SYLLABUS FOR

ADVANCED PLACEMENT PSYCHOLOGY

LONG BRANCH HIGH SCHOOL

MISS DANIELLE TARALLO

2016 – 2017

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TABLE OF CONTENTS

COVER SHEET _______________________________________________________________________1

TABLE OF CONTENTS ________________________________________________________________2

SCORING COMPONENTS ______________________________________________________________3

COURSE PURPOSE & DESCRIPTION ___________________________________________________ 4

COURSE OBJECTIVES _________________________________________________________________5

COURSE EXPECTATIONS____ _________________________________________________________ 6

THERE’S AN APP FOR THAT! _________________________________________________________ 7

STUDENT EVALUATION & REQUIRED TEXT________________________________________________________________________________ 8

CLASSROOM RULES _________________________________________________________________ 9

COURSE SCHEDULE ____________________________________________________________ 10-16

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SCORING COMPONENTSSC1 – The course provides instruction in history and approaches

SC2- The course provides instruction in research methods used in psychological science

SC3- The course provides instruction in biological bases of behavior

SC4- The course provides instruction in sensation

SC5- The course provides instruction in perception

SC6- The course provides instruction in states of consciousness

SC7- The course provides instruction in learning

SC8- The course provides instruction in cognition

SC9- The course provides instruction in motivation

SC10- The course provides instruction in emotion

SC11- The course provides instruction in developmental psychology

SC12- The course provides instruction in personality

SC13- The course provides instruction in testing and individual differences

SC14- The course provides instruction in abnormal psychology

SC15- The course provides instruction in treatment of psychological disorders and ethics used in psychological practice

SC16- The course provides instruction in social psychology

SC17- As relevant to each content area, the course provides instruction in empirically supported psychological facts, research findings, terminology, and associated phenomena, perspectives, and major figures.

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COURSE PURPOSE:THE AP PSYCHOLOGY COURSE IS DESIGNED TO INTRODUCE STUDENTS TO THE SYSTEMATIC AND SCIENTIFIC STUDY OF THE BEHAVIOR AND MENTAL PROCESSES OF HUMAN BEINGS AND OTHER ANIMALS. STUDENTS ARE EXPOSED TO THE PSYCHOLOGICAL FACTS, PRINCIPLES, AND PHENOMENA ASSOCIATED WITH EACH OF THE MAJOR SUBFIELDS WITHIN PSYCHOLOGY. THEY ALSO LEARN ABOUT THE ETHICS AND METHODS PSYCHOLOGISTS USE IN THEIR SCIENCE AND PRACTICE.

-College Board

COURSE DESCRIPTION:Advanced Placement Psychology is designed as a rigorous curriculum that provides an overview of current psychological theory and practice. Students will explore the systematic and scientific study of the behavior and mental processes of humans and other animals. Students will be exposed to the principles, concepts and phenomena associated with major subfields within psychology, including biological bases of behavior, cognitive and emotional processes, and diagnosis and treatment of psychological disorders. In accordance with the driving principles of current psychological practice, this course will emphasize scientific method and procedure, ethical standards in research, and critical thinking skills. Student academic performance is expected to meet or exceed the challenging requirements of an introductory-level college survey course. Student work will be required outside of class time. The course provides the opportunity for students to receive college credit by taking the A.P. Psychology Exam.

THE AP PSYCHOLOGY EXAM

The AP Psychology Exam is 2 hours in length and includes both a 70-minute multiple-choice section and a 50-minute free-response section. The multiple-choice section accounts for 2/3 of the student’s AP Exam score, and the free-response section accounts for 1/3 of the student's score. The exam will be administered Monday, May 1 2017, at 12:00pm (noon). All students enrolled in the course are required to take the exam. Students who score a 3 or higher (on a 5 point scale) can earn college credit. 

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COURSE OBJECTIVES:This course aims to make YOU an up-and-coming psychologist! Therefore, the course will stress the need to think like a psychologist. As author and social psychologist, David Myers, notes, to think like a psychologist one must “restrain intuition with critical thinking, judgmentalism with compassion, and illusion with understanding.” (Sternberg, 1997). Whether you choose to pursue a career in Psychology or in some entirely different field, this habit of mind will be of great value.

1. Mastery of Psychology’s core concepts. – Through elaborative rehearsal and the development of hierarchical schemas, you will master Psychology’s most important concepts.

2. The ability to graphically represent complex concepts. – Anyone can make an outline, but it requires true understanding of a concept to be able to draw a diagram showing the structure and relationship of its constituent parts. You will leave this course with a new ability to quickly, cogently, and graphically arrange your thoughts. This concept mapping will be an addition to traditional note taking.

3. The ability to apply complex concepts or multifaceted units of study in discussion and written work. – You will leave this course able to analyze and interpret a problem, apply relevant information, and craft a well-supported oral argument or concisely written response.

4. The ability to apply Psychology to your life – Application does not stop once you leave the classroom. The concepts we study shape our existence. Through daily ‘Psych Immersions,’ you will constantly look for psychological applications in your life.

5. Literacy in the 21st century skills you need for success in today’s world. –. At the end of this course you’ll be able to:

A. Read, review, and critique real psychological research – including abstracts, academic journal articles, dissertations, masters theses, primary sources, anthologies, etc.B. Write about psychology for your peers and for the general public, while improving your writing skillsC. Be critical consumers of scientific research - Use databases and the Internet to research new psychological studiesD. Review, compare and contrast scholarly publications in the field of psychology E. Analyze and research controversial psychological issues F. Think critically and logically about research findings using psychological terms G. Use problem-solving techniques to solve your real world problemsH. Use technology to create websites and leverage the power of social media I. Collaborate in a professional learning community through Team Psych, Psych Simulations,and in small groups.j. Orally present and debate a complex argument based on psychological researchK. Analyze, interpret, and respond to stimulus-based data including charts, graphs, cartoons, and quotesL. Discuss both historical and contemporary psychological issues and psychology-related events.M. Utilize a variety of study aides to increase overall memory levelN. Evaluate strengths and weaknesses in your own academic performances

6. To change the way you view the world! - It is my hope that knowledge of psychological inquiry will provide new perceptions of the world around us, insights into your own behavior and the behavior of others, and an appreciation of the complexity of human behavior.

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COURSE EXPECTATIONS: AP Psychology will meet every other day for an 89-minute block class.

1. We learn from each other: This course is not one in which you will play a passive role, simply absorbing information presented by the teacher. Instead, you are expected to take an active part in your own learning and that of the class as well. You will be asked to take an active part in forming your own questions and analysis. In the AP classroom, discussion and demonstrations will dominate over lectures so that we can learn from each other. Each of you brings something special to the course - something special that our team needs if we are to be successful. Come each day ready to contribute.

2. Applications: In AP Psychology there is a considerable amount of content you must master. However, you must do more than memorize information provided by your teacher or other sources. You will be asked to apply this information to real life situations via class discussions or through concisely written free response questions.

3. Psychologists read: As AP students, you will be expected to do a significant amount of daily

reading in the text, etc. You must show evidence of daily preparation by participating in class discussions, asking critical questions, making text-to-world connections, and bringing a rough draft of your concept map to each class.

4. Active note taking/Class supply list: The amount of material distributed in this course is substantially higher than in a regular class. Each period you are expected to take notes on our class activities.

a. Designated section in a 3 ring binder you will need notebook paper. You will need and be required to organize and access this material in order to study for the unit exams and the AP exam, you must have a 3- ring binder for class. This will help you to build a year-in-review portfolio.

b. Writing utensils (pen/pencil—no red ink)c. Highlighter(s)d. Index cards (for vocabulary terms optional)e. Post-it notes (for text notation—optional)

5. A College-Level Effort: This course is designed to replace an introductory college Psychology course. Therefore, I will expect college-level study and work habits form all of my students. I will expect that your work is completed and submitted on time. I will expect that you actively study your Psychology materials on a regular basis, even in the absence of impending assignments. A lack of time and effort given outside the classroom will make it difficult for you to be successful in this course.

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THERE’S AN APP FOR THAT!There’s An App For That!There are many smart phone apps that you can use to help with the AP Psychology course. Below are just a few that I have previewed. Some are free and some are paid. These are not mandatory. They are a suggestion. You can pick and choose what works for you!

3D Brain Psychology Terms Dictionary AP Psychology Exam Prep

Study Sets- Psychology APA Monitor on Psychology AP Psychology Study Guide

Study Sets- Psychology (lite)Psychology Spotlight Text Vook Psychology 101

AP psychology Prep AP Psychology 5 Steps to a 5 Psych. Terms

College Psychology APA Concise Dictionary of Psychology Personality Tests

Psychology Terminology AP Psychology

There are also many valuable college level Psychology courses available and FREE on iTunes U. They are typically podcasts that will allow you to hear lectures that are similar to AP Lectures. This will prove useful as review for the AP Exam if podcasts are your thing!

Useful Internet Links:

The links below are a small selection. We will continue to build on this list over the course of the year. Discovering Psychology: http://www.learner.org/resources/series138.html The Mind- Teaching Modules: http://www.learner.org/resources/series150.html Seasons of Life: http://www.learner.org/resources/series54.html The World of Abnormal Psychology: http://www.learner.org/resources/series60.html AP Psychology Commune: http://www.appsychology.com/ Myers Text Companion Site: http://bcs.worthpublishers.com/myers8e/ Psych Sim 5: http://bcs.worthpublishers.com/gray/content/psychsim5/launcher.html Morris Text Companion Site: http://cwx.prenhall.com/bookbind/pubbooks/morris/ College Board AP Psychology Page: http://apstudent.collegeboard.org/apcourse/ap- psychology?phych Tumblr AP Psychology: http://www.tumblr.com/tagged/ap%20psychology Psych Matters: http://psychmatters.com/ Intro Resources –Websites: http://www.intropsychresources.com/pmwiki/pmwiki/pmwiki.php?

n=ResourcesByType.Websites Psychology Today: http://www.psychologytoday.com/essentials Psych Central: http://psychcentral.com/ TED: www.ted.com Psych Files Podcasts: http://www.thepsychfiles.com/ap-psychology/ Wacky World of Psychology: http://www.pumaattack.blogspot.com/ Online Psychology Courses: http://academicearth.org/online-college-courses/psychology/ Learn Out Loud – Psychology 101: http://www.learnoutloud.com/Content/Topic- Pages/Psychology-101/57 Hippocampus: http://www.hippocampus.org/ MIT Open Psychology Course: http://ocw.mit.edu/courses/brain-and-cognitive-sciences/9-00-introduction-to-

psychology-fall-2004/

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STUDENT EVALUATIONThis course will adhere to Long Branch High School’s grading policy listed as follows:

Summative Assessments = 70% of gradeo i.e. Exams, Essays, Quizzes, Projects

Formative Assessment = 30% of gradeo i.e. Homework, Quizzes, In-class activities

CLASS RESOURCES: 1. Required textbook: Myer’s Psychology For AP 1st edition: DO NOT write in the textbooks, if you are

interested in writing highlighting in your textbook, you may use post-it notes or please see me during SAP to receive hard copies of the text. Also recommend using Myers’ website to reinforce concepts and provide additional practice at http://www.worthpublishers.com/myers

2. Supplementary Reading Assignments: periodically you will be given supplementary reading assignments such as news articles, research reports, patient’s stories, etc. It is expected that you read these in their entirety and place them in your binder.

a. New York Times, b. Scientific American Magazine

3. Psychology Today Magazine, combined with “Understanding Psychology” Supplemental material4. Weseley, A. J., & McEntarffer, R. (2011). Barron’s AP Psychology, 5th ed., Hauppauge, NY: Barron’s Educational

Series, Inc.

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Excellent 92-100Good 84-91Fair 77-83Poor 70-76

Failure 0-69

CLASSROOM EXPECTATIONS & RULES:1) Arrive to class prepared- notebook or binder to record notes, folder to store worksheets, handouts,

homework, writing utensil, completed assignments. 2) Uniform:

a. Pants/Dresses/Skirts: must be khaki colored. In addition, male and female students may choose to wear black dress slacks or black “khaki style” pants; female students can also wear black dress skirts or green plaid dress skirts.

b. Tops: Solid dark green, gray or white collared shirts, collared blouses, turtlenecks.c. Outerwear: dark green, gray or white sweaters or sweatshirts may be worn over the collared

shirts. d. Shoes: shoes or sneakers must be worn at all timese. *You will not be allowed in the classroom if you are not in your uniform. You may not put

your uniform on once you are in the room, all dressing must be done prior to entering the classroom- NO EXCEPTIONS*

f. Addition: An addition as to what is acceptable for students to wear are a Long Branch Public School District Affiliated non-collared shirt and/or sweatshirt and/or solid green, grey, white non-collared shirt or sweatshirt.

3) Be on time- a pattern of tardiness will result in:a. 1st offense: warning b. 2nd offense: call homec. 3rd offense: teacher detentiond. 4th offense and on: written referral, as well as point deduction from grade.

**Attendance: Period A Tardy Policy (*New)

a. Students who reach 10 unexcused Period A Tardy’s will be awarded No Credit (NC) for both Period A classes

b. Students with 10-12 Period A Tardy’s will be assigned Credit Recovery. This time will be made up on to be determined Saturday’s throughout each marking period. If a student attains 13 unexcused Period A Tardy’s in a marking period, they will receive an automatic grade of 60, and will not be eligible to attend credit recovery.

4) Be on time- a pattern of tardiness will result in a referral, call home, detention, and loss of points for your participation grade.

5) Absences- more than twenty absences from a course will result in an automatic failure. You must attend class. If you are absent you have one day to makeup the missed work. You are responsible to see me for missed work, if you do not comply you will not be able to hand in the missed work at a later date.

6) Homework- homework will not be accepted late, unless otherwise noted. If you are absent, and the homework was assigned prior to your absence, it is due upon your return. If the homework was assigned while you were absent, you have one day to complete the assignment.

7) No food is permitted in the classroom. Bottle beverages are okay as long as they are in plastic and have a lid.

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8) Cell phones/electronic devices- these should not be visible during class time. If a project requires students to use the internet on their phones to research a topic, permission will be given to indicate that students should take their phones out.

9) Presentable work- work must be presentable when turned in. Ripped papers, sloppy work will not be accepted.

10)It is the students’ responsibility to be sure that all work submitted via email, is received. 11)Academic Honesty- any task assigned, whether it be homework or a major research paper must be

your original work. Outside sources must be cited, and copying from a classmate, the internet or any other source is not acceptable, and will result in a zero on the assignment. Academic dishonesty will also be reported to your academy principal, parent and documented. It will not be tolerated. If you have any questions on what constitutes copying, please see me.

12)Extra Help- If you are ever absent or simply need extra instruction please come to me for assistance. I am available after school from 1:55pm-2:25 pm during SAP as well as Homework Club. If your grade average is below a C, it is recommended that you attend SAP for additional help.

Contact: Email: dtarallo@longbranch.k12.nj.us Phone: 732-229-7300

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COURSE SCHEDULEThis schedule is a GUIDE to the school year. It is subject to change as necessary any modifications to this schedule will be announced in class, or on my webpage which can be located through the Long Branch School District website.

UNIT 1: PSYCHOLOGY’S HISTORY & APPROACHES (2-4%)a. Logic, philosophy, and history of science

Objectives:

1. Define Psychology and trace its historical development2. Compare and contrast the psychological perspectives

UNIT 2: RESEARCH METHODS: THINKING CRITICALLY WITH PSYCHOLOGICAL SCIENCE (8-10%)

a. Experimental, correlation, and clinical researchb. Statisticsc. Research methods & ethics

Objectives: 1. Identify basic and applied research subfields of psychology. 2. Identify basic elements of an experiment (variables, groups, sampling, population, etc.). 3. Compare and contrast research methods (case, survey, naturalistic observation). 4. Apply elements of an experiment to different situations. 5. Explain correlational studies. 6. Describe the three measures of central tendency and measures of variation. 7. Discuss the ethics of animal and human research.

UNIT 3: BIOLOGICAL PSYCHOLOGY (8-10%)a. Physiological Techniques (e.g., imagining, surgical) b. Old Brain Structurec. Cerebral Cortex d. Our Divided Braine. Brain & consciousnessg. Evolutionary Psychology

Objectives:1. Describe the structure of a neuron and explain neural impulses. 2. Describe neuron communication and discuss the impact of neurotransmitters. 3. Classify and explain major divisions of the nervous system. 4. Describe the functions of the brain structures (thalamus, cerebellum, limbic system, etc.). 5. Identify the four lobes of the cerebral cortex and their functions. 6. Discuss the association areas. 7. Explain the split-brain studies.

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8. Describe the nature of the endocrine system and its interaction with the nervous system.

UNIT 4: SENSATION & PERCEPTION (6-8%)a. Thresholds & signal detection theoryb. Sensory mechanismsc. Sensory adaptationd. Attentione. Perceptual processes

Objectives: 1. Contrast the processes of sensation and perception. 2. Distinguish between absolute and difference thresholds. 3. Label a diagram of the parts of the eye and ear. 4. Describe the operation of the sensory systems (five senses). 5. Explain the Young-Helmholtz and opponent-process theories of color vision. 6. Explain the place and frequency theories of pitch perception. 7. Discuss Gestalt psychology’s contribution to our understanding of perception. 8. Discuss research on depth perception and cues

UNIT 5: STATES OF CONSCIOUSNESS (2-4%)a. Sleep & dreamingb. Hypnosisc. Psychoactive drug effects

Objectives:

a. Describe the cyclical nature and possible functions of sleep. b. Identify the major sleep disorders. c. Discuss the content and possible functions of dreams. d. Discuss hypnosis, noting the behavior of hypnotized people and claims regarding its uses. e. Discuss the nature of drug dependence. f. Chart names and effects of depressants, stimulants, and hallucinogenic drugs. g. Compare differences between NREM and REM. h. Describe the physiological and psychological effects of depressants, stimulants, and hallucinogens.

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UNIT 6: LEARNING (7-9%)a. Classical conditioningb. Operant conditioningc. Cognitive processes in learningd. Biological factorse. Social learning (observational learning)

Objectives:

1. Describe the process of classical conditioning (Pavlov’s experiments). 2. Apply classical conditioning to different situations.3. Explain the processes of acquisition, extinction, spontaneous recovery, generalization, and

discrimination. 4. Describe the process of operant conditioning, including the procedure of shaping, as

demonstrated by Skinner’s experiments. 5. Identify the different types of reinforces and describe the schedules of reinforcement. 6. Differentiate among the various forms of reinforcement and punishment.7. Discuss the importance of cognitive processes and biological predispositions in conditioning. 8. Discuss the effects of punishment on behavior. 9. Describe the process of observational learning (Bandura’s experiments).

UNIT 7: COGNITION (8-10%)a. Memoryb. Languagec. Thinkingd. Problem solving & creativity

Objectives:

1. Describe memory in terms of information processing, and distinguish among sensory memory, short-term memory, and long-term memory.

2. Distinguish between automatic and effortful processing. 3. Explain the encoding process (including imagery, organization, etc.). 4. Describe the capacity and duration of long-term memory. 5. Distinguish between implicit and explicit memory. 6. Describe the importance of retrieval cues. 7. Discuss the effects of interference and motivated forgetting on retrieval. 8. Describe the evidence for the constructive nature of memory. 9. Describe the nature of concepts and the role of prototypes in concept formation. 10. Discuss how we use trial and error, algorithms, heuristics, and insight to solve problems. 11. Explain how the representativeness and availability heuristics influence our judgments. 12. Describe the structure of language (phonemes, morphemes, grammar). 13. Identify language developmental stages (babbling, one word, etc.). 14. Explain how the nature-nurture debate is illustrated in the theories of language development. 15. Discuss Whorf’s linguistic relativity hypothesis. 16. Describe the research on animal cognition and communication.

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UNIT 8: MOTIVATION & EMOTIONS (6-8%)a. Biological basesb. Theories of motivationc. Hunger, thirst, sex, and paind. Social motivese. Theories of emotionf. Stress

Objectives:

1. Define motivation and identify motivational theories. 2. Describe the physiological determinants of hunger. 3. Discuss psychological and cultural influences on hunger. 4. Define achievement motivation, including intrinsic and extrinsic motivation. 5. Identify the three theories of emotion (James-Lange, Cannon-Bard, Schachter-Singer). 6. Describe the physiological changes that occur during emotional arousal. 7. Discuss the catharsis hypothesis. 8. Describe the biological response to stress

UNIT 9: DEVELOPMENTAL PSYCHOLOGY (7-9%)a. Life-span approachb. Research methodsc. Heredity—environmental issuesd. Developmental theoriese. Dimensions of developmentf. Sex roles & gender roles

Objectives:1. Discuss the course of prenatal development. 2. Illustrate development changes in physical, social, and cognitive areas. 3. Discuss the effect of body contact, familiarity, and responsive parenting on attachments. 4. Describe the benefits of a secure attachment and the impact of parental neglect and separation as

well as day care on childhood development. 5. Describe and analyze the theories of Piaget, Erikson, and Kohlberg. 6. Describe the early development of a self-concept. 7. Distinguish between longitudinal and cross-sectional studies

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UNIT 10: TESTING & INDIVIDUAL DIFFERENCES (5-7%)a. Standardization & normsb. Reliability & validityc. Types of testsd. Ethics & standards in testinge. Intelligencef. Heredity/environment & intelligenceg. Human diversity

Objectives:

1. Trace the origins of intelligence testing. 2. Describe the nature of intelligence. 3. Identify the factors associated with creativity. 4. Distinguish between aptitude and achievement tests. 5. Describe test standardization. 6. Distinguish between the reliability and validity of intelligence tests. 7. Describe the two extremes of the normal distribution of intelligence. 8. Discuss evidence for both genetic and environmental influences on intelligence. 9. Discuss whether intelligence tests are culturally biased. 10. Compare and contrast Gardner’s and Sternberg’s theories of intelligence.11. Evaluate Alfred Binet’s contribution to intelligence testing.12. Evaluate Lewis Terman’s role in the development of intelligence testing.13. Describe David Weschler’s contribution to intelligence testing.

UNIT 11: PERSONALITY (5-7%)a. Personality theories & approachesb. Assessment techniquesc. Self-concept/self-esteemd. Growth & adjustment

Objectives:

1. Describe personality structure in terms of the interactions of the id, ego, and superego. 2. Explain how defense mechanisms protect the individual from anxiety. 3. Describe the contributions of the neo-Freudians. 4. Explain how personality inventories are used to assess traits. 5. Describe the humanistic perspective on personality in terms of Maslow’s focus on self-

actualization and Rogers’ emphasis on people’s potential for growth. 6. Describe the impact of individualism and collectivism on self-identity. 7. Describe the social-cognitive perspective on personality. 8. Discuss the consequences of personal control, learned helplessness, and optimism.

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UNIT 12: ABNORMAL PSYCHOLOGY (7-9%)a. Definition of abnormalityb. Theories of Psychopathologyc. Diagnosis of Psychopathologyd. Types of disorders

Objectives:

1. Differentiate among the different perspectives psychologists take to understand psychological disorders.

2. Describe the medical model of psychological disorders. 3. Describe the aims of DSM-IV, and discuss the potential dangers of diagnostic labels. 4. Describe the symptoms of generalized anxiety disorder, phobias, obsessive-compulsive disorder,

and posttraumatic stress disorder. 5. Describe and explain the development of somatoform and mood disorders. 6. Describe the various symptoms and types of schizophrenia. 7. Describe the nature of organic and personality disorders. 8. Describe the characteristics and possible causes of dissociative disorders.

UNIT 13: TREATMENT OF PSYCHOLOGICAL DISORDERS (5-7%)a. Treatment approachesb. Modes of therapy (e.g. individual, group)c. Community & preventive approaches

Objectives:

1. Discuss the aims and methods of psychoanalysis. 2. Identify the basic characteristics of the humanistic therapies. 3. Identify the basic assumptions of behavior therapy. 4. Describe the assumptions and goals of the cognitive therapies. 5. Discuss the benefits of group therapy and family therapy. 6. Discuss the findings regarding the effectiveness of the psychotherapies. 7. Discuss the role of values and cultural differences in the therapeutic process. 8. Identify the common forms of drug therapy and the use of electroconvulsive therapy.

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UNIT 14: SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY (8-10%)a. Group dynamicsb. Attribution processc. Interpersonal perceptiond. Conformity, compliance, obediencee. Attitudes & attitude changef. Organizational behaviorg. Aggression/antisocial behaviorh. Cultural influences

Objectives:

1. Describe the importance of attribution in social behavior. 2. Explain the effect of role-playing on attitudes in terms of cognitive dissonance theory. 3. Discuss the results of Asch’s experiment on conformity. 4. Describe Milgram’s controversial experiments on obedience. 5. Discuss how group interaction can facilitate group polarization and groupthink. 6. Describe the social, emotional, and cognitive factors that contribute to the persistence of cultural,

ethnic, and gender prejudice and discrimination. 7. Discuss the issues related to aggression and attraction. 8. Explain altruistic behavior in terms of social exchange theory and social norms.

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