out o#

the e(istin+ i"eolo+ical ele!ents hel" b' the latter in their"iscourses.

The creation o# the new or+anic i"eolo+' is e##ectuate""ialecticall' throu+h &i"eolo+ical stru++le) the aspirin+he+e!onic class a"opts an articulatin+ principle which !akes itpossible to absorb, rearticulate, an" assi!ilate i"eolo+icalele!ents in the "iscourse o# other social classes, an" to uni#' these ele!ents into a new collectie will. n the process o# stru++le #or he+e!on', this articulatin+ principle beco!es a

he+e!onic principle o# the e!er+in+ he+e!onic class an"he+e!onic s'ste!. Since i"eolo+ical ele!ents hae no necessar' class belon+in+ an" are, in #act, o#ten share" b' !an' classes,an" since the new he+e!onic s'ste! rests upon the i"eolo+icalconsensus o# other social classes, he+e!on' is not i"eolo+ical"o!ination. As !entione" earlier, the onl' conclusion that can

be sa#el' "erie" #ro! this process o# i"eolo+ical stru++lere+ar"in+ the proble! o# its class basis is that it is precisel' atthe point o# articulation throu+h the he+e!onic principle thati"eolo+ical ele!ents ac/uire a class character. n other wor"s,

once articulate" into the or+anic i"eolo+', i"eolo+ical ele!entso# i!portance to an" share" b' "i##erent classes enter the"o!ain o# the new he+e!onic class, which !a' clai! theseele!ents to be its own #or hain+ a place in its +eneral "iscourse.Precisel' herein lies $ra!sci%s correlation between un"a!entalclass) an" i"eolo+'. Neertheless, an or+anic i"eolo+' isprecisel' that:or+anic, the pro"uct o# an absorption o# "i##erenti!portant i"eolo+ical ele!ents belon+in+ to no class inparticular.

To sa' &pre"o!inance obtaine" b' consent) is to sa' he+e!onic status within a he+e!onic s'ste! ce!ente" b' aco!!on worl"-iew:or+anic i"eolo+':an" won in ciil societ' throu+h "'na!ic i"eolo+ical stru++le therein. ence, in theconte(t o# a reolutionar' stru++le #or state power, rule b' consent he+e!on' can be seen as &le+iti!ation o# reolution b' a hi+her an" !ore co!prehensie culture.)[3] 4et !e a"" here

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that the ac/uisition o# he+e!on' an" the le+iti!ation o# reolution re/uire #ro! a #un"a!ental class the i!portant an"proper e(ecution o# lea"ership. Accor"in+ to $ra!sci, in #act,&lea"ership) prece"es the other two sta+es in the process o# risin+ to state power throu+h reolution. 6e are now "ealin+

with a principle o# action, with strate+' #or reolution an" with!etho"s to attain he+e!on'. n particular, we co!e to the pointin which theor' an" practice coner+e "ialecticall' an" beco!eo# practical releance to the proletariat.

*or $ra!sci, the workin+ class !ust, be#ore actuall' e(ercisin+state power, attain lea"ership:that is, &establish its clai! to be arulin+ class in the political, cultural, an" %ethical% #iel"s.) [4] 3ut#or it to establish its clai! to be a rulin+ class, the proletariat!ust #irst hae beco!e class conscious in the conte(t o# stru++le

#or political power. ere $ra!sci "istin+uishes between twophases in the process #irst there is the corporate-econo!icphase in which the class i"enti#ies itsel# in ter!s o# thecorporate-econo!ic interests o# its inte+rate" ele!ents an" asan econo!ic +roup. Then there is the &purel' political) phase in

which the class reali0es that its own econo!ic interests, in theirpresent an" #uture "eelop!ent, +o be'on" the corporatiecircle o# a !ere econo!ic +roup, an" can an" !ust beco!e theinterests o# other oppresse" +roups. This is the purel' politicalphase &which !arks the passa+e #ro! structure to the sphere o#

co!ple( superstructures.)[5] At this point, when it beco!esconscious o# itsel# an" its e(istence as a social class, theproletariat can then procee" to #or+e or "eelop a co!prehensie

worl"-iew an" a"ance a political pro+ra!!e allowin+ #or its!ani#estation as a constitute" political part' pla'in+ a trul' pro+ressie an" historical role an" seekin+ to absorb otherlea"in+ sections o# the other oppresse" +roups an" classes. Atthis point, in other wor"s, the proletariat be+ins to en+a+e in thestru++le #or social he+e!on'.

t is i!portant to stress that $ra!sci%s concept o# he+e!on' #in"s a &conte(t o# releance) in post-192C 6estern Durope an"particularl' in tal'. This is "ue to the #act that $ra!sciappreciate" in +reat "etail the #un"a!ental "i##erences thate(iste" between 1917 5ussia an" post-192C 6estern Durope.n"ee", $ra!sci beliee" that in such "istinct conte(ts &the classstru++le then chan+es #ro! a %war o# !aneouer% to a %war o#

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position% #ou+ht !ainl' on the cultural #ront.) [6] 6hat is this %waro# position% which $ra!sci is talkin+ about

'ar o" Position

*irst o# all, $ra!sci is talkin+ about %war o# position% #or theattain!ent o# he+e!on'. This war is thus carrie" on at the leelo# ciil societ'. n"ee", once the proletariat beco!es classconscious an" oerco!es its corporatiis! it can an" !ust be+into e(ercise a role o# political, !oral, an" intellectual lea"ership

is-a-is other social classes to +ra"uall' ac/uire theirspontaneous lo'alt'. Bet this role o# lea"ership !ust be "eote"to the stru++le a+ainst the e(istin+ he+e!onic s'ste!, an" thestru++le itsel# wa+e" on all three basic leels o# societ' 1 theecono!ic, 2 the political, an" C the cultural. nci"entall', the

econo!ic stru++le o# the proletariat een prece"es historicall' the &purel' political) phase. Neertheless, at the inception o# thepolitical phase the econo!ic stru++le assu!es a new or"istinctie #or!.

The econo!ic stru++le o# the proletariat be+ins historicall' an" basicall' as a stru++le #or better liin+ an" workin+ con"itionsun"er >apitalis! the stru++le #or better wa+es, shorter workin+hours, better con"itions, better bene#its, etc. This stru++le lea"sto the or+ani0ation o# the workin+ class into tra"e unions but as

o# 'et is not su##icient to challen+e the he+e!onic s'ste! o# the bour+eoisie. oweer, at the a"ance" sta+e o# the class stru++leat the political phase o# the he+e!onic challen+e the econo!icstru++le !ust be wa+e" in conunction with an intense politicalstru++le itsel# inolin+ !ore than ust &a si!ple con#rontation

between anta+onistic classes) to inclu"e a &co!ple( relation o# #orces) e(istin+ at three leels 1 the relation o# social #orceslinke" to the structure an" "epen"ent on the "e+ree o# "eelop!ent o# the !aterial #orces o# pro"uction= 2 therelation o# political #orces, that is to sa' the "e+ree o#

consciousness an" or+ani0ation within "i##erent social +roups=C the relation o# !ilitar' #orces which is alwa's, accor"in+ to$ra!sci, the "ecisie !o!ent.[7]

t is sa#e to ar+ue that the eolution o# the workin+ class out o# the si!ple econo!ic stru++le #or corporate +oals an" into the#iel" o# co!ple( political stru++le procee"s #urther into the

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"ecisie %war o# position% wa+e" !ainl' at the cultural #ront as ani"eolo+ical stru++le. 6hile en+a+e" in the i"eolo+ical stru++lethe proletariat &atte!pts to #or+e unit' between econo!ic,political an" intellectual obecties, %pla'in+ all the /uestionsaroun" which the stru++le ra+es on a %uniersal%, not a corporate

leel, thereb' creatin+ EitsF he+e!on' EasF a #un"a!ental social+roup oer a series o# subor"inate ones.)[8] This i"eolo+icalstru++le inoles a process o# &"isarticulation-rearticulation) o# +ien i"eolo+ical ele!ents. t is reall' the stru++le between two&he+e!onic principles) #or the appropriation o# those ele!ents,an appropriation constitutin+ the uni#ication o# ariousi"eolo+ical ele!ents into an all enco!passin+ i"eolo+':or+anici"eolo+'.

t is /uite ei"ent that $ra!sci%s conception o# i"eolo+ical

stru++le coul" neer be un"erstoo" in class re"uctionist ter!ssince it "oes not inole the con#rontation between two alrea"' elaborate", close" worl" iews each bein+ the "irect an"e(clusie e(pression o# the two anta+onistic classes. 5ather, it isthe actual stru++le between two he+e!onic principles #or the&appropriation) not the i!position o# i"eolo+ical ele!ents that!a' result in the eentual "isarticulation o# the preiousi"eolo+ical terrain an" the rearticulation o# i"eolo+ical ele!entsinto a new #or! which then e(presses a new collectie will an"seres as the new basis o# consensus an" e##ectie he+e!onic

rule. The link between i"eolo+' an" he+e!on' shoul" now be!ore precisel' clear.

&This process o# "isarticulation-rearticulation constitutes, in#act, the #a!ous %war o# position% which $ra!sci conceies as thereolutionar' strate+' best a"apte" to countries where the

bour+eoisie has !ana+e" to #ir!l' establish its he+e!on' "ue tothe "eelop!ent o# ciil societ'.)[9] istoricall' speakin+, this%war o# position% woul" be #or the proletariat in a"ance"capitalist countries onl' a sta+e in the oerall class stru++le

a+ainst the bour+eoisie. Nonetheless, this is a !ost "ecisie sta+ein that stru++le since, as $ra!sci sai", &in politics, once the waro# position has been won, it has been won "e#initiel'.) [10]

Metho"icall' speakin+, the proletariat can beco!e ahe+e!onic class b' either o# two !etho"s b' &trans#or!is!,) or

b' &e(pansie he+e!on'.) &Trans#or!is!):the Mo"erate Part'

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o# the 5esor+i!ento relie" on this !etho":can occur throu+hthe &+ra"ual but continuous absorption, achiee" b' !etho"s

which Ear'F in their e##ectieness, o# the actie ele!entspro"uce" b' allie" +roups:an" een those which ca!e #ro! theanta+onistic +roups.)[11] This is a &bastar") t'pe o# he+e!on'

inolin+ &passie consensus.)


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!entione" &or+ani0ers o# culture.) Moreoer, $ra!sci classi#iesthese intellectuals in two "i!ensions the hori0ontal an" the

ertical "i!ensions.


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Neertheless, $ra!sci is !ore clear as to the positionalit' o# the intellectual t'pes o# the hori0ontal "i!ension in the super-structural leel o# societ'. ence, or+anic intellectuals, part o# the "o!inant class, proi"e personnel #or the coercie or+ans o# political societ'. Tra"itional intellectuals, i!portant in ciil

societ', are !ore likel' to reason with the !asses an" tr' toobtain %spontaneous% consent to a social or"er.[15] Bet, in thestru++le o# a class aspirin+ #or he+e!on' the or+anic intellectualscreate" b' that class operate on the leel o# pursuit #or "irectconsensus an" as such hol" no position in the coercie politicalstructures to operate on a coercie basis. ence, it woul" see!that in the stru++le #or social he+e!on' these or+anicintellectuals !ust reason with the !asses an" en+a+e in a"ecisie %war o# position% to consoli"ate the he+e!onic status o# the class the interests o# which the' share.

Accor"in+ to $ra!sci the intellectuals are the &"eputies) o# the"o!inant +roup:the #unctionaries, e(ercisin+ the subaltern buti!portant #unctions o# political +oern!ent an" socialhe+e!on'. n particular, the or+anic intellectuals are !osti!portant since the' are the ones who actuall' elaborate an"sprea" or+anic i"eolo+'. The political i!portance o# theseintellectuals rests also in the #act that, nor!all', the or+anicintellectuals o# a historicall' an" realisticall' pro+ressie class

will be able to establish their &"o!ination) oer the intellectuals

o# other classes, an" hence will be able to create a &s'ste! o# soli"arit') !aintaine" so lon+ as the pro+ressie class re!ains&pro+ressie.)

*inall', or+anic intellectuals are er' instru!ental in a class%stru++le #or he+e!on'. &


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o# the tra"itional intellectuals woul" be part o# the %war o# position% "iscusse" in the preious section.

A !aor historical proble! pose" b' $ra!sci an" o# +reatpractical releance to the proletariat in a"ance" capitalist

countries is the #act that &althou+h eer' social +roup "eelopsits own or+anic intellectuals, the in"ustrial proletariat has relie"!ostl' on %assi!ilate"% tra"itional intellectuals #orlea"ership.)[17] learl', onl' then coul" the workin+ class "eelop ahi+her consciousness o# itsel# an" other social classes.

Conclusion

$ra!sci%s contribution to Mar(ist theor' is two-#ol". apitalistrealit'. t is sa#e to ar+ue, #or e(a!ple, that Althusser%s notion o# &i"eolo+ical state apparatuses) eoles out o# $ra!sci%s +eneralconcept o# ciil societ' an" i"eolo+ical structures therein serin+as the social pillars o# state power. 6ithout !uch "oubt, the

Althusserian #or!ulation o# the theor' o# repro"uction o# i"eolo+ical state apparatuses an" the concept o# i"eolo+icalinterpellation owes !uch to $ra!sci%s concept o# i"eolo+' an"he+e!on' an" the notion o# the state i!plicit in these concepts.

An" let us not #or+et $ra!sci%s notion o# %war o# position% #ro! which Althusser%s elaboration o# the concept o# i"eolo+icalstru++le eoles. 6hile a "iscussion o# Althusser%s contribution

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to Mar(ist theor' re!ains outsi"e the scope o# this article, it woul" not be irreleant to sa' that Althusser has been #or$ra!sci !ore or less what 4enin was #or Mar( an" Dn+els:eachin continuit' with his pre"ecessors.

apitalist conte(t an", in or"er to "o so,the nee" to oerco!e class "o+!atis! an" interest-base"corporatis!. No lon+er has the catacl's!ic notion o# >apitalist

crisis a place in trul' reolutionar' Mar(ist theor', as $ra!sci%sconcepts hae brou+ht a !ore realistic picture o# the classstru++le to our e'es. n"ee", $ra!sci "eseres !uch reco+nitionin recti#'in+ Mar(ist theor' a#ter its te!porar' "e+eneration atthe han"s o# the !echanistic Mar(ists o# the Stalin perio" an"the reisionist &Mar(ists) o# the Secon" nternational. n the"ialectical !aterialist tra"ition o# Mar( an" Dn+els, $ra!sci%s&philosoph' o# pra(is) "espite an' historicis! has re-"eliere"to the workin+ class a !ore power#ul theoretical weapon with

which it is well e/uippe" a+ainst the capitalist class in the class

stru++le. There re!ains onl' the conscious !akin+ o# histor' inthe han"s o# the proletariat.

D"itor%s Note Galeriano 5a!os, Hr. receie" his 3.A. at Bale in1981 an" will start law school in Septe!ber. e is presentl'

workin+ on a book, &4e#t 6in+ nionis! an" the Tra"e nionMoe!ent in the S, 188I-19JJ.)

+otes

[1] Chantal Mouffe, Gramsci and Marxist Theory (London: Routledge !egan "aul,1979#, $% 186%

[2] &ohn M% Ca''ett, Antonio Gramsci and the Origins of Italian

Communism (Calfo)na: *tanfo)d +ne)-t. ")e--, 1967#, $% 204%

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[3] /d, $% 205%

[4] /de'%

[5] /de'%

[6] /d%, $% 206%

[7] Chantal Mouffe, Gramsci and Marxist Theory, $% 180%

[8] /de'%

[9] /d, $% 197%

[10] &ohn M% Ca''ett, Antonio Gramsci and the Origins of Italian Communism, $%

202%

[11] Chantal Mouffe, Gramsci and Marxist Theory, $% 197%


202%

[13] /de'%

[14] /de'%

[15] /d, $% 204%

[16] ntono )a'-, Selections from the Prison Notebooks (e o): /nte)natonal

"ul-he)-, 1971#, $% 10%


203%

ibliograph

Althusser, 4ouis. For Marx . 4on"on New 4e#t 3ooks, 1977.

Althusser, 4ouis. Lenin and Philosophy. New Bork Monthl' 5eiew Press, 1971.

3ukharin, Nikolai. Historical Materialism. Ann Arbor Theniersit' o# Michi+an Press, 19@9.

>a!!ett, Hohn 6. Antonio Gramsci and the Origins of talian!omm"nism. >ali#ornia Stan#or" niersit' Press, 19@7.

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$ra!sci, Antonio. #elections from the Prison $ote%oo&s. New Bork nternational Publishers, 1971.

4aclau, Drnesto. Politics and deology in Marxist Theory.4on"on New 4e#t 3ooksKGerso D"itions, 1977.

4uckacs, $eor+. History and !lass !onscio"sness. >a!bri"+eMT Press, 1971.

Mou##e, >hantal, e". Gramsci ' Marxist Theory. 4on"on5outle"+e L ;e+an Paul, 1979.

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