course: ilmu sosial untuk psikologi human socialities: socialization, social interaction, and social...
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Course: Ilmu Sosial Untuk Psikologi
Human Socialities: Socialization, Social Interaction, and Social
Mobility
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McGraw-Hill © 2007 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.
Slide 3
SOCIOLOGYRichard T. Schaefer
Socialization
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Slide 4
Socialization
• The Role of Socialization • The Self and Socialization• Socialization and the Life Course• Agents of Socialization • Social Policy and Socialization
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Slide 5
The Role of Socialization
– Interaction of heredity and environment shape human development• The Case of Isabelle• Primate Studies
• Social Environment:The Impact of Isolation
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Slide 6
The Role of Socialization
• The Influence of Heredity– Studies of Identical Twins
• Intelligence tests show:
Similar scores when twins are reared apart in roughly similar social settings
Quite different scores when twins are reared apart in dramatically different social settings
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Slide 7
The Self and Socialization
– Self: distinct identity that sets us apart from others
– Cooley: Looking-Glass Self• We learn who we are by interacting with
others• Our view of ourselves comes from
contemplation of personal qualities and our impressions of how others perceive us
• The self is the product of our social interactions with other people
• Sociological Approaches to the Self
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Slide 8
The Self and Socialization
Continued...
• Sociological Approaches to the Self– Mead: Stages of the Self
Play Stage: children develop skill in communicating through symbols and role taking occurs
Game Stage: children of about 8 or 9 consider several actual tasks and relationships simultaneously
Preparatory Stage: children imitate people around them.
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Slide 9
The Self and Socialization
• Sociological Approaches to the Self– Mead: Stages of the Self
Symbols: gestures, objects, and language that form basis of human communication
Role Taking: process of mentally assuming the perspective of another
Generalized Others: attitudes, viewpoints, and expectations of society as a whole that child takes into account
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Slide 10
The Self and Socialization
• As person matures, the self changes and begins to reflect greater concern about reactions of others
• Sociological Approaches to the Self– Mead: Stages of the Self
• Self begins as privileged, central position in a person’s world
Significant Others: Individuals most important in the development of the self
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Slide 11
Goffman’s view sometimes called Dramaturgical Approach: people resemble performers in actionFace-work: Need to maintain proper image of self to continue social interaction
The Self and Socialization
• Sociological Approaches to the Self– Goffman: Presentation of the Self
• Impression Management: individual learns to slant the presentation of self to create distinctive appearances and satisfy particular audiences
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Slide 12
The Self and Socialization
– Freud• Self is a social product, however, natural
impulsive instincts in constant conflict with societal constraints
• Personality influenced by others (especially one’s parents
• Psychological Approaches to the Self
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Slide 13
The Self and Socialization
• Piaget emphasized the stages humans progress through as the self develops.
• Cognitive theory of development identified 4 stages in development of children’s thought processes
• Social interaction key to development
• Psychological Approaches to the Self– Piaget
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Slide 14
Socialization and the Life Course
• Ceremonies mark stages of development in life course
• The Life Course– Rites of Passage: Means of dramatizing
and validating changes in a person’s status
Life-course Approach: Looks closely at social factors that influence people throughout their lives
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Slide 15
Socialization and the Life Course
• The Life Course– We encounter some
of the most difficult socialization challenges in later years
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Slide 16
Socialization and the Life Course
Table 4-1. Theoretical Approaches to Development of the Self
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Slide 17
Socialization and the Life Course
Table 4-2. Milestones in the Transition to Adulthood
Source: T. Smith 2003
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Slide 18
Socialization and the Life Course
– Anticipatory Socialization: processes of socialization in which person “rehearses” future occupations and social relationships
– Resocialization: process of discarding former behavior patterns and accepting new ones as transition in one’s life
• Anticipatory Socialization and Resocialization
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Slide 19
Degradation Ceremony: ritual where individual becomes secondary and rather invisible in overbearing social environment
Socialization and the Life Course
• Anticipatory Socialization and Resocialization– Total Institution: institution—prison,
military, mental hospital, or convent—that regulates all aspects of a person’s life under a single authority
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Slide 20
Agents of Socialization
– Role of family in socializing a child cannot be overestimated
– Cultural Influences
– The Impact of Race and Gender
• Family
Gender Roles: expectation regarding proper behavior, attitudes, and activities of males and females
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Slide 21
Agents of Socialization
– Teach children values and customs of the larger society
– Traditionally socialized children into conventional gender roles
• Peer Group– As children grow older, peer groups
increasingly assume the role of Mead’s significant others
• School
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Slide 22
Agents of Socialization
Table 4-3. High School Popularity
Source: Suitor et al. 2001:445
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Slide 23
Agents of Socialization
– Technology socializes families into multitasking as the social norm
• Mass Media and Technology
47% of parents reported at least one child has a TV in his/her bedroom
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Slide 24
Agents of Socialization
Figure 4-1. InternetUsage, Ages 10—17
Source: Kaiser Family Foundation/San Jose Mercury News 2003
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Slide 25
Agents of Socialization
– Learning to behave appropriately within occupational setting is fundamental aspect of human socialization
• Socialization in workplace involves four phases:– Career choice– Anticipatory socialization– Conditioning– Continuous commitment
• Workplace
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Slide 26
Agents of Socialization
– Government and organized religion impacted life course by reinstituting some rites of passage
• Religion and State
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Slide 27
Social Policy and Socialization
• In 2002, 55% of women who had given birth the previous year were back in the labor force
• 35% of all preschoolers with employed mothers attend group child care programs
• Child Care Around the World– The Issue
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Slide 28
Social Policy and Socialization
• Finding the right kind of day care challenges parents and pocketbook
• Researchers found high-quality child care centers do not adversely affect socialization of children
• Child Care Around the World– The Setting
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Slide 29
Social Policy and Socialization
• Studies assessing quality of child care outside of home reflect micro-level of analysis favored by interactionists
• Functionalists study child care from perspective of macro-level analysis of the family as a social institution
• Child Care Around the World– Sociological Insights
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Slide 30
Social Policy and Socialization
• Feminist perspective raises questions about the low status and wages of day care workers
• Child Care Around the World– Sociological Insights
• Conflict perspective notes child care costs are an especially serious burden for lower-class families
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Slide 31
Social Policy and Socialization
• Policies regarding child care outside of the home vary throughout the world
• When policymakers decide that child care is desirable, they must determine degree to which taxpayers should subsidize it
• Child Care Around the World– Policy Initiatives
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Slide 32
Social Interactionand Reality
SOCIOLOGY Richard T. Schaefer
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Slide 33
Social Interaction and Reality
• Social Interaction and Reality • Elements of Social Structure • Social Structure in Global Perspective • Social Policy and Social Structure
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Slide 34
Social Interaction and Reality
• The ability to define social reality reflects a group’s power within society
• Our response to someone’s behavior is based on meaning we attach to his or her actions
Members of subordinate groups challenge traditional definitions and begin to perceive and experience reality in a new way
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Slide 35
Social Interaction and Reality
Figure 5-1. Social Statuses
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Slide 36
Elements of Social Structure
• Statuses– Status: Refers to any of the socially
defined positions within a large group or society
A person holds more than one status simultaneously
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Slide 37
Elements of Social Structure
•Ascribed Status: status one is born with
•Achieved Status: status one earns– Master Status
• Status that dominates others and determines person’s general position in society
• Statuses– Ascribed and Achieved
Status
Societies deal with inconsistencies by agreeing that certain statuses are more important than others
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Slide 38
– Sets of expectations for people who occupy a given status• Significant component of social structure
– Role Conflict• Occurs when incompatible expectations
arise from two or more social positions held by the same person.
• Social Roles
Elements of Social Structure
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Slide 39
• Social Roles
Elements of Social Structure
– Role Strain• Difficulties that arise when the same
social position imposes conflicting demands and expectations
– Role Exit• Process of disengagement from a role
that is central to one’s identity to establish a new role
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Slide 40
• Groups– Any number of
people with similar norms, values, and expectations who interact with each other on a regular basis.
Elements of Social Structure
Every society composed of many groups in which daily social interaction takes place
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Slide 41
Elements of Social Structure
– Social network: series of social relationships that links person directly to others, and indirectly links him or her to still more people
– Networking: involvement in social network; valuable skill when job-hunting
• Social Networks and Technology
We can now maintain social networks electronically with advances in technology
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Slide 42
Elements of Social Structure
– Organized patterns of beliefs and behavior centered on basic social needs
• Social Institutions
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Slide 43
• Functionalist View– Five major tasks (functional
prerequisites) a society or major group must accomplish
Elements of Social Structure
1. Replacing personnel2. Teaching new recruits3. Producing and distributing goods and services4. Preserving order5. Providing and maintaining a sense of purpose
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Slide 44
– Social institutions have inherently conservative nature
– Social institutions operate in gendered and racist environments
Elements of Social Structure
• Conflict View– Major institutions help maintain
privileges of most powerful individuals and groups within society
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Slide 45
– Social behavior conditioned by roles and statuses
Elements of Social Structure
• Interactionist View– Social institutions affect our everyday
behavior
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Slide 46
Social Structure in Global Perspective
– Mechanical solidarity: refers to collective consciousness that emphasizes group solidarity, implying that all individuals perform the same tasks
– Organic solidarity: refers to collective consciousness that hinges on need a society’s members have for one another
• Durkheim’s Mechanical and Organic Solidarity
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Slide 47
Social Structure in Global Perspective
– Gemeinschaft (guh-MINE-shoft): small community in which people have similar backgrounds and life experiences
– Gesellschaft (guh-ZELL-shoft): large community in which people are strangers and feel little in common with other community residents
• Tönnie’s Gemeinschaft and Gesellschaft
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Slide 48
Social Structure in Global Perspective
Table 5-1. Comparison of the Gemeinshaft and Gesellschaft
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Slide 49
Social Structure in Global Perspective
– Views human societies as undergoing change according to a dominant pattern—sociocultural evolution
• Lenski’s Sociocultural Evolution Approach
“Process of change and development in human societies resulting from growth in their stores of cultural information” (Lenski et al. 2004:366)
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Slide 50
Social Structure in Global Perspective
• Lenski’s Sociocultural Evolution Approach– Society’s level of technology critical to
way it is organized
Technology: “Cultural information about how to use the material resources of the environment to satisfy human needs and desires” (Nolan and Lenski 2004:366)
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Slide 51
Social Structure in Global Perspective
•Hunting-and-Gathering Society: people rely on whatever foods and fibers are readily available
– Horticultural Societies– Agrarian Societies: primarily
engaged in production of food
• Lenski’s Sociocultural Evolution Approach– Preindustrial Societies
Use technological innovations like the plow for dramatic increases in food production
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Slide 52
Social Structure in Global Perspective
• Depend on mechanization to produce their goods and services
– Rely on inventions and energy sources
– Change the function of the family as a self-sufficient unit.
• Lenski’s Sociocultural Evolution Approach– Industrial Societies
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Slide 53
Social Structure in Global Perspective
•Postindustrial Society: economic system is engaged primarily in the processing and control of information
•Postmodern Society: technologically sophisticated society preoccupied with consumer goods and media images
Continued...
• Lenski’s Sociocultural Evolution Approach– Postindustrial and Postmodern Societies
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Slide 54
Social Structure in Global Perspective
Table 5-2. Stages of Sociocultural Evolution
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Slide 55
Social Policy and Social Structure
• While there are encouraging new therapies developed to treat AIDS, there is currently no way to eradicate AIDS by medical means.
• What is the role of social institutions in preventing the spread of AIDS?
• The AIDS Crisis– The Issue
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Slide 56
Social Policy and Social Structure
• Estimated 39.4 million people infectedwith AIDS
• Not evenly distributed
• The AIDS Crisis– The Setting
Developing nations of sub-Saharan Africa face greatest challenge
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Slide 57
Social Policy and Social Structure
• AIDS epidemic likely to bring about certain transformations in a society’s social structure
• Functionalist perspective: established social institutions cannot meet a crucial need, new social networks are likely to emerge to fill that function
• The AIDS Crisis– Sociological Insights
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Slide 58
Social Policy and Social Structure
• Conflict Perspective: Policymakers slow to respond to the AIDS crisis because those in high-risk groups—gays and IV drug users—were comparatively powerless.
• Interactionists: forecast AIDS could lead to more conservative sexual climate
• The AIDS Crisis– Sociological Insights
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Slide 59
Social Policy and Social Structure
•AIDS struck all societies– Not all nations can respond in the
same manner– High cost of drug treatment generated
intensive worldwide pressure on major pharmaceutical companies to lower prices
• The AIDS Crisis– Policy Initiatives
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Slide 60
Social Policy and Social Structure
Figure 5-2. People Living with HIV/AIDS, 2004
Source: UNAIDS 2004:5
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Slide 61
SOCIOLOGYRichard T. Schaefer
Stratification and Social Mobility
in the United States
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Slide 62Stratification and Social Mobility in the United
States• Understanding Stratification• Stratification by Social Class • Social Mobility • Social Policy and Stratification
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Slide 63
Understanding Stratification
• Systems of Stratification– Ascribed Status: social position
assigned to person without regard for that person’s unique characteristics or talents
– Achieved Status: social position attained by person largely through his or her own effort
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Slide 64
Understanding Stratification
• Systems of Stratification– Slavery: most extreme form of
legalized social inequality
– Castes: hereditary systems of rank, usually religiously dictated, that tend to be fixed and immobile
– Estate System: associated with feudal societies in the Middle Ages
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Slide 65
Understanding Stratification
•Class System: social ranking based primarily on economic position in which achieved characteristics can influence social mobility
• Rossides (1997) uses five-class model to describe U.S. class system:
• Systems of Stratification– Social Classes
• Upper class • Working class • Upper-middle class • Lower class• Lower-middle class
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Slide 66
Understanding Stratification
Figure 9-1. Household Income in the United States, 2001
Source: DeNavas-Walt and Cleveland 2002:15
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Slide 67
Proletariat: working class
Understanding Stratification
• Perspectives on Stratification– Karl Marx’s View of Class
Differentiation• Social relations depend on who controls
the primary mode of productionBourgeoisie: capitalist class; owns the means of productionCapitalism: economic system in which the means of production are held largely in private hands and the main incentive for economic activity is the accumulation of profits
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Slide 68
Understanding Stratification
• Perspectives on Stratification– Karl Marx’s View of Class
Differentiation•Class Consciousness: subjective
awareness of common vested interests and the need for collective political action to bring about change
•False Consciousness: attitude held by members of class that does not accurately reflect their objective position
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Slide 69
Understanding Stratification
• Perspectives on Stratification– Max Weber’s View of Stratification
• No single characteristic totally defines a person’s position with the stratification system
Power: ability to exercise one’s will over others
Class: group of people who have similar level of wealth and income
Status Group: people who have the same prestige or lifestyle
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Slide 70
Understanding Stratification
• Perspectives on Stratification– Interactionist View
• Interested in the importance of social class in shaping a person’s lifestyle
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Slide 71
Understanding Stratification
• Is Stratification Universal?– Inequality exists in all societies—
even the simplest•Functionalist View
Social inequity necessary so people will be motivated to fill functionally important positions.
Does not explain the wide disparity between the rich and the poor
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Slide 72
Understanding Stratification
• Is Stratification Universal?– Conflict View
• Human beings prone to conflict over scarce resources such as wealth, status, and power
• Stratification major sourceof societal tension andconflict that will inevitablylead to instability and social change
Dominant Ideology: set of cultural beliefs and practices that helps to maintain powerful social, economic, and political interests
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Slide 73
Understanding Stratification
• Is Stratification Universal?– Lenski’s Viewpoint
• As a society advances technologically, it becomes capable of producing a considerable surplus of goods
• Emergence of surplus resources greatly expands possibilities for inequality in status, influence, and power
• Allocation of surplus goods and services reinforces social inequality
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Slide 74
Understanding Stratification
Figure 9-2. Around the World: What’s a CEO Worth?
Source: Towers Perin Bryant 1999:Section 4, p. 1
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Slide 75
Understanding Stratification
Table 9-1. Major Perspectives on Social Stratification
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Slide 76
Stratification by Social Class
• Measuring Social Class– Objective Method
• Class largely viewed as a statistical category based on
– Occupation– Education– Income– Place of residence
Prestige: respect and admiration an occupation holds in society
Esteem: reputation specific person has earned within an occupation
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Slide 77
– Gender and Occupational Prestige– Multiple Measures
• Wealth and Income– Income in U.S. distributed unevenly
• In 2001, richest fifth of the population held 84.5% of nation’s wealth
Stratification by Social Class
.
• Measuring Social Class
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Slide 78
Stratification by Social Class
Table 9-2. PrestigeRankings of Occupations
Source: J. Davis et al. 2003
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Slide 79
Stratification by Social Class
Figure 9-3. U.S. IncomePyramid, 2003
Source: Developed by author based on data from DeNavas-Walt et al. 2004; HINC-01 and the Internal Revenue Service
(2004)
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Slide 80
Stratification by Social Class
Figure 9-4. Distribution of Wealth in the United States, 2001
Source: Wolff:2002
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Slide 81
Stratification by Social Class
Figure 9-5. U.S. Minimum Wage Adjusted for Inflation, 1950—2005
Source: Author’s estimate and Bureau of the Census 2003a:425
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Slide 82
Stratification by Social Class
• Poverty– Absolute poverty: minimum level
of subsistence that no family should live below
– Relative poverty: floating standard by which people at the bottom of a society are judged as being disadvantaged in comparison to the nation as a whole
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Slide 83
Stratification by Social Class
• Poverty– Who Are the Poor?
• Not a static social class
– Explaining Poverty• In Gans’s view, poverty and poor satisfy
positive functions for many non poor groups
Life Chances: opportunities to provide material goods, positive living conditions, and favorable life experience
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Slide 84
Stratification by Social Class
Figure 9-6. Absolute Poverty in Selected Industrial Countries
Source: Smeeding et al. 2001:51
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Slide 85
Stratification by Social Class
Table 9-3. Who Are thePoor in the United Sates?
Source: DeNavas-Walt et al. 2004:10
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Slide 86
Social Mobility
– Indicate social mobility in a society•Open System: position of each
individual influenced by the person’s achieved position
•Closed System: allows little or no possibility of moving up
• Open versus Closed Stratification Systems
Social Mobility: Movement of individuals or groups from one position in a society’s stratification system to another
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Slide 87
Social Mobility
• Types of Social Mobility– Horizontal Mobility: movement
within same range of prestige– Vertical Mobility: movement from
one position to another of a different rank
– Intragenerational Mobility: social position changes within person’s adult life
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Slide 88
Social Mobility
• Social Mobility in the United States– Occupational Mobility– The Impact of Education– The Impact of Race and Ethnicity– The Impact of Gender
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Slide 89
Social Policy and Stratification
• Government and Poverty– The Issue
• Governments searching for right solution to welfare
– How much subsidy?– How much responsibility should poor assume?
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Slide 90
Social Policy and Stratification
• Government and Poverty– The Setting
• Shifts in U.S. welfare program in 1996• Most countries devote higher proportions
of expenditures to– Housing– Social security– Welfare– Health care– Unemployment compensation
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Slide 91
Social Policy and Stratification
• Government and Poverty– Sociological Insights
• Many sociologists view debate over welfare reform from conflict perspective
•Corporate Welfare: tax breaks, direct payments, and grants the government makes to corporations
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Slide 92
Social Policy and Stratification
• Government and Poverty– Policy Initiatives
• Prospect for hard-core jobless faded• In North America and Europe, people
beginning to turn to private means to support themselves
• People seeing gap between themselves and the affluent grow with fewer government programs to assist them