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Administration in Social WorkPublication details, including instructions forauthors and subscription information:http://www.tandfonline.com/loi/wasw20

Creating NonprofitOrganizations WithinDisenfranchised CommunitiesDennis Roberts MSW a , Michael Denomme PhD a &Felice D. Perlmutter PhD ba Resources for Human Development, Inc. , 4333Kelly Drive, Philadelphia, PA, 19129, USAb Temple University, School of SocialAdministration , Ritter Hall Annex, Room 555, 1301Cecil B. Moore Avenue, Philadelphia, PA, 19122, USAPublished online: 15 Oct 2008.

To cite this article: Dennis Roberts MSW , Michael Denomme PhD & Felice D.Perlmutter PhD (2000) Creating Nonprofit Organizations Within DisenfranchisedCommunities, Administration in Social Work, 24:3, 17-34, DOI: 10.1300/J147v24n03_02

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Creating Nonprofit OrganizationsWithin Disenfranchised Communities

Dennis Roberts, MSWMichael Denomme, PhDFelice D. Perlmutter, PhD

ABSTRACT. The complexity associated with the creation of a non-profit corporation has often served as a deterrent for the citizens ofdisenfranchised communities to create organizations to meet theirneeds. Resources for Human Development (RHD), a nonprofit corpora-tion, employs over 2,800 persons in seven states, and operates with aFY 1999-2000 budget of $70.5 million, and includes in its mission a com-mitment to local community groups. To accomplish this objective, its NewBeginnings programs stimulate local community to articulate their needsand interests and RHD provides technical assistance to these groups.Over the past 28 years, RHD, via New Beginnings, has organized over120 groups: many have spun off to become completely autonomouswhile others have continued under the corporate administrative umbrella.

RHD is a unique, innovative organization which has been a risk-takerin creating effective services in collaboration with concerned communitygroups. This paper describes the philosophy of RHD and the approachits New Beginnings program has used with aspiring groups. It seeks toserve as a stimulus to nonprofits in search of new approaches to commu-nity empowerment and community development. [Article copies availablefor a fee from The Haworth Document Delivery Service: 1-800-342-9678. E-mailaddress: <getinfo@haworthpressinc.com> Website: <http: //www.HaworthPress.com>]

Dennis Roberts and Michael Denomme are affiliated with Resources for HumanDevelopment, Inc., 4333 Kelly Drive, Philadelphia, PA 19129. Felice D. Perlmutteris affiliated with Temple University, School of Social Administration, Ritter HallAnnex, Room 555, 1301 Cecil B. Moore Avenue, Philadelphia, PA 19122.

Paper presented at ARNOVA, Seattle, 1998.

Administration in Social Work, Vol. 24(3) 2000� 2000 by The Haworth Press, Inc. All rights reserved. 17

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KEYWORDS. Nonprofit corporation, new organizations, disenfran-chised communities

The complexity associated with the creation of a nonprofit orga-nization has often served as a deterrent for the citizens of disenfran-chised communities to create organizations to meet their needs. Infact, many grass roots organizations view the formalization process oforganizational development with skepticism, if not distrust. In otherinstances, administrators of smaller nonprofits have discovered theoften overwhelming difficulties associated with the operation of ahuman service business as they play multiple roles, e.g., communityorganizer, PR specialist, accountant, and when time allows, adminis-trator.

The purpose of this paper is to stimulate collaborative efforts be-tween nonprofit organizations and community groups by examininghow one large nonprofit organization, Resources for Human Develop-ment, Inc. (RHD), has linked its resources and capacities to a varietyof community development groups in the wider Philadelphia commu-nity. The paper describes RHD’s New Beginnings program whichprovides an array of services to these community groups. An examina-tion of the history and development of four of these groups revealshow certain specific RHD supports were able to play key roles in thegroups’ achievement of their objectives. It is hoped that this analysiswill serve as a stimulus to nonprofits in search of new approaches tocommunity empowerment and community development and respondsto Wolch’s (1990) call for the nonprofit sector to empower disenfran-chised communities and to create new forms of communal activity.

THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK

The concept of community is of central interest in the current non-profit world. Modern theorists (Bender, 1978; Etzioni,1995) have takenFerdinand Tönnies (1971) seminal concepts of gemeinschaft and ge-sellshaft and made them relevant to the post-industrial American expe-rience. Bender points out that in pre-industrial America key conceptsof life (i.e., work, family, friendships, leisure activities) were all cir-cumscribed by place and neighborhood as community was predicatedupon physical closeness and spatial limitations. But the 20th century

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American market economy created a social milieu where communityis less a description of place than it is a type of human relationship, notnecessarily devoid of spatial context but not dependent on it either.

Thus the concept of community has changed over time, from alocale-based construct to one that places the complexities of socialinteraction at its center. The personal and affective elements, firmlyembedded in the locale-based concept of community remain relevant;but they are extended and expanded to include the panoply of humaninteractions, from social to occupational. Whether geographically de-limited or dispersed, the key to community is strong emotional bondsand shared intimate experiences.

Voluntary associations and groups with a shared purpose are notonly relevant to a sense of community but essential to understandingits late 20th century incarnations (Etzioni, 1995). And these new in-carnations must take into account new forms of communication andnew technology (Gergen 1991).

This multi-faceted concept of ‘‘community’’ in which both the im-portance of community as physical location and community as conflu-ence of mutual interests are embraced must acknowledge the increasingfragmentation of society at the local level. Many low-income individ-uals have little chance of economic and social progress outside of therevitalization of their locality. Equally important, however, these sameindividuals cannot hope to achieve economic success and self-suffi-ciency in a global economy if they do not create a shared supportsystem of mutual interests across geographical boundaries.

Naparstek and Dooley (1997) highlight the value of partnerships incommunity building activity as they discuss the positive elements ofcatalyst and convener, resource availability and resource sharing, andthe empowerment that is realized through a partnership relationship.

The empowerment of communities, the frequent focus of communityorganizers, cannot be separated from the necessity of enhancing thecapacity of their individual members to compete successfully in thelarger market economy. This multi-faceted sense of community affordsnonprofit organizations the opportunity to make an effective contribu-tion to the development and maintenance of healthy communities.

Finally, and of fundamental importance to the theoretical frame-work are the six common attributes of the entrepreneurial stage of theorganizational cycle as described by Cameron and Whetten: (a) marshal-ing of resources; (b) multiple and diverse ideas; (c) entrepreneurial

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activities; (d) little planning and coordination; (e) formation of a‘‘niche’’; and (f) ‘‘prime mover.’’ As we shall see, three of theseattributes are of particular relevance to our inquiry.

ORGANIZATIONAL BACKGROUND

The Philadelphia based nonprofit corporation, Resources for Hu-man Development, Inc. (RHD) has embraced the challenge of partici-pating in the empowerment of communities via its New Beginningsprogram. Formed in 1970, RHD is a nonprofit, tax-exempt organiza-tion registered to conduct business as a 501(c)(3) corporation. As adiversified nonprofit organization, RHD oversees the delivery of overone hundred human service programs. Its 1999-2000 budget of $70.5million dollars includes contracts with federal, state, county, and cityagencies to create and operate programs in Pennsylvania, New Jersey,Florida, Massachusetts, Connecticut, Louisiana, Michigan and Virgin-ia. Over the course of its history, RHD has focused its organizationalenergies toward developing innovative and effective systems and ser-vices that enable disabled or disadvantaged individuals to participatein American life to the fullest extent.

RHD’s New Beginnings program has been an integral part of thecorporation for over twenty-five years. Although the activities of theprogram include the provision of support for visionary individualbusiness enterprises, a key focus of the program is to serve as anentrepreneurial incubator in the creation and/or support of differentcommunity initiatives that empower low-income and disadvantagedgroups and individuals at a grass roots level to find innovative solu-tions to critical issues of concern.

The number of programs for which New Beginnings has providedsupport has varied over the years. On average, approximately 50 en-trepreneurial groups are supported at any one time. RHD’s experiencehas been that its New Beginnings programs derive their life force fromthe vision and energy of each group’s founder(s). The enthusiasm ofsome founders, however, is quite intense but short-lived, resulting inthe group’s dissolution. For other groups, their mission is time-limitedand, when accomplished, they disband. Although these programs arebrief in tenure, they nevertheless serve the valuable function of em-powering the communities they serve.

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Many New Beginnings programs have a substantial life span. Forexample, at this writing, thirty-three entrepreneurial groups have beenwith the corporation for over five years; eleven groups have partici-pated in New Beginnings for over 10 years; and, fifteen groups haveachieved their own 501(c)(3) designation.

For many years the cost of supporting the New Beginnings programhas exceeded the revenue which it generated for administrative pur-poses. Currently, however, the New Beginnings’ program support bud-get of approximately $80,000 is fully funded by program participants.

While New Beginnings had always been an essential activity ofRHD, it was an article in the Philadelphia Inquirer (1985) that createdan upsurge of interest in the program. The article, entitled ‘‘Nonprofitgroup becomes incubator for social change,’’ described New Begin-nings as ‘‘ . . . a kind of maternity ward for the birth of new ideas.’’From that article RHD received over 50 inquiries for assistance overthe following week alone. Many more inquires followed shortly there-after, as individuals and groups were encouraged to discuss their ideasand dreams, many of which sought to effect social change and tocreate, support or transform a specific community.

In response to this initial surge of inquiries and the many thatfollowed in the years to come, RHD created a process to engage thesesocial entrepreneurs, assess their ideas, devise appropriate strategies,and identify appropriate resources. An important goal of the initialmeetings was to gain the social entrepreneurs’ trust, in recognition oftheir frequent reluctance to share the specifics of their ideas for fearthat they will be ‘‘stolen.’’

Consequently, much of the time of the initial meetings between theparties is spent explaining the mission and values of RHD and thespecific nature of its New Beginnings services. If the entrepreneursdecide to avail themselves of New Beginnings services, they mustagree to the following provisions (RHD, 1998).

To Conduct All Activities in a Manner That Is Consistent with theRHD Corporate Values

RHD takes great pride in the values within which all corporatecommunity members are obligated to operate. A written copy of thesevalues is distributed to and discussed with each New Beginnings can-didate. The values are as follows:

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1. respect for the dignity and worth of each individual;2. multi-level thinking;3. empowerment of groups;4. decentralization of authority;5. safe and open environment6. creativity;7. honesty and trust;8. diversity;9. organizational integrity;

10. on going growth and development;11. personal and professional enrichment;12. quality services.

To Operate Under the Auspices of the RHD Corporate Board

For many community groups this presents no difficulty at all in thatthey are in the beginning stages of their organizational life. Some com-munity groups, however, may join New Beginnings with a very strongadvisory board. This board can continue to serve in an advisory capac-ity but all legal authority resides with their RHD corporate board.

Although each community group in the RHD New Beginningsprogram utilizes the corporation’s 501(c)(3) charitable organizationstatus and is, therefore, not an independent legal entity, the RHDcorporate ethos has long emphasized the importance of encouragingthe members of these groups to choose and maintain their own namesand to preserve a strong sense of group identity. Far from submergingtheir identity within the larger corporation, they are encouraged tomaintain and celebrate their own identity. The practical result is thatthe vast majority of individuals and groups who receive service from aRHD New Beginnings community group do not realize that the groupis in fact a unit of the corporation and may well not know that there isany association at all between the two of them. The fact that any NewBeginnings group is welcome to strike out on its own at any timefurther solidifies the notion that each community group has its ownidentity and is in control of its own destiny.

To Conduct All Fiscal Activity within RHD’s LargerCorporate-Wide Financial Department

This includes the transfer of all checking and savings accounts thatare linked with the proposed activity. This requirement insures the

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kind of strict financial management and control that foundations andother funding sources require. For most community groups this fiscaloversight represents a critically important contribution by RHD totheir organizational capacity.

To Pay Fifteen (15) Percent Corporate Overhead Charge

This overhead assessment is a contingency-based arrangement inthat it is collected only when program expenditures are generated. Formany New Beginnings programs actual expenditures are slight andconsequently the amount of the overhead that RHD receives is insuffi-cient to cover corporate expenses. Regardless of a program’s ability togenerate revenue, each program continues to enjoy all the benefits ofassociation including office space, use of computers, and telephone. Itis the overall corporate fiscal capacity, derived from many differentfunding streams, that makes it possible for RHD to subsidize the NewBeginnings program. Programs that maintain an ongoing fiscal deficitreceive assistance in rethinking their development strategy and spend-ing pattern to insure that they do not remain in deficit.

Only after the social entrepreneurs feel comfortable with the out-lined requirements is there any discussion about the specifics of theiridea or the RHD services. The social entrepreneur is assured that any‘‘ownership’’ of the idea or service is strictly his or hers. If, however,the idea that is brought forth by the social entrepreneur is a current orplanned activity of the corporation, this is disclosed immediately bythe RHD corporate staff member. In such instances the discussion maycease or opportunities for partnership may be examined.

A second important understanding involves the assurance that thesesocial entrepreneurs may detach themselves and their program fromthe larger corporation at any point that they choose in the future.Ordinarily this leave-taking is at the discretion of the entrepreneur. If,however, RHD has invested capital into the service, it is a negotiatedseparation. Otherwise, the social entrepreneur leaves with any con-tracts for service, funds, or property that it may have developed oracquired while operating under the auspices of RHD. It is within thecontext of these general rules that the New Beginnings candidatedecides whether to proceed or not.

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RHD SERVICES

Many of the services of the New Beginnings program are tangibleor structural, e.g., office space and equipment. Many services, however,are less concrete and intangible, e.g., legitimacy and reputation. It isimportant to note that not all services are required by every NewBeginnings program. Social entrepreneurs are free to ‘‘pick andchoose’’ those supports that they view as helpful to them, althoughNew Beginnings staff discuss the relative benefits of the range ofassistance offered.

Tangible Services

Tangible services include those supports that address the most im-mediate needs of New Beginnings social entrepreneurs and includingthe following.

Legal Status

Although not necessarily true in all instances, many funding oppor-tunities are limited to organizations with nonprofit status. RHD pro-vides this status to the New Beginnings program. The process ofapplying for tax exempt status is a time-consuming activity–one thatoften can exceed a period of six months. In many instances this timeframe is an onerous one and may interfere with a community organiza-tion’s ability to secure necessary and vital fiscal resources in a timelyfashion.

Physical Space for Operation

Few things are of more value than an actual physical plant withinwhich to develop a service to the community. Securing formal officespace may be the first step towards grounding the service and giving ita sense of permanence and importance. Before they joined RHD theoverwhelming number of participants in New Beginnings used as theiroffice a spare bedroom, a front porch, or a cramped space in a neigh-borhood community center. Conference rooms were created merely byadding another chair in the kitchen area. New Beginnings offers officespace to all of its members. Desks and filing cabinets are also made

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available. Often, however, desks must be shared among all partici-pants.

Tools and Technology

For many community groups the commonplace tools that are oftenassociated with developing and delivering a service are cost prohibi-tive. To assist New Beginnings groups, RHD makes these requisitetools available. These tools include telephones with the ability toteleconference and voice mail; computers with the capacity for wordprocessing, data management, e-mail, and Internet; photocopiers; andfax machines.

Support Personnel

One of the most valuable means of assistance that RHD provides toits New Beginnings social entrepreneurs is an administrative assistant.While this person is shared by all of the groups, he or she is oftensufficient to insure that critical information is communicated to groupsand individuals necessary to implement a new service. Among othertasks, the administrative assistant provides support with meetings,telephone calls, mailings, and typing. Additionally, RHD makes otherpersonnel available to assist New Beginnings efforts. Not only are twostaff employed full-time to provide overall guidance and support toNew Beginnings programs, but RHD program development staff arealso available periodically to consult with New Beginnings social entre-preneurs about funding opportunities, foundation news, corporate giv-ing programs, private solicitation, and proposal preparation assistance.

Financial Accounting and Fiscal Controls

Despite the corporate organizational emphasis on program decen-tralization, all financial transactions are monitored and accounted forthrough a centralized fiscal management system. Consequently, RHDprovides all New Beginnings programs with a comprehensive finan-cial tracking system which includes: accounts payable; accounts re-ceivable; payroll; and, general ledger services. All funds are separatelyaccounted for and monitored on an individual basis. Financial reportsare shared with each New Beginnings program on a monthly basis and

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reviewed jointly if necessary. These records are reviewed by an inde-pendent auditor and included in the annual corporate audit. Further-more, the activities of all New Beginnings programs are covered bythe corporate insurance policies, including professional liability, gen-eral liability, property, and the corporate self-insured worker’s com-pensation plan.

Intangible Services

While many individuals initially seek the assistance of the NewBeginnings program for the tangible services that it offers, it is oftenthe less tangible services that many entrepreneurs come to realize arethe ones more valued by potential funding groups. These servicesinclude the following.

History/Reputation

As a large nonprofit organization, RHD has a proud history ofcreative solutions to complex social problems. As social entrepreneursjoin the larger corporation, they, and their activities, become identifiedwith the RHD corporate history and, therefore, this wider corporateexperience can be included in their presentations to funding organiza-tions. Examples of previous RHD accomplishments help to build cred-ibility with the groups and individuals that will be necessary for anorganization to grow and develop.

Legitimacy

Many funding sources feel more comfortable awarding funds toorganizations that have demonstrated an historical commitment tocommunity building and a proven capacity to accomplish that objec-tive. RHD helps to provide a level of confidence to the funding com-munity (e.g., foundations, corporations, government, or individuals)and thus increases the likelihood of funding for its New Beginningsprograms.

Peer Support

Transforming an idea or dream that addresses an important need ofany community into a tangible service is a challenging task. RHD

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organizes periodic meetings with its New Beginnings programs so thatthey can share their organizational development experiences with oneanother, both frustrations and accomplishments. By sharing these ex-periences, the New Beginnings group itself becomes ‘‘community,’’assisting each other with the feelings of isolation that oftentimes ac-company organizational development. In addition, RHD invites NewBeginnings alumni, (i.e., those groups that have achieved organiza-tional independence), to address the current New Beginnings pro-grams and share their developmental history, both pitfalls and suc-cesses. These groups provide important role models for the currentNew Beginnings programs.

EXAMPLES OF NEW BEGINNINGS PROGRAMS

In the process of serving as an incubator to many communitygroups, New Beginnings has encountered a wide range of communities,both geographical and non-geographical in nature. The wide-rangingsupport that New Beginnings provides underpins the efforts of thesecommunities to concretize their visions and boldly proceed to makethem a reality, confident in the knowledge that a like-minded andexperienced corporation is there to help them, if necessary, every stepof the way. The following discussion focuses on four examples ofNew Beginnings programs that represent both geographical and non-geographical communities. In addition, each example represents adifferent kind of New Beginnings status: on-going (The ProfessionalLook); in transition to independence (Urban Sailors); dormant (Com-munity Partnership); and disbanded (Calypso). Despite their differ-ence in status, all of these programs share the common experience ofmoving from innovative vision to community reality; and all of themshare the common experience of having made an important, oftencritical, difference in the lives of their members. The names of the fourcommunity groups that are presented in this paper have been changed.The organizational development of each group’s history, however, isaccurate and specific to each group’s history and does not represent a‘‘composite’’ of several different groups.

Geographical Communities

1. Located in Chester, Pennsylvania, one of the poorest communi-ties in the state, Community Partnership addresses many of the critical

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issues of inner city community life, including the problems of aban-doned properties, inadequate housing and environmental blight. Threecommunity residents founded this neighborhood group and joinedRHD’s New Beginnings program with the hope of benefitting fromRHD’s program development and proposal writing experience. Highon the list of Community Partnership priorities was securing funds tobuild and develop a neighborhood park by converting two abandonedlots which in their current state had been a source of endangerment tolocal youth.

With New Beginnings’ assistance, these funds were secured from alocal business, Scott Paper Company, which had a longstanding com-mitment to the Chester community. The task of building the park alsoincluded the New Beginnings personnel assisting Community Partner-ship in working with the Chester Redevelopment Authority to securethe abandoned lots. Working with an urban redevelopment authority isa complex matter and the long experience of RHD in this areas was ofexceptional benefit to Community Partnership in accomplishing itsgoal. This marriage of larger corporate capacity and expertise withcommunity zeal and initiative is exactly what the New Beginningspartnerships strive to accomplish.

Other neighborhood activities that were organized under the um-brella of New Beginnings included organized trash clean-ups, flowerand tree planting, and house painting and repair. Community Partner-ship’s ‘‘Learn and Earn’’ program, for example, guides youth in thedevelopment of entrepreneurial projects such as making and sellingMother’s Day corsages. Local garden projects have brought togetherthe youth and senior citizens in the community to work together toplan and care for beautiful indoor and outdoor flower and vegetablegardens. Inter-generational projects such as these foster a sense ofcommunal solidarity and a strengthened belief in the power of a com-munity to significantly enhance its environment by acting from ashared sense of purpose.

After a very active five year period, during which many of theirgoals were achieved, the three founding members of Community Part-nership dramatically reduced their involvement. The current inactivityof the organization illustrates a very important aspect of RHD’s NewBeginnings program: RHD expertise must always be wedded to theactive and enthusiastic involvement of the specific community partner.The history of Community Partnership demonstrates that much can be

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accomplished when community enthusiasm is at its peak and, neces-sarily, effectiveness will wane when community leaders have redi-rected their energies.

2. Founded in 1989, the Calypso theater program brought theaterand arts programming to low-income communities in the Philadelphiaarea. The founders of Calypso were idealistic college graduates fromIndiana who relocated to Philadelphia to work with a low-income,urban population. Calypso encouraged the youth in these communitiesto draw upon their own experiences in devising plays, dances andother artistic presentations that speak to the issues and concerns ofinner city life. In one instance, for example, a number of teenagerswith the support of their families, neighbors and teachers, took thedetails of their community environment–from broken bottles to trashto sidewalk flowers–created and acted out a heartfelt story of theirlives and dreams complete with music, costumes and props. In theprocess of these activities, the children not only get in touch with theirown reservoirs of creativity, but build the kind of self-esteem neces-sary to dare to plan for a bright and challenging future. A number ofchildren have been accepted into the Philadelphia High School ofPerforming Arts or have made concrete plans to pursue artistic ca-reers.

RHD’s New Beginnings program provided the enthusiastic, albeitinexperienced, Calypso members with much needed office space andequipment, as well as the expertise that they lacked in terms of knowl-edge of funding sources and administrative/fiscal management. Calypsowas an active and creative voice in several low-income Philadelphiacommunities for a number of years. With the assistance of New Begin-nings, Calypso raised close to $100,000 and produced a creative writ-ing workshop, three major community plays, and a collaborative artworkshop funded by the Pew Charitable Trust Foundation. Pew alsoagreed to fund a retrospective video documentary of the activities ofCalypso and the low-income Philadelphia community of Norris Square.

After six years of intense community work, key personnel from theCalypso organization decided to focus on other professional interestsand its New Beginnings’ activities ceased. Work with low-incomecommunities continues, however, under different guises. One particu-lar member of Calypso, for example, has become an accomplishedprofessional actress and has continued to have an active role in thecreative processes for children. The work of Calypso is a particularly

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outstanding example how the experience and expertise of a nonprofitcorporation can potentiate the capacity and skills of idealists who needa supportive matrix to concretize their dreams.

Non-Geographical Communities

1. The Professional Look is a New Beginnings program that recog-nizes the importance of first impressions in the competitive workworld of today. In 1995 several professional women came to RHD anddiscussed with New Beginnings staff the critical need that many low-income women have for the proper apparel when they begin inter-viewing for employment. They explained that these low-incomewomen, in presenting themselves for job interviews, may have all therequisite skills and competencies to perform the prospective job at ahigh level; but, if they are not able to present a polished appearance,their ability to elicit job offers is inevitably compromised. Since com-plete interview outfits typically cost well over $100, many low-in-come women experience tremendous difficulties in acquiring theproper apparel as they pursue their job possibilities.

The Professional Look provides these women with the requisitesuits, dresses and accessories to make an effective first impression.Many women return to The Professional Look after a successful jobinterview to expand their clothing options for their early days ofemployment until they receive their initial paychecks. The Profession-al Look volunteers are also available to help the women choose thebest outfit and provide advice on a variety of presentation concerns.Since its inception in 1995, this nonprofit organization has providedsartorial support for over 2000 women. Benefitting from a variety ofmedia appearances, including local and national television shows, TheProfessional Look has been able to create partnerships with over fiftyjob training programs in the Greater Philadelphia area. This programhas taken on even more significance with the advent of welfare-to-work legislation and its concomitant requirements regarding employ-ment.

The Professional Look’s association with the New Beginnings pro-gram has not only afforded it the charitable status that has been soinstrumental in the thousands of donations that they have received, butit has given this non-geographical community a mechanism to create asense of solidarity and shared purpose.

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The Professional Look remains an active member of New Begin-nings and is a superb example of the critical role that nonprofit organi-zations can play in helping to create and nurture a non-geographicalcommunity. For The Professional Look’s volunteer experts, their asso-ciation with the New Beginnings program gives them the requisitelegal status and common physical space; for the many program partici-pants, they become members of a community of aspiring professionalwomen who support and encourage one another as they move towardself-sufficiency.

2. In the summer of 1990 New Beginnings offered a disillusionedcorporate businessman an opportunity not only to change dramaticallythe course of his life but to realize a lifelong dream of teaching disad-vantaged youth the invaluable and lifelong lessons that the experienceof cooperative ventures produces. He was convinced that sailing,which had been a lifelong passion, offered such a medium. By joiningNew Beginnings the Urban Sailors program was able to benefit fromexpert fiscal management and highly successfully proposal develop-ment strategies.

Urban Sailors provides low-income inner city youth with sailingopportunities that not only give them experiences far removed fromtheir insular neighborhood environment but teach them the value ofteamwork and the absolute necessity of coordinated effort. These teen-agers learn that operating a sailboat effectively and enjoyably requiresthat all members of the team support each other and work together in acommon purpose. The Urban Sailors training uses both classroom andvideo instruction to complement the on-board experience. In additionto experiencing a growing sense of self-esteem and increased capacityfor teamwork, youth who finish the training receive a diploma fromthe U.S. Yacht Racing Union.

After eight years under the New Beginnings umbrella, Urban Sail-ors has positioned itself to acquire its own nonprofit status and, with astrong volunteer board in place, will soon become organizationallyindependent. The history of Urban Sailors’ involvement with the NewBeginnings program illustrates the value that a mature nonprofit canhave in helping a nascent organization develop the necessary infra-structure to function as an independent corporation. Initially, UrbanSailors required support and assistance along a number of dimensions.Now, having matured significantly, it serves as an inspirational rolemodel to many fledgling New Beginnings programs.

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IN CONCLUSION

Bess (1998), in his discussion of Cameron and Whitten’s (1983) sixattributes of the development of a nascent community organization,identifies the difficulties and challenges that founders face in creatingorganizations to carry out their visions. The interaction of communitygroup founders with the RHD New Beginnings program reveals ananalogous process. Three attributes of first stage organizational develop-ment are particularly relevant to the New Beginnings experience:‘‘marshaling resources,’’ ‘‘little planning and coordination’’ and ‘‘find-ing a niche.’’ Many of the fledgling community groups that choose tojoin the New Beginnings program not only have very little knowledgeof how to access the funds they need but they often lack the mostelementary resources, e.g., a telephone and a desk. Virtually all ofthem lack the charitable designation necessary even to apply for funds.Thus nonprofit organizations that seek to assist incipient communitygroups must realize how basic are the needs that they must address asthese community groups seek to marshal their resources.

The development of a niche and enhancing group capacity for plan-ning and coordination are also issues which community groups typi-cally seek to address with the help of the New Beginnings program.The reputation that the umbrella nonprofit enjoys in the communitycan be absolutely critical to the fledgling community group becausethe requisite service expertise is often not enough for the group togarner the community and political support it needs to carry out itsmission effectively and establish its niche. Furthermore, whereas newcommunity groups often have little patience for and expertise in planningand coordination, the ability of nonprofit organizations to negotiatethe social and political value is of inestimable value to these groups asthey seek to operationalize their program.

The experience of RHD’s New Beginnings program in workingwith disparate community groups underscores the importance of ac-knowledging both the existence of geographical and non-geographicalcommunities and the different needs, capacities, and preferences thateach community represents. Mature nonprofit organizations, with therequisite development resources and fiscal soundness, can serve as anincubator for the innovative dreams of these communities. One shouldnot understate, however, the complexity of the task, as effective sup-port may involve the utilization of a variety of mechanisms including

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Roberts, Denomme, and Perlmutter 33

proposal writing, fiscal management, administrative acumen, and re-source identification. Nevertheless, nonprofit organizations are in anopportune position to affect the growth and development of communi-ties in ways that urban planners and community organizers may not beable to replicate.

This unique opportunity arises from the very nature of nonprofitinstitutions. These organizations have the capacity to provide commu-nity groups with services and supports that they can rarely receiveelsewhere including: the legal status to facilitate and receive charitablecontributions, government funds, and foundation grants; the benefit ofphysical space, office equipment, and support personnel; and the ad-vantage of tested operating systems such as payroll and accountspayable for effective daily management.

In order to be successful incubators, however, nonprofit organiza-tions must go beyond the often very specific parameters that initiallydefine and circumscribe their operation. In an era where governmentresources are increasingly unavailable to address social problems,nonprofit organizations must assume a more aggressive role in inter-facing with communities in need. The support that these nonprofitorganizations provide can be concrete and extremely effective precise-ly because their own survival in a nonprofit arena has necessitated amastery of the very skills and abilities that both geographical andnon-geographical low-income communities desperately need. All toooften empowerment can be an academic construct that means little toeconomically disadvantaged individuals with few support systems oropportunities.

Programs like RHD’s New Beginnings take these abstract empower-ment ‘‘bones’’ and give them the muscles and sinews of specificorganizational strategies, concrete skills and abilities, and organiza-tional status and legitimacy. The concept of empowerment is trans-formed into the reality of community self-efficacy.

REFERENCES

Bender, T. (1978). Community and Social Change in America. New Jersey: RutgersUniversity Press, 1978.

Bess, G. (1998). ‘‘A First Stage Organizational Life Cycle Study of Six EmergingNonprofit Organizations in Los Angeles.’’ In Rino J. Patti (Ed.), Administration inSocial Work, 22 (4), 35-52.

Cammeron, K. S., & Whetten, D. A. (1985). Models of the organizational life cycle:Applications to higher education. Review of Higher Education, 6 (4), 269-299.

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Etzioni, A. (1995). ‘‘Back to We: The Communitarian Nexus.’’ In K. Gozdz, Kami-rez (Ed.), Community Building-Renewing-Spirit and Learning in Business. SanFrancisco: New Leader Press, Sterling and Stone, Inc., pp. 305-317.

Gergen, K. J. (1991). The saturated self: Dilemmas of identity in contemporary life.New York: Basic Books.

Naparstek, A., Dooley, D. (1997). Community Building. (In R. Edwards, Editor inChief), Encyclopedia of Social Work 1997 Supplement. 19th edition. Washington,D.C.: NASW Press.

Philadelphia Inquirer (1985), December 29, 1985, pp. West, 1,6.Resources for Human Development, (1998). New Beginnings Program brochure,

Philadelphia.Töennies, F. (1971). ‘‘On Gemeinschaft and gesellschaft.’’ In M. Trussi (Ed.), Sociol-

ogy: The classic statements. New York: Random House. pp. 145-154 (Originalwork published 1887).

Wolch, J. (1990). The Shadow State. Washington, D.C.: The Foundation Center.

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