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CounselsandMaximsArthurSchopenhauer

TranslatedbyT.BaileySaunders,M.A.

Frombook“EssaysofA.Schopenhauer”,A.L.BurtCompany,NewYork,1902

TableofContents

Introduction.

GeneralRules.

OurRelationtoOurselves.

OurRelationtoOthers.

WorldlyFortune.

TheAgesofLife.

Introduction

Ifmyobjectinthesepagesweretopresentacompleteschemeofcounselsandmaximsfortheguidanceoflife,Ishouldhavetorepeatthenumerousrules—someofthemexcellent—whichhavebeendrawnupbythinkersofallages,fromTheognisandSolomon1downtoLaRochefoucauld;and,insodoing,Ishouldinevitablyentailuponthereaderavastamountofwell-worncommonplace.ButthefactisthatinthisworkImakestilllessclaimtoexhaustmysubjectthaninanyotherofmywritings.

1Irefertotheproverbsandmaximsascribed,intheOldTestament,tothekingofthatname.]

Anauthorwhomakesnoclaimstocompletenessmustalso,inagreatmeasure,abandonanyattemptatsystematicarrangement.Forhisdoublelossinthisrespect,thereadermayconsolehimselfbyreflectingthatacompleteandsystematictreatmentofsuchasubjectastheguidanceoflifecouldhardlyfailtobeaverywearisomebusiness.Ihavesimplyputdownthoseofmythoughtswhichappeartobeworthcommunicating—thoughtswhich,asfarasIknow,havenotbeenuttered,or,atanyrate,notjustinthesameform,byanyoneelse;sothatmyremarksmaybetakenasasupplementtowhathasbeenalreadyachievedintheimmensefield.

However,bywayofintroducingsomesortoforderintothegreatvarietyofmattersuponwhichadvicewillbegiveninthefollowingpages,IshalldistributewhatIhavetosayunderthefollowingheads:(1)generalrules;(2)ourrelationtoourselves;(3)ourrelationtoothers;andfinally,(4)ruleswhichconcernourmanneroflifeandourworldlycircumstances.Ishallconcludewithsomeremarksonthechangeswhichthevariousperiodsoflifeproduceinus.

GeneralRules

SECTION1.ThefirstandforemostruleforthewiseconductoflifeseemstometobecontainedinaviewtowhichAristotleparentheticallyrefersintheNichomacheanEthics:(2)[Greek:ophronimoztoalupondiokeeoutoaedu]or,asitmayberendered,notpleasure,butfreedomfrompain,iswhatthewisemanwillaimat.

(2)vii.(12)12.]

Thetruthofthisremarkturnsuponthenegativecharacterofhappiness—thefactthatpleasureisonlythenegationofpain,andthatpainisthepositiveelementinlife.ThoughIhavegivenadetailedproofofthispropositioninmychiefwork,(3)Imaysupplyonemoreillustrationofithere,drawnfromacircumstanceofdailyoccurrence.Supposethat,withtheexceptionofsomesoreorpainfulspot,wearephysicallyinasoundandhealthycondition:thesoreofthisonespot,willcompletelyabsorbourattention,causingustolosethesenseofgeneralwell-being,anddestroyingallourcomfortinlife.Inthesameway,whenallouraffairsbutoneturnoutaswewish,thesingleinstanceinwhichouraimsarefrustratedisaconstanttroubletous,eventhoughitbesomethingquitetrivial.Wethinkagreatdealaboutit,andverylittleaboutthoseotherandmoreimportantmattersinwhichwehavebeensuccessful.Inboththesecaseswhathasmetwithresistanceisthewill;intheonecase,asitisobjectifiedintheorganism,intheother,asitpresentsitselfinthestruggleoflife;andinboth,itisplainthatthesatisfactionofthewillconsistsinnothingelsethanthatitmeetswithnoresistance.Itis,therefore,asatisfactionwhichisnotdirectlyfelt;atmost,wecanbecomeconsciousofitonlywhenwereflectuponourcondition.Butthatwhichchecksorarreststhewillissomethingpositive;itproclaimsitsownpresence.Allpleasureconsistsinmerelyremovingthischeck—inotherwords,infreeingusfromitsaction;andhencepleasureisastatewhichcanneverlastverylong.

(3)WeltalsWilleundVorstellung.Vol.I.,p.58.]

ThisisthetruebasisoftheaboveexcellentrulequotedfromAristotle,whichbidsusdirectouraim,nottowardsecuringwhatispleasurableandagreeableinlife,buttowardavoiding,asfaraspossible,itsinnumerableevils.Ifthiswerenottherightcoursetotake,thatsayingofVoltaire’s,Happinessisbutadreamandsorrowisreal,wouldbeasfalseasitis,infact,true.Amanwhodesirestomakeupthebookofhislifeanddeterminewherethebalanceofhappinesslies,mustputdowninhisaccounts,notthepleasureswhichhehasenjoyed,buttheevilswhichhehasescaped.Thatisthetruemethodofeudaemonology;foralleudaemonologymustbeginbyrecognizingthatitsverynameisaeuphemism,andthattolivehappilyonlymeanstolivelessunhappily—toliveatolerablelife.Thereisnodoubtthatlifeisgivenus,nottobeenjoyed,buttobeovercome—tobegotover.Therearenumerousexpressionsillustratingthis—suchasdegerevitam,vitadefungi;orinItalian,siscampacosi;orinGerman,manmusssuchendurchzukommen;erwirdschondurchdieWeltkommen,andsoon.Inoldageitisindeedaconsolationtothinkthattheworkoflifeisoveranddonewith.Thehappiestlotisnottohaveexperiencedthekeenestdelightsorthegreatestpleasures,buttohavebroughtlifetoaclosewithoutanyverygreatpain,bodilyormental.Tomeasurethehappinessofalifebyitsdelightsorpleasures,istoapplyafalsestandard.Forpleasuresareandremainsomethingnegative;thattheyproducehappinessisadelusion,cherishedbyenvytoitsownpunishment.Painisfelttobesomethingpositive,andhenceitsabsenceisthetruestandardofhappiness.Andif,overandabovefreedomfrompain,thereisalsoanabsenceofboredom,theessentialconditionsofearthlyhappinessareattained;forallelseischimerical.

Itfollowsfromthisthatamanshouldnevertrytopurchasepleasureatthecostofpain,orevenattheriskofincurringit;todosoistopaywhatispositiveandreal,forwhatis

negativeandillusory;whilethereisanetprofitinsacrificingpleasureforthesakeofavoidingpain.Ineithercaseitisamatterofindifferencewhetherthepainfollowsthepleasureorprecedesit.Whileitisacompleteinversionofthenaturalordertotryandturnthissceneofmiseryintoagardenofpleasure,toaimatjoyandpleasureratherthanatthegreatestpossiblefreedomfrompain—andyethowmanydoit!—thereissomewisdomintakingagloomyview,inlookingupontheworldasakindofHell,andinconfiningone’seffortstosecuringalittleroomthatshallnotbeexposedtothefire.Thefoolrushesafterthepleasuresoflifeandfindshimselftheirdupe;thewisemanavoidsitsevils;andevenif,notwithstandinghisprecautions,hefallsintomisfortunes,thatisthefaultoffate,notofhisownfolly.Asfarasheissuccessfulinhisendeavors,hecannotbesaidtohavelivedalifeofillusion;fortheevilswhichheshunsareveryreal.Evenifhegoestoofaroutofhiswaytoavoidevils,andmakesanunnecessarysacrificeofpleasure,heis,inreality,nottheworseoffforthat;forallpleasuresarechimerical,andtomournforhavinglostanyofthemisafrivolous,andevenridiculousproceeding.

Thefailuretorecognizethistruth—afailurepromotedbyoptimisticideas—isthesourceofmuchunhappiness.Inmomentsfreefrompain,ourrestlesswishespresent,asitwereinamirror,theimageofahappinessthathasnocounterpartinreality,seducingustofollowit;indoingsowebringpainuponourselves,andthatissomethingundeniablyreal.Afterwards,wecometolookwithregretuponthatloststateofpainlessness;itisaparadisewhichwehavegambledaway;itisnolongerwithus,andwelonginvaintoundowhathasbeendone.

Onemightwellfancythatthesevisionsofwishesfulfilledweretheworkofsomeevilspirit,conjuredupinordertoenticeusawayfromthatpainlessstatewhichformsourhighesthappiness.

Acarelessyouthmaythinkthattheworldismeanttobeenjoyed,asthoughitweretheabodeofsomerealorpositivehappiness,whichonlythosefailtoattainwhoarenotcleverenoughtoovercomethedifficultiesthatlieintheway.Thisfalsenotiontakesastrongerholdonhimwhenhecomestoreadpoetryandromance,andtobedeceivedbyoutwardshow—thehypocrisythatcharacterizestheworldfrombeginningtoend;onwhichIshallhavesomethingtosaypresently.Theresultisthathislifeisthemoreorlessdeliberatepursuitofpositivehappiness;andhappinesshetakestobeequivalenttoaseriesofdefinitepleasures.Inseekingforthesepleasuresheencountersdanger—afactwhichshouldnotbeforgotten.Hehuntsforgamethatdoesnotexist;andsoheendsbysufferingsomeveryrealandpositivemisfortune—pain,distress,sickness,loss,care,poverty,shame,andallthethousandillsoflife.Toolatehediscoversthetrickthathasbeenplayeduponhim.

ButiftheruleIhavementionedisobserved,andaplanoflifeisadoptedwhichproceedsbyavoidingpain—inotherwords,bytakingmeasuresofprecautionagainstwant,sickness,anddistressinallitsforms,theaimisarealone,andsomethingmaybeachievedwhichwillbegreatinproportionastheplanisnotdisturbedbystrivingafterthechimeraofpositivehappiness.ThisagreeswiththeopinionexpressedbyGoetheintheElectiveAffinities,andthereputintothemouthofMittler—themanwhoisalwaystryingtomakeotherpeoplehappy:Todesiretogetridofanevilisadefiniteobject,buttodesireabetterfortunethanonehasisblindfolly.Thesametruthiscontainedinthatfine

Frenchproverb:lemieuxestl’ennemidubien—leavewellalone.And,asIhaveremarkedinmychiefwork,(4)thisistheleadingthoughtunderlyingthephilosophicalsystemoftheCynics.ForwhatwasitledtheCynicstorepudiatepleasureineveryform,ifitwasnotthefactthatpainis,inagreaterorlessdegree,alwaysboundupwithpleasure?Togooutofthewayofpainseemedtothemsomucheasierthantosecurepleasure.Deeplyimpressedastheywerebythenegativenatureofpleasureandthepositivenatureofpain,theyconsistentlydevotedalltheireffortstotheavoidanceofpain.Thefirststeptothatendwas,intheiropinion,acompleteanddeliberaterepudiationofpleasure,assomethingwhichservedonlytoentrapthevictiminorderthathemightbedeliveredovertopain.

(4)WeltalsWilleundVorstellung,vol.ii.,ch.16.]

Weareallborn,asSchillersays,inArcadia.Inotherwords,wecomeintotheworldfullofclaimstohappinessandpleasure,andwecherishthefondhopeofmakingthemgood.But,asarule,Fatesoonteachesus,inaroughandreadywaythatwereallypossessnothingatall,butthateverythingintheworldisatitscommand,invirtueofanunassailableright,notonlytoallwehaveoracquire,towifeorchild,buteventoourverylimbs,ourarms,legs,eyesandears,nay,eventothenoseinthemiddleofourface.Andinanycase,aftersomelittletime,welearnbyexperiencethathappinessandpleasureareafatamorgana,which,visiblefromafar,vanishasweapproach;that,ontheotherhand,sufferingandpainareareality,whichmakesitspresencefeltwithoutanyintermediary,andforitseffect,standsinnoneedofillusionortheplayoffalsehope.

Iftheteachingofexperiencebearsfruitinus,wesoongiveupthepursuitofpleasureandhappiness,andthinkmuchmoreaboutmakingourselvessecureagainsttheattacksofpainandsuffering.Weseethatthebesttheworldhastoofferisanexistencefreefrompain—aquiet,tolerablelife;andweconfineourclaimstothis,astosomethingwecanmoresurelyhopetoachieve.Forthesafestwayofnotbeingverymiserableisnottoexpecttobeveryhappy.Merck,thefriendofGoethe’syouth,wasconsciousofthistruthwhenhewrote:Itisthewretchedwaypeoplehaveofsettingupaclaimtohappiness—and,thatto,inameasurecorrespondingwiththeirdesires—thatruinseverythinginthisworld.Amanwillmakeprogressifhecangetridofthisclaim,(5)anddesirenothingbutwhatheseesbeforehim.Accordinglyitisadvisabletoputverymoderatelimitsuponourexpectationsofpleasure,possessions,rank,honorandsoon;becauseitisjustthisstrivingandstrugglingtobehappy,todazzletheworld,toleadalifefullofpleasure,whichentailgreatmisfortune.Itisprudentandwise,Isay,toreduceone’sclaims,ifonlyforthereasonthatitisextremelyeasytobeveryunhappy;whiletobeveryhappyisnotindeeddifficult,butquiteimpossible.Withjusticesingsthepoetoflife’swisdom:

Aureamquisquismediocritatem

Diligit,tutuscaretobsoleti

Sordibustecti,caretinvidenda

Sobriusaula.

Saviusventisagitaturingens

Pinus:etcelsaegravioricasu

Deciduntturres;feriuntquesummos

Fulguramonies.(6)

—thegoldenmeanisbest—tolivefreefromthesqualorofameanabode,andyetnotbeamarkforenvy.Itisthetallpinewhichiscruellyshakenbythewind,thehighestsummitsthatarestruckinthestorm,andtheloftytowersthatfallsoheavily.

5LetterstoandfromMerck.]

6Horace.OdesII.x.]

Hewhohastakentohearttheteachingofmyphilosophy—whoknows,therefore,thatourwholeexistenceissomethingwhichhadbetternothavebeen,andthattodisownanddisclaimitisthehighestwisdom—hewillhavenogreatexpectationsfromanythingoranyconditioninlife:hewillspendpassionuponnothingintheworld,norlamentover-muchifhefailsinanyofhisundertakings.HewillfeelthedeeptruthofwhatPlato7says:[Greek:outetitonanthropinonhaxiononmegalaesspondaes]—nothinginhumanaffairsisworthanygreatanxiety;or,asthePersianpoethasit,

Thoughfromthygraspallworldlythingsshouldflee,

Grievenotforthem,fortheyarenothingworth:

Andthoughaworldinthypossessionbe,

Joynot,forworthlessarethethingsofearth.

Sincetothatbetterworld’tisgiventothee

Topass,speedon,forthisisnothingworth.(8)

(7)Republic,x.604.]

(8)Translator’sNote.FromtheAnvár-iSuhailí—TheLightsofCanopus—beingthePersianversionoftheTableofBidpai.TranslatedbyE.B.Eastwick,ch.iii.Storyvi.,p.

289.]

ThechiefobstacletoourarrivingatthesesalutaryviewsisthathypocrisyoftheworldtowhichIhavealreadyalluded—anhypocrisywhichshouldbeearlyrevealedtotheyoung.Mostofthegloriesoftheworldaremereoutwardshow,likethescenesonastage:thereisnothingrealaboutthem.Shipsfestoonedandhungwithpennants,firingofcannon,illuminations,beatingofdrumsandblowingoftrumpets,shoutingandapplauding—thesearealltheoutwardsign,thepretenceandsuggestion—asitwerethe

hieroglyphic—ofjoy:butjustthere,joyis,asarule,nottobefound;itistheonlyguestwhohasdeclinedtobepresentatthefestival.Wherethisguestmayreallybefound,hecomesgenerallywithoutinvitation;heisnotformerlyannounced,butslipsinquietlybyhimselfsansfacon;oftenmakinghisappearanceunderthemostunimportantandtrivialcircumstances,andinthecommonestcompany—anywhere,inshort,butwherethesocietyisbrilliantanddistinguished.JoyislikethegoldintheAustralianmines—foundonlynowandthen,asitwere,bythecapriceofchance,andaccordingtonoruleorlaw;oftenestinverylittlegrains,andveryseldominheaps.AllthatoutwardshowwhichIhavedescribed,isonlyanattempttomakepeoplebelievethatitisreallyjoywhichhascometothefestival;andtoproducethisimpressionuponthespectatorsis,infact,thewholeobjectofit.

Withmourningitisjustthesame.Thatlongfuneralprocession,movingupsoslowly;howmelancholyitlooks!whatanendlessrowofcarriages!Butlookintothem—theyareallempty;thecoachmenofthewholetownarethesoleescortthedeadmanhastohisgrave.Eloquentpictureofthefriendshipandesteemoftheworld!Thisisthefalsehood,thehollowness,thehypocrisyofhumanaffairs!

Takeanotherexample—aroomfulofguestsinfulldress,beingreceivedwithgreatceremony.Youcouldalmostbelievethatthisisanobleanddistinguishedcompany;but,asamatteroffact,itiscompulsion,painandboredomwhoaretherealguests.Forwheremanyareinvited,itisarabble—eveniftheyallwearstars.Reallygoodsocietyiseverywhereofnecessityverysmall.Inbrilliantfestivalsandnoisyentertainments,thereisalways,atbottom,asenseofemptinessprevalent.Afalsetoneisthere:suchgatheringsareinstrangecontrastwiththemiseryandbarrennessofourexistence.Thecontrastbringsthetrueconditionintogreaterrelief.Still,thesegatheringsareeffectivefromtheoutside;andthatisjusttheirpurpose.Chamfort9makestheexcellentremarkthatsociety—lescercles,lessalons,cequ’onappellelemonde—islikeamiserableplay,orabadopera,withoutanyinterestinitself,butsupportedforatimebymechanicalaid,costumesandscenery.

(9)Translator’sNote.Nicholas“Chamfort”(1741-94),aFrenchmiscellaneouswriter,whosebrilliantconversation,powerofsarcasm,andepigrammicforce,coupledwithanextraordinarycareer,renderhimoneofthemostinterestingandremarkablemenofhis

time.Schopenhauerundoubtedlyowedmuchtothiswriter,towhomheconstantlyrefers.]

Andso,too,withacademiesandchairsofphilosophy.Youhaveakindofsign-boardhungouttoshowtheapparentabodeofwisdom:butwisdomisanotherguestwhodeclinestheinvitation;sheistobefoundelsewhere.Thechimingofbells,ecclesiasticalmillinery,attitudesofdevotion,insaneantics—thesearethepretence,thefalseshowofpiety.Andsoon.Everythingintheworldislikeahollownut;thereislittlekernelanywhere,andwhenitdoesexist,itisstillmoreraretofinditintheshell.Youmaylookforitelsewhere,andfindit,asarule,onlybychance.

SECTION2.Toestimateaman’sconditioninregardtohappiness,itisnecessarytoask,notwhatthingspleasehim,butwhatthingstroublehim;andthemoretrivialthesethingsareinthemselves,thehappierthemanwillbe.Tobeirritatedbytrifles,amanmustbe

welloff;forinmisfortunestriflesareunfelt.

SECTION3.Careshouldbetakennottobuildthehappinessoflifeuponabroadfoundation—nottorequireagreatmanythingsinordertobehappy.Forhappinessonsuchafoundationisthemosteasilyundermined;itoffersmanymoreopportunitiesforaccidents;andaccidentsarealwayshappening.Thearchitectureofhappinessfollowsaplaninthisrespectjusttheoppositeofthatadoptedineveryothercase,wherethebroadestfoundationoffersthegreatestsecurity.Accordingly,toreduceyourclaimstothelowestpossibledegree,incomparisonwithyourmeans—ofwhateverkindthesemaybe—isthesurestwayofavoidingextrememisfortune.

Tomakeextensivepreparationsforlife—nomatterwhatformtheymaytake—isoneofthegreatestandcommonestoffollies.Suchpreparationspresuppose,inthefirstplace,alonglife,thefullandcompletetermofyearsappointedtoman—andhowfewreachit!andevenifitbereached,itisstilltooshortforalltheplansthathavebeenmade;fortocarrythemoutrequitesmoretimethanwasthoughtnecessaryatthebeginning.Andthenhowmanymischancesandobstaclesstandintheway!howseldomthegoaliseverreachedinhumanaffairs!

Andlastly,eventhoughthegoalshouldbereached,thechangeswhichTimeworksinushavebeenleftoutofthereckoning:weforgetthatthecapacitywhetherforachievementorforenjoymentdoesnotlastawholelifetime.Soweoftentoilforthingswhicharenolongersuitedtouswhenweattainthem;andagain,theyearswespendinpreparingforsomework,unconsciouslyrobusofthepowerforcarryingitout.

Howoftenithappensthatamanisunabletoenjoythewealthwhichheacquiredatsomuchtroubleandrisk,andthatthefruitsofhislaborarereservedforothers;orthatheisincapableoffillingthepositionwhichhehaswonaftersomanyyearsoftoilandstruggle.Fortunehascometoolateforhim;or,contrarily,hehascometoolateforfortune—when,forinstance,hewantstoachievegreatthings,say,inartorliterature:thepopulartastehaschanged,itmaybe;anewgenerationhasgrownup,whichtakesnointerestinhiswork;othershavegoneashorterwayandgotthestartofhim.ThesearethefactsoflifewhichHoracemusthavehadinview,whenhelamentedtheuselessnessofalladvice:—

quideternisminorem

Consiliisanimumfatigas?(10)

(10)OdesII.xi.]

Thecauseofthiscommonestofallfolliesisthatopticalillusionofthemindfromwhicheveryonesuffers,makinglife,atitsbeginning,seemoflongduration;andatitsend,whenonelooksbackoverthecourseofit,howshortatimeitseems!Thereissomeadvantageintheillusion;butforit,nogreatworkwouldeverbedone.

Ourlifeislikeajourneyonwhich,asweadvance,thelandscapetakesadifferentviewfromthatwhichitpresentedatfirst,andchangesagain,aswecomenearer.Thisisjustwhathappens—especiallywithourwishes.Weoftenfindsomethingelse,nay,somethingbetterthanwhatwearelookingfor;andwhatwelookfor,weoftenfindonaverydifferentpathfromthatonwhichwebeganavainsearch.Insteadoffinding,aswe

expected,pleasure,happiness,joy,wegetexperience,insight,knowledge—arealandpermanentblessing,insteadofafleetingandillusoryone.

ThisisthethoughtthatrunsthroughWilkelmMeister,likethebassinapieceofmusic.InthisworkofGoethe’s,wehaveanoveloftheintellectualkind,and,therefore,superiortoallothers,eventoSirWalterScott’s,whichare,oneandall,ethical;inotherwords,theytreatofhumannatureonlyfromthesideofthewill.So,too,intheZauberflöte—thatgrotesque,butstillsignificant,andevenhieroglyphic—thesamethoughtissymbolized,butingreat,coarselines,muchinthewayinwhichsceneryispainted.HerethesymbolwouldbecompleteifTaminowereintheendtobecuredofhisdesiretopossessTainina,andreceived,inherstead,initiationintothemysteriesoftheTempleofWisdom.ItisquiterightforPapageno,hisnecessarycontrast,tosucceedingettinghisPapagena.

MenofanyworthorvaluesooncometoseethattheyareinthehandsofFate,andgratefullysubmittobemouldedbyitsteachings.Theyrecognizethatthefruitoflifeisexperience,andnothappiness;theybecomeaccustomedandcontenttoexchangehopeforinsight;and,intheend,theycansay,withPetrarch,thatalltheycareforistolearn:—

Altrodilettoche‘mparar,nonprovo.

Itmayevenbethattheytosomeextentstillfollowtheiroldwishesandaims,triflingwiththem,asitwere,forthesakeofappearances;allthewhilereallyandseriouslylookingfornothingbutinstruction;aprocesswhichlendsthemanairofgenius,atraitofsomethingcontemplativeandsublime.

Intheirsearchforgold,thealchemistsdiscoveredotherthings—gunpowder,china,medicines,thelawsofnature.Thereisasenseinwhichweareallalchemists.

OurRelationtoOurselves

Section4.Themasonemployedonthebuildingofahousemaybequiteignorantofitsgeneraldesign;oratanyrate,hemaynotkeepitconstantlyinmind.Soitiswithman:inworkingthroughthedaysandhoursofhislife,hetakeslittlethoughtofitscharacterasawhole.

Ifthereisanymeritorimportanceattachingtoaman’scareer,ifhelayshimselfoutcarefullyforsomespecialwork,itisallthemorenecessaryandadvisableforhimtoturnhisattentionnowandthentoitsplan,thatistosay,theminiaturesketchofitsgeneraloutlines.Ofcourse,todothat,hemusthaveappliedthemaxim[Greek:Gnothiseauton];hemusthavemadesomelittleprogressintheartofunderstandinghimself.Hemustknowwhatishisreal,chief,andforemostobjectinlife—whatitisthathemostwantsinordertobehappy;andthen,afterthat,whatoccupiesthesecondandthirdplaceinhisthoughts;hemustfindoutwhat,onthewhole,hisvocationreallyis—theparthehastoplay,hisgeneralrelationtotheworld.Ifhemapsoutimportantworkforhimselfongreatlines,aglanceatthisminiatureplanofhislifewill,morethananythingelsestimulate,rouseandennoblehim,urgehimontoactionandkeephimfromfalsepaths.

Again,justasthetraveler,onreachingaheight,getsaconnectedviewovertheroadhe

hastaken,withitsmanyturnsandwindings;soitisonlywhenwehavecompletedaperiodinourlife,orapproachtheendofitaltogether,thatwerecognizethetrueconnectionbetweenallouractions—whatitiswehaveachieved,whatworkwehavedone.Itisonlythenthatweseetheprecisechainofcauseandeffect,andtheexactvalueofallourefforts.Foraslongasweareactuallyengagedintheworkoflife,wealwaysactinaccordancewiththenatureofourcharacter,undertheinfluenceofmotive,andwithinthelimitsofourcapacity—inaword,frombeginningtoend,underalawofnecessity;ateverymomentwedojustwhatappearstousrightandproper.Itisonlyafterwards,whenwecometolookbackatthewholecourseofourlifeanditsgeneralresult,thatweseethewhyandwhereforeofitall.

Whenweareactuallydoingsomegreatdeed,orcreatingsomeimmortalwork,wearenotconsciousofitassuch;wethinkonlyofsatisfyingpresentaims,offulfillingtheintentionswehappentohaveatthetime,ofdoingtherightthingatthemoment.Itisonlywhenwecometoviewourlifeasaconnectedwholethatourcharacterandcapacitiesshowthemselvesintheirtruelight;thatweseehow,inparticularinstances,somehappyinspiration,asitwere,ledustochoosetheonlytruepathoutofathousandwhichmighthavebroughtustoruin.Itwasourgeniusthatguidedus,aforcefeltintheaffairsoftheintellectualasinthoseoftheworld;andworkingbyitsdefectjustinthesamewayinregardtoevilanddisaster.

SECTION5.Anotherimportantelementinthewiseconductoflifeistopreserveaproperproportionbetweenourthoughtforthepresentandourthoughtforthefuture;inordernottospoiltheonebypayingover-greatattentiontotheother.Manylivetoolonginthepresent—frivolouspeople,Imean;others,toomuchinthefuture,everanxiousandfullofcare.Itisseldomthatamanholdstherightbalancebetweenthetwoextremes.Thosewhostriveandhopeandliveonlyinthefuture,alwayslookingaheadandimpatientlyanticipatingwhatiscoming,assomethingwhichwillmakethemhappywhentheygetit,are,inspiteoftheirverycleverairs,exactlylikethosedonkeysoneseesinItaly,whosepacemaybehurriedbyfixingastickontheirheadswithawispofhayattheendofit;thisisalwaysjustinfrontofthem,andtheykeepontryingtogetit.Suchpeopleareinaconstantstateofillusionastotheirwholeexistence;theygoonlivingadinterim,untilatlasttheydie.

Instead,therefore,ofalwaysthinkingaboutourplansandanxiouslylookingtothefuture,orofgivingourselvesuptoregretforthepast,weshouldneverforgetthatthepresentistheonlyreality,theonlycertainty;thatthefuturealmostalwaysturnsoutcontrarytoourexpectations;thatthepast,too,wasverydifferentfromwhatwesupposeittohavebeen.Butthepastandthefutureare,onthewhole,oflessconsequencethanwethink.Distance,whichmakesobjectslooksmalltotheoutwardeye,makesthemlookbigtotheeyeofthought.Thepresentaloneistrueandactual;itistheonlytimewhichpossessesfullreality,andourexistenceliesinitexclusively.Thereforeweshouldalwaysbegladofit,andgiveitthewelcomeitdeserves,andenjoyeveryhourthatisbearablebyitsfreedomfrompainandannoyancewithafullconsciousnessofitsvalue.Weshallhardlybeabletodothisifwemakeawryfaceoverthefailureofourhopesinthepastoroverouranxietyforthefuture.Itistheheightoffollytorefusethepresenthourofhappiness,orwantonlytospoilitbyvexationatby-gonesoruneasinessaboutwhatistocome.Thereisatime,ofcourse,forforethought,nay,evenforrepentance;butwhenitisoverletusthinkofwhatis

pastasofsomethingtowhichwehavesaidfarewell,ofnecessitysubduingourhearts—

[Greek:allatamenprotuchthaieasomenachnumenoiper

tumhonenistaethessiphilondamasnteshanankae],(11)

andofthefutureasofthatwhichliesbeyondourpower,inthelapofthegods—

[Greek:allaetoimentautatheonengounasikeitai.](12)

(11)Iliad,xix,65.]

(12)Ibid,xvii,514]

ButinregardtothepresentletusrememberSeneca’sadvice,andliveeachdayasifitwereourwholelife—singulasdiessingulasvitasputa:letusmakeitasagreeableaspossible,itistheonlyrealtimewehave.

Onlythoseevilswhicharesuretocomeatadefinitedatehaveanyrighttodisturbus;andhowfewtherearewhichfulfillthisdescription.Forevilsareoftwokinds;eithertheyarepossibleonly,atmostprobable;ortheyareinevitable.Eveninthecaseofevilswhicharesuretohappen,thetimeatwhichtheywillhappenisuncertain.Amanwhoisalwayspreparingforeitherclassofevilwillnothaveamomentofpeacelefthim.So,ifwearenottoloseallcomfortinlifethroughthefearofevils,someofwhichareuncertaininthemselves,andothers,inthetimeatwhichtheywilloccur,weshouldlookupontheonekindasneverlikelytohappen,andtheotherasnotlikelytohappenverysoon.

Now,thelessourpeaceofmindisdisturbedbyfear,themorelikelyitistobeagitatedbydesireandexpectation.ThisisthetruemeaningofthatsongofGoethe’swhichissuchafavoritewitheveryone:Ichhab’mein’Sach’aufnichtsgestellt.Itisonlyafteramanhasgotridofallpretension,andtakenrefugeinmereunembellishedexistence,thatheisabletoattainthatpeaceofmindwhichisthefoundationofhumanhappiness.Peaceofmind!thatissomethingessentialtoanyenjoymentofthepresentmoment;andunlessitsseparatemomentsareenjoyed,thereisanendoflife’shappinessasawhole.WeshouldalwayscollectthatTo-daycomesonlyonce,andneverreturns.Wefancythatitwillcomeagainto-morrow;butTo-morrowisanotherday,which,initsturn,comesonceonly.Weareapttoforgetthateverydayisanintegral,andthereforeirreplaceableportionoflife,andtolookuponlifeasthoughitwereacollectiveideaornamewhichdoesnotsufferifoneoftheindividualsitcoversisdestroyed.

Weshouldbemorelikelytoappreciateandenjoythepresent,if,inthosegooddayswhenwearewellandstrong,wedidnotfailtoreflecthow,insicknessandsorrow,everypasthourthatwasfreefrompainandprivationseemedinourmemorysoinfinitelytobeenvied—asitwere,alostparadise,orsomeonewhowasonlythenseentohaveactedasafriend.Butwelivethroughourdaysofhappinesswithoutnoticingthem;itisonlywhenevilcomesuponusthatwewishthemback.Athousandgayandpleasanthoursarewastedinill-humor;weletthemslipbyunenjoyed,andsighfortheminvainwhentheskyisovercast.Thosepresentmomentsthatarebearable,betheyneversotriteandcommon—passedbyinindifference,or,itmaybe,impatientlypushedaway—thosearethemomentsweshouldhonor;neverfailingtorememberthattheebbingtideisevenhow

hurryingthemintothepast,wherememorywillstorethemtransfiguredandshiningwithanimperishablelight—insomeafter-time,andaboveall,whenourdaysareevil,toraisetheveilandpresentthemastheobjectofourfondestregret.

SECTION6.Limitationsalwaysmakeforhappiness.Wearehappyinproportionasourrangeofvision,oursphereofwork,ourpointsofcontactwiththeworld,arerestrictedandcircumscribed.Wearemorelikelytofeelworriedandanxiousiftheselimitsarewide;foritmeansthatourcares,desiresandterrorsareincreasedandintensified.Thatiswhytheblindarenotsounhappyaswemightbeinclinedtosuppose;otherwisetherewouldnotbethatgentleandalmostsereneexpressionofpeaceintheirfaces.

Anotherreasonwhylimitationmakesforhappinessisthatthesecondhalfoflifeprovesevenmoredrearythatthefirst.Astheyearswearon,thehorizonofouraimsandourpointsofcontactwiththeworldbecomemoreextended.Inchildhoodourhorizonislimitedtothenarrowestsphereaboutus;inyouththereisalreadyaveryconsiderablewideningofourview;inmanhooditcomprisesthewholerangeofouractivity,oftenstretchingoutoveraverydistantsphere—thecare,forinstance,ofaStateoranation;inoldageitembracesposterity.

Butevenintheaffairsoftheintellect,limitationisnecessaryifwearetobehappy.Forthelessthewillisexcited,thelesswesuffer.Wehaveseenthatsufferingissomethingpositive,andthathappinessisonlyanegativecondition.Tolimitthesphereofoutwardactivityistorelievethewillofexternalstimulus:tolimitthesphereofourintellectualeffortsistorelievethewillofinternalsourcesofexcitement.Thislatterkindoflimitationisattendedbythedisadvantagethatitopensthedoortoboredom,whichisadirectsourceofcountlesssufferings;fortobanishboredom,amanwillhaverecoursetoanymeansthatmaybehandy—dissipation,society,extravagance,gaming,anddrinking,andthelike,whichintheirturnbringmischief,ruinandmiseryintheirtrain.Difficilesinotioquies—itisdifficulttokeepquietifyouhavenothingtodo.Thatlimitationinthesphereofoutwardactivityisconducive,nay,evennecessarytohumanhappiness,suchasitis,maybeseeninthefactthattheonlykindofpoetrywhichdepictsmeninahappystateoflife—Idyllicpoetry,Imean—alwaysaims,asanintrinsicpartofitstreatment,atrepresentingtheminverysimpleandrestrictedcircumstances.Itisthisfeeling,too,whichisatthebottomofthepleasurewetakeinwhatarecalledgenrepictures.

Simplicity,therefore,asfarasitcanbeattained,andevenmonotony,inourmanneroflife,ifitdoesnotmeanthatwearebored,willcontributetohappiness;justbecause,undersuchcircumstances,life,andconsequentlytheburdenwhichistheessentialconcomitantoflife,willbeleastfelt.Ourexistencewillglideonpeacefullylikeastreamwhichnowavesorwhirlpoolsdisturb.

SECTION7.Whetherweareinapleasantorapainfulstatedepends,ultimately,uponthekindofmatterthatpervadesandengrossesourconsciousness.Inthisrespect,purelyintellectualoccupation,forthemindthatiscapableofit,will,asarule,domuchmoreinthewayofhappinessthananyformofpracticallife,withitsconstantalternationsofsuccessandfailure,andalltheshocksandtormentsitproduces.Butitmustbeconfessedthatforsuchoccupationapre-eminentamountofintellectualcapacityisnecessary.Andinthisconnectionitmaybenotedthat,justasalifedevotedtooutwardactivitywilldistractanddivertamanfromstudy,andalsodeprivehimofthatquietconcentrationofmind

whichisnecessaryforsuchwork;so,ontheotherhand,alongcourseofthoughtwillmakehimmoreorlessunfitforthenoisypursuitsofreallife.Itisadvisable,therefore,tosuspendmentalworkforawhile,ifcircumstanceshappenwhichdemandanydegreeofenergyinaffairsofapracticalnature.

SECTION8.Tolivealifethatshallbeentirelyprudentanddiscreet,andtodrawfromexperiencealltheinstructionitcontains,itisrequisitetobeconstantlythinkingback—tomakeakindofrecapitulationofwhatwehavedone,ofourimpressionsandsensations,tocompareourformerwithourpresentjudgments—whatwesetbeforeusandstruggletoachieve,withtheactualresultandsatisfactionwehaveobtained.Todothisistogetarepetitionoftheprivatelessonsofexperience—lessonswhicharegiventoeveryone.

Experienceoftheworldmaybelookeduponasakindoftext,towhichreflectionandknowledgeformthecommentary.Wherethereisgreatdealofreflectionandintellectualknowledge,andverylittleexperience,theresultislikethosebookswhichhaveoneachpagetwolinesoftexttofortylinesofcommentary.Agreatdealofexperiencewithlittlereflectionandscantknowledge,givesusbookslikethoseoftheeditioBipontina(13)wheretherearenonotesandmuchthatisunintelligible.

(13)Translator’sNote.AseriesofGreek,LatinandFrenchclassicspublishedatZweibräckeninthePalatinate,fromandaftertheyear1779.Cf.Butter,Ueberdie

BipontinerunddieeditionesBipontinae.]

TheadviceheregivenisonaparwitharulerecommendedbyPythagoras—toreview,everynightbeforegoingtosleep,whatwehavedoneduringtheday.Toliveatrandom,inthehurly-burlyofbusinessorpleasure,withouteverreflectinguponthepast—togoon,asitwere,pullingcottonoffthereeloflife—istohavenoclearideaofwhatweareabout;andamanwholivesinthisstatewillhavechaosinhisemotionsandcertainconfusioninhisthoughts;asissoonmanifestbytheabruptandfragmentarycharacterofhisconversation,whichbecomesakindofmincemeat.Amanwillbeallthemoreexposedtothisfateinproportionashelivesarestlesslifeintheworld,amidacrowdofvariousimpressionsandwithacorrespondinglysmallamountofactivityonthepartofhisownmind.

Andinthisconnectionitwillbeinplacetoobservethat,wheneventsandcircumstanceswhichhaveinfluenceduspassawayinthecourseoftime,weareunabletobringbackandrenewtheparticularmoodorstateoffeelingwhichtheyarousedinus:butwecanrememberwhatwewereledtosayanddoinregardtothem;andthusform,asitwere,theresult,expressionandmeasureofthoseevents.Weshould,therefore,becarefultopreservethememoryofourthoughtsatimportantpointsinourlife;andhereinliesthegreatadvantageofkeepingajournal.

SECTION9.Tobeself-sufficient,tobeallinalltooneself,towantfornothing,tobeabletosayomniameamecumporto—thatisassuredlythechiefqualificationforhappiness.HenceAristotle’sremark,[Greek:haeeudaimoniatonautarchonesti](14)—tobehappymeanstobeself-sufficient—cannotbetoooftenrepeated.Itis,atbottom,thesamethoughtasispresentintheverywell-turnedsentencefromChamfort:

Lebonheurn’estpaschoseaisée:ilesttrèsdifficiledeletrouverennous,etimpossible

deletrouverailleurs.

(14)Eudem.Eth.VII.ii.37.]

Forwhileamancannotreckonwithcertaintyuponanyonebuthimself,theburdensanddisadvantages,thedangersandannoyances,whicharisefromhavingtodowithothers,arenotonlycountlessbutunavoidable.

Thereisnomoremistakenpathtohappinessthanworldliness,revelry,highlife:forthewholeobjectofitistotransformourmiserableexistenceintoasuccessionofjoys,delightsandpleasures—aprocesswhichcannotfailtoresultindisappointmentanddelusion;onapar,inthisrespect,withitsobligatoaccompaniment,theinterchangeoflies.(15)

(15)Asourbodyisconcealedbytheclotheswewear,soourmindisveiledinlies.Theveilisalwaysthere,anditisonlythroughitthatwecansometimesguessatwhataman

reallythinks;justasfromhisclotheswearriveatthegeneralshapeofhisbody.]

Allsocietynecessarilyinvolves,asthefirstconditionofitsexistence,mutualaccommodationandrestraintuponthepartofitsmembers.Thismeansthatthelargeritis,themoreinsipidwillbeitstone.Amancanbehimselfonlysolongasheisalone;andifhedoesnotlovesolitude,hewillnotlovefreedom;foritisonlywhenheisalonethatheisreallyfree.Constraintisalwayspresentinsociety,likeacompanionofwhomthereisnoriddance;andinproportiontothegreatnessofaman’sindividuality,itwillbehardforhimtobearthesacrificeswhichallintercoursewithothersdemands,Solitudewillbewelcomedorenduredoravoided,accordingasaman’spersonalvalueislargeorsmall—thewretchfeeling,whenheisalone,thewholeburdenofhismisery;thegreatintellectdelightinginitsgreatness;andeveryone,inshort,beingjustwhatheis.

Further,ifamanstandshighinNature’slists,itisnaturalandinevitablethatheshouldfeelsolitary.Itwillbeanadvantagetohimifhissurroundingsdonotinterferewiththisfeeling;forifhehastoseeagreatdealofotherpeoplewhoarenotoflikecharacterwithhimself,theywillexerciseadisturbinginfluenceuponhim,adversetohispeaceofmind;theywillrobhim,infact,ofhimself,andgivehimnothingtocompensatefortheloss.

ButwhileNaturesetsverywidedifferencesbetweenmanandmaninrespectbothofmoralityandofintellect,societydisregardsandeffacesthem;or,rather,itsetsupartificialdifferencesintheirstead—gradationsofrankandposition,whichareveryoftendiametricallyopposedtothosewhichNatureestablishes.TheresultofthisarrangementistoelevatethosewhomNaturehasplacedlow,andtodepressthefewwhostandhigh.Theselatter,then,usuallywithdrawfromsociety,where,assoonasitisatallnumerous,vulgarityreignssupreme.

Whatoffendsagreatintellectinsocietyistheequalityofrights,leadingtoequalityofpretensions,whicheveryoneenjoys;whileatthesametime,inequalityofcapacitymeansacorrespondingdisparityofsocialpower.So-calledgoodsocietyrecognizeseverykindofclaimbutthatofintellect,whichisacontrabandarticle;andpeopleareexpectedtoexhibitanunlimitedamountofpatiencetowardseveryformoffollyandstupidity,perversityand

dullness;whilstpersonalmerithastobegpardon,asitwere,forbeingpresent,orelseconcealitselfaltogether.Intellectualsuperiorityoffendsbyitsveryexistence,withoutanydesiretodoso.

Theworstofwhatiscalledgoodsocietyisnotonlythatitoffersusthecompanionshipofpeoplewhoareunabletowineitherourpraiseorouraffection,butthatitdoesnotallowofourbeingthatwhichwenaturallyare;itcompelsus,forthesakeofharmony,toshrivelup,orevenalterourshapealtogether.Intellectualconversation,whethergraveorhumorous,isonlyfitforintellectualsociety;itisdownrightabhorrenttoordinarypeople,topleasewhomitisabsolutelynecessarytobecommonplaceanddull.Thisdemandsanactofsevereself-denial;wehavetoforfeitthree-fourthsofourselvesinordertobecomelikeotherpeople.Nodoubttheircompanymaybesetdownagainstourlossinthisrespect;butthemoreamanisworth,themorehewillfindthatwhathegainsdoesnotcoverwhatheloses,andthatthebalanceisonthedebitsideoftheaccount;forthepeoplewithwhomhedealsaregenerallybankrupt—thatistosay,thereisnothingtobegotfromtheirsocietywhichcancompensateeitherforitsboredom,annoyanceanddisagreeableness,orfortheself-denialwhichitrendersnecessary.Accordingly,mostsocietyissoconstitutedastoofferagoodprofittoanyonewhowillexchangeitforsolitude.

Noristhisall.Bywayofprovidingasubstituteforreal—Imeanintellectual—superiority,whichisseldomtobemetwith,andintolerablewhenitisfound,societyhascapriciouslyadoptedafalsekindofsuperiority,conventionalinitscharacter,andrestinguponarbitraryprinciples—atradition,asitwere,handeddowninthehighercircles,and,likeapassword,subjecttoalteration;Irefertobon-tonfashion.Wheneverthiskindofsuperioritycomesintocollisionwiththerealkind,itsweaknessismanifest.Moreover,thepresenceofgoodtonemeanstheabsenceofgoodsense.

Nomancanbeinperfectaccordwithanyonebuthimself—notevenwithafriendorthepartnerofhislife;differencesofindividualityandtemperamentarealwaysbringinginsomedegreeofdiscord,thoughitmaybeaveryslightone.Thatgenuine,profoundpeaceofmind,thatperfecttranquillityofsoul,which,nexttohealth,isthehighestblessingtheearthcangive,istobeattainedonlyinsolitude,and,asapermanentmood,onlyincompleteretirement;andthen,ifthereisanythinggreatandrichintheman’sownself,hiswayoflifeisthehappiestthatmaybefoundinthiswretchedworld.

Letmespeakplainly.Howeverclosethebondoffriendship,love,marriage—aman,ultimately,lookstohimself,tohisownwelfarealone;atmost,tohischild’stoo.Thelessnecessitythereisforyoutocomeintocontactwithmankindingeneral,intherelationswhetherofbusinessorofpersonalintimacy,thebetteroffyouare.Lonelinessandsolitudehavetheirevils,itistrue;butifyoucannotfeelthemallatonce,youcanatleastseewheretheylie;ontheotherhand,societyisinsidiousinthisrespect;asinofferingyouwhatappearstobethepastimeofpleasingsocialintercourse,itworksgreatandoftenirreparablemischief.Theyoungshouldearlybetrainedtobearbeingleftalone;foritisasourceofhappinessandpeaceofmind.

Itfollowsfromthisthatamanisbestoffifhebethrownuponhisownresourcesandcanbeallinalltohimself;andCicerogoessofarastosaythatamanwhoisinthisconditioncannotfailtobeveryhappy—nemopotestnonbeatissimusessequiesttotusaptusex

sese,quiqueinseunoponitomnia.(16)Themoreamanhasinhimself,thelessotherscanbetohim.Thefeelingofself-sufficiency!itisthatwhichrestrainsthosewhosepersonalvalueisinitselfgreatriches,fromsuchconsiderablesacrificesasaredemandedbyintercoursewiththeworld,letalone,then,fromactuallypracticingself-denialbygoingoutoftheirwaytoseekit.Ordinarypeoplearesociableandcomplaisantjustfromtheveryoppositefeeling;—tobearothers’companyiseasierforthemthantobeartheirown.Moreover,respectisnotpaidinthisworldtothatwhichhasrealmerit;itisreservedforthatwhichhasnone.Soretirementisatonceaproofandaresultofbeingdistinguishedbythepossessionofmeritoriousqualities.Itwillthereforeshowrealwisdomonthepartofanyonewhoisworthanythinginhimself,tolimithisrequirementsasmaybenecessary,inordertopreserveorextendhisfreedom,and—sinceamanmustcomeintosomerelationswithhisfellow-men—toadmitthemtohisintimacyaslittleaspossible.

(16)ParadoxaStoidorum:II.]

Ihavesaidthatpeoplearerenderedsociablebytheirabilitytoenduresolitude,thatistosay,theirownsociety.Theybecomesickofthemselves.Itisthisvacuityofsoulwhichdrivesthemtointercoursewithothers—totravelsinforeigncountries.Theirmindiswantinginelasticity;ithasnomovementofitsown,andsotheytrytogiveitsome—bydrink,forinstance.Howmuchdrunkennessisduetothiscausealone!Theyarealwayslookingforsomeformofexcitement,ofthestrongestkindtheycanbear—theexcitementofbeingwithpeopleoflikenaturewiththemselves;andiftheyfailinthis,theirmindsinksbyitsownweight,andtheyfallintoagrievouslethargy.(17)Suchpeople,itmaybesaid,possessonlyasmallfractionofhumanityinthemselves;anditrequiresagreatmanyofthemputtogethertomakeupafairamountofit—toattainanydegreeofconsciousnessasmen.Aman,inthefullsenseoftheword—amanparexcellence—doesnotrepresentafraction,butawholenumber:heiscompleteinhimself.

(17)Itisawell-knownfact,thatwecanmoreeasilybearupunderevilswhichfalluponagreatmanypeoplebesidesourselves.Asboredomseemstobeanevilofthiskind,peoplebandtogethertoofferitacommonresistance.Theloveoflifeisatbottomonlythefearof

death;and,inthesameway,thesocialimpulsedoesnotrestdirectlyupontheloveofsociety,butuponthefearofsolitude;itisnotalonethecharmofbeinginothers’companythatpeopleseek,itisthedrearyoppressionofbeingalone—themonotonyoftheirown

consciousness—thattheywouldavoid.Theywilldoanythingtoescapeit—eventoleratebadcompanions,andputupwiththefeelingofconstraintwhichallsocietyinvolves,in

thiscaseaveryburdensomeone.Butifaversiontosuchsocietyconquerstheaversiontobeingalone,theybecomeaccustomedtosolitudeandhardenedtoitsimmediateeffects.

Theynolongerfindsolitudetobesuchaverybadthing,andsettledowncomfortablytoitwithoutanyhankeringaftersociety;—andthis,partlybecauseitisonlyindirectlythat

theyneedothers’company,andpartlybecausetheyhavebecomeaccustomedtothebenefitsofbeingalone.]

Ordinarysocietyis,inthisrespect,verylikethekindofmusictobeobtainedfromanorchestracomposedofRussianhorns.Eachhornhasonlyonenote;andthemusicis

producedbyeachnotecominginjustattherightmoment.Inthemonotonoussoundofasinglehorn,youhaveapreciseillustrationoftheeffectofmostpeople’sminds.Howoftenthereseemstobeonlyonethoughtthere!andnoroomforanyother.Itiseasytoseewhypeoplearesobored;andalsowhytheyaresociable,whytheyliketogoaboutincrowds—whymankindissogregarious.Itisthemonotonyofhisownnaturethatmakesamanfindsolitudeintolerable.Omnisstultitialaboratfastidiosui:follyistrulyitsownburden.Putagreatmanymentogether,andyoumaygetsomeresult—somemusicfromyourhorns!

Amanofintellectislikeanartistwhogivesaconcertwithoutanyhelpfromanyoneelse,playingonasingleinstrument—apiano,say,whichisalittleorchestrainitself.Suchamanisalittleworldinhimself;andtheeffectproducedbyvariousinstrumentstogether,heproducessingle-handed,intheunityofhisownconsciousness.Likethepiano,hehasnoplaceinasymphony:heisasoloistandperformsbyhimself—insolitude,itmaybe;or,ifincompanywithotherinstruments,onlyasprincipal;orforsettingthetone,asinsinging.However,thosewhoarefondofsocietyfromtimetotimemayprofitbythissimile,andlayitdownasageneralrulethatdeficiencyofqualityinthosewemeetmaybetosomeextentcompensatedbyanincreaseinquantity.Oneman’scompanymaybequiteenough,ifheisclever;butwhereyouhaveonlyordinarypeopletodealwith,itisadvisabletohaveagreatmanyofthem,sothatsomeadvantagemayaccruebylettingthemallworktogether—ontheanalogyofthehorns;andmayHeavengrantyoupatienceforyourtask!

ThatmentalvacuityandbarrennessofsoultowhichIhavealluded,isresponsibleforanothermisfortune.Whenmenofthebetterclassformasocietyforpromotingsomenobleoridealaim,theresultalmostalwaysisthattheinnumerablemobofhumanitycomescrowdingintoo,asitalwaysdoeseverywhere,likevermin—theirobjectbeingtotryandgetridofboredom,orsomeotherdefectoftheirnature;andanythingthatwilleffectthat,theyseizeuponatonce,withouttheslightestdiscrimination.Someofthemwillslipintothatsociety,orpushthemselvesin,andtheneithersoondestroyitaltogether,oralteritsomuchthatintheenditcomestohaveapurposetheexactoppositeofthatwhichithadatfirst.

Thisisnottheonlypointofviewfromwhichthesocialimpulsemayberegarded.Oncolddayspeoplemanagetogetsomewarmthbycrowdingtogether;andyoucanwarmyourmindinthesameway—bybringingitintocontactwithothers.Butamanwhohasagreatdealofintellectualwarmthinhimselfwillstandinnoneedofsuchresources.Ihavewrittenalittlefableillustratingthis:itmaybefoundelsewhere.(18)Asageneralrule,itmaybesaidthataman’ssociabilitystandsverynearlyininverseratiotohisintellectualvalue:tosaythat“soandso”isveryunsociable,isalmosttantamounttosayingthatheisamanofgreatcapacity.

(18)Translator’sNote.ThepassagetowhichSchopenhauerrefersisParerga:vol.ii.§413(4thedition).Thefableisofcertainporcupines,whohuddledtogetherforwarmthonacoldday;butastheybegantoprickoneanotherwiththeirquills,theywereobligedto

disperse.Howeverthecolddrovethemtogetheragain,whenjustthesamethinghappened.Atlast,aftermanyturnsofhuddlinganddispersing,theydiscoveredthattheywouldbebestoffbyremainingatalittledistancefromoneanother.Inthesameway,the

needofsocietydrivesthehumanporcupinestogether—onlytobemutuallyrepelledbythemanypricklyanddisagreeablequalitiesoftheirnature.Themoderatedistancewhich

theyatlastdiscovertobetheonlytolerableconditionofintercourse,isthecodeofpolitenessandfinemanners;andthosewhotransgressitareroughlytold—intheEnglishphrase—tokeeptheirdistance.Bythisarrangementthemutualneedofwarmthisonly

verymoderatelysatisfied—butthenpeopledonotgetpricked.Amanwhohassomeheatinhimselfpreferstoremainoutside,wherehewillneitherprickotherpeoplenorget

prickedhimself.]

Solitudeisdoublyadvantageoustosuchaman.Firstly,itallowshimtobewithhimself,and,secondly,itpreventshimbeingwithothers—anadvantageofgreatmoment;forhowmuchconstraint,annoyance,andevendangerthereisinallintercoursewiththeworld.Toutnotremal,saysLaBruyère,vientdenepouvoirêtreseul.Itisreallyaveryrisky,nay,afatalthing,tobesociable;becauseitmeanscontactwithnatures,thegreatmajorityofwhicharebadmorally,anddullorperverse,intellectually.Tobeunsociableisnottocareaboutsuchpeople;andtohaveenoughinoneselftodispensewiththenecessityoftheircompanyisagreatpieceofgoodfortune;becausealmostalloursufferingsspringfromhavingtodowithotherpeople;andthatdestroysthepeaceofmind,which,asIhavesaid,comesnextafterhealthintheelementsofhappiness.Peaceofmindisimpossiblewithoutaconsiderableamountofsolitude.TheCynicsrenouncedallprivatepropertyinordertoattaintheblissofhavingnothingtotroublethem;andtorenouncesocietywiththesameobjectisthewisestthingamancando.BernardindeSaintPierrehastheveryexcellentandpertinentremarkthattobesparinginregardtofoodisameansofhealth;inregardtosociety,ameansoftranquillity—ladiètedesailmensnousrendlasantéducorps,etcelledeshommeslatranquillitédel’âme.Tobesoononfriendly,orevenaffectionate,termswithsolitudeislikewinningagoldmine;butthisisnotsomethingwhicheverybodycando.Theprimereasonforsocialintercourseismutualneed;andassoonasthatissatisfied,boredomdrivespeopletogetheroncemore.Ifitwerenotforthesetworeasons,amanwouldprobablyelecttoremainalone;ifonlybecausesolitudeisthesoleconditionoflifewhichgivesfullplaytothatfeelingofexclusiveimportancewhicheverymanhasinhisowneyes—asifheweretheonlypersonintheworld!afeelingwhich,inthethrongandpressofreallife,soonshrivelsuptonothing,getting,ateverystep,apainfuldémenti.Fromthispointofviewitmaybesaidthatsolitudeistheoriginalandnaturalstateofman,where,likeanotherAdam,heisashappyashisnaturewillallow.

Butstill,hadAdamnofatherormother?Thereisanothersenseinwhichsolitudeisnotthenaturalstate;for,athisentranceintotheworld,amanfindshimselfwithparents,brothers,sisters,thatistosay,insociety,andnotalone.Accordinglyitcannotbesaidthattheloveofsolitudeisanoriginalcharacteristicofhumannature;itisrathertheresultofexperienceandreflection,andtheseintheirturndependuponthedevelopmentofintellectualpower,andincreasewiththeyears.

Speakinggenerally,sociabilitystandsininverseratiowithage.Alittlechildraisesapiteouscryoffrightifitisleftaloneforonlyafewminutes;andlateron,tobeshutupbyitselfisagreatpunishment.Youngpeoplesoongetonveryfriendlytermswithoneanother;itisonlythefewamongthemofanynobilityofmindwhoaregladnowandthen

tobealone;—buttospendthewholedaythuswouldbedisagreeable.Agrown-upmancaneasilydoit;itislittletroubletohimtobemuchalone,anditbecomeslessandlesstroubleasheadvancesinyears.Anoldmanwhohasoutlivedallhisfriends,andiseitherindifferentordeadtothepleasuresoflife,isinhisproperelementinsolitude;andinindividualcasesthespecialtendencytoretirementandseclusionwillalwaysbeindirectproportiontointellectualcapacity.

Forthistendencyisnot,asIhavesaid,apurelynaturalone;itdoesnotcomeintoexistenceasadirectneedofhumannature;itisrathertheeffectoftheexperiencewegothrough,theproductofreflectionuponwhatourneedsreallyare;proceeding,moreespecially,fromtheinsightweattainintothewretchedstuffofwhichmostpeoplearemade,whetheryoulookattheirmoralsortheirintellects.Theworstofitallisthat,intheindividual,moralandintellectualshortcomingsarecloselyconnectedandplayintoeachother’shands,sothatallmannerofdisagreeableresultsareobtained,whichmakeintercoursewithmostpeoplenotonlyunpleasantbutintolerable.Hence,thoughtheworldcontainsmanythingswhicharethoroughlybad,theworstthinginitissociety.EvenVoltaire,thatsociableFrenchman,wasobligedtoadmitthatthereareeverywherecrowdsofpeoplenotworthtalkingto:laterreestcouvertedegensquineméritentpasqu’onleurparle.AndPetrarchgivesasimilarreasonforwishingtobealone—thattenderspirit!sostrongandconstantinhisloveofseclusion.Thestreams,theplainsandwoodsknowwell,hesays,howhehastriedtoescapetheperverseandstupidpeoplewhohavemissedthewaytoheaven:—

Cercatohosempresolitariavita

(Leriveilsanno,elecampagneeiboschi)

Perfuggirquest’ingegnistortieloschi

Chelastradadelciel’hannosmarrita.

Hepursuesthesamestraininthatdelightfulbookofhis,DeVitaSolitaria,whichseemstohavegivenZimmermantheideaofhiscelebratedworkonSolitude.ItisthesecondaryandindirectcharacteroftheloveofseclusiontowhichChamfortalludesinthefollowingpassage,couchedinhissarcasticvein:Onditquelquefoisd’unhommequivitseul,iln’aimepaslasociété.C’estsouventcommesiondisaitd’unhommequ’iln’aimepaslapromenade,souslepretextequ’ilnesepromènepasvolontierslesoirdansleforêtdeBondy.

YouwillfindasimilarsentimentexpressedbythePersianpoetSadi,inhisGardenofRoses.Sincethattime,hesays,wehavetakenleaveofsociety,preferringthepathofseclusion;forthereissafetyinsolitude.AngelusSilesius,(19)averygentleandChristianwriter,confessestothesamefeeling,inhisownmythicallanguage.Herod,hesays,isthecommonenemy;andwhen,aswithJoseph,Godwarnsusofdanger,weflyfromtheworldtosolitude,fromBethlehemtoEgypt;orelsesufferinganddeathawaitus!—

HerodesisteinFeind;derJosephderVerstand,

DemmachteGottdieGefahrimTraum(inGeist)bekannt;

DieWeltistBethlehem,AegyptenEinsamkeit,

Fleuch,meineSeele!fleuch,sonststirbestduvorLeid.

(19)Translator’sNote.AngelusSilesius,pseudonymforJohannesScheffler,aphysicianandmysticpoetoftheseventeenthcentury(1624-77).]

GiordanoBrunoalsodeclareshimselfafriendofseclusion.Tantiuomini,hesays,cheinterrahannovolutogustarevitaceleste,disseroconunavoce,“ecceelongavifugiensetmansiinsolitudine“—thosewhointhisworldhavedesiredaforetasteofthedivinelife,havealwaysproclaimedwithonevoice:

Lo!thenwouldIwanderfaroff;

Iwouldlodgeinthewilderness.(20)

(20)Psalms,lv.7.]

AndintheworkfromwhichIhavealreadyquoted,Sadisaysofhimself:IndisgustwithmyfriendsatDamascus,IwithdrewintothedesertaboutJerusalem,toseekthesocietyofthebeastsofthefield.Inshort,thesamethinghasbeensaidbyallwhomPrometheushasformedoutofbetterclay.Whatpleasurecouldtheyfindinthecompanyofpeoplewithwhomtheironlycommongroundisjustwhatislowestandleastnobleintheirownnature—thepartofthemthatiscommonplace,trivialandvulgar?Whatdotheywantwithpeoplewhocannotrisetoahigherlevel,andforwhomnothingremainsbuttodragothersdowntotheirs?forthisiswhattheyaimat.Itisanaristocraticfeelingthatisatthebottomofthispropensitytoseclusionandsolitude.

Rascalsarealwayssociable—more’sthepity!andthechiefsignthatamanhasanynobilityinhischaracteristhelittlepleasurehetakesinothers’company.Hepreferssolitudemoreandmore,and,incourseoftime,comestoseethat,withfewexceptions,theworldoffersnochoicebeyondsolitudeononesideandvulgarityontheother.Thismaysoundahardthingtosay;butevenAngelusSilesius,withallhisChristianfeelingsofgentlenessandlove,wasobligedtoadmitthetruthofit.Howeverpainfulsolitudemaybe,hesays,becarefulnottobevulgar;forthenyoumayfindadeserteverywhere:—

DieEinsamkeitistnoth:dochseinurnichtgemein,

SokannstduüberallineinerWüstesein.

Itisnaturalforgreatminds—thetrueteachersofhumanity—tocarelittleabouttheconstantcompanyofothers;justaslittleastheschoolmastercaresforjoininginthegambolsofthenoisycrowdofboyswhichsurroundhim.Themissionofthesegreatmindsistoguidemankindovertheseaoferrortothehavenoftruth—todrawitforthfromthedarkabyssesofabarbarousvulgarityupintothelightofcultureandrefinement.Menofgreatintellectliveintheworldwithoutreallybelongingtoit;andso,fromtheirearliestyears,theyfeelthatthereisaperceptibledifferencebetweenthemandotherpeople.Butitisonlygradually,withthelapseofyears,thattheycometoaclearunderstandingoftheirposition.Theirintellectualisolationisthenreinforcedbyactualseclusionintheirmanneroflife;theyletnooneapproachwhoisnotinsomedegreeemancipatedfromtheprevailingvulgarity.

Fromwhathasbeensaiditisobviousthattheloveofsolitudeisnotadirect,originalimpulseinhumannature,butrathersomethingsecondaryandofgradualgrowth.Itisthemoredistinguishingfeatureofnoblerminds,developednotwithoutsomeconquestofnaturaldesires,andnowandtheninactualoppositiontothepromptingsofMephistopheles—biddingyouexchangeamoroseandsoul-destroyingsolitudeforlifeamongstmen,forsociety;eventheworst,hesays,willgiveasenseofhumanfellowship:—

Hör’aufmitdeinemGramzuspielen,

Der,wieeinGeier,diramLebenfrisst:

DieschlechtesteGesellschaftlässtdichfühlen

DassdueinMenschmitMenschenbist.(21)

(21)Goethe’sFaust,PartI.,1281-5.]

Tobealoneisthefateofallgreatminds—afatedeploredattimes,butstillalwayschosenasthelessgrievousoftwoevils.Astheyearsincrease,italwaysbecomeseasiertosay,Daretobewise—sapereaude.Andaftersixty,theinclinationtobealonegrowsintoakindofreal,naturalinstinct;foratthatageeverythingcombinesinfavorofit.Thestrongestimpulse—theloveofwoman’ssociety—haslittleornoeffect;itisthesexlessconditionofoldagewhichlaysthefoundationofacertainself-sufficiency,andthatgraduallyabsorbsalldesireforothers’company.Athousandillusionsandfolliesareovercome;theactiveyearsoflifeareinmostcasesgone;amanhasnomoreexpectationsorplansorintentions.Thegenerationtowhichhebelongedhaspassedaway,andanewracehassprungupwhichlooksuponhimasessentiallyoutsideitssphereofactivity.Andthentheyearspassmorequicklyaswebecomeolder,andwewanttodevoteourremainingtimetotheintellectualratherthantothepracticalsideoflife.For,providedthatthemindretainsitsfaculties,theamountofknowledgeandexperiencewehaveacquired,togetherwiththefacilitywehavegainedintheuseofourpowers,makesitthenmorethanevereasyandinterestingtoustopursuethestudyofanysubject.Athousandthingsbecomeclearwhichwereformerlyenvelopedinobscurity,andresultsareobtainedwhichgiveafeelingofdifficultiesovercome.Fromlongexperienceofmen,weceasetoexpectmuchfromthem;wefindthat,onthewhole,peopledonotgainbyaneareracquaintance;andthat—apartfromafewrareandfortunateexceptions—wehavecomeacrossnonebutdefectivespecimensofhumannaturewhichitisadvisabletoleaveinpeace.Wearenomoresubjecttotheordinaryillusionsoflife;andas,inindividualinstances,wesoonseewhatamanismadeof,weseldomfeelanyinclinationtocomeintocloserrelationswithhim.Finally,isolation—ourownsociety—hasbecomeahabit,asitwereasecondnaturetous,moreespeciallyifwehavebeenonfriendlytermswithitfromouryouthup.Theloveofsolitudewhichwasformerlyindulgedonlyattheexpenseofourdesireforsociety,hasnowcometobethesimplequalityofournaturaldisposition—theelementpropertoourlife,aswatertoafish.Thisiswhyanyonewhopossessesauniqueindividuality—unlikeothersandthereforenecessarilyisolated—feelsthat,ashebecomesolder,hispositionisnolongersoburdensomeaswhenhewasyoung.

For,asamatteroffact,thisverygenuineprivilegeofoldageisonewhichcanbeenjoyed

onlyifamanispossessedofacertainamountofintellect;itwillbeappreciatedmostofallwherethereisrealmentalpower;butinsomedegreebyeveryone.Itisonlypeopleofverybarrenandvulgarnaturewhowillbejustassociableintheiroldageastheywereintheiryouth.Butthentheybecometroublesometoasocietytowhichtheyarenolongersuited,and,atmost,managetobetolerated;whereas,theywereformerlyingreatrequest.

Thereisanotheraspectofthisinverseproportionbetweenageandsociability—thewayinwhichitconducestoeducation.Theyoungerthatpeopleare,themoreineveryrespecttheyhavetolearn;anditisjustinyouththatNatureprovidesasystemofmutualeducation,sothatmereintercoursewithothers,atthattimeoflife,carriesinstructionwithit.Humansociety,fromthispointofview,resemblesahugeacademyoflearning,ontheBellandLancastersystem,opposedtothesystemofeducationbymeansofbooksandschools,assomethingartificialandcontrarytotheinstitutionsofNature.Itisthereforeaverysuitablearrangementthat,inhisyoungdays,amanshouldbeaverydiligentstudentattheplaceoflearningprovidedbyNatureherself.

Butthereisnothinginlifewhichhasnotsomedrawback—nihilestabomnipartebeatum,asHoracesays;or,inthewordsofanIndianproverb,nolotuswithoutastalk.Seclusion,whichhassomanyadvantages,hasalsoitslittleannoyancesanddrawbacks,whicharesmall,however,incomparisonwiththoseofsociety;henceanyonewhoisworthmuchinhimselfwillgetonbetterwithoutotherpeoplethanwiththem.Butamongstthedisadvantagesofseclusionthereisonewhichisnotsoeasytoseeastherest.Itisthis:whenpeopleremainindoorsallday,theybecomephysicallyverysensitivetoatmosphericchanges,sothateverylittledraughtisenoughtomakethemill;sowithourtemper;alongcourseofseclusionmakesitsosensitivethatthemosttrivialincidents,words,orevenlooks,aresufficienttodisturbortovexandoffendus—littlethingswhichareunnoticedbythosewholiveintheturmoiloflife.

Whenyoufindhumansocietydisagreeableandfeelyourselfjustifiedinflyingtosolitude,youcanbesoconstitutedastobeunabletobearthedepressionofitforanylengthoftime,whichwillprobablybethecaseifyouareyoung.Letmeadviseyou,then,toformthehabitoftakingsomeofyoursolitudewithyouintosociety,tolearntobetosomeextentaloneeventhoughyouareincompany;nottosayatoncewhatyouthink,and,ontheotherhand,nottoattachtoopreciseameaningtowhatotherssay;rather,nottoexpectmuchofthem,eithermorallyorintellectually,andtostrengthenyourselfinthefeelingofindifferencetotheiropinion,whichisthesurestwayofalwayspracticingapraiseworthytoleration.Ifyoudothat,youwillnotlivesomuchwithotherpeople,thoughyoumayappeartomoveamongstthem:yourrelationtothemwillbeofapurelyobjectivecharacter.Thisprecautionwillkeepyoufromtooclosecontactwithsociety,andthereforesecureyouagainstbeingcontaminatedorevenoutragedbyit.(22)Societyisinthisrespectlikeafire—thewisemanwarminghimselfataproperdistancefromit;notcomingtooclose,likethefool,who,ongettingscorched,runsawayandshiversinsolitude,loudinhiscomplaintthatthefireburns.

(22)Thisrestricted,or,asitwere,entrenchedkindofsociabilityhasbeendramaticallyillustratedinaplay—wellworthreading—ofMoratin’s,entitledElCaféoseala

ComediaNuova(TheCafeortheNewComedy),chieflybyoneofthecharacters,DonPedroandespeciallyinthesecondandthirdscenesofthefirstact.]

SECTION10.Envyisnaturaltoman;andstill,itisatonceaviceandasourceofmisery.(23)Weshouldtreatitastheenemyofourhappiness,andstifleitlikeanevilthought.ThisistheadvicegivenbySeneca;ashewellputsit,weshallbepleasedwithwhatwehave,ifweavoidtheself-tortureofcomparingourownlotwithsomeotherandhappierone—nostranossinecomparationedelectent;nunquameritfelixquemtorquebitfelicior.(24)Andagain,quumadspexerisquotteantecedent,cogitaquotsequantur(25)—ifagreatmanypeopleappeartobebetteroffthanyourself,thinkhowmanythereareinaworseposition.Itisafactthatifrealcalamitycomesuponus,themosteffectiveconsolation—thoughitspringsfromthesamesourceasenvy—isjustthethoughtofgreatermisfortunesthanours;andthenextbestisthesocietyofthosewhoareinthesameluckaswe—thepartnersofoursorrows.

(23)Envyshowshowunhappypeopleare;andtheirconstantattentiontowhatothersdoandleaveundone,howmuchtheyarebored.]

(24)DeIra:iii.,30.]

(25)Epist.xv.]

Somuchfortheenvywhichwemayfeeltowardsothers.Asregardstheenvywhichwemayexciteinthem,itshouldalwaysberememberedthatnoformofhatredissoimplacableasthehatredthatcomesfromenvy;andthereforeweshouldalwayscarefullyrefrainfromdoinganythingtorouseit;nay,aswithmanyanotherformofvice,itisbetteraltogethertorenounceanypleasuretheremaybeinit,becauseoftheseriousnatureofitsconsequences.

Aristocraciesareofthreekinds:(1)ofbirthandrank;(2)ofwealth;and(3)ofintellect.Thelastisreallythemostdistinguishedofthethree,anditsclaimtooccupythefirstpositioncomestoberecognized,ifitisonlyallowedtimetowork.SoeminentakingasFredericktheGreatadmittedit—lesâmesprivilegiéesrangentàl’égaldessouverains,ashesaidtohischamberlain,whenthelatterexpressedhissurprisethatVoltaireshouldhaveaseatatthetablereservedforkingsandprinces,whilstministersandgeneralswererelegatedtothechamberlain’s.

Everyoneofthesearistocraciesissurroundedbyahostofenviouspersons.Ifyoubelongtooneofthem,theywillbesecretlyembitteredagainstyou;andunlesstheyarerestrainedbyfear,theywillalwaysbeanxioustoletyouunderstandthatyouarenobetterthanthey.Itisbytheiranxietytoletyouknowthis,thattheybetrayhowgreatlytheyareconsciousthattheoppositeisthetruth.

Thelineofconducttobepursuedifyouareexposedtoenvy,istokeeptheenviouspersonsatadistance,and,asfaraspossible,avoidallcontactwiththem,sothattheremaybeawidegulffixedbetweenyouandthem;ifthiscannotbedone,tobeartheirattackswiththegreatestcomposure.Inthelattercase,theverythingthatprovokestheattackwillalsoneutralizeit.Thisiswhatappearstobegenerallydone.

Themembersofoneofthesearistocraciesusuallygetonverywellwiththoseofanother,andthereisnocallforenvybetweenthem,becausetheirseveralprivilegeseffectan

equipoise.

SECTION11.Givematureandrepeatedconsiderationtoanyplanbeforeyouproceedtocarryitout;andevenafteryouhavethoroughlyturneditoverinyourmind,makesomeconcessiontotheincompetencyofhumanjudgment;foritmayalwayshappenthatcircumstanceswhichcannotbeinvestigatedorforeseen,willcomeinandupsetthewholeofyourcalculation.Thisisareflectionthatwillalwaysinfluencethenegativesideofthebalance—akindofwarningtorefrainfromunnecessaryactioninmattersofimportance—quietanonmovere.Buthavingoncemadeupyourmindandbegunyourwork,youmustletitrunitscourseandabidetheresult—notworryyourselfbyfreshreflectionsonwhatisalreadyaccomplished,orbyarenewalofyourscruplesonthescoreofpossibledanger:freeyourmindfromthesubjectaltogether,andrefusetogointoitagain,secureinthethoughtthatyougaveitmatureattentionatthepropertime.ThisisthesameadviceasisgivenbyanItalianproverb—legalabeneepoilascialaandare—whichGoethehastranslatedthus:Seewelltoyourgirths,andthenrideonboldly.(26)

(26)Itmaybeobserved,inpassing,thatagreatmanyofthemaximswhichGoetheputsundertheheadofProverbial,aretranslationsfromtheItalian.]

Andif,notwithstandingthat,youfail,itisbecausehumanaffairsarethesportofchanceanderror.Socrates,thewisestofmen,neededthewarningvoiceofhisgoodgenius,or[Greek:daimonion],toenablehimtodowhatwasrightinregardtohisownpersonalaffairs,oratanyrate,toavoidmistakes;whicharguesthatthehumanintellectisincompetentforthepurpose.Thereisasaying—whichisreportedtohaveoriginatedwithoneofthePopes—thatwhenmisfortunehappenstous,theblameofit,atleastinsomedegree,attachestoourselves.Ifthisisnottrueabsolutelyandineveryinstance,itiscertainlytrueinthegreatmajorityofcases.Itevenlooksasifthistruthhadagreatdealtodowiththeeffortpeoplemakeasfaraspossibletoconcealtheirmisfortunes,andtoputthebestfacetheycanuponthem,forfearlesttheirmisfortunesmayshowhowmuchtheyaretoblame.

SECTION12.Inthecaseofamisfortunewhichhasalreadyhappenedandthereforecannotbealtered,youshouldnotallowyourselftothinkthatitmighthavebeenotherwise;stillless,thatitmighthavebeenavoidedbysuchandsuchmeans;forreflectionsofthiskindwillonlyaddtoyourdistressandmakeitintolerable,sothatyouwillbecomeatormentortoyourself—[Greek:heautontimoroumeaeos].ItisbettertofollowtheexampleofKingDavid;who,aslongashissonlayonthebedofsickness,assailedJehovahwithunceasingsupplicationsandentreatiesforhisrecovery;butwhenhewasdead,snappedhisfingersandthoughtnomoreofit.Ifyouarenotlight-heartedenoughforthat,youcantakerefugeinfatalism,andhavethegreattruthrevealedtoyouthateverythingwhichhappensistheresultofnecessity,andthereforeinevitable.

Howevergoodthisadvicemaybe,itisone-sidedandpartial.Inrelievingandquietingusforthemoment,itisnodoubteffectiveenough;butwhenourmisfortuneshaveresulted—asisusuallythecase—fromourowncarelessnessorfolly,or,atanyrate,partlybyourownfault,itisagoodthingtoconsiderhowtheymighthavebeenavoided,andtoconsideritofteninspiteofitsbeingatendersubject—asalutaryformofself-discipline,

whichwillmakeuswiserandbettermenforthefuture.Ifwehavemadeobviousmistakes,weshouldnottry,aswegenerallydo,toglossthemover,ortofindsomethingtoexcuseorextenuatethem;weshouldadmittoourselvesthatwehavecommittedfaults,andopenoureyeswidetoalltheirenormity,inorderthatwemayfirmlyresolvetoavoidthemintimetocome.Tobesure,thatmeansagreatdealofself-inflictedpain,intheshapeofdiscontent,butitshouldberememberedthattosparetherodistospoilthechild—[Greek:homaedareisanthroposoupaideuetai].(27)

(27)Menander.Monost:422.]

SECTION13.Inallmattersaffectingourwealorwoe,weshouldbecarefulnottoletourimaginationrunawaywithus,andbuildnocastlesintheair.Inthefirstplace,theyareexpensivetobuild,becausewehavetopullthemdownagainimmediately,andthatisasourceofgrief.Weshouldbestillmoreonourguardagainstdistressingourheartsbydepictingpossiblemisfortunes.Iftheseweremisfortunesofapurelyimaginarykind,orveryremoteandunlikely,weshouldatoncesee,onawakingfromourdream,thatthewholethingwasmereillusion;weshouldrejoiceallthemoreinarealitybetterthanourdreams,oratmost,bewarnedagainstmisfortuneswhich,thoughveryremote,werestillpossible.These,however,arenotthesortofplaythingsinwhichimaginationdelights;itisonlyinidlehoursthatwebuildcastlesintheair,andtheyarealwaysofapleasingdescription.Thematterwhichgoestoformgloomydreamsaremischanceswhichtosomeextentreallythreatenus,thoughitbefromsomedistance;imaginationmakesuslooklargerandnearerandmoreterriblethantheyareinreality.Thisisakindofdreamwhichcannotbesoreadilyshakenoffonawakingasapleasantone;forapleasantdreamissoondispelledbyreality,leaving,atmost,afeeblehopelyinginthelapofpossibility.Oncewehaveabandonedourselvestoafitoftheblues,visionsareconjuredupwhichdonotsoeasilyvanishagain;foritisalwaysjustpossiblethatthevisionsmayberealized.Butwearenotalwaysabletoestimatetheexactdegreeofpossibility:possibilitymayeasilypassintoprobability;andthuswedeliverourselvesuptotorture.Thereforeweshouldbecarefulnottobeover-anxiousonanymatteraffectingourwealorourwoe,nottocarryouranxietytounreasonableorinjudiciouslimits;butcoollyanddispassionatelytodeliberateuponthematter,asthoughitwereanabstractquestionwhichdidnottouchusinparticular.Weshouldgivenoplaytoimaginationhere;forimaginationisnotjudgment—itonlyconjuresupvisions,inducinganunprofitableandoftenverypainfulmood.

TheruleonwhichIamhereinsistingshouldbemostcarefullyobservedtowardsevening.Forasdarknessmakesustimidandapttoseeterrifyingshapeseverywhere,thereissomethingsimilarintheeffectofindistinctthought;anduncertaintyalwaysbringswithitasenseofdanger.Hence,towardsevening,whenourpowersofthoughtandjudgmentarerelaxed—atthehour,asitwere,ofsubjectivedarkness—theintellectbecomestired,easilyconfused,andunabletogetatthebottomofthings;andif,inthatstate,wemeditateonmattersofpersonalinteresttoourselves,theysoonassumeadangerousandterrifyingaspect.Thisismostlythecaseatnight,whenweareinbed;forthenthemindisfullyrelaxed,andthepowerofjudgmentquiteunequaltoitsduties;butimaginationisstillawake.Nightgivesablacklooktoeverything,whateveritmaybe.Thisiswhyourthoughts,justbeforewegotosleep,oraswelieawakethroughthehoursofthenight,are

usuallysuchconfusionsandperversionsoffactsasdreamsthemselves;andwhenourthoughtsatthattimeareconcentrateduponourownconcerns,theyaregenerallyasblackandmonstrousaspossible.Inthemorningallsuchnightmaresvanishlikedreams:astheSpanishproverbhasit,nochetinta,biancoeldia—thenightiscolored,thedayiswhite.Buteventowardsnightfall,assoonasthecandlesarelit,themind,liketheeye,nolongerseesthingssoclearlyasbyday:itisatimeunsuitedtoseriousmeditation,especiallyonunpleasantsubjects.Themorningisthepropertimeforthat—asindeedforalleffortswithoutexception,whethermentalorbodily.Forthemorningistheyouthoftheday,wheneverythingisbright,fresh,andeasyofattainment;wefeelstrongthen,andallourfacultiesarecompletelyatourdisposal.Donotshortenthemorningbygettinguplate,orwasteitinunworthyoccupationsorintalk;lookuponitasthequintessenceoflife,astoacertainextentsacred.Eveningislikeoldage:wearelanguid,talkative,silly.Eachdayisalittlelife:everywakingandrisingalittlebirth,everyfreshmorningalittleyouth,everygoingtorestandsleepalittledeath.

Butconditionofhealth,sleep,nourishment,temperature,weather,surroundings,andmuchelsethatispurelyexternal,have,ingeneral,animportantinfluenceuponourmoodandthereforeuponourthoughts.Hencebothourviewofanymatterandourcapacityforanyworkareverymuchsubjecttotimeandplace.Soitisbesttoprofitbyagoodmood—forhowseldomitcomes!—

NehmtdieguteStimmungwahr,

Dennsiekommtsoselten.(28)

(28)Goethe.]

Wearenotalwaysabletoformnewideasabout;oursurroundings,ortocommandoriginalthoughts:theycomeiftheywill,andwhentheywill.Andso,too,wecannotalwayssucceedincompletelyconsideringsomepersonalmatterattheprecisetimeatwhichwehavedeterminedbeforehandtoconsiderit,andjustwhenwesetourselvestodoso.Forthepeculiartrainofthoughtwhichisfavorabletoitmaysuddenlybecomeactivewithoutanyspecialcallbeingmadeuponit,andwemaythenfollowitupwithkeeninterest.Inthiswayreflection,too,choosesitsowntime.

Thisreining-inoftheimaginationwhichIamrecommending,willalsoforbidustosummonupthememoryofthepastmisfortune,topaintadarkpictureoftheinjusticeorharmthathasbeendoneus,thelosseswehavesustained,theinsults,slightsandannoyancestowhichwehavebeenexposed:fortodothatistorouseintofreshlifeallthosehatefulpassionslonglaidasleep—theangerandresentmentwhichdisturbandpolluteournature.Inanexcellentparable,Proclus,theNeoplatonist,pointsouthowineverytownthemobdwellssidebysidewiththosewhoarerichanddistinguished:so,too,ineveryman,beheneversonobleanddignified,thereis,inthedepthofhisnature,amoboflowandvulgardesireswhichconstitutehimananimal.Itwillnotdotoletthismobrevoltorevensomuchaspeepforthfromitshiding-place;itishideousofmien,anditsrebelleadersarethoseflightsofimaginationwhichIhavebeendescribing.Thesmallestannoyance,whetheritcomesfromourfellow-menorfromthethingsaroundus,mayswellupintoamonsterofdreadfulaspect,puttingusatourwits’end—andallbecause

wegoonbroodingoverourtroublesandpaintingtheminthemostglaringcolorsandonthelargestscale.Itismuchbettertotakeaverycalmandprosaicviewofwhatisdisagreeable;forthatistheeasiestwayofbearingit.

Ifyouholdsmallobjectsclosetoyoureyes,youlimityourfieldofvisionandshutouttheworld.And,inthesameway,thepeopleorthethingswhichstandnearest,eventhoughtheyareoftheverysmallestconsequence,areapttoclaimanamountofattentionmuchbeyondtheirdue,occupyingusdisagreeably,andleavingnoroomforseriousthoughtsandaffairsofimportance.Weoughttoworkagainstthistendency.

SECTION14.Thesightofthingswhichdonotbelongtousisveryapttoraisethethought:Ah,ifthatwereonlymine!makingussensibleofourprivation.Insteadofthatweshoulddobetterbymorefrequentlyputtingtoourselvestheoppositecase:Ah,ifthatwerenotmine.WhatImeanisthatweshouldsometimestrytolookuponourpossessionsinthelightinwhichtheywouldappearifwehadlostthem;whatevertheymaybe,property,health,friends,awifeorchildorsomeoneelsewelove,ourhorseorourdog—itisusuallyonlywhenwehavelostthemthatwebegintofindouttheirvalue.ButifwecometolookatthingsinthewayIrecommend,weshallbedoublythegainers;weshallatoncegetmorepleasureoutofthemthanwedidbefore,andweshalldoeverythinginourpowertopreventthelossofthem;forinstance,bynotriskingourproperty,orangeringourfriends,orexposingourwivestotemptation,orbeingcarelessaboutourchildren’shealth,andsoon.

Weoftentrytobanishthegloomanddespondencyofthepresentbyspeculatinguponourchancesofsuccessinthefuture;aprocesswhichleadsustoinventagreatmanychimericalhopes.Everyoneofthemcontainsthegermofillusion,anddisappointmentisinevitablewhenourhopesareshatteredbythehardfactsoflife.

Itislesshurtfultotakethechancesofmisfortuneasathemeforspeculation;because,indoingso,weprovideourselvesatoncewithmeasuresofprecautionagainstit,andapleasantsurprisewhenitfailstomakeitsappearance.Isitnotafactthatwealwaysfeelamarkedimprovementinourspiritswhenwebegintogetoveraperiodofanxiety?Imaygofurtherandsaythatthereissomeuseinoccasionallylookinguponterriblemisfortunes—suchasmighthappentous—asthoughtheyhadactuallyhappened,forthenthetrivialreverseswhichsubsequentlycomeinreality,aremucheasiertobear.Itisasourceofconsolationtolookbackuponthosegreatmisfortuneswhichneverhappened.Butinfollowingoutthisrule,caremustbetakennottoneglectwhatIhavesaidintheprecedingsection.

SECTION15.Thethingswhichengageourattention—whethertheyaremattersofbusinessorordinaryevents—areofsuchdiversekinds,that,iftakenquiteseparatelyandinnofixedorderorrelation,theypresentamedleyofthemostglaringcontrasts,withnothingincommon,exceptthattheyoneandallaffectusinparticular.Theremustbeacorrespondingabruptnessinthethoughtsandanxietieswhichthesevariousmattersarouseinus,ifourthoughtsaretobeinkeepingwiththeirvarioussubjects.Therefore,insettingaboutanything,thefirststepistowithdrawourattentionfromeverythingelse:thiswillenableustoattendtoeachmatteratitsowntime,andtoenjoyorputupwithit,quiteapartfromanythoughtofourremaininginterests.Ourthoughtsmustbearranged,asitwere,inlittledrawers,sothatwemayopenonewithoutdisturbinganyoftheothers.

Inthiswaywecankeeptheheavyburdenofanxietyfromweighinguponussomuchastospoilthelittlepleasuresofthepresent,orfromrobbingusofourrest;otherwisetheconsiderationofonematterwillinterferewitheveryother,andattentiontosomeimportantbusinessmayleadustoneglectmanyaffairswhichhappentobeoflessmoment.Itismostimportantforeveryonewhoiscapableofhigherandnoblerthoughtstokeeptheirmindfrombeingsocompletelyengrossedwithprivateaffairsandvulgartroublesastoletthemtakeupallhisattentionandcrowdoutworthiermatter;forthatis,inaveryrealsense,tolosesightofthetrueendoflife—proptervitamvivendiperderecausas.

Ofcourseforthis—asforsomuchelse—self-controlisnecessary;withoutit,wecannotmanageourselvesinthewayIhavedescribed.Andself-controlmaynotappearsoverydifficult,ifweconsiderthateverymanhastosubmittoagreatdealofveryseverecontrolonthepartofhissurroundings,andthatwithoutitnoformofexistenceispossible.Further,alittleself-controlattherightmomentmaypreventmuchsubsequentcompulsionatthehandsofothers;justasaverysmallsectionofacircleclosetothecentremaycorrespondtoapartnearthecircumferenceahundredtimesaslarge.Nothingwillprotectusfromexternalcompulsionsomuchasthecontrolofourselves;and,asSenecasays,tosubmityourselftoreasonisthewaytomakeeverythingelsesubmittoyou—sitibivisomniasubjicere,tesubjicerationi.Self-control,too,issomethingwhichwehaveinourownpower;andiftheworstcomestotheworst,andittouchesusinaverysensitivepart,wecanalwaysrelaxitsseverity.Butotherpeoplewillpaynoregardtoourfeelings,iftheyhavetousecompulsion,andweshallbetreatedwithoutpityormercy.Thereforeitwillbeprudenttoanticipatecompulsionbyself-control.

SECTION16.Wemustsetlimitstoourwishes,curbourdesires,moderateouranger,alwaysrememberingthatanindividualcanattainonlyaninfinitesimalshareinanythingthatisworthhaving;andthat,ontheotherhand,everyonemustincurmanyoftheillsoflife;inaword,wemustbearandforbear—abstinereetsustinere;andifwefailtoobservethisrule,nopositionofwealthorpowerwillpreventusfromfeelingwretched.ThisiswhatHoracemeanswhenherecommendsustostudycarefullyandinquirediligentlywhatwillbestpromoteatranquillife—nottobealwaysagitatedbyfruitlessdesiresandfearsandhopesforthings,which,afterall,arenotworthverymuch:—

Intercunctalegesetpercontaberedoctos

Quarationequeastraducereleniteraevum;

Netesemperinopsagitetvexetquecupido,

Nepavor,etrerummediocriterutiliumspes.(29)

(29)Epist.I.xviii.97.]

SECTION17.Lifeconsistsinmovement,saysAristotle;andheisobviouslyright.Weexist,physically,becauseourorganismistheseatofconstantmotion;andifwearetoexistintellectually,itcanonlybebymeansofcontinualoccupation—nomatterwithwhatsolongasitissomeformofpracticalormentalactivity.Youmayseethatthisissobythewayinwhichpeoplewhohavenoworkornothingtothinkabout,immediately

begintobeatthedevil’stattoowiththeirknucklesorastickoranythingthatcomeshandy.Thetruthis,thatournatureisessentiallyrestlessinitscharacter:weverysoongettiredofhavingnothingtodo;itisintolerableboredom.Thisimpulsetoactivityshouldberegulated,andsomesortofmethodintroducedintoit,whichofitselfwillenhancethesatisfactionweobtain.Activity!—doingsomething,ifpossiblecreatingsomething,atanyratelearningsomething—howfortunateitisthatmencannotexistwithoutthat!Amanwantstousehisstrength,tosee,ifhecan,whateffectitwillproduce;andhewillgetthemostcompletesatisfactionofthisdesireifhecanmakeorconstructsomething—beitabookorabasket.Thereisadirectpleasureinseeingworkgrowunderone’shandsdaybyday,untilatlastitisfinished.Thisisthepleasureattachingtoaworkofartoramanuscript,orevenmeremanuallabor;and,ofcourse,thehigherthework,thegreaterpleasureitwillgive.

Fromthispointofview,thosearehappiestofallwhoareconsciousofthepowertoproducegreatworksanimatedbysomesignificantpurpose:itgivesahigherkindofinterest—asortofrareflavor—tothewholeoftheirlife,which,byitsabsencefromthelifeoftheordinaryman,makesit,incomparison,somethingveryinsipid.Forrichlyendowednatures,lifeandtheworldhaveaspecialinterestbeyondthemereeverydaypersonalinterestwhichsomanyothersshare;andsomethinghigherthanthat—aformalinterest.Itisfromlifeandtheworldthattheygetthematerialfortheirworks;andassoonastheyarefreedfromthepressureofpersonalneeds,itistothediligentcollectionofmaterialthattheydevotetheirwholeexistence.Sowiththeirintellect:itistosomeextentofatwo-foldcharacter,anddevotedpartlytotheordinaryaffairsofeveryday—thosemattersofwillwhicharecommontothemandtherestofmankind,andpartlytotheirpeculiarwork—thepureandobjectivecontemplationofexistence.Andwhile,onthestageoftheworld,mostmenplaytheirlittlepartandthenpassaway,thegeniuslivesadoublelife,atonceanactorandaspectator.

Leteveryone,then,dosomething,accordingtothemeasureofhiscapacities.Tohavenoregularwork,nosetsphereofactivity—whatamiserablethingitis!Howoftenlongtravelsundertakenforpleasuremakeamandownrightunhappy;becausetheabsenceofanythingthatcanbecalledoccupationforceshim,asitwere,outofhisrightelement.Effort,struggleswithdifficulties!thatisasnaturaltoamanasgrubbinginthegroundistoamole.Tohaveallhiswantssatisfiedissomethingintolerable—thefeelingofstagnationwhichcomesfrompleasuresthatlasttoolong.Toovercomedifficultiesistoexperiencethefulldelightofexistence,nomatterwheretheobstaclesareencountered;whetherintheaffairsoflife,incommerceorbusiness;orinmentaleffort—thespiritofinquirythattriestomasteritssubject.Thereisalwayssomethingpleasurableinthestruggleandthevictory.Andifamanhasnoopportunitytoexcitehimself,hewilldowhathecantocreateone,andaccordingtohisindividualbent,hewillhuntorplayCupandBall:orledonbythisunsuspectedelementinhisnature,hewillpickaquarrelwithsomeone,orhatchaplotorintrigue,ortaketoswindlingandrascallycoursesgenerally—alltoputanendtoastateofreposewhichisintolerable.AsIhaveremarked,difficilisinotioquies—itisdifficulttokeepquietifyouhavenothingtodo.

SECTION18.Amanshouldavoidbeingledonbythephantomsofhisimagination.Thisisnotthesamethingastosubmittotheguidanceofideasclearlythoughtout:andyetthesearerulesoflifewhichmostpeoplepervert.Ifyouexaminecloselyintothe

circumstanceswhich,inanydeliberation,ultimatelyturnthescaleinfavorofsomeparticularcourse,youwillgenerallyfindthatthedecisionisinfluenced,notbyanycleararrangementofideasleadingtoaformaljudgment,butbysomefancifulpicturewhichseemstostandforoneofthealternativesinquestion.

InoneofVoltaire’sorDiderot’sromances—Iforgettheprecisereference—thehero,standinglikeayoungHerculesatthepartingofways,canseenootherrepresentationofVirtuethanhisoldtutorholdingasnuff-boxinhislefthand,fromwhichhetakesapinchandmoralizes;whilstViceappearsintheshapeofhismother’schambermaid.Itisinyouth,moreespecially,thatthegoalofoureffortscomestobeafancifulpictureofhappiness,whichcontinuestohoverbeforeoureyessometimesforhalfandevenforthewholeofourlife—asortofmockingspirit;forwhenwethinkourdreamistoberealized,thepicturefadesaway,leavingustheknowledgethatnothingofwhatitpromisedisactuallyaccomplished.Howoftenthisissowiththevisionsofdomesticity—thedetailedpictureofwhatourhomewillbelike;or,oflifeamongourfellow-citizensorinsociety;or,again,oflivinginthecountry—thekindofhouseweshallhave,itssurroundings,themarksofhonorandrespectthatwillbepaidtous,andsoon—whateverourhobbymaybe;chaquefouasamarotte.Itisoftenthesame,too,withourdreamsaboutonewelove.Andthisisallquitenatural;forthevisionsweconjureupaffectusdirectly,asthoughtheywererealobjects;andsotheyexerciseamoreimmediateinfluenceuponourwillthananabstractidea,whichgivesmerelyavague,generaloutline,devoidofdetails;andthedetailsarejusttherealpartofit.Wecanbeonlyindirectlyaffectedbyanabstractidea,andyetitistheabstractideaalonewhichwilldoasmuchasitpromises;anditisthefunctionofeducationtoteachustoputourtrustinit.Ofcoursetheabstractideamustbeoccasionallyexplained—paraphrased,asitwere—bytheaidofpictures;butdiscreetly,cumgranosalis.

SECTION19.Theprecedingrulemaybetakenasaspecialcaseofthemoregeneralmaxim,thatamanshouldneverlethimselfbemasteredbytheimpressionsofthemoment,orindeedbyoutwardappearancesatall,whichareincomparablymorepowerfulintheireffectsthanthemereplayofthoughtoratrainofideas;notbecausethesemomentaryimpressionsarerichinvirtueofthedatatheysupply—itisoftenjustthecontrary—butbecausetheyaresomethingpalpabletothesensesanddirectintheirworking;theyforciblyinvadeourmind,disturbingourreposeandshatteringourresolutions.

Itiseasytounderstandthatthethingwhichliesbeforeourveryeyeswillproducethewholeofitseffectatonce,butthattimeandleisurearenecessaryfortheworkingofthoughtandtheappreciationofargument,asitisimpossibletothinkofeverythingatoneandthesamemoment.Thisiswhywearesoalluredbypleasure,inspiteofallourdeterminationtoresistit;orsomuchannoyedbyacriticism,eventhoughweknowthatitsauthorittotallyincompetenttojudge;orsoirritatedbyaninsult,thoughitcomesfromsomeverycontemptiblequarter.Inthesameway,tomentionnootherinstances,tenreasonsforthinkingthatthereisnodangermaybeoutweighedbyonemistakennotionthatitisactuallyathand.Allthisshowstheradicalunreasonofhumannature.Womenfrequentlysuccumbaltogethertothispredominatinginfluenceofpresentimpressions,andtherearefewmensooverweightedwithreasonastoescapesufferingfromasimilarcause.

Ifitisimpossibletoresisttheeffectsofsomeexternalinfluencebythemereplayofthought,thebestthingtodoistoneutralizeitbysomecontraryinfluence;forexample,theeffectofaninsultmaybeovercomebyseekingthesocietyofthosewhohaveagoodopinionofus;andtheunpleasantsensationofimminentdangermaybeavoidedbyfixingourattentiononthemeansofwardingitoff.

Leibnitz(30)tellsofanItalianwhomanagedtobearupunderthetorturesoftherackbyneverforamomentceasingtothinkofthegallowswhichwouldhaveawaitedhim,hadherevealedhissecret;hekeptoncryingout:Iseeit!Iseeit!—afterwardsexplainingthatthiswaspartofhisplan.

(30)NouveauxEssais.Liv.I.ch.2.Sec.11.]

Itisfromsomesuchreasonasthis,thatwefinditsodifficulttostandaloneinamatterofopinion—nottobemadeirresolutebythefactthateveryoneelsedisagreeswithusandactsaccordingly,eventhoughwearequitesurethattheyareinthewrong.Takethecaseofafugitivekingwhoistryingtoavoidcapture;howmuchconsolationhemustfindintheceremoniousandsubmissiveattitudeofafaithfulfollower,exhibitedsecretlysoasnottobetrayhismaster’sstrictincognito;itmustbealmostnecessarytopreventhimdoubtinghisownexistence.

SECTION20.InthefirstpartofthisworkIhaveinsisteduponthegreatvalueofhealthasthechiefandmostimportantelementinhappiness.LetmeemphasizeandconfirmwhatIhavetheresaidbygivingafewgeneralrulesastoitspreservation.

Thewaytohardenthebodyistoimposeagreatdealoflaborandeffortuponitinthedaysofgoodhealth—toexerciseit,bothasawholeandinitsseveralparts,andtohabituateittowithstandallkindsofnoxiousinfluences.Butontheappearanceofanillnessordisorder,eitherinthebodyasawholeorinmanyofitsparts,acontrarycourseshouldbetaken,andeverymeansusedtonursethebody,orthepartofitwhichisaffected,andtospareitanyeffort;forwhatisailinganddebilitatedcannotbehardened.

Themusclesmaybestrengthenedbyavigoroususeofthem;butnotsothenerves;theyareweakenedbyit.Therefore,whileexercisingthemusclesineverywaythatissuitable,careshouldbetakentosparethenervesasmuchaspossible.Theeyes,forinstance,shouldbeprotectedfromtoostrongalight—especiallywhenitisreflectedlight—fromanystrainingoftheminthedark,orfromthelong-continuedexaminationofminuteobjects;andtheearsfromtooloudsounds.Aboveall,thebrainshouldneverbeforced,orusedtoomuch,oratthewrongtime;letithavearestduringdigestion;forthenthesamevitalenergywhichformsthoughtsinthebrainhasagreatdealofworktodoelsewhere—Imeaninthedigestiveorgans,whereitprepareschymeandchyle.Forsimilarreasons,thebrainshouldneverbeusedduring,orimmediatelyafter,violentmuscularexercise.Forthemotornervesareinthisrespectonaparwiththesensorynerves;thepainfeltwhenalimbiswoundedhasitsseatinthebrain;and,inthesameway,itisnotreallyourlegsandarmswhichworkandmove—itisthebrain,or,morestrictly,thatpartofitwhich,throughthemediumofthespine,excitesthenervesinthelimbsandsetstheminmotion.Accordingly,whenourarmsandlegsfeeltired,thetrueseatofthisfeelingisinthebrain.Thisiswhyitisonlyinconnectionwiththosemuscleswhicharesetinmotionconsciouslyand

voluntarily—inotherwords,dependfortheiractionuponthebrain—thatanyfeelingoffatiguecanarise;thisisnotthecasewiththosemuscleswhichworkinvoluntarily,liketheheart.Itisobvious,then,thatinjuryisdonetothebrainifviolentmuscularexerciseandintellectualexertionareforceduponitatthesamemoment,oratveryshortintervals.

WhatIsaystandsinnocontradictionwiththefactthatatthebeginningofawalk,oratanyperiodofashortstroll,thereoftencomesafeelingofenhancedintellectualvigor.Thepartsofthebrainthatcomeintoplayhavehadnotimetobecometired;andbesides,slightmuscularexerciseconducestoactivityoftherespiratoryorgans,andcausesapurerandmoreoxydatedsupplyofarterialbloodtomounttothebrain.

Itismostimportanttoallowthebrainthefullmeasureofsleepwhichisrequiredtorestoreit;forsleepistoaman’swholenaturewhatwindingupistoaclock.(31)Thismeasurewillvarydirectlywiththedevelopmentandactivityofthebrain;tooverstepthemeasureismerewasteoftime,becauseifthatisdone,sleepgainsonlysomuchinlengthasitlosesindepth.(32)

(31)Of.WeltalsWilleundVorstellung,4thEdition.Bk.II.pp.236-40.]

(32)Cf.loc:cit:p.275.Sleepisamorselofdeathborrowedtokeepupandrenewthepartoflifewhichisexhaustedbytheday—lesommeilestunempruntfaitàlamort.Orit

mightbesaidthatsleepistheinterestwehavetopayonthecapitalwhichiscalledinatdeath;andthehighertherateofinterestandthemoreregularlyitispaid,thefurtherthe

dateofredemptionispostponed.]

Itshouldbeclearlyunderstoodthatthoughtisnothingbuttheorganicfunctionofthebrain;andithastoobeythesamelawsinregardtoexertionandreposeasanyotherorganicfunction.Thebraincanberuinedbyoverstrain,justliketheeyes.Asthefunctionofthestomachistodigest,soitisthatofthebraintothink.Thenotionofasoul—assomethingelementaryandimmaterial,merelylodginginthebrainandneedingnothingatallfortheperformanceofitsessentialfunction,whichconsistsinalwaysandunweariedlythinking—hasundoubtedlydrivenmanypeopletofoolishpractices,leadingtoadeadeningoftheintellectualpowers;FredericktheGreat,even,oncetriedtoformthehabitofdoingwithoutsleepaltogether.Itwouldbewellifprofessorsofphilosophyrefrainedfromgivingcurrencytoanotionwhichisattendedbypracticalresultsofaperniciouscharacter;butthenthisisjustwhatprofessorialphilosophydoes,initsold-womanishendeavortokeepongoodtermswiththecatechism.Amanshouldaccustomhimselftoviewhisintellectualcapacitiesinnootherlightthanthatofphysiologicalfunctions,andtomanagethemaccordingly—nursingorexercisingthemasthecasemaybe;rememberingthateverykindofphysicalsuffering,maladyordisorder,inwhateverpartofthebodyitoccurs,hasitseffectuponthemind.ThebestadvicethatIknowonthissubjectisgivenbyCabanisinhisRapportsduphysiqueetdumoraldel’homme.(33)

(33)Translator’sNote.TheworktowhichSchopenhauerhererefersisaseriesofessaysbyCabanis,aFrenchphilosopher(1757-1808),treatingofmentalandmoralphenomena

onaphysiologicalbasis.Inhislaterdays,Cabaniscompletelyabandonedhismaterialisticstandpoint.]

Throughneglectofthisrule,manymenofgeniusandgreatscholarshavebecomeweak-mindedandchildish,orevengonequitemad,astheygrewold.Totakenootherinstances,therecanbenodoubtthatthecelebratedEnglishpoetsoftheearlypartofthiscentury,Scott,Wordsworth,Southey,becameintellectuallydullandincapabletowardstheendoftheirdays,nay,soonafterpassingtheirsixtiethyear;andthattheirimbecilitycanbetracedtothefactthat,atthatperiodoflife,theywereallledon?bythepromiseofhighpay,totreatliteratureasatradeandtowriteformoney.Thisseducedthemintoanunnaturalabuseoftheirintellectualpowers;andamanwhoputshisPegasusintoharness,andurgesonhisMusewiththewhip,willhavetopayapenaltysimilartothatwhichisexactedbytheabuseofotherkindsofpower.

AndeveninthecaseofKant,Isuspectthatthesecondchildhoodofhislastfouryearswasduetooverworkinlaterlife,andafterhehadsucceededinbecomingafamousman.

Everymonthoftheyearhasitsownpeculiaranddirectinfluenceuponhealthandbodilyconditiongenerally;nay,evenuponthestateofthemind.Itisaninfluencedependentupontheweather.

OurRelationtoOthers.

SECTION21.Inmakinghiswaythroughlife,amanwillfinditusefultobereadyandabletodotwothings:tolookaheadandtooverlook:theonewillprotecthimfromlossandinjury,theotherfromdisputesandsquabbles.

Noonewhohastoliveamongstmenshouldabsolutelydiscardanypersonwhohashisdueplaceintheorderofnature,eventhoughheisverywickedorcontemptibleorridiculous.Hemustaccepthimasanunalterablefact—unalterable,becausethenecessaryoutcomeofaneternal,fundamentalprinciple;andinbadcasesheshouldrememberthewordsofMephistopheles:esmussauchsolcheKäuzegeben(34)—theremustbefoolsandroguesintheworld.Ifheactsotherwise,hewillbecommittinganinjustice,andgivingachallengeoflifeanddeathtothemanhediscards.Noonecanalterhisownpeculiarindividuality,hismoralcharacter,hisintellectualcapacity,histemperamentorphysique;andifwegosofarastocondemnamanfromeverypointofview,therewillbenothinglefthimbuttoengageusindeadlyconflict;forwearepracticallyallowinghimtherighttoexistonlyonconditionthathebecomesanotherman—whichisimpossible;hisnatureforbidsit.

(34)Goethe’sFaust,PartI.]

Soifyouhavetoliveamongstmen,youmustalloweveryonetherighttoexistinaccordancewiththecharacterhehas,whateveritturnsouttobe:andallyoushouldstrivetodoistomakeuseofthischaracterinsuchawayasitskindandnaturepermit,ratherthantohopeforanyalterationinit,ortocondemnitoff-handforwhatitis.Thisisthetruesenseofthemaxim—Liveandletlive.That,however,isataskwhichisdifficultinproportionasitisright;andheisahappymanwhocanonceforallavoidhavingtodowithagreatmanyofhisfellowcreatures.

Theartofputtingupwithpeoplemaybelearnedbypracticingpatienceoninanimateobjects,which,invirtueofsomemechanicalorgeneralphysicalnecessity,opposeastubbornresistancetoourfreedomofaction—aformofpatiencewhichisrequiredeveryday.Thepatiencethusgainedmaybeappliedtoourdealingswithmen,byaccustomingourselvestoregardtheiropposition,whereverweencounterit,astheinevitableoutcomeoftheirnature,whichsetsitselfupagainstusinvirtueofthesamerigidlawofnecessityasgovernstheresistanceofinanimateobjects.Tobecomeindignantattheirconductisasfoolishastobeangrywithastonebecauseitrollsintoyourpath.Andwithmanypeoplethewisestthingyoucando,istoresolvetomakeuseofthosewhomyoucannotalter.

SECTION22.Itisastonishinghoweasilyandhowquicklysimilarity,ordifferenceofmindanddisposition,makesitselffeltbetweenonemanandanotherassoonastheybegintotalk:everylittletrifleshowsit.Whentwopeopleoftotallydifferentnaturesareconversing,almosteverythingsaidbytheonewill,inagreaterorlessdegree,displeasetheother,andinmanycasesproducepositiveannoyance;eventhoughtheconversationturnuponthemostout-of-the-waysubject,oroneinwhichneitherofthepartieshasanyrealinterest.Peopleofsimilarnature,ontheotherhand,immediatelycometofeelakindofgeneralagreement;andiftheyarecastverymuchinthesamemould,completeharmonyorevenunisonwillflowfromtheirintercourse.

Thisexplaintwocircumstances.Firstofall,itshowswhyitisthatcommon,ordinarypeoplearesosociableandfindgoodcompanywherevertheygo.Ah!thosegood,dear,bravepeople.Itisjustthecontrarywiththosewhoarenotofthecommonrun;andthelesstheyareso,themoreunsociabletheybecome;sothatif,intheirisolation,theychancetocomeacrosssomeoneinwhosenaturetheycanfindevenasinglesympatheticchord,beitneversominute,theyshowextraordinarypleasureinhissociety.Foronemancanbetoanotheronlysomuchastheotheristohim.Greatmindsarelikeeagles,andbuildtheirnestinsomeloftysolitude.

Secondly,weareenabledtounderstandhowitisthatpeopleoflikedispositionsoquicklygetonwithoneanother,asthoughtheyweredrawntogetherbymagneticforce—kindredsoulsgreetingeachotherfromafar.Ofcoursethemostfrequentopportunityofobservingthisisaffordedbypeopleofvulgartastesandinferiorintellect,butonlybecausetheirnameislegion;whilethosewhoarebetteroffinthisrespectandofararernature,arenotoftentobemetwith:theyarecalledrarebecauseyoucanseldomfindthem.

Takethecaseofalargenumberofpeoplewhohaveformedthemselvesintoaleagueforthepurposeofcarryingoutsomepracticalobject;iftherebetworascalsamongthem,theywillrecognizeeachotherasreadilyasiftheyboreasimilarbadge,andwillatonceconspireforsomemisfeasanceortreachery.Inthesameway,ifyoucanimagine—perimpossible—alargecompanyofveryintelligentandcleverpeople,amongstwhomthereareonlytwoblockheads,thesetwowillbesuretobedrawntogetherbyafeelingofsympathy,andeachofthemwillverysoonsecretlyrejoiceathavingfoundatleastoneintelligentpersoninthewholecompany.Itisreallyquitecurioustoseehowtwosuchmen,especiallyiftheyaremorallyandintellectuallyofaninferiortype,willrecognizeeachotheratfirstsight;withwhatzealtheywillstrivetobecomeintimate;howaffablyandcheerilytheywillruntogreeteachother,justasthoughtheywereoldfriends;—itisallsostrikingthatoneistemptedtoembracetheBuddhistdoctrineofmetempsychosis

andpresumethattheywereonfamiliartermsinsomeformerstateofexistence.

Still,inspiteofallthisgeneralagreement,menarekeptapartwhomightcometogether;or,insomecases,apassingdiscordspringsupbetweenthem.Thisisduetodiversityofmood.Youwillhardlyeverseetwopeopleexactlyinthesameframeofmind;forthatissomethingwhichvarieswiththeirconditionoflife,occupation,surroundings,health,thetrainofthoughttheyareinatthemoment,andsoon.Thesedifferencesgiverisetodiscordbetweenpersonsofthemostharmoniousdisposition.Tocorrectthebalanceproperly,soastoremovethedisturbance—tointroduce,asitwere,auniformtemperature—isaworkdemandingaveryhighdegreeofculture.Theextenttowhichuniformityofmoodisproductiveofgood-fellowshipmaybemeasuredbyitseffectsuponalargecompany.When,forinstance,agreatmanypeoplearegatheredtogetherandpresentedwithsomeobjectiveinterestwhichworksuponallalikeandinfluencestheminasimilarway,nomatterwhatitbe—acommondangerorhope,somegreatnews,aspectacle,aplay,apieceofmusic,oranythingofthatkind—youwillfindthemrousedtoamutualexpressionofthought,andadisplayofsincereinterest.Therewillbeageneralfeelingofpleasureamongstthem;forthatwhichattractstheirattentionproducesaunityofmoodbyoverpoweringallprivateandpersonalinterests.

AndindefaultofsomeobjectiveinterestofthekindIhavementioned,recourseisusuallyhadtosomethingsubjective.Abottleofwineisnotanuncommonmeansofintroducingamutualfeelingoffellowship;andeventeaandcoffeeareusedforalikeend.

Thediscordwhichsoeasilyfindsitswayintoallsocietyasaneffectofthedifferentmoodsinwhichpeoplehappentobeforthemoment,alsoinpartexplainswhyitisthatmemoryalwaysidealizes,andsometimesalmosttransfigures,theattitudewehavetakenupatanyperiodofthepast—achangeduetoourinabilitytorememberallthefleetinginfluenceswhichdisturbedusonanygivenoccasion.Memoryisinthisrespectlikethelensofacameraobscura:itcontractseverythingwithinitsrange,andsoproducesamuchfinerpicturethantheactuallandscapeaffords.And,inthecaseofaman,absencealwaysgoessomewaytowardssecuringthisadvantageouslight;forthoughtheidealizingtendencyofthememoryrequirestimestocompleteitswork,itbeginsitatonce.Henceitisaprudentthingtoseeyourfriendsandacquaintancesonlyatconsiderableintervalsoftime;andonmeetingthemagain,youwillobservethatmemoryhasbeenatwork.

SECTION23.Nomancanseeoverhisownheight.LetmeexplainwhatImean.

Youcannotseeinanothermananymorethanyouhaveinyourself;andyourownintelligencestrictlydeterminestheextenttowhichhecomeswithinitsgrasp.Ifyourintelligenceisofaveryloworder,mentalqualitiesinanother,eventhoughtheybeofthehighestkind,willhavenoeffectatalluponyou;youwillseenothingintheirpossessorexceptthemeanestsideofhisindividuality—inotherwords,justthosepartsofhischaracteranddispositionwhichareweakanddefective.Yourwholeestimateofthemanwillbeconfinedtohisdefects,andhishighermentalqualitieswillnomoreexistforyouthancolorsexistforthosewhocannotsee.

Intellectisinvisibletothemanwhohasnone.Inanyattempttocriticiseanother’swork,therangeofknowledgepossessedbythecriticisasessentialapartofhisverdictastheclaimsoftheworkitself.

Henceintercoursewithothersinvolvesaprocessoflevelingdown.Thequalitieswhicharepresentinoneman,andabsentinanother,cannotcomeintoplaywhentheymeet;andtheself-sacrificewhichthisentailsupononeoftheparties,callsforthnorecognitionfromtheother.

Considerhowsordid,howstupid,inaword,howvulgarmostmenare,andyouwillseethatitisimpossibletotalktothemwithoutbecomingvulgaryourselfforthetimebeing.Vulgarityisinthisrespectlikeelectricity;itiseasilydistributed.Youwillthenfullyappreciatethetruthandproprietyoftheexpression,tomakeyourselfcheap;andyouwillbegladtoavoidthesocietyofpeoplewhoseonlypossiblepointofcontactwithyouisjustthatpartofyournatureofwhichyouhaveleastreasontobeproud.Soyouwillseethat,indealingwithfoolsandblockheads,thereisonlyonewayofshowingyourintelligence—byhavingnothingtodowiththem.Thatmeans,ofcourse,thatwhenyougointosociety,youmaynowandthenfeellikeagooddancerwhogetsaninvitationtoaball,andonarriving,findsthateveryoneislame:—withwhomishetodance?

SECTION24.Ifeelrespectfortheman—andheisoneinahundred—who,whenheiswaitingorsittingunoccupied,refrainsfromrattlingorbeatingtimewithanythingthathappenstobehandy—hisstick,orknifeandfork,orwhateverelseitmaybe.Theprobabilityisthatheisthinkingofsomething.

Withalargenumberofpeople,itisquiteevidentthattheirpowerofsightcompletelydominatesovertheirpowerofthought;theyseemtobeconsciousofexistenceonlywhentheyaremakinganoise;unlessindeedtheyhappentobesmoking,forthisservesasimilarend.Itisforthesamereasonthattheyneverfailtobealleyesandearsforwhatisgoingonaroundthem.

SECTION25.LaRochefoucauldmakesthestrikingremarkthatitisdifficulttofeeldeepvenerationandgreataffectionforoneandthesameperson.Ifthisisso,weshallhavetochoosewhetheritisvenerationorlovethatwewantfromourfellow-men.

Theirloveisalwaysselfish,thoughinverydifferentways;andthemeansusedtogainitarenotalwaysofakindtomakeusproud.Amanislovedbyothersmainlyinthedegreeinwhichhemoderateshisclaimontheirgoodfeelingandintelligence:buthemustactgenuinelyinthematterandwithoutdissimulation—notmerelyoutofforbearance,whichisatbottomakindofcontempt.ThiscallstomindaverytrueobservationofHelvetius(35):theamountofintellectnecessarytopleaseus,isamostaccuratemeasureoftheamountofintellectwehaveourselves.Withtheseremarksaspremises,itiseasytodrawtheconclusion.

(35)Translator’sNote.Helvetius,Claude-Adrien(1715-71),aFrenchphilosophicalwritermuchesteemedbySchopenhauer.Hischiefwork,Del’Esprit,excitedgreatinterest

andoppositionatthetimeofitspublication,onaccountoftheauthor’spronouncedmaterialism.]

Nowwithvenerationthecaseisjusttheopposite;itiswrungfrommenreluctantly,andforthatveryreasonmostlyconcealed.Hence,ascomparedwithlove,venerationgivesmorerealsatisfaction;foritisconnectedwithpersonalvalue,andthesameisnotdirectlytrueoflove,whichissubjectiveinitsnature,whilstvenerationisobjective.Tobesure,it

ismoreusefultobelovedthantobevenerated.

SECTION26.Mostmenaresothoroughlysubjectivethatnothingreallyintereststhembutthemselves.Theyalwaysthinkoftheirowncaseassoonaseveranyremarkismade,andtheirwholeattentionisengrossedandabsorbedbythemerestchancereferencetoanythingwhichaffectsthempersonally,beitneversoremote:withtheresultthattheyhavenopowerleftforforminganobjectiveviewofthings,shouldtheconversationtakethatturn;neithercantheyadmitanyvalidityinargumentswhichtellagainsttheirinterestortheirvanity.Hencetheirattentioniseasilydistracted.Theyaresoreadilyoffended,insultedorannoyed,thatindiscussinganyimpersonalmatterwiththem,nocareistoogreattoavoidlettingyourremarksbeartheslightestpossiblereferencetotheveryworthyandsensitiveindividualswhomyouhavebeforeyou;foranythingyoumaysaywillperhapshurttheirfeelings.Peoplereallycareaboutnothingthatdoesnotaffectthempersonally.Trueandstrikingobservations,fine,subtleandwittythingsarelostuponthem:theycannotunderstandorfeelthem.Butanythingthatdisturbstheirpettyvanityinthemostremoteandindirectway,orreflectsprejudiciallyupontheirexceedinglypreciousselves—tothat,theyaremosttenderlysensitive.Inthisrespecttheyarelikethelittledogwhosetoesyouaresoapttotreaduponinadvertently—youknowitbytheshrillbarkitsetsup:or,again,theyresembleasickmancoveredwithsoresandboils,withwhomthegreatestcaremustbetakentoavoidunnecessaryhandling.Andinsomepeoplethisfeelingreachessuchapassthat,iftheyaretalkingwithanyone,andheexhibits,ordoesnotsufficientlyconceal,hisintelligenceanddiscernment,theylookuponitasadownrightinsult;althoughforthemomenttheyhidetheirillwill,andtheunsuspectingauthorofitafterwardsruminatesinvainupontheirconduct,andrackshisbraintodiscoverwhathecouldpossiblyhavedonetoexcitetheirmaliceandhatred.

Butitisjustaseasytoflatterandwinthemover;andthisiswhytheirjudgmentisusuallycorrupt,andwhytheiropinionsareswayed,notbywhatisreallytrueandright,butbythefavorofthepartyorclasstowhichtheybelong.Andtheultimatereasonofitallis,thatinsuchpeopleforceofwillgreatlypredominatesoverknowledge;andhencetheirmeagreintellectiswhollygivenuptotheserviceofthewill,andcanneverfreeitselffromthatserviceforamoment.

Astrologyfurnishesamagnificentproofofthismiserablesubjectivetendencyinmen,whichleadsthemtoseeeverythingonlyasbearinguponthemselves,andtothinkofnothingthatisnotstraightwaymadeintoapersonalmatter.TheaimofastrologyistobringthemotionsofthecelestialbodiesintorelationwiththewretchedEgoandtoestablishaconnectionbetweenacometintheskyandsquabblesandrascalitiesonearth.(36)

(36)See,forinstance,Stobasus,Eclog.I.xxii.9.]

SECTION27.Whenanywrongstatementismade,whetherinpublicorinsociety,orinbooks,andwellreceived—or,atanyrate,notrefuted—thatthatisnoreasonwhyyoushoulddespairorthinktherethematterwillrest.Youshouldcomfortyourselfwiththereflectionthatthequestionwillbeafterwardsgraduallysubjectedtoexamination;lightwillbethrownuponit;itwillbethoughtover,considered,discussed,andgenerallyinthe

endthecorrectviewwillbereached;sothat,afteratime—thelengthofwhichwilldependuponthedifficultyofthesubject—everyonewillcometounderstandthatwhichaclearheadsawatonce.

Inthemeantime,ofcourse,youmusthavepatience.Hewhocanseetrulyinthemidstofgeneralinfatuationislikeamanwhosewatchkeepsgoodtime,whenallclocksinthetowninwhichhelivesarewrong.Healoneknowstherighttime;butwhatuseisthattohim?foreveryonegoesbytheclockswhichspeakfalse,notevenexceptingthosewhoknowthathiswatchistheonlyonethatisright.

SECTION28.Menarelikechildren,inthat,ifyouspoilthem,theybecomenaughty.

Thereforeitiswellnottobetooindulgentorcharitablewithanyone.Youmaytakeitasageneralrulethatyouwillnotloseafriendbyrefusinghimaloan,butthatyouareverylikelytodosobygrantingit;and,forsimilarreasons,youwillnotreadilyalienatepeoplebybeingsomewhatproudandcarelessinyourbehaviour;butifyouareverykindandcomplaisanttowardsthem,youwilloftenmakethemarrogantandintolerable,andsoabreachwillensue.

Thereisonethingthat,morethananyother,throwspeopleabsolutelyofftheirbalance—thethoughtthatyouaredependentuponthem.Thisissuretoproduceaninsolentanddomineeringmannertowardsyou.Therearesomepeople,indeed,whobecomerudeifyouenterintoanykindofrelationwiththem;forinstance,ifyouhaveoccasiontoconversewiththemfrequentlyuponconfidentialmatters,theysooncometofancythattheycantakelibertieswithyou,andsotheytryandtransgressthelawsofpoliteness.Thisiswhytherearesofewwithwhomyoucaretobecomemoreintimate,andwhyyoushouldavoidfamiliaritywithvulgarpeople.IfamancomestothinkthatIammoredependentuponhimthanheisuponme,heatoncefeelsasthoughIhadstolensomethingfromhim;andhisendeavorwillbetohavehisvengeanceandgetitback.Theonlywaytoattainsuperiorityindealingwithmen,istoletitbeseenthatyouareindependentofthem.

Andinthisviewitisadvisabletoleteveryoneofyouracquaintance—whethermanorwoman—feelnowandthenthatyoucouldverywelldispensewiththeircompany.Thiswillconsolidatefriendship.Nay,withmostpeopletherewillbenoharminoccasionallymixingagrainofdisdainwithyourtreatmentofthem;thatwillmakethemvalueyourfriendshipallthemore.Chinonistimavienstimato,asasubtleItalianproverbhasit—todisregardistowinregard.Butifwereallythinkveryhighlyofaperson,weshouldconcealitfromhimlikeacrime.Thisisnotaverygratifyingthingtodo,butitisright.Why,adogwillnotbearbeingtreatedtookindly,letaloneaman!

SECTION29.Itisoftenthecasethatpeopleofnoblecharacterandgreatmentalgiftsbetrayastrangelackofworldlywisdomandadeficiencyintheknowledgeofmen,moreespeciallywhentheyareyoung;withtheresultthatitiseasytodeceiveormisleadthem;andthat,ontheotherhand,naturesofthecommonersortaremorereadyandsuccessfulinmakingtheirwayintheworld.

Thereasonofthisisthat,whenamanhaslittleornoexperience,hemustjudgebyhisownantecedentnotions;andinmattersdemandingjudgment,anantecedentnotionisneveronthesamelevelasexperience.For,withthecommonersortofpeople,anantecedentnotionmeansjusttheirownselfishpointofview.Thisisnotthecasewith

thosewhosemindandcharacterareabovetheordinary;foritispreciselyinthisrespect—theirunselfishness—thattheydifferfromtherestofmankind;andastheyjudgeotherpeople’sthoughtsandactionsbytheirownhighstandard,theresultdoesnotalwaystallywiththeircalculation.

Butif,intheend,amanofnoblecharactercomestosee,astheeffectofhisownexperience,orbythelessonshelearnsfromothers,whatitisthatmaybeexpectedofmeningeneral—namely,thatfive-sixthsofthemaremorallyandintellectuallysoconstitutedthat,ifcircumstancesdonotplaceyouinrelationwiththem,youhadbettergetoutoftheirwayandkeepasfaraspossiblefromhavinganythingtodowiththem—still,hewillscarcelyeverattainanadequatenotionoftheirwretchedlymeanandshabbynature:allhislifelonghewillhavetobeextendingandaddingtotheinferiorestimateheformsofthem;andinthemeantimehewillcommitagreatmanymistakesanddohimselfharm.

Then,again,afterhehasreallytakentoheartthelessonsthathavebeentaughthim,itwilloccasionallyhappenthat,whenheisinthesocietyofpeoplewhomhedoesnotknow,hewillbesurprisedtofindhowthoroughlyreasonabletheyallappeartobe,bothintheirconversationandintheirdemeanor—infact,quitehonest,sincere,virtuousandtrustworthypeople,andatthesametimeshrewdandclever.

Butthatoughtnottoperplexhim.Natureisnotlikethosebadpoets,who,insettingafooloraknavebeforeus,dotheirworksoclumsily,andwithsuchevidentdesign,thatyoumightalmostfancyyousawthepoetstandingbehindeachofhischaracters,andcontinuallydisavowingtheirsentiments,andtellingyouinatoneofwarning:Thisisaknave;thatisafool;donotmindwhathesays.ButNaturegoestoworklikeShakespeareandGoethe,poetswhomakeeveryoneoftheircharacters—evenifitisthedevilhimself!—appeartobequiteintherightforthemomentthattheycomebeforeusintheirseveralparts;thecharactersaredescribedsoobjectivelythattheyexciteourinterestandcompelustosympathizewiththeirpointofview;for,liketheworksofNature,everyoneofthesecharactersisevolvedastheresultofsomehiddenlaworprinciple,whichmakesalltheysayanddoappearnaturalandthereforenecessary.Andyouwillalwaysbethepreyortheplaythingofthedevilsandfoolsinthisworld,ifyouexpecttoseethemgoingaboutwithhornsorjanglingtheirbells.

Anditshouldbeborneinmindthat,intheirintercoursewithothers,peoplearelikethemoon,orlikehunchbacks;theyshowyouonlyoneoftheirsides.Everymanhasaninnatetalentformimicry—formakingamaskoutofhisphysiognomy,sothathecanalwayslookasifhereallywerewhathepretendstobe;andsincehemakeshiscalculationsalwayswithinthelinesofhisindividualnature,theappearanceheputsonsuitshimtoanicety,anditseffectisextremelydeceptive.Hedonshismaskwheneverhisobjectistoflatterhimselfintosomeone’sgoodopinion;andyoumaypayjustasmuchattentiontoitasifitweremadeofwaxorcardboard,neverforgettingthatexcellentItalianproverb:nonésitristocanechenonmenilacoda—thereisnodogsobadbutthathewillwaghistail.

Inanycaseitiswelltotakecarenottoformahighlyfavorableopinionofapersonwhoseacquaintanceyouhaveonlyrecentlymade,forotherwiseyouareverylikelytobedisappointed;andthenyouwillbeashamedofyourselfandperhapsevensuffersomeinjury.AndwhileIamonthesubject,thereisanotherfactthatdeservesmention.Itisthis.Amanshowshischaracterjustinthewayinwhichhedealswithtrifles—forthenheis

offhisguard.Thiswilloftenaffordagoodopportunityofobservingtheboundlessegoismofman’snature,andhistotallackofconsiderationforothers;andifthesedefectsshowthemselvesinsmallthings,ormerelyinhisgeneraldemeanor,youwillfindthattheyalsounderliehisactioninmattersofimportance,althoughhemaydisguisethefact.Thisisanopportunitywhichshouldnotbemissed.Ifinthelittleaffairsofeveryday—thetriflesoflife,thosematterstowhichtheruledeminimisnonapplies—amanisinconsiderateandseeksonlywhatisadvantageousorconvenienttohimself,totheprejudiceofothers’rights;ifheappropriatestohimselfthatwhichbelongstoallalike,youmaybesurethereisnojusticeinhisheart,andthathewouldbeascoundrelonawholesalescale,onlythatlawandcompulsionbindhishands.Donottrusthimbeyondyourdoor.Hewhoisnotafraidtobreakthelawsofhisownprivatecircle,willbreakthoseoftheStatewhenhecandosowithimpunity.

Iftheaveragemanweresoconstitutedthatthegoodinhimoutweighedthebad,itwouldbemoreadvisabletorelyuponhissenseofjustice,fairness,gratitude,fidelity,loveorcompassion,thantoworkuponhisfears;butasthecontraryisthecase,anditisthebadthatoutweighsthegood,theoppositecourseisthemoreprudentone.

Ifanypersonwithwhomweareassociatedorhavetodo,exhibitsunpleasantorannoyingqualities,wehaveonlytoaskourselveswhetherornotthispersonisofsomuchvaluetousthatwecanputupwithfrequentandrepeatedexhibitionsofthesamequalitiesinasomewhataggravatedform.(37)Incaseofanaffirmativeanswertothisquestion,therewillnotbemuchtobesaid,becausetalkingisverylittleuse.Wemustletthematterpass,withorwithoutsomenotice;butweshouldneverthelessrememberthatwearetherebyexposingourselvestoarepetitionoftheoffence.Iftheanswerisinthenegative,wemustbreakwithourworthyfriendatonceandforever;orinthecaseofaservant,dismisshim.Forhewillinevitablyrepeattheoffence,ordosomethingtantamounttoit,shouldtheoccasionreturn,eventhoughforthemomentheisdeepandsincereinhisassurancesofthecontrary.Thereisnothing,absolutelynothing,thatamancannotforget—butnothimself,hisowncharacter.Forcharacterisincorrigible;becauseallaman’sactionsemanatefromaninwardprinciple,invirtueofwhichhemustalwaysdothesamethingunderlikecircumstances;andhecannotdootherwise.Letmerefertomyprizeessayontheso-calledFreedomoftheWill,theperusalofwhichwilldissipateanydelusionsthereadermayhaveonthissubject.

(37)Toforgiveandforgetmeanstothrowawaydearlyboughtexperience.]

Tobecomereconciledtoafriendwithwhomyouhavebroken,isaformofweakness;andyoupaythepenaltyofitwhenhetakesthefirstopportunityofdoingpreciselytheverythingwhichbroughtaboutthebreach;nay,hedoesitthemoreboldly,becauseheissecretlyconsciousthatyoucannotgetonwithouthim.Thisisalsoapplicabletoservantswhomyouhavedismissed,andthentakenintoyourserviceagain.

Forthesamereason,youshouldjustaslittleexpectpeopletocontinuetoactinasimilarwayunderalteredcircumstances.Thetruthisthatmenaltertheirdemeanorandsentimentsjustasfastastheirinterestchanges;andtheirresigninthisrespectisabilldrawnforshortpaymentthatthemanmustbestillmoreshort-sightedwhoacceptsthebill

withoutprotestingit.Accordingly,supposeyouwanttoknowhowamanwillbehaveinanofficeintowhichyouthinkofputtinghim;youshouldnotbuilduponexpectations,onhispromisesorassurances.For,evenallowingthatheisquitesincere,heisspeakingaboutamatterofwhichhehasnoknowledge.Theonlywaytocalculatehowhewillbehave,istoconsiderthecircumstancesinwhichhewillbeplaced,andtheextenttowhichtheywillconflictwithhischaracter.

Ifyouwishtogetaclearandprofoundinsight—anditisveryneedful—intothetruebutmelancholyelementsofwhichmostmenaremade,youwillfindinaveryinstructivethingtotakethewaytheybehaveinthepagesofliteratureasacommentarytotheirdoingsinpracticallife,andviceversa.Theexperiencethusgainedwillbeveryusefulinavoidingwrongideas,whetheraboutyourselforaboutothers.Butifyoucomeacrossanyspecialtraitofmeannessorstupidity—inlifeorinliterature—youmustbecarefulnottoletitannoyordistressyou,buttolookuponitmerelyasanadditiontoyourknowledge—anewfacttobeconsideredinstudyingthecharacterofhumanity.Yourattitudetowardsitwillbethatofthemineralogistwhostumblesuponaverycharacteristicspecimenofamineral.

Ofcoursetherearesomefactswhichareveryexceptional,anditisdifficulttounderstandhowtheyarise,andhowitisthattherecometobesuchenormousdifferencesbetweenmanandman;but,ingeneral,whatwassaidlongagoisquitetrue,andtheworldisinaverybadway.Insavagecountriestheyeatoneanother,incivilizedtheydeceiveoneanother;andthatiswhatpeoplecallthewayoftheworld!WhatareStatesandalltheelaboratesystemsofpoliticalmachinery,andtheruleofforce,whetherinhomeorinforeignaffairs—whataretheybutbarriersagainsttheboundlessiniquityofmankind?Doesnotallhistoryshowthatwheneverakingisfirmlyplantedonathrone,andhispeoplereachsomedegreeofprosperity,heusesittoleadhisarmy,likeabandofrobbers,againstadjoiningcountries?Arenotalmostallwarsultimatelyundertakenforpurposesofplunder?Inthemostremoteantiquity,andtosomeextentalsointheMiddleAges,theconqueredbecameslaves—inotherwords,theyhadtoworkforthosewhoconqueredthem;andwhereisthedifferencebetweenthatandpayingwar-taxes,whichrepresenttheproductofourpreviouswork?

Allwar,saysVoltaire,isamatterofrobbery;andtheGermansshouldtakethatasawarning.

SECTION30.Nomanissoformedthathecanbeleftentirelytohimself,togohisownways;everyoneneedstobeguidedbyapreconceivedplan,andtofollowcertaingeneralrules.Butifthisiscarriedtoofar,andamantriestotakeonacharacterwhichisnotnaturalorinnateinhim,butitartificiallyacquiredandevolvedmerelybyaprocessofreasoning,hewillverysoondiscoverthatNaturecannotbeforced,andthatifyoudriveitout,itwillreturndespiteyourefforts:—

Naturamexpellesfurca,tamenusquerecurret.

Tounderstandarulegoverningconducttowardsothers,eventodiscoveritforoneselfandtoexpressitneatly,iseasyenough;andstill,verysoonafterwards,therulemaybebrokeninpractice.Butthatisnoreasonfordespair;andyouneednotfancythatasitisimpossibletoregulateyourlifeinaccordancewithabstractideasandmaxims,itisbetter

tolivejustasyouplease.Here,asinalltheoreticalinstructionthataimsatapracticalresult,thefirstthingtodoistounderstandtherule;thesecondthingistolearnthepracticeofit.Thetheorymaybeunderstandatoncebyaneffortofreason,andyetthepracticeofitacquiredonlyincourseoftime.

Apupilmayleanthevariousnotesonaninstrumentofmusic,orthedifferentpositioninfencing;andwhenhemakesamistake,asheissuretodo,howeverhardhetries,heisapttothinkitwillbeimpossibletoobservetherules,whenheissettoreadmusicatsightorchallengedtoafuriousduel.Butforallthat,gradualpracticemakeshimperfect,throughalongseriesofslips,blundersandfreshefforts.Itisjustthesameinotherthings;inlearningtowriteandspeakLatin,amanwillforgetthegrammaticalrules;itisonlybylongpracticethatablockheadturnsintoacourtier,thatapassionatemanbecomesshrewdandworldly-wise,orafrankpersonreserved,oranoblepersonironical.Butthoughself-disciplineofthiskindistheresultoflonghabit,italwaysworksbyasortofexternalcompulsion,whichNatureneverceasestoresistandsometimesunexpectedlyovercomes.Thedifferencebetweenactioninaccordancewithabstractprinciples,andactionastheresultoforiginal,innatetendency,isthesameasthatbetweenaworkofart,sayawatch—whereformandmovementareimpresseduponshapelessandinertmatter—andalivingorganism,whereformandmatterareone,andeachisinseparablefromtheother.

ThereisamaximattributedtotheEmperorNapoleon,whichexpressesthisrelationbetweenacquiredandinnatecharacter,andconfirmswhatIhavesaid:everythingthatisunnaturalisimperfect;—aruleofuniversalapplication,whetherinthephysicalorinthemoralsphere.TheonlyexceptionIcanthinkoftothisruleisaventurine,(38)asubstanceknowntomineralogists,whichinitsnaturalstatecannotcomparewiththeartificialpreparationofit.

(38)Translator’sNote.Aventurineisararekindofquartz;andthesamenameisgiventoabrownish-coloredglassmuchresemblingit,whichismanufacturedatMurano.Itisso

calledfromthefactthattheglasswasdiscoveredbychance(arventura).]

Andinthisconnectionletmeutterawordofprotestagainstanyandeveryformofaffectation.Italwaysarousescontempt;inthefirstplace,becauseitarguesdeception,andthedeceptioniscowardly,foritisbasedonfear;and,secondly,itarguesself-condemnation,becauseitmeansthatamanistryingtoappearwhatheisnot,andthereforesomethingwhichhethingsbetterthanheactuallyis.Toaffectaquality,andtoplumeyourselfuponit,isjusttoconfessthatyouhavenotgotit.Whetheritiscourage,orlearning,orintellect,orwit,orsuccesswithwomen,orriches,orsocialposition,orwhateverelseitmaybethatamanboastsof,youmayconcludebyhisboastingaboutitthatthatispreciselythedirectioninwhichheisratherweak;forifamanreallypossessesanyfacultytothefull,itwillnotoccurtohimtomakeagreatshowofaffectingit;heisquitecontenttoknowthathehasit.ThatistheapplicationoftheSpanishproverb:herraduraquechacoloteaclavolefalta—aclatteringhoofmeansanailgone.Tobesure,asIsaidatfirst,nomanoughttoletthereinsgoquiteloose,andshowhimselfjustasheis;fortherearemanyevilandbestialsidestoournaturewhichrequiretobehiddenawayoutofsight;andthisjustifiesthenegativeattitudeofdissimulation,butitdoesnotjustifyapositivefeigningofqualitieswhicharenotthere.Itshouldalsoberememberedthat

affectationisrecognizedatonce,evenbeforeitisclearwhatitisthatisbeingaffected.And,finally,affectationcannotlastverylong,andonedaythemaskwillfalloff.Nemopotestpersonamdiuferrefictam,saysSeneca;(39)fictacitoinnaturamsuamrecidunt—noonecanperseverelonginafictitiouscharacter;fornaturewillsoonreassertitself.

(39)DeClementia,I.1.]

SECTION31.Amanbearstheweightofhisownbodywithoutknowingit,buthesoonfeelstheweightofanyother,ifhetriestomoveit;inthesameway,amancanseeotherpeople’sshortcoming’sandvices,butheisblindtohisown.Thisarrangementhasoneadvantage:itturnsotherpeopleintoakindofmirror,inwhichamancanseeclearlyeverythingthatisvicious,faulty,ill-bredandloathsomeinhisownnature;only,itisgenerallytheoldstoryofthedogbarkingatisownimage;itishimselfthatheseesandnotanotherdog,ashefancies.

Hewhocriticisesothers,worksatthereformationofhimself.Thosewhoformthesecrethabitofscrutinizingotherpeople’sgeneralbehavior,andpassingseverejudgmentuponwhattheydoandleaveundone,therebyimprovethemselves,andworkouttheirownperfection:fortheywillhavesufficientsenseofjustice,oratanyrateenoughprideandvanity,toavoidintheirowncasethatwhichtheycondemnsoharshlyelsewhere.Buttolerantpeoplearejusttheopposite,andclaimforthemselvesthesameindulgencethattheyextendtoothers—hancveniamdamuspetimusquevicissim.ItisallverywellfortheBibletotalkaboutthemoteinanother’seyeandthebeaminone’sown.Thenatureoftheeyeistolooknotatitselfbutatotherthings;andthereforetoobserveandblamefaultsinanotherisaverysuitablewayofbecomingconsciousofone’sown.Werequirealooking-glassfortheduedressingofourmorals.

Thesameruleappliesinthecaseofstyleandfinewriting.If,insteadofcondemning,youapplaudsomenewfollyinthesematters,youwillimitateit.ThatisjustwhyliteraryfollieshavesuchvogueinGermany.TheGermansareaverytolerantpeople—everybodycanseethat!Theirmaximis—Hancveniamdamnspetimusquevicissim.

SECTION32.Whenheisyoung,amanofnoblecharacterfanciesthattherelationsprevailingamongstmankind,andthealliancestowhichtheserelationslead,areatbottomandessentially,idealintheirnature;thatistosay,thattheyrestuponsimilarityofdispositionorsentiment,ortaste,orintellectualpower,andsoon.

But,lateron,hefindsoutthatitisarealfoundationwhichunderliesthesealliances;thattheyarebaseduponsomematerialinterest.Thisisthetruefoundationofalmostallalliances:nay,mostmenhavenonotionofanalliancerestinguponanyotherbasis.Accordinglywefindthatamanisalwaysmeasuredbytheofficeheholds,orbyhisoccupation,nationality,orfamilyrelations—inaword,bythepositionandcharacterwhichhavebeenassignedhimintheconventionalarrangementsoflife,whereheisticketedandtreatedassomuchgoods.Referencetowhatheisinhimself,asaman—tothemeasureofhisownpersonalqualities—isnevermadeunlessforconvenience’sake:andsothatviewofamanissomethingexceptional,tobesetasideandignored,themomentthatanyonefindsitdisagreeable;andthisiswhatusuallyhappens.Butthemoreofpersonalworthamanhas,thelesspleasurehewilltakeintheseconventional

arrangements;andhewilltrytowithdrawfromthesphereinwhichtheyapply.Thereasonwhythesearrangementsexistatall,issimplythatinthisworldofoursmiseryandneedarethechieffeatures:thereforeitiseverywheretheessentialandparamountbusinessoflifetodevisethemeansofalleviatingthem.

SECTION33.Aspaper-moneycirculatesintheworldinsteadofrealcoin,so,istheplaceoftrueesteemandgenuinefriendship,youhavetheoutwardappearanceofit—amimicshowmadetolookasmuchliketherealthingaspossible.

Ontheotherhand,itmaybeaskedwhetherthereareanypeoplewhoreallydeservethetruecoin.Formyownpart,Ishouldcertainlypaymorerespecttoanhonestdogwagginghistailthantoahundredsuchdemonstrationsofhumanregard.

Trueandgenuinefriendshippresupposesastrongsympathywiththewealandwoeofanother—purelyobjectiveinitscharacterandquitedisinterested;andthisinitsturnmeansanabsoluteidentificationofselfwiththeobjectoffriendship.Theegoismofhumannatureissostronglyantagonistictoanysuchsympathy,thattruefriendshipbelongstothatclassofthings—thesea-serpent,forinstance—withregardtowhichnooneknowswhethertheyarefabulousorreallyexistsomewhereorother.

Still,inmanycases,thereisagrainoftrueandgenuinefriendshipintherelationofmantoman,thoughgenerally,ofcourse,somesecretpersonalinterestisatthebottomofthem—someoneamongthemanyformsthatselfishnesscantake.Butinaworldwhereallisimperfect,thisgrainoftruefeelingissuchanennoblinginfluencethatitgivessomewarrantforcallingthoserelationsbythenameoffriendship,fortheystandfarabovetheordinaryfriendshipsthatprevailamongstmankind.Thelatteraresoconstitutedthat,wereyoutohearhowyourdearfriendsspeakofyoubehindyourback,youwouldneversayanotherwordtothem.

Apartfromthecasewhereitwouldbearealhelptoyouifyourfriendweretomakesomegreatsacrificetoserveyou,thereisnobettermeansoftestingthegenuinenessofhisfeelingsthanthewayinwhichhereceivesthenewsofamisfortunethathasjusthappenedtoyou.Atthatmomenttheexpressionofhisfeatureswilleithershowthathisonethoughtisthatoftrueandsinceresympathyforyou;orelsetheabsolutecomposureofhiscountenance,orthepassingtraceofsomethingotherthansympathy,willconfirmthewell-knownmaximofLaRochefoucauld:Dansl’adversitedenosmeilleursamis,noustrouvonstoujoursquelquechosequinenousdeplaitpas.Indeed,atsuchamoment,theordinaryso-calledfriendwillfindithardtosuppressthesignsofaslightsmileofpleasure.Therearefewwaysbywhichyoucanmakemorecertainofputtingpeopleintoagoodhumorthanbytellingthemofsometroublethathasrecentlybefallenyou,orbyunreservedlydisclosingsomepersonalweaknessofyours.Howcharacteristicthisisofhumanity!

Distanceandlongabsencearealwaysprejudicialtofriendship,howeverdisinclinedamanmaybetoadmit.Ourregardforpeoplewhomwedonotsee—eventhoughtheybeourdearestfriends—graduallydriesupinthecourseofyears,andtheybecomeabstractnotions;sothatourinterestinthemgrowstobemoreandmoreintellectual—nay,itiskeptuponlyasakindoftradition;whilstweretainalivelyanddeepinterestinthosewhoareconstantlybeforeoureyes,eveniftheybeonlypetanimals.Thisshowshowmuch

menarelimitedbytheirsenses,andhowtrueistheremarkthatGoethemakesinTassoaboutthedominantinfluenceofthepresentmoment:—

DieGegenwartisteinemächtigeGöttin(40)

(40)Activ.,se.4.]

Friendsofthehouseareveryrightlysocalled;becausetheyarefriendsofthehouseratherthanofitsmaster;inotherwords,theyaremorelikecatsthandogs.

Yourfriendswilltellyouthattheyaresincere;yourenemiesarereallyso.Letyourenemies’censurebelikeabittermedicine,tobeusedasameansofself-knowledge.

Afriendinneed,asthesayinggoes,israre.Nay,itisjustthecontrary;nosoonerhaveyoumadeafriendthanheisinneed,andasksforaloan.

SECTION34.Amanmustbestillagreenhorninthewaysoftheworld,ifheimaginesthathecanmakehimselfpopularinsocietybyexhibitingintelligenceanddiscernment.Withtheimmensemajorityofpeople,suchqualitiesexcitehatredandresentment,whicharerenderedallthehardertobearbythefactthatpeopleareobligedtosuppress—evenfromthemselves—therealreasonoftheiranger.

Whatactuallytakesplaceisthis.Amanfeelsandperceivesthatthepersonwithwhomheisconversingisintellectuallyverymuchhissuperior.(41)

(41)Cf.WeltalsWillsundVorstellung,Bk.II.p.256(4thEdit.),whereIquotefromDr.Johnson,andfromMerck,thefriendofGoethe’syouth.Theformersays:Thereisnothingbywhichamanexasperatesmostpeoplemore,thanbydisplayingasuperiorabilityof

brilliancyinconversation.Theyseempleasedatthetime,buttheirenvymakesthemcursehimattheirhearts.(BoswellsLifeofJohnsonaetat:74).]

Hethereuponsecretlyandhalfunconsciouslyconcludesthathisinterlocutormustformaproportionatelylowandlimitedestimateofhisabilities.Thatisamethodofreasoning—anenthymeme—whichrousesthebitterestfeelingsofsullenandrancoroushatred.AndsoGracianisquiterightinsayingthattheonlywaytowinaffectionfrompeopleistoshowthemostanimal-likesimplicityofdemeanor—paraserbienquisto,elunicomediovestirselapieldelmassimpledelosbrutos.(42)

(42)Translator’sNote.—BalthazarGraeian,Oraculomanual,yartedeprudencia,240.Gracian(1584-1658)wasaSpanishprosewriterandJesuit,whoseworksdealchiefly

withtheobservationofcharacterinthevariousphenomenaoflife.Schopenhauer,amongothers,hadagreatadmirationforhisworldlyphilosophy,andtranslatedhisOraculomanual—asystemofrulesfortheconductoflife—intoGerman.Thesamebookwas

translatedintoEnglishtowardsthecloseoftheseventeenthcentury.]

Toshowyourintelligenceanddiscernmentisonlyanindirectwayofreproachingotherpeopleforbeingdullandincapable.Andbesides,itisnaturalforavulgarmantobeviolentlyagitatedbythesightofoppositioninanyform;andinthiscaseenvycomesinas

thesecretcauseofhishostility.Foritisamatterofdailyobservationthatpeopletakethegreatestpleasureinthatwhichsatisfiestheirvanity;andvanitycannotbesatisfiedwithoutcomparisonwithothers.Now,thereisnothingofwhichamanisprouderthanofintellectualability,foritisthisthatgiveshimhiscommandingplaceintheanimalworld.Itisanexceedinglyrashthingtoletanyoneseethatyouaredecidedlysuperiortohiminthisrespect,andtoletotherpeopleseeittoo;becausehewillthenthirstforvengeance,andgenerallylookaboutforanopportunityoftakingitbymeansofinsult,becausethisistopassfromthesphereofintellecttothatofwill—andthere,allareonanequalfootingasregardsthefeelingofhostility.Hence,whilerankandrichesmayalwaysreckonupondeferentialtreatmentinsociety,thatissomethingwhichintellectualabilitycanneverexpect;tobeignoredisthegreatestfavorshowntoit;andifpeoplenoticeitatall,itisbecausetheyregarditasapieceofimpertinence,orelseassomethingtowhichitspossessorhasnolegitimateright,anduponwhichhedarestopridehimself;andinretaliationandrevengeforhisconduct,peoplesecretlytryandhumiliatehiminsomeotherway;andiftheywaittodothis,itisonlyforafittingopportunity.Amanmaybeashumbleaspossibleinhisdemeanor,andyethardlyevergetpeopletooverlookhiscrimeinstandingintellectuallyabovethem.IntheGardenofRoses,Sadimakestheremark:—Youshouldknowthatfoolishpeopleareahundredfoldmoreaversetomeetingthewisethanthewiseareindisposedforthecompanyofthefoolish.

Ontheotherhand,itisarealrecommendationtobestupid.Forjustaswarmthisagreeabletothebody,soitdoesthemindgoodtofeelitssuperiority;andamanwillseekcompanylikelytogivehimthisfeeling,asinstinctivelyashewillapproachthefireplaceorwalkinthesunifhewantstogetwarm.Butthismeansthathewillbedislikedonaccountofhissuperiority;andifamanistobeliked,hemustreallybeinferiorinpointofintellect;andthesamethingholdsgoodofawomaninpointofbeauty.Togiveproofofrealandunfeignedinferioritytosomeofthepeopleyoumeet—thatisaverydifficultbusinessindeed!

Considerhowkindlyandheartilyagirlwhoispassablyprettywillwelcomeonewhoisdownrightugly.Physicaladvantagesarenotthoughtsomuchofinthecaseofman,thoughIsupposeyouwouldratheralittlemansatnexttoyouthanonewhowasbiggerthanyourself.Thisiswhy,amongstmen,itisthedullandignorant,andamongstwomen,theugly,whoarealwayspopularandinrequest.(43)Itislikelytobesaidofsuchpeoplethattheyareextremelygood-natured,becauseeveryonewantstofindapretextforcaringaboutthem—apretextwhichwillblindbothhimselfandotherpeopletotherealreasonwhyhelikesthem.Thisisalsowhymentalsuperiorityofanysortalwaystendstoisolateitspossessor;peoplerunawayfromhimoutofpurehatred,andsayallmannerofbadthingsabouthimbywayofjustifyingtheiraction.Beauty,inthecaseofwomen,hasasimilareffect:veryprettygirlshavenofriendsoftheirownsex,andtheyevenfindithardtogetanothergirltokeepthemcompany.Ahandsomewomanshouldalwaysavoidapplyingforapositionascompanion,becausethemomentsheenterstheroom,herprospectivemistresswillscowlatherbeauty,asapieceoffollywithwhich,bothforherownandforherdaughter’ssake,shecanverywelldispense.Butifthegirlhasadvantagesofrank,thecaseisverydifferent;becauserank,unlikepersonalqualitieswhichworkbytheforceofmerecontrast,producesitseffectbyaprocessofreflection;muchinthesamewayastheparticularhueofaperson’scomplexiondependsupontheprevailingtoneofhis

immediatesurroundings.

(43)Ifyoudesiretogetonintheworld,friendsandacquaintancesarebyfarthebestpassporttofortune.Thepossessionofagreatdealofabilitymakesamanproud,and

thereforenotapttoflatterthosewhohaveverylittle,andfromwhom,onthataccount,thepossessionofgreatabilityshouldbecarefullyconcealed.Theconsciousnessofsmallintellectualpowerhasjusttheoppositeeffect,andisverycompatiblewithahumble,

affableandcompanionablenature,andwithrespectforwhatismeanandwretched.Thisiswhyaninferiorsortofmanhassomanyfriendstobefriendandencouragehim.

Theseremarksareapplicablenotonlytoadvancementinpoliticallife,buttoallcompetitionforplacesofhonoranddignity,nay,evenforreputationintheworldofscience,literatureandart.Inlearnedsocieties,forexample,mediocrity—thatveryacceptablequality—isalwaystothefore,whilstmeritmeetswithtardyrecognition,orwithnoneatall.Soitisineverything.]

SECTION35.Ourtrustinotherpeopleoftenconsistsingreatmeasureofpurelaziness,selfishnessandvanityonourownpart:Isaylaziness,because,insteadofmakinginquiriesourselves,andexercisinganactivecare,weprefertotrustothers;selfishness,becauseweareledtoconfideinpeoplebythepressureofourownaffairs;andvanity,whenweaskconfidenceforamatteronwhichweratherprideourselves.Andyet,forallthat,weexpectpeopletobetruetothetrustwereposeinthem.

Butweoughtnottobecomeangryifpeopleputnotrustinus:becausethatreallymeansthattheypayhonestythesincerecomplimentofregardingitasaveryrarething—sorare,indeed,astoleaveusindoubtwhetheritsexistenceisnotmerelyfabulous.

SECTION36.Politeness—whichtheChineseholdtobeacardinalvirtue—isbasedupontwoconsiderationsofpolicy.IhaveexplainedoneoftheseconsiderationsinmyEthics;theotherisasfollows:—Politenessisatacitagreementthatpeople’smiserabledefects,whethermoralorintellectual,shalloneithersidebeignoredandnotmadethesubjectofreproach;andsincethesedefectsarethusrenderedsomewhatlessobtrusive,theresultismutuallyadvantageous.(44)

(44)Translator’sNote.—Inthepassagereferredto(GrundlagederMoral,collectedworks,Vol.IV.,pp.187and198),Schopenhauerexplainspolitenessasaconventionalandsystematicattempttomasktheegoismofhumannatureinthesmallaffairsoflife—anegoismsorepulsivethatsomesuchdeviceisnecessaryforthepurposeofconcealingitsugliness.Therelationwhichpolitenessbearstothetrueloveofone’sneighborisanalogoustothatexistingbetweenjusticeasanaffairoflegality,andjusticeastherealintegrityoftheheart.]

Itisawisethingtobepolite;consequently,itisastupidthingtoberude.Tomakeenemiesbyunnecessaryandwillfulincivility,isjustasinsaneaproceedingastosetyourhouseonfire.Forpolitenessislikeacounter—anavowedlyfalsecoin,withwhichitisfoolishtobestingy.Asensiblemanwillbegenerousintheuseofit.Itiscustomaryineverycountrytoendaletterwiththewords:—yourmostobedientservant—votretrès-

humbleserviteur—suodevotissimoservo.(TheGermansaretheonlypeoplewhosuppressthewordservant—Diener—because,ofcourse,itisnottrue!)However,tocarrypolitenesstosuchanextentastodamageyourprospects,islikegivingmoneywhereonlycountersareexpected.

Wax,asubstancenaturallyhardandbrittle,canbemadesoftbytheapplicationofalittlewarmth,sothatitwilltakeanyshapeyouplease.Inthesameway,bybeingpoliteandfriendly,youcanmakepeoplepliableandobliging,eventhoughtheyareapttobecrabbedandmalevolent.Hencepolitenessistohumannaturewhatwarmthistowax.

Ofcourse,itisnoeasymattertobepolite;insofar,Imean,asitrequiresustoshowgreatrespectforeverybody,whereasmostpeopledeservenoneatall;andagaininsofarasitdemandsthatweshouldfeignthemostlivelyinterestinpeople,whenwemustbeverygladthatwehavenothingtodowiththem.Tocombinepolitenesswithprideisamasterpieceofwisdom.

Weshouldbemuchlessreadytoloseourtemperoveraninsult—which,inthestrictsenseoftheword,meansthatwehavenotbeentreatedwithrespect—if,ontheonehand,wehavenotsuchanexaggeratedestimateofourvalueanddignity—thatistosay,ifwewerenotsoimmenselyproudofourselves;and,ontheotherhand,ifwehadarrivedatanyclearnotionofthejudgmentwhich,inhisheart,onemangenerallypassesuponanother.Ifmostpeopleresenttheslightesthintthatanyblameattachestothem,youmayimaginetheirfeelingsiftheyweretooverhearwhattheiracquaintancesayaboutthem.Youshouldneverlosesightofthefactthatordinarypolitenessisonlyagrinningmask:ifitshiftsitsplacealittle,orisremovedforamoment,thereisnouseraisingahueandcry.Whenamanisdownrightrude,itisasthoughhehadtakenoffallhisclothes,andstoodbeforeyouinpurisnaturalibus.Likemostmeninthiscondition,hedoesnotpresentaveryattractiveappearance.

SECTION37.Yououghtnevertotakeanymanasamodelforwhatyoushoulddoorleaveundone;becausepositionandcircumstancesareinnotwocasesalike,anddifferenceofcharactergivesapeculiar,individualtonetowhatamandoes.Henceduocumfaciuntidem,nonestidem—twopersonsmaydothesamethingwithadifferentresult.Amanshouldactinaccordancewithhisowncharacter,assoonashehascarefullydeliberatedonwhatheisabouttodo.

Theoutcomeofthisisthatoriginalitycannotbedispensedwithinpracticalmatters:otherwise,whatamandoeswillnotaccordwithwhatheis.

SECTION38.Nevercombatanyman’sopinion;forthoughyoureachedtheageofMethuselah,youwouldneverhavedonesettinghimrightuponalltheabsurdthingsthathebelieves.

Itisalsowelltoavoidcorrectingpeople’smistakesinconversation,howevergoodyourintentionsmaybe;foritiseasytooffendpeople,anddifficult,ifnotimpossible,tomendthem.

Ifyoufeelirritatedbytheabsurdremarksoftwopeoplewhoseconversationyouhappentooverhear,youshouldimaginethatyouarelisteningtoadialogueoftwofoolsinacomedy.Probatumest.

Themanwhocomesintotheworldwiththenotionthatheisreallygoingtoinstructinmattersofthehighestimportance,maythankhisstarsifheescapeswithawholeskin.

SECTION39.Ifyouwantyourjudgmenttobeaccepted,expressitcoollyandwithoutpassion.Allviolencehasitsseatinthewill;andso,ifyourjudgmentisexpressedwithvehemence,peoplewillconsideritaneffortofwill,andnottheoutcomeofknowledge,whichisinitsnaturecoldandunimpassioned.Sincethewillistheprimaryandradicalelementinhumannature,andintellectmerelysupervenesassomethingsecondary,peoplearemorelikelytobelievethattheopinionyouexpresswithsomuchvehemenceisduetotheexcitedstateofyourwill,ratherthanthattheexcitementofthewillcomesonlyfromtheardentnatureofyouropinion.

SECTION40.Evenwhenyouarefullyjustifiedinpraisingyourself,youshouldneverbeseducedintodoingso.Forvanityissoverycommon,andmeritsoveryuncommon,thatevenifamanappearstobepraisinghimself,thoughveryindirectly,peoplewillbereadytolayahundredtoonethatheistalkingoutofpurevanity,andthathehasnotsenseenoughtoseewhatafoolheismakingofhimself.

Still,forallthat,theremaybesometruthinBacon’sremarkthat,asinthecaseofcalumny,ifyouthrowenoughdirt,someofitwillstick,soititalsoinregardtoself-praise;withtheconclusionthatself-praise,insmalldoses,istoberecommended.(45)

(45)Translator’sNote.—SchopenhaueralludestothefollowingpassageinBacon’sDeAugmentisScientiarum,Bk.viii.,ch.2:Sicutenimdicisoletdecalumnia,audacter

calumniare,semperaliquidhaeret;sicdicipotestdejactantia,(nisiplanedeformisfueritetridicula),audactertevendita,semperaliquidhaeret.Haerebitcerteapudpopulum,

licetprudentioressubrideant.Itaqueexistimatiopartaapudplurimospaucorumfastidiumabundecompensabit.]

SECTION41.Ifyouhavereasontosuspectthatapersonistellingyoualie,lookasthoughyoubelievedeverywordhesaid.Thiswillgivehimcouragetogoon;hewillbecomemorevehementinhisassertions,andintheendbetrayhimself.

Again,ifyouperceivethatapersonistryingtoconcealsomethingfromyou,butwithonlypartialsuccess,lookasthoughyoudidnotbelievehim,Thisoppositiononyourpartwillprovokehimintoleadingouthisreserveoftruthandbringingthewholeforceofittobearuponyourincredulity.

SECTION42.Youshouldregardallyourprivateaffairsassecrets,and,inrespectofthem,treatyouracquaintances,eventhoughyouareongoodtermswiththem,asperfectstrangers,lettingthemknownothingmorethantheycanseeforthemselves.Forincourseoftime,andunderalteredcircumstances,youmayfinditadisadvantagethattheyknoweventhemostharmlessthingsaboutyou.

And,asageneralrule,itismoreadvisabletoshowyourintelligencebysayingnothingthanbyspeakingout;forsilenceisamatterofprudence,whilstspeechhassomethinginitofvanity.Theopportunitiesfordisplayingtheoneortheotherqualityoccurequallyoften;butthefleetingsatisfactionaffordedbyspeechisoftenpreferredtothepermanentadvantagesecuredbysilence.

Thefeelingofreliefwhichlivelypeopleexperienceinspeakingaloudwhennooneislistening,shouldnotbeindulged,lestitgrowintoahabit;forinthiswaythoughtestablishessuchveryfriendlytermswithspeech,thatconversationisapttobecomeaprocessofthinkingaloud.Prudenceexactsthatawidegulfshouldbefixedbetweenwhatwethinkandwhatwesay.

Attimeswefancythatpeopleareutterlyunabletobelieveinthetruthofsomestatementaffectinguspersonally,whereasitneveroccurstothemtodoubtit;butifwegivethemtheslightestopportunityofdoubtingit,theyfinditabsolutelyimpossibletobelieveitanymore.Weoftenbetrayourselvesintorevealingsomething,simplybecausewesupposethatpeoplecannothelpnoticingit—justasamanwillthrowhimselfdownfromagreatheightbecauseheloseshishead,inotherwords,becausehefanciesthathecannotretainafirmfootinganylonger;thetormentofhispositionissogreat,thathethinksitbettertoputanendtoitatonce.Thisisthekindofinsanitywhichiscalledacrophobia.

Butitshouldnotbeforgottenhowcleverpeopleareinregardtoaffairswhichdonotconcernthem,eventhoughtheyshownoparticularlysignofacutenessinothermatters.Thisisakindofalgebrainwhichpeopleareveryproficient:givethemasinglefacttogoupon,andtheywillsolvethemostcomplicatedproblems.So,ifyouwishtorelatesomeeventthathappenedlongago,withoutmentioninganynames,orotherwiseindicatingthepersonstowhomyourefer,youshouldbeverycarefulnottointroduceintoyournarrativeanythingthatmightpoint,howeverdistantly,tosomedefinitefact,whetheritisaparticularlocality,oradate,orthenameofsomeonewhowasonlytoasmallextentimplicated,oranythingelsethatwasevenremotelyconnectedwiththeevent;forthatatoncegivespeoplesomethingpositivetogoupon,andbytheaidoftheirtalentforthissortofalgebra,theywilldiscoveralltherest.Theircuriosityinthesemattersbecomesakindofenthusiasm:theirwillspursontheirintellect,anddrivesitforwardtotheattainmentofthemostremoteresults.Forhoweverunsusceptibleanddifferentpeoplemaybetogeneralanduniversaltruths,theyareveryardentinthematterofparticulardetails.

InkeepingwithwhatIhavesaid,itwillbefoundthatallthosewhoprofesstogiveinstructionsinthewisdomoflifearespeciallyurgentincommendingthepracticeofsilence,andassignmanifoldreasonswhyitshouldbeobserved;soitisnotnecessaryformetoenlargeuponthesubjectanyfurther.However,ImayjustaddoneortwolittleknownArabianproverbs,whichoccurtomeaspeculiarlyappropriate:—

Donottellafriendanythingthatyouwouldconcealfromanenemy.

Asecretisinmycustody,ifIkeepit;butshoulditescapeme,itisIwhoamtheprisoner.

Thetreeofsilencebearsthefruitofpeace.

SECTION43.Moneyisneverspenttosomuchadvantageaswhenyouhavebeencheatedoutofit;foratonestrokeyouhavepurchasedprudence.

SECTION44.Ifpossible,noanimosityshouldbefeltforanyone.Butcarefullyobserveandrememberthemannerinwhichamanconductshimself,sothatyoumaytakethemeasureofhisvalue—atanyrateinregardtoyourself—andregulateyourbearingtowardshimaccordingly;neverlosingsightofthefactthatcharacterisunalterable,andthattoforgetthebadfeaturesinaman’sdispositionislikethrowingawayhard-wonmoney.Thusyouwillprotectyourselfagainsttheresultsofunwiseintimacyandfoolish

friendship.

Givewayneithertolovenortohate,isone-halfofworldlywisdom:saynothingandbelievenothing,theotherhalf.Truly,aworldwherethereisneedofsuchrulesasthisandthefollowing,isoneuponwhichamanmaywellturnhisback.

SECTION45.Tospeakangrilytoaperson,toshowyourhatredbywhatyousayorbythewayyoulook,isanunnecessaryproceeding—dangerous,foolish,ridiculous,andvulgar.

Angerandhatredshouldneverbeshownotherwisethaninwhatyoudo;andfeelingswillbeallthemoreeffectiveinaction,insofarasyouavoidtheexhibitionoftheminanyotherway.Itisonlycold-bloodedanimalswhosebiteispoisonous.

SECTION46.Tospeakwithoutemphasizingyourwords—parlersansaccent—isanoldrulewiththosewhoarewiseintheworld’sways.Itmeansthatyoushouldleaveotherpeopletodiscoverwhatitisthatyouhavesaid;andastheirmindsareslow,youcanmakeyourescapeintime.Ontheotherhand,toemphasizeyourmeaning—parleravecaccent—istoaddresstheirfeelings;andtheresultisalwaystheoppositeofwhatyouexpect.Ifyouarepoliteenoughinyourmannerandcourteousinyourtonetherearemanypeoplewhomyoumayabuseoutright,andyetrunnoimmediateriskofoffendingthem.

WorldlyFortune

SECTION47.Howevervariedtheformsthathumandestinymaytake,thesameelementsarealwayspresent;andsolifeiseverywheremuchofapiece,whetheritpassedinthecottageorinthepalace,inthebarrackorinthecloister.Alterthecircumstanceasmuchasyouplease!pointtostrangeadventures,successes,failures!lifeislikeasweet-shop,wherethereisagreatvarietyofthings,oddinshapeanddiverseincolor—oneandallmadefromthesamepaste.Andwhenmenspeakofsomeone’ssuccess,thelotofthemanwhohasfailedisnotsoverydifferentasitseems.Theinequalitiesintheworldarelikethecombinationsinakaleidoscope;ateveryturnafreshpicturestrikestheeye;andyet,inreality,youseeonlythesamebitsofglassasyousawbefore.

SECTION48.Anancientwritersays,verytruly,thattherearethreegreatpowersintheworld;Sagacity,Strength,andLuck—[Greek:sunetos,kratos,tuchu.]Ithinkthelastisthemostefficacious.

Aman’slifeislikethevoyageofaship,whereluck—secundaautadversafortuna—actsthepartofthewind,andspeedsthevesselonitswayordrivesitfaroutofitscourse.Allthatthemancandoforhimselfisoflittleavail;liketherudder,which,ifworkedhardandcontinuously,mayhelpinthenavigationoftheship;andyetallmaybelostagainbyasuddensquall.Butifthewindisonlyintherightquarter,theshipwillsailonsoasnottoneedanysteering.ThepowerofluckisnowherebetterexpressedthaninacertainSpanishproverb:DaVenturaatuhijo,yechaloenelmar—giveyoursonluckandthrowhimintothesea.

Still,chance,itmaybesaid,isamalignantpower,andaslittleaspossibleshouldbeleftto

itsagency.Andyetwhereisthereanygiverwho,indispensinggifts,tellsusquiteclearlythatwehavenorighttothem,andthatweowethemnottoanymeritonourpart,butwhollytothegoodnessandgraceofthegiver—atthesametimeallowingustocherishthejoyfulhopeofreceiving,inallhumility,furtherundeservedgiftsfromthesamehands—whereisthereanygiverlikethat,unlessitbeChance?whounderstandsthekinglyartofshowingtherecipientthatallmeritispowerlessandunavailingagainsttheroyalgraceandfavor.

Onlookingbackoverthecourseofhislife—thatlabyrinthinewayoferror—amanmustseemanypointswhereluckfailedhimandmisfortunecame;andthenitiseasytocarryself-reproachtoanunjustexcess.Forthecourseofaman’slifeisinnowiseentirelyofhisownmaking;itistheproductoftwofactors—theseriesofthingsthathappened,andhisownresolvesinregardtothem,andthesetwoareconstantlyinteractinguponandmodifyingeachother.Andbesidesthese,anotherinfluenceisatworkintheverylimitedextentofaman’shorizon,whetheritisthathecannotseeveryfaraheadinrespectoftheplanshewilladopt,orthatheisstilllessabletopredictthecourseoffutureevents:hisknowledgeisstrictlyconfinedtopresentplansandpresentevents.Hence,aslongasaman’sgoalisfaroff,hecannotsteerstraightforit;hemustbecontenttomakeacoursethatisapproximatelyright;andinfollowingthedirectioninwhichhethinksheoughttogo,hewilloftenhaveoccasiontotack.

Allthatamancandoistoformsuchresolvesasfromtimetotimeaccordwiththecircumstancesinwhichheisplaced,inthehopeofthusmanagingtoadvanceastepnearertowardsthefinalgoal.Itisusuallythecasethatthepositioninwhichwestand,andtheobjectatwhichweaim,resembletwotendenciesworkingwithdissimilarstrengthindifferentdirections;andthecourseofourlifeisrepresentedbytheirdiagonal,orresultantforce.

Terencemakestheremarkthatlifeislikeagameatdice,whereifthenumberthatturnsupisnotpreciselytheoneyouwant,youcanstillcontrivetouseitequally:—invitaesthominumquasicumludastesseris;siilludquodmaximeopusestjactunoncadit,illudquodceciditforte,idarteutcorrigas.(46)Or,toputthemattermoreshortly,lifeisagameofcards,whenthecardsareshuffledanddealtbyfate.Butformypresentpurpose,themostsuitablesimilewouldbethatofagameofchess,wheretheplanwedeterminedtofollowisconditionedbytheplayofourrival—inlife,bythecapriceoffate.Wearecompelledtomodifyourtactics,oftentosuchanextentthat,aswecarrythemout,hardlyasinglefeatureoftheoriginalplancanberecognized.

(46)Heseemstohavebeenreferringtoagamesomethinglikebackgammon.]

Butaboveandbeyondallthis,thereisanotherinfluencethatmakesitselffeltinourlives.Itisatritesaying—onlytoofrequentlytrue—thatweareoftenmorefoolishthanwethink.Ontheotherhand,weareoftenwiserthanwefancyourselvestobe.This,however,isadiscoverywhichonlythosecanmake,ofwhomitisreallytrue;andittakesthemalongtimetomakeit.Ourbrainsarenotthewisestpartofus.Inthegreatmomentsoflife,whenamandecidesuponanimportantstep,hisactionisdirectednotsomuchbyanyclearknowledgeoftherightthingtodo,asbyaninnerimpulse—youmayalmostcallit

aninstinct—proceedingfromthedeepestfoundationsofhisbeing.If,lateron,heattemptstocriticisehisactionbythelightofhardandfastideasofwhatisrightintheabstract—thoseunprofitableideaswhicharelearntbyrote,or,itmaybe,borrowedfromotherpeople;ifhebeginstoapplygeneralrules,theprincipleswhichhaveguidedothers,tohisowncase,withoutsufficientlyweighingthemaximthatoneman’smeatisanother’spoison,thenhewillrungreatriskofdoinghimselfaninjustice.Theresultwillshowwheretherightcourselay.Itisonlywhenamanhasreachedthehappyageofwisdomthatheiscapableofjustjudgmentinregardeithertohisownactionsortothoseofothers.

Itmaybethatthisimpulseorinstinctistheunconsciouseffectofakindofpropheticdreamwhichisforgottenwhenweawake—lendingourlifeauniformityoftone,adramaticunity,suchascouldneverresultfromtheunstablemomentsofconsciousness,whenwearesoeasilyledintoerror,soliabletostrikeafalsenote.Itisinvirtueofsomesuchpropheticdreamthatamanfeelshimselfcalledtogreatachievementsinaspecialsphere,andworksinthatdirectionfromhisyouthupoutofaninnerandsecretfeelingthatthatishistruepath,justasbyasimilarinstinctthebeeisledtobuildupitscellsinthecomb.ThisistheimpulsewhichBalthazarGraciancallslagransindéresis(47)—thegreatpowerofmoraldiscernment:itissomethingthatamaninstinctivelyfeelstobehissalvationwithoutwhichhewerelost.

(47)Translator’sNote.—ThisobscurewordappearstobederivedfromtheGreeksugtaereo(N.T.andPolyb.)meaning“toobservestrictly.”ItoccursinTheDoctorandStudent,aseriesofdialoguesbetweenadoctorofdivinityandastudentonthelawsof

England,firstpublishedin1518;andisthere(Dialog.I.ch.13)explainedas“anaturalpowerofthesoule,setinthehighestpartthereof,movingandstirringittogood,and

abhoringevil.”ThispassageiscopiedintoMilton’sCommonplaceBook,edit.Horwood,§79.ThewordisalsofoundintheDictionaryoftheSpanishAcademy(vol.vi.oftheyear

1739)inthesenseofaninnatediscernmentofmoralprinciples,whereaquotationisgivenfromMadreMariadeJesus,abbessoftheconventoftheConceptionatAgreda,a

mysticalwriteroftheseventeenthcentury,frequentlyconsultedbyPhilipIV.—andagainintheBologneseDictionaryof1824,withasimilarmeaning,illustratedfromthewritingsofSalvini(1653-1729).ForthesereferencesIamindebtedtothekindnessofMr.Norman

Maccoll.]

Toactinaccordancewithabstractprinciplesisadifficultmatter,andagreatdealofpracticewillberequiredbeforeyoucanbeevenoccasionallysuccessful;itoftenshappensthattheprinciplesdonotfitinwithyourparticularcase.Buteverymanhascertaininnateconcreteprinciples—apart,asitwere,oftheverybloodthatflowsinhisveins,thesumorresult,infact,ofallhisthoughts,feelingsandvolitions.Usuallyhehasnoknowledgeoftheminanyabstractform;itisonlywhenhelooksbackuponthecoursehislifehastaken,thathebecomesawareofhavingbeenalwaysledonbythem—asthoughtheyformedaninvisiblecluewhichhehadfollowedunawares.

SECTION49.ThatTimeworksgreatchanges,andthatallthingsareintheirnaturefleeting—thesearetruthsthatshouldneverbeforgotten.Hence,inwhatevercaseyoumaybe,itiswelltopicturetoyourselftheopposite:inprosperity,tobemindfulofmisfortune;infriendship,ofenmity;ingoodweather,ofdayswhentheskyisovercast;in

love,ofhatred;inmomentsoftrust,toimaginethebetrayalthatwillmakeyouregretyourconfidence;andso,too,whenyouareinevilplight,tohavealivelysenseofhappiertimes—whatalastingsourceoftrueworldlywisdomwerethere!Weshouldthenalwaysreflect,andnotbesoveryeasilydeceived;because,ingeneral,weshouldanticipatetheverychangesthattheyearswillbring.

Perhapsinnoformofknowledgeispersonalexperiencesoindispensableasinlearningtoseethatallthingsareunstableandtransitoryinthisworld.Thereisnothingthat,initsownplaceandforthetimeitlasts,isnotaproductofnecessity,andthereforecapableofbeingfullyjustified;anditisthisfactthatmakescircumstancesofeveryyear,everymonth,evenofeveryday,seemasthoughtheymightmaintaintheirrighttolasttoalleternity.Butweknowthatthiscanneverbethecase,andthatinaworldwhereallisfleeting,changealoneendures.Heisaprudentmanwhoisnotonlyundeceivedbyapparentstability,butisabletoforecastthelinesuponwhichmovementwilltakeplace.(48)

(48)Chanceplayssogreatapartinallhumanaffairsthatwhenamantriestowardoffaremotedangerbypresentsacrifice,thedangeroftenvanishesundersomenewand

unforeseendevelopmentofevents;andthenthesacrifice,inadditiontobeingacompleteloss,bringsaboutsuchanalteredstateofthingsastobeinitselfasourceofpositive

dangerinthefaceofthisnewdevelopment.Intakingmeasuresofprecaution,then,itiswellnottolooktoofarahead,buttoreckonwithchance;andoftentoopposea

courageousfronttoadanger,inthehopethat,likemanyadarkthunder-cloud,itmaypassawaywithoutbreaking.]

Butpeoplegenerallythinkthatpresentcircumstanceswilllast,andthatmatterswillgooninthefutureastheyhavecloneinthepast.Theirmistakesarisesfromthefactthattheydonotunderstandthecauseofthethingstheysee—causeswhich,unliketheeffectstheyproduce,containinthemselvesthegermoffuturechange.Theeffectsareallthatpeopleknow,andtheyholdfasttothemonthesuppositionthatthoseunknowncauses,whichweresufficienttobringthemabout,willalsobeabletomaintainthemastheyare.Thisisaverycommonerror;andthefactthatitiscommonisnotwithoutitsadvantage,foritmeansthatpeoplealwayserrinunison;andhencethecalamitywhichresultsfromtheerroraffectsallalike,andisthereforeeasytobear;whereas,ifaphilosophermakesamistake,heisaloneinhiserror,andsoatadoubledisadvantage.(49)

(49)Imayremark,parenthetically,thatallthisisaconfirmationoftheprinciplelaiddowninDieWeltalsWilleundVorstellung(Bk.I.p.94:4thedit.),thaterroralways

consistsinmakingawronginference,thatis,inascribingagiveneffecttosomethingthatdidnotcauseit.]

Butinsayingthatweshouldanticipatetheeffectsoftime,Imeanthatweshouldmentallyforecastwhattheyarelikelytobe;Idonotmeanthatweshouldpracticallyforestallthem,bydemandingtheimmediateperformanceofpromiseswhichtimealonecanfulfill.ThemanwhomakeshisdemandwillfindoutthatthereisnoworseormoreexactingusurerthanTime;andthat,ifyoucompelTimetogivemoneyinadvance,youwillhavetopayarateofinterestmoreruinousthananyJewwouldrequire.Itispossible,forinstance,to

makeatreeburstforthintoleaf,blossom,orevenbearfruitwithinafewdays,bytheapplicationofunslakedlimeandartificialheat;butafterthatthetreewillwitheraway.Soayoungmanmayabusehisstrength—itmaybeonlyforafewweeks—bytryingtodoatnineteenwhathecouldeasilymanageatthirty,andTimemaygivehimtheloanforwhichheasks;buttheinteresthewillhavetopaycomesoutofthestrengthofhislateryears;nay,itispartofhisverylifeitself.

Therearesomekindsofillnessinwhichentirerestorationtohealthispossibleonlybylettingthecomplaintrunitsnaturalcourse;afterwhichitdisappearswithoutleavinganytraceofitsexistence.Butifthesuffererisveryimpatient,and,whileheisstillaffected,insiststhatheiscompletelywell,inthiscase,too,Timewillgranttheloan,andthecomplaintmaybeshakenoff;butlife-longweaknessandchronicmischiefwillbetheinterestpaiduponit.

Again,intimeofwarorgeneraldisturbance,amanmayrequirereadymoneyatonce,andhavetosellouthisinvestmentsinlandorconsolsforathirdorevenastillsmallerfractionofthesumhewouldhavereceivedfromthem,ifhecouldhavewaitedforthemarkettorightitself,whichwouldhavehappenedinduecourse;buthecompelsTimetogranthimaloan,andhislossistheinteresthehastopay.Orperhapshewantstogoonalongjourneyandrequiresthemoney:inoneortwoyearshecouldlaybyasufficientsumoutofhisincome,buthecannotaffordtowait;andsoheeitherborrowsitordeductsitfromhiscapital;inotherwords,hegetsTimetolendhimthemoneyinadvance.Theinteresthepaysisadisorderedstateofhisaccounts,andpermanentandincreasingdeficits,whichhecannevermakegood.

SuchisTime’susury;andallwhocannotwaitareitsvictims.ThereisnomorethriftlessproceedingthantotryandmendthemeasuredpaceofTime.Becareful,then,nottobecomeitsdebtor.

SECTION50.Inthedailyaffairsoflife,youwillhaveverymanyopportunitiesofrecognizingacharacteristicdifferencebetweenordinarypeopleofprudenceanddiscretion.Inestimatingthepossibilityofdangerinconnectionwithanyundertaking,anordinarymanwillconfinehisinquiriestothekindofriskthathasalreadyattendedsuchundertakingsinthepast;whereasaprudentpersonwilllookahead,andconsidereverythingthatmightpossiblyhappeninthefuture,havingregardtoacertainSpanishmaxim:loquenoacaeceenunano,acaeceenunrato—athingmaynothappeninayear,andyetmayhappenwithintwominutes.

Thedifferenceinquestionis,ofcourse,quitenatural;foritrequiressomeamountofdiscernmenttocalculatepossibilities;butamanneedonlyhavehissensesabouthimtoseewhathasalreadyhappened.

Donotomittosacrificetoevilspirits.WhatImeanis,thatamanshouldnothesitateaboutspendingtime,trouble,andmoney,orgivinguphiscomfort,orrestrictinghisaimsanddenyinghimself,ifhecantherebyshutthedooronthepossibilityofmisfortune.Themostterriblemisfortunesarealsothemostimprobableandremote—theleastlikelytooccur.TheruleIamgivingisbestexemplifiedinthepracticeofinsurance—apublicsacrificemadeonthealtarofanxiety.Thereforetakeoutyourpolicyofinsurance!

SECTION51.Whateverfatebefallsyou,donotgivewaytogreatrejoicingsorgreat

lamentations;partlybecauseallthingsarefullofchange,andyourfortunemayturnatanymoment;partlybecausemenaresoapttobedeceivedintheirjudgmentastowhatisgoodorbadforthem.

Almosteveryoneinhisturnhaslamentedoversomethingwhichafterwardsturnedouttobetheverybestthingforhimthatcouldhavehappened—orrejoicedataneventwhichbecamethesourceofhisgreatestsufferings.TherightstateofmindhasbeenfinelyportrayedbyShakespeare:

IhavefeltsomanyquirksofjoyandgriefThatthefirstfaceofneither,onthestart,Canwomanmeunto’t.(50)

(50)All’sWellthatEndsWell,Act.ii.Sc.2.]

And,ingeneral,itmaybesaidthat,ifamantakesmisfortunesquietly,itisbecauseheknowsthatverymanydreadfulthingsmayhappeninthecourseoflife;andsohelooksuponthetroubleofthemomentasonlyaverysmallpartofthatwhichmightcome.ThisistheStoictemper—nevertobeunmindfulofthesadfateofhumanity—condicionishumanoeoblitus;butalwaystorememberthatourexistenceisfullofwoeandmisery:andthattheillstowhichweareexposedareinnumerable.Whereverhebe,amanneedonlycastalookaround,torevivethesenseofhumanmisery:therebeforehiseyeshecanseemankindstrugglingandflounderingintorment—allforthesakeofawretchedexistence,barrenandunprofitable!

Ifheremembersthis,amanwillnotexpectverymuchfromlife,butlearntoaccommodatehimselftoaworldwhereallisrelativeandnoperfectstateexists;—alwayslookingmisfortuneintheface,andifhecannotavoidit,meetingitwithcourage.

Itshouldneverbeforgottenthatmisfortune,beitgreatorsmall,istheelementinwhichwelive.Butthatisnoreasonwhyamanshouldindulgeinfretfulcomplaints,and,likeBeresford,(51)pullalongfaceovertheMiseriesofHumanLife—andnotasinglehourisfreefromthem;orstillless,callupontheDeityateveryflea-bite—inpulicismorsuDeuminvocare.Ouraimshouldbetolookwellaboutus,towardoffmisfortunebygoingtomeetit,toattainsuchperfectionandrefinementinavertingthedisagreeablethingsoflife—whethertheycomefromourfellow-menorfromthephysicalworld—that,likeacleverfox,wemayslipoutofthewayofeverymishap,greatorsmall;rememberingthatamishapisgenerallyonlyourownawkwardnessindisguise.

(51)Translator’sNote.—Rev.JamesBeresford(1764-1840),miscellaneouswriter.Thefulltitleofthis,hischiefwork,is“TheMiseriesofHumanLife;orthelastgroansof

TimothyTestyandSamuelSensitive,withafewsupplementarysighsfromMrs.Testy.”]

Themainreasonwhymisfortunefallslessheavilyuponus,ifwehavelookeduponitsoccurrenceasnotimpossible,and,asthesayingis,preparedourselvesforit,maybethis:if,beforethismisfortunecomes,wehavequietlythoughtoveritassomethingwhichmayormaynothappen,thewholeofitsextentandrangeisknowntous,andwecan,atleast,determinehowfaritwillaffectus;sothat,ifitreallyarrives,itdoesnotdepressusunduly—itsweightisnotfelttobegreaterthanitactuallyis.Butifnopreparationhasbeen

madetomeetit,anditcomesunexpectedly,themindisinastateofterrorforthemomentandunabletomeasurethefullextentofthecalamity;itseemssofar-reachinginitseffectsthatthevictimmightwellthinktherewasnolimittothem;inanycase,itsrangeisexaggerated.Inthesameway,darknessanduncertaintyalwaysincreasethesenseofdanger.And,ofcourse,ifwehavethoughtoverthepossibilityofmisfortune,wehavealsoatthesametimeconsideredthesourcestowhichweshalllookforhelpandconsolation;or,atanyrate,wehaveaccustomedourselvestotheideaofit.

Thereisnothingthatbetterfitsustoendurethemisfortunesoflifewithcomposure,thantoknowforcertainthateverythingthathappens—fromthesmallestuptothegreatestfactsofexistence—happensofnecessity.(52)Amansoonaccommodateshimselftotheinevitable—tosomethingthatmustbe;andifheknowsthatnothingcanhappenexceptofnecessity,hewillseethatthingscannotbeotherthattheyare,andthateventhestrangestchancesintheworldarejustasmuchaproductofnecessityasphenomenawhichobeywell-knownrulesandturnoutexactlyinaccordancewithexpectation.LetmehererefertowhatIhavesaidelsewhereonthesoothingeffectoftheknowledgethatallthingsareinevitableandaproductofnecessity.(53)

(52)ThisisatruthwhichIhavefirmlyestablishedinmyprize-essayontheFreedomoftheWill,wherethereaderwillfindadetailedexplanationofthegroundsonwhichitrests.

Cf.especiallyp.60.[Schopenhauer’sWorks,4thEdit.,vol.iv.—Tr.]]

(53)Cf.WeltalsWilleundVorstellung,Bk.I.p.361(4thedit.).]

Ifamanissteepedintheknowledgeofthistruth,hewill,firstofall,dowhathecan,andthenreadilyendurewhathemust.

Wemayregardthepettyvexationsoflifethatareconstantlyhappening,asdesignedtokeepusinpracticeforbearinggreatmisfortunes,sothatwemaynotbecomecompletelyenervatedbyacareerofprosperity.AmanshouldbeasSiegfried,armedcap-à-pie,towardsthesmalltroublesofeveryday—thoselittledifferenceswehavewithourfellow-men,insignificantdisputes,unbecomingconductinotherpeople,pettygossip,andmanyothersimilarannoyancesoflife;heshouldnotfeelthematall,muchlesstakethemtoheartandbroodoverthem,butholdthematarm’slengthandpushthemoutofhisway,likestonesthatlieintheroad,anduponnoaccountthinkaboutthemandgivethemaplaceinhisreflections.

SECTION52.WhatpeoplecommonlycallFateis,asageneralrule,nothingbuttheirownstupidandfoolishconduct.ThereisafinepassageinHomer,(54)illustratingthetruthofthisremark,wherethepoetpraises[GREEK:maetis]—shrewdcouncil;andhisadviceisworthyofallattention.Forifwickednessisatonedforonlyinanotherworld,stupiditygetsitsrewardhere—although,nowandthen,mercymaybeshowntotheoffender.

(54)Iliad,xxiii.313,sqq.]

Itisnotferocitybutcunningthatstrikesfearintotheheartandforebodesdanger;sotrueitisthatthehumanbrainisamoreterribleweaponthanthelion’spaw.

Themostfinishedmanoftheworldwouldbeonewhowasneverirresoluteandneverinahurry.

SECTION53.Couragecomesnexttoprudenceasaqualityofmindveryessentialtohappiness.Itisquitetruethatnoonecanendowhimselfwitheither,sinceamaninheritsprudencefromhismotherandcouragefromhisfather;still,ifhehasthesequalities,hecandomuchtodevelopthembymeansofresoluteexercise.

Inthisworld,wherethegameisplayedwithloadeddice,amanmusthaveatemperofiron,witharmorprooftotheblowsoffate,andweaponstomakehiswayagainstmen.Lifeisonelongbattle;wehavetofightateverystep;andVoltaireveryrightlysaysthatifwesucceed,itisatthepointofthesword,andthatwediewiththeweaponinourhand—onneréussitdanscemondequalapointedel’épee,etonmeurtlesarmesàlamain.Itisacowardlysoulthatshrinksorgrowsfaintanddespondentassoonasthestormbeginstogather,orevenwhenthefirstcloudappearsonthehorizon.OurmottoshouldbeNoSurrender;andfarfromyieldingtotheillsoflife,letustakefreshcouragefrommisfortune:—

Tunecedemalissedcontraaudentiorito.(55)

(55)Virgil,Aeneid,vi.95.]

Aslongastheissueofanymatterfraughtwithperilisstillindoubt,andthereisyetsomepossibilityleftthatallmaycomeright,nooneshouldevertrembleorthinkofanythingbutresistance—justasamanshouldnotdespairoftheweatherifhecanseeabitofblueskyanywhere.Letourattitudebesuchthatweshouldnotquakeeveniftheworldfellinruinsaboutus:—

Sifractusillabaturorbis

Impavidumferientruinae.(56)

(56)Horace,Odesiii.3.]

Ourwholelifeitself—letaloneitsblessings—wouldnotbeworthsuchacowardlytremblingandshrinkingoftheheart.Therefore,letusfacelifecourageouslyandshowafirmfronttoeveryill:—

QuocircavivitefortesFortiaqueadversisopponitepectorarebus.

Still,itispossibleforcouragetobecarriedtoanexcessandtodegenerateintorashness.Itmayevenbesaidthatsomeamountoffearisnecessary,ifwearetoexistatallintheworld,andcowardiceisonlytheexaggeratedformofit.ThistruthhasbeenverywellexpressedbyBacon,inhisaccountofTerrorPanicus;andtheetymologicalaccountwhichhegivesofitsmeaning,isverysuperiortotheancientexplanationpreservedforusbyPlutarch.(57)HeconnectstheexpressionwithPanthepersonificationofNature;(58)andobservesthatfearisinnateineverylivingthing,and,infact,tendstoitspreservation,butthatitisapttocomeintoplaywithoutduecause,andthatmanisespeciallyexposedtoit.ThechieffeatureofthisPanieTerroristhatthereisnoclearnotionofanydefinitedanger

boundupwithit;thatitpresumesratherthanknowsthatdangerexists;andthat,incaseofneed,itpleadsfrightitselfasthereasonforbeingafraid.

(57)DeIsideetOsiridech.14.]

(58)DeSapientiaVeterum,C.6.Naturaenimrerumomnibusviventibusindiditmentumacformidinem,vitaeatqueessentiaesuaeconservatricem,acmalaingruentiavitantemet

depellentem.Verumtameneadennaturamodumtenerenesciaest:sedtimoribussalutaribussempervanosetinnanesadmiscet;adeoutomnia(siintusconspicidarentur)

Panicisterroribusplenissimasintpraesertimhumana.]

TheAgesofLife.

ThereisaveryfinesayingofVoltaire’stotheeffectthateveryageoflifehasitsownpeculiarmentalcharacter,andthatamanwillfeelcompletelyunhappyifhismindisnotinaccordancewithhisyears:—

Quin’apasl’espritdesonâge,

Desonâgeatoutlemalheur.

Itwill,therefore,beafittingclosetoourspeculationsuponthenatureofhappiness,ifweglanceatthechanceswhichthevariousperiodsoflifeproduceinus.

Ourwholelifelongitisthepresent,andthepresentalone,thatweactuallypossess:theonlydifferenceisthatatthebeginningoflifewelookforwardtoalongfuture,andthattowardstheendwelookbackuponalongpast;alsothatourtemperament,butnotourcharacter,undergoescertainwell-knownchanges,whichmakethepresentwearadifferentcolorateachperiodoflife.

Ihaveelsewherestatedthatinchildhoodwearemoregiventousingourintellectthanourwill;andIhaveexplainedwhythisisso.(59)Itisjustforthisreasonthatthefirstquarteroflifeissohappy:aswelookbackuponitinafteryears,itseemsasortoflostparadise.Inchildhoodourrelationswithothersarelimited,ourwantsarefew—inaword,thereislittlestimulusforthewill;andsoourchiefconcernistheextensionofourknowledge.Theintellect—likethebrain,whichattainsitsfullsizeintheseventhyear,(60)isdevelopedearly,thoughittakestimetomature;anditexploresthewholeworldofitssurroundingsinitsconstantsearchfornutriment:itisthenthatexistenceisinitselfaneverfreshdelight,andallthingssparklewiththecharmofnovelty.

(59)Translator’sNote.—SchopenhauerreferstoDieWeltalsWilleundVorstellung,Bk.II.c,31,p.451(4thedit.),whereheexplainsthatthisisduetothefactthatatthatperiodoflifethebrainandnervoussystemaremuchmoredevelopedthananyotherpartofthe

organism.]

(60)Translator’sNote.—Thisstatementisnotquitecorrect.Theweightofthebrainincreasesrapidlyuptotheseventhyear,moreslowlybetweenthesixteenthandthe

twentiethyear,stillmoreslowlytillbetweenthirtyandfortyyearsofage,whenitattains

itsmaximum.Ateachdecennialperiodafterthis,itissupposedtodecreaseinweightontheaverage,anounceforeverytenyears.]

Thisiswhytheyearsofchildhoodarelikealongpoem.Forthefunctionofpoetry,asofallart,istograsptheIdea—inthePlatonicsense;inotherwords,toapprehendaparticularobjectinsuchawayastoperceiveitsessentialnature,thecharacteristicsithasincommonwithallotherobjectsofthesamekind;sothatasingleobjectappearsastherepresentativeofaclass,andtheresultsofoneexperienceholdgoodforathousand.

Itmaybethoughtthatmyremarksareopposedtofact,andthatthechildisneveroccupiedwithanythingbeyondtheindividualobjectsoreventswhicharepresentedtoitfromtimetotime,andthenonlyinsofarastheyinterestandexciteitswillforthemoment;butthisisnotreallythecase.Inthoseearlyyears,life—inthefullmeaningoftheword,issomethingsonewandfresh,anditssensationsaresokeenandunbluntedbyrepetition,that,inthemidstofallitspursuitsandwithoutanyclearconsciousnessofwhatitisdoing,thechildisalwayssilentlyoccupiedingraspingthenatureoflifeitself—inarrivingatitsfundamentalcharacterandgeneraloutlinebymeansofseparatescenesandexperiences;or,touseSpinoza’sphraseology,thechildislearningtoseethethingsandpersonsaboutitsubspecieaeternitatis—asparticularmanifestationsofuniversallaw.

Theyoungerweare,then,themoredoeseveryindividualobjectrepresentforusthewholeclasstowhichitbelongs;butastheyearsincrease,thisbecomeslessandlessthecase.Thatisthereasonwhyyouthfulimpressionsaresodifferentfromthoseofoldage.Andthatitalsowhytheslightknowledgeandexperiencegainedinchildhoodandyouthafterwardscometostandasthepermanentrubric,orheading,foralltheknowledgeacquiredinlaterlife—thoseearlyformsofknowledgepassingintocategories,asitwere,underwhichtheresultsofsubsequentexperienceareclassified;thoughaclearconsciousnessofwhatisbeingdone,doesnotalwaysattendupontheprocess.

Inthiswaytheearliestyearsofaman’slifelaythefoundationofhisviewoftheworld,whetheritbeshallowordeep;andalthoughthisviewmaybeextendedandperfectedlateron,itisnotmateriallyaltered.Itisaneffectofthispurelyobjectiveandthereforepoeticalviewoftheworld—essentialtotheperiodofchildhoodandpromotedbytheasyetundevelopedstateofthevolitionalenergy—that,aschildren,weareconcernedmuchmorewiththeacquisitionofpureknowledgethanwithexercisingthepowerofwill.Hencethatgrave,fixedlookobservableinsomanychildren,ofwhichRaphaelmakessuchahappyuseinhisdepictionofcherubs,especiallyinthepictureoftheSistineMadonna.Theyearsofchildhoodarethusrenderedsofullofblissthatthememoryofthemisalwayscoupledwithlongingandregret.

Whilewethuseagerlyapplyourselvestolearningtheoutwardaspectofthings,astheprimitivemethodofunderstandingtheobjectsaboutus,educationaimsatinstillingintousideas.Butideasfurnishnoinformationastotherealandessentialnatureofobjects,which,asthefoundationandtruecontentofallknowledge,canbereachedonlybytheprocesscalledintuition.Thisisakindofknowledgewhichcaninnowisebeinstilledintousfromwithout;wemustarriveatitbyandforourselves.

Henceaman’sintellectualaswellashismoralqualitiesproceedfromthedepthsofhis

ownnature,andarenottheresultofexternalinfluences;andnoeducationalscheme—ofPestalozzi,orofanyoneelse—canturnabornsimpletonintoamanofsense.Thethingisimpossible!Hewasbornasimpleton,andasimpletonhewilldie.

Itisthedepthandintensityofthisearlyintuitiveknowledgeoftheexternalworldthatexplainwhytheexperiencesofchildhoodtakesuchafirmholdonthememory.Whenwewereyoung,wewerecompletelyabsorbedinourimmediatesurroundings;therewasnothingtodistractourattentionfromthem;welookedupontheobjectsaboutusasthoughtheyweretheonlyonesoftheirkind,asthough,indeed,nothingelseexistedatall.Lateron,whenwecometofindouthowmanythingsthereareintheworld,thisprimitivestateofmindvanishes,andwithitourpatience.

Ihavesaidelsewhere(61)thattheworld,consideredasobject—inotherwords,asitispresentedtousobjectively—wearsingeneralapleasingaspect;butthatintheworld,consideredassubject—thatis,inregardtoitsinnernature,whichiswill—painandtroublepredominate.Imaybeallowedtoexpressthematter,briefly,thus:theworldisglorioustolookat,butdreadfulinreality.

(61)DieWeltalsWilleundVorstellung,Bk.II.c.31,p.426-7(4thEdit.),towhichthereaderisreferredforadetailedexplanationofmymeaning.]

Accordingly,wefindthat,intheyearsofchildhood,theworldismuchbetterknowntousonitsouterorobjectiveside,namely,asthepresentationofwill,thanonthesideofitsinnernature,namely,asthewillitself.Sincetheobjectivesidewearsapleasingaspect,andtheinnerorsubjectiveside,withitstaleofhorror,remainsasyetunknown,theyouth,ashisintelligencedevelops,takesalltheformsofbeautythathesees,innatureandinart,forsomanyobjectsofblissfulexistence;theyaresobeautifultotheoutwardeyethat,ontheirinnerside,theymust,hethinks,bemuchmorebeautifulstill.SotheworldliesbeforehimlikeanotherEden;andthisistheArcadiainwhichweareallborn.

Alittlelater,thisstateofmindgivesbirthtoathirstforreallife—theimpulsetodoandsuffer—whichdrivesamanforthintothehurly-burlyoftheworld.Therehelearnstheothersideofexistence—theinnerside,thewill,whichisthwartedateverystep.Thencomesthegreatperiodofdisillusion,aperiodofverygradualgrowth;butonceithasfairlybegun,amanwilltellyouthathehasgotoverallhisfalsenotions—l’âgedesillusionsestpassé;andyettheprocessisonlybeginning,anditgoesonextendingitsswayandapplyingmoreandmoretothewholeoflife.

Soitmaybesaidthatinchildhood,lifelookslikethesceneryinatheatre,asyouviewitfromadistance;andthatinoldageitislikethesamescenerywhenyoucomeupquiteclosetoit.

And,lastly,thereisanothercircumstancethatcontributestothehappinessofchildhood.Asspringcommences,theyoungleavesonthetreesaresimilarincolorandmuchthesameinshape;andinthefirstyearsoflifeweallresembleoneanotherandharmonizeverywell.Butwithpubertydivergencebegins;and,liketheradiiofacircle,wegofurtherandfurtherapart.

Theperiodofyouth,whichformstheremainderofthisearlierhalfofourexistence—and

howmanyadvantagesithasoverthelaterhalf!—istroubledandmademiserablebythepursuitofhappiness,asthoughtherewerenodoubtthatitcanbemetwithsomewhereinlife—ahopethatalwaysendsinfailureandleadstodiscontent.Anillusoryimageofsomevaguefuturebliss—bornofadreamandshapedbyfancy—floatsbeforeoureyes;andwesearchfortherealityinvain.Soitisthattheyoungmanisgenerallydissatisfiedwiththepositioninwhichhefindshimself,whateveritmaybe;heascribeshisdisappointmentsolelytothestateofthingsthatmeetshimonhisfirstintroductiontolife,whenhehadexpectedsomethingverydifferent;whereasitisonlythevanityandwretchednessofhumanlifeeverywherethatheisnowforthefirsttimeexperiencing.

Itwouldbeagreatadvantagetoayoungmanifhisearlytrainingcoulderadicatetheideathattheworldhasagreatdealtoofferhim.Buttheusualresultofeducationistostrengthenthisdelusion;andourfirstideasoflifearegenerallytakenfromfictionratherthanfromfact.

Inthebrightdawnofouryouthfuldays,thepoetryoflifespreadsoutagorgeousvisionbeforeus,andwetortureourselvesbylongingtoseeitrealized.Wemightaswellwishtograsptherainbow!Theyouthexpectshiscareertobelikeaninterestingromance;andthereliesthegermofthatdisappointmentwhichIhavebeendescribing.(62)Whatlendsacharmtoallthesevisionsisjustthefactthattheyarevisionaryandnotreal,andthatincontemplatingthemweareinthesphereofpureknowledge,whichissufficientinitselfandfreefromthenoiseandstruggleoflife.Totryandrealizethosevisionsistomakethemanobjectofwill—aprocesswhichalwaysinvolvespain.(63)

(62)Cf.loc.cit.,p.428.]

(63)Letmereferthereader,ifheisinterestedinthesubject,tothevolumealreadycited,chapter37.]

Ifthechieffeatureoftheearlierhalfoflifeisanever-satisfiedlongingafterhappiness,thelaterhalfischaracterizedbythedreadofmisfortune.For,asweadvanceinyears,itbecomesinagreaterorlessdegreeclearthatallhappinessischimericalinitsnature,andthatpainaloneisreal.Accordingly,inlateryears,we,or,atleast,themoreprudentamongstus,aremoreintentuponeliminatingwhatispainfulfromourlivesandmakingourpositionsecure,thanonthepursuitofpositivepleasure.Imayobserve,bytheway,thatinoldage,wearebetterabletopreventmisfortunesfromcoming,andinyouthbetterabletobearthemwhentheycome.

Inmyyoungdays,Iwasalwayspleasedtoheararingatmydoor:ah!thoughtI,nowforsomethingpleasant.Butinlaterlifemyfeelingsonsuchoccasionswereratherakintodismaythantopleasure:heavenhelpme!thoughtI,whatamItodo?Asimilarrevulsionoffeelinginregardtotheworldofmentakesplaceinallpersonsofanytalentordistinction.Forthatveryreasontheycannotbesaidproperlytobelongtotheworld;inagreaterorlessdegree,accordingtotheextentoftheirsuperiority,theystandalone.Intheiryouththeyhaveasenseofbeingabandonedbytheworld;butlateron,theyfeelasthoughtheyhadescapedit.Theearlierfeelingisanunpleasantone,andrestsuponignorance;thesecondispleasurable—forinthemeantimetheyhavecometoknowwhattheworldis.

Theconsequenceofthisisthat,ascomparedwiththeearlier,thelaterhalfoflife,likethe

secondpartofamusicalperiod,haslessofpassionatelongingandmorerestfulnessaboutit.AndwhyisthisthecaseSimplybecause,inyouth,amanfanciesthatthereisaprodigiousamountofhappinessandpleasuretobehadintheworld,onlythatitisdifficulttocomebyit;whereas,whenhebecomesold,heknowsthatthereisnothingofthekind;hemakeshismindcompletelyateaseonthematter,enjoysthepresenthouraswellashecan,andeventakesapleasureintrifles.

Thechiefresultgainedbyexperienceoflifeisclearnessofview.Thisiswhatdistinguishesthemanofmatureage,andmakestheworldwearsuchadifferentaspectfromthatwhichitpresentedinhisyouthorboyhood.Itisonlythenthatheseesthingsquiteplain,andtakesthemforthatwhichtheyreallyare:whileinearlieryearshesawaphantom-world,puttogetheroutofthewhimsandcrotchetsofhisownmind,inheritedprejudiceandstrangedelusion:therealworldwashiddenfromhim,orthevisionofitdistorted.Thefirstthingthatexperiencefindstodoistofreeusfromthephantomsofthebrain—thosefalsenotionsthathavebeenputintousinyouth.

Topreventtheirentranceatallwould,ofcourse,bethebestformofeducation,eventhoughitwereonlynegativeinaim:butitwouldbeataskfullofdifficulty.Atfirstthechild’shorizonwouldhavetobelimitedasmuchaspossible,andyetwithinthatlimitedspherenonebutclearandcorrectnotionswouldhavetobegiven;onlyafterthechildhadproperlyappreciatedeverythingwithinit,mightthespherebegraduallyenlarged;carebeingalwaystakenthatnothingwasleftobscure,orhalforwronglyunderstood.Theconsequenceofthistrainingwouldbethatthechild’snotionsofmenandthingswouldalwaysbelimitedandsimpleintheircharacter;but,ontheotherhand,theywouldbeclearandcorrect,andonlyneedtobeextended,nottoberectified.Thesamelinemightbepursuedonintotheperiodofyouth.Thismethodofeducationwouldlayspecialstressupontheprohibitionofnovelreading;andtheplaceofnovelswouldbetakenbysuitablebiographicalliterature—thelifeofFranklin,forinstance,orMoritz’AntonReiser.(64)

(64)Translator’sNote.—Moritzwasamiscellaneouswriterofthelastcentury(1757-93).HisAntonReiser,composedintheformofanovel,ispracticallyanautobiography.]

Inourearlydayswefancythattheleadingeventsinourlife,andthepersonswhoaregoingtoplayanimportantpartinit,willmaketheirentrancetothesoundofdrumsandtrumpets;butwhen,inoldage,welookback,wefindthattheyallcameinquitequietly,slippedin,asitwere,bytheside-door,almostunnoticed.

Fromthepointofviewwehavebeentakingupuntilnow,lifemaybecomparedtoapieceofembroidery,ofwhich,duringthefirsthalfofhistime,amangetsasightoftherightside,andduringthesecondhalf,ofthewrong.Thewrongsideisnotsoprettyastheright,butitismoreinstructive;itshowsthewayinwhichthethreadshavebeenworkedtogether.

Intellectualsuperiority,evenifitisofthehighestkind,willnotsecureforamanapreponderatingplaceinconversationuntilafterheisfortyyearsofage.Forageandexperience,thoughtheycanneverbeasubstituteforintellectualtalent,mayfaroutweighit;andeveninapersonofthemeanestcapacity,theygiveacertaincounterpoisetothepowerofanextremelyintellectualman,solongasthelatterisyoung.OfcourseIallude

heretopersonalsuperiority,nottotheplaceamanmaygainbyhisworks.

Andonpassinghisfortiethyear,anymanoftheslightestpowerofmind—anyman,thatis,whohasmorethanthesorryshareofintellectwithwhichNaturehasendowedfive-sixthsofmankind—willhardlyfailtoshowsometraceofmisanthropy.For,asisnatural,hehasbythattimeinferredotherpeople’scharacterfromanexaminationofhisown;withtheresultthathehasbeengraduallydisappointedtofindthatinthequalitiesoftheheadorinthoseoftheheart—andusuallyinboth—hereachesaleveltowhichtheydonotattain;sohegladlyavoidshavinganythingmoretodowiththem.Foritmaybesaid,ingeneral,thateverymanwillloveorhatesolitude—inotherWords,hisownsociety—justinproportionasheisworthanythinginhimself.KanthassomeremarksuponthiskindofmisanthropyinhisCritiqueoftheFacultyofJudgment.(65)

(65)KritikderUrtheilskraft,PartI,§29,Noteadfin.]

Inayoungman,itisabadsign,aswellfromanintellectualasfromamoralpointofview,ifheisprecociousinunderstandingthewaysoftheworld,andinadaptinghimselftoitspursuits;ifheatonceknowshowtodealwithmen,andentersuponlife,asitwere,fullyprepared.Itarguesavulgarnature.Ontheotherhand,tobesurprisedandastonishedatthewaypeopleact,andtobeclumsyandcross-grainedinhavingtodowiththem,indicatesacharacterofthenoblersort.

Thecheerfulnessandvivacityofyoutharepartlyduetothefactthat,whenweareascendingthehilloflife,deathisnotvisible:itliesdownatthebottomoftheotherside.Butoncewehavecrossedthetopofthehill,deathcomesinview—death—which,untilthen,wasknowntousonlybyhearsay.Thismakesourspiritsdroop,foratthesametimewebegintofeelthatourvitalpowersareontheebb.Agraveseriousnessnowtakestheplaceofthatearlyextravaganceofspirit;andthechangeisnoticeableevenintheexpressionofaman’sface.Aslongasweareyoung,peoplemaytelluswhattheyplease!welookuponlifeasendlessanduseourtimerecklessly;buttheolderwebecome,themorewepracticeeconomy.Fortowardsthecloseoflife,everydaywelivegivesusthesamekindofsensationasthecriminalexperiencesateverysteponhiswaytobetried.

Fromthestandpointofyouth,lifeseemstostretchawayintoanendlessfuture;fromthestandpointofoldage,togobackbutalittlewayintothepast;sothat,atthebeginning,lifepresentsuswithapictureinwhichtheobjectsappearagreatwayoff,asthoughwehadreversedourtelescope;whileintheendeverythingseemssoclose.Toseehowshortlifeis,amanmusthavegrownold,thatistosay,hemusthavelivedlong.

Ontheotherhand,astheyearsincrease,thingslooksmaller,oneandall;andLife,whichhadsofirmandstableabaseinthedaysofouryouth,nowseemsnothingbutarapidflightofmoments,everyoneofthemillusory:wehavecometoseethatthewholeworldisvanity!

Timeitselfseemstogoatamuchslowerpacewhenweareyoung;sothatnotonlyisthefirstquarteroflifethehappiest,itisalsothelongestofall;itleavesmorememoriesbehindit.Ifamanwereputtoit,hecouldtellyoumoreoutofthefirstquarterofhislifethanoutoftwooftheremainingperiods.Nay,inthespringoflife,asinthespringoftheyear,thedaysreachalengththatispositivelytiresome;butintheautumn,whetherofthe

yearoroflife,thoughtheyareshort,theyaremoregenialanduniform.

Butwhyisitthattoanoldmanhispastlifeappearssoshort?Forthisreason:hismemoryisshort;andsohefanciesthathislifehasbeenshorttoo.Henolongerrememberstheinsignificantpartsofit,andmuchthatwasunpleasantisnowforgotten;howlittle,then,thereisleft!For,ingeneral,aman’smemoryisasimperfectashisintellect;andhemustmakeapracticeofreflectinguponthelessonshehaslearnedandtheeventshehasexperienced,ifhedoesnotwantthembothtosinkgraduallyintothegulfofoblivion.Now,weareunaccustomedtoreflectuponmattersofnoimportance,or,asarule,uponthingsthatwehavefounddisagreeable,andyetthatisnecessaryifthememoryofthemistobepreserved.Buttheclassofthingsthatmaybecalledinsignificantiscontinuallyreceivingfreshadditions:muchthatwearsanairofimportanceatfirst,graduallybecomesofnoconsequenceatallfromthefactofitsfrequentrepetition;sothatintheendweactuallylosecountofthenumberoftimesithappens.Hencewearebetterabletoremembertheeventsofourearlythanofourlateryears.Thelongerwelive,thefewerarethethingsthatwecancallimportantorsignificantenoughtodeservefurtherconsideration,andbythisalonecantheybefixedinthememory;inotherwords,theyareforgottenassoonastheyarepast.Thusitisthattimerunson,leavingalwaysfewertracesofitspassage.

Further,ifdisagreeablethingshavehappenedtous,wedonotcaretoruminateuponthem,leastofallwhentheytouchourvanity,asisusuallythecase;forfewmisfortunesfalluponusforwhichwecanbeheldentirelyblameless.Sopeopleareveryreadytoforgetmanythingsthataredisagreeable,aswellasmanythatareunimportant.

Itisfromthisdoublecausethatourmemoryissoshort;andaman’srecollectionofwhathashappenedalwaysbecomesproportionatelyshorter,themorethingsthathaveoccupiedhiminlife.Thethingswedidinyearsgoneby,theeventsthathappenedlongago,arelikethoseobjectsonthecoastwhich,totheseafareronhisoutwardvoyage,becomesmallereveryminute,moreunrecognizableandhardertodistinguish.

Again,itsometimeshappensthatmemoryandimaginationwillcallupsomelongpastsceneasvividlyasifithadoccurredonlyyesterday;sothattheeventinquestionseemstostandveryneartothepresenttime.Thereasonofthisisthatitisimpossibletocallupalltheinterveningperiodinthesamevividway,asthereisnoonefigurepervadingitwhichcanbetakeninataglance;andbesides,mostofthethingsthathappenedinthatperiodareforgotten,andallthatremainsofitisthegeneralknowledgethatwehavelivedthroughit—amerenotionofabstractexistence,notadirectvisionofsomeparticularexperience.Itisthisthatcausessomesingleeventoflongagotoappearasthoughittookplacebutyesterday:theinterveningtimevanishes,andthewholeoflifelooksincrediblyshort.Nay,thereareoccasionalmomentsinoldagewhenwecanscarcelybelievethatwearesoadvancedinyears,orthatthelongpastlyingbehindushashadanyrealexistence—afeelingwhichismainlyduetothecircumstancethatthepresentalwaysseemsfixedandimmovableaswelookatit.Theseandsimilarmentalphenomenaareultimatelytobetracedtothefactthatitisnotournatureinitself,butonlytheoutwardpresentationofit,thatliesintime,andthatthepresentisthepointofcontactbetweentheworldassubjectandtheworldasobject.(66)

(66)Translator’sNote.—BythisremarkSchopenhauermeansthatwill,which,ashe

argues,formstheinnerrealityunderlyingallthephenomenaoflifeandnature,isnotinitselfaffectedbytime;butthat,ontheotherhand,timeisnecessaryfortheobjectificationofthewill,forthewillaspresentedinthepassingphenomenaoftheworld.Timeisthusdefinableastheconditionofchange,andthepresenttimeastheonlypointofcontact

betweenrealityandappearance.]

Again,whyisitthatinyouthwecanseenoendtotheyearsthatseemtoliebeforeus?Becauseweareobligedtofindroomforallthethingswehopetoattaininlife.Wecramtheyearssofullofprojectsthatifweweretotryandcarrythemallout,deathwouldcomeprematurelythoughwereachedtheageofMethuselah.

Anotherreasonwhylifelookssolongwhenweareyoung,isthatweareapttomeasureitslengthbythefewyearswehavealreadylived.Inthoseearlyyearsthingsarenewtous,andsotheyappearimportant;wedwelluponthemaftertheyhavehappenedandoftencallthemtomind;andthusinyouthlifeseemsrepletewithincident,andthereforeoflongduration.

Sometimeswecreditourselveswithalongingtobeinsomedistantspot,whereas,intruth,weareonlylongingtohavethetimebackagainwhichwespentthere—dayswhenwewereyoungerandfresherthanwearenow.InthosemomentsTimemocksusbywearingthemaskofspace;andifwetraveltothespot,wecanseehowmuchwehavebeendeceived.

Therearetwowaysofreachingagreatage,bothofwhichpresupposeasoundconstitutionasaconditiosinequânon.Theymaybeillustratedbytwolamps,oneofwhichburnsalongtimewithverylittleoil,becauseithasaverythinwick;andtheotherjustaslong,thoughithasaverythickone,becausethereisplentyofoiltofeedit.Here,theoilisthevitalenergy,andthedifferenceinthewickisthemanifoldwayinwhichthevitalenergyisused.

Uptoourthirty-sixthyear,wemaybecompared,inrespectofthewayinwhichweuseourvitalenergy,topeoplewholiveontheinterestoftheirmoney:whattheyspendto-day,theyhaveagainto-morrow.Butfromtheageofthirty-sixonwards,ourpositionislikethatoftheinvestorwhobeginstoentrenchuponhiscapital.Atfirsthehardlynoticesanydifferenceatall,asthegreaterpartofhisexpensesiscoveredbytheinterestofhissecurities;andifthedeficitisbutslight,hepaysnoattentiontoit.Butthedeficitgoesonincreasing,untilheawakestothefactthatitisbecomingmoreseriouseveryday:hispositionbecomeslessandlesssecure,andhefeelshimselfgrowingpoorerandpoorer,whilehehasnoexpectationofthisdrainuponhisresourcescomingtoanend.Hisfallfromwealthtopovertybecomesfastereverymoment—likethefallofasolidbodyinspace,untilatlasthehasabsolutelynothingleft.Amanistrulyinawoefulplightifboththetermsofthiscomparison—hisvitalenergyandhiswealth—reallybegintomeltawayatoneandthesametime.Itisthedreadofthiscalamitythatmakesloveofpossessionincreasewithage.

Ontheotherhand,atthebeginningoflife,intheyearsbeforeweattainmajority,andforsomelittletimeafterwards—thestateofourvitalenergyputsusonalevelwiththosewhoeachyearlaybyapartoftheirinterestandaddittotheircapital:inotherwords,not

onlydoestheirinterestcomeinregularly,butthecapitalisconstantlyreceivingadditions.Thishappyconditionofaffairsissometimesbroughtabout—withhealthaswithmoney—underthewatchfulcareofsomehonestguardian.Ohappyyouth,andsadoldage!

Nevertheless,amanshouldeconomizehisstrengthevenwhenheisyoung.Aristotle(67)observesthatamongstthosewhowerevictorsatOlympiaonlytwoorthreegainedaprizeattwodifferentperiods,onceinboyhoodandthenagainwhentheycametobemen;andthereasonofthiswasthattheprematureeffortswhichthetraininginvolved,socompletelyexhaustedtheirpowersthattheyfailedtolastonintomanhood.Asthisistrueofmuscular,soitisstillmoretrueofnervousenergy,ofwhichallintellectualachievementsarethemanifestation.Hence,thoseinfantprodigies—ingeniapraecoda—thefruitofahot-houseeducation,whosurpriseusbytheirclevernessaschildren,afterwardsturnoutveryordinaryfolk.Nay,themannerinwhichboysareforcedintoanearlyacquaintancewiththeancienttonguesmay,perhaps,betoblameforthedullnessandlackofjudgmentwhichdistinguishsomanylearnedpersons.

(67)Politics.]

Ihavesaidthatalmosteveryman’scharacterseemstobespeciallysuitedtosomeoneperiodoflife,sothatonreachingitthemanisathisbest.Somepeoplearecharmingsolongastheyareyoung,andafterwardsthereisnothingattractiveaboutthem;othersarevigorousandactiveinmanhood,andthenloseallthevaluetheypossessastheyadvanceinyears;manyappeartobestadvantageinoldage,whentheircharacterassumesagentlertone,asbecomesmenwhohaveseentheworldandtakelifeeasily.ThisisoftenthecasewiththeFrench.

Thispeculiaritymustbeduetothefactthattheman’scharacterhassomethinginitakintothequalitiesofyouthormanhoodoroldage—somethingwhichaccordswithoneoranotheroftheseperiodsoflife,orperhapsactsasacorrectivetoitsspecialfailings.

Themarinerobservestheprogresshemakesonlybythewayinwhichobjectsonthecoastfadeawayintothedistanceandapparentlydecreaseinsize.Inthesamewayamanbecomesconsciousthatheisadvancinginyearswhenhefindsthatpeopleolderthanhimselfbegintoseemyoungtohim.

Ithasalreadybeenremarkedthattheolderamanbecomes,thefewerarethetracesleftinhismindbyallthathesees,doesorexperiences,andthecauseofthishasbeenexplained.Thereisthusasenseinwhichitmaybesaidthatitisonlyinyouththatamanliveswithafulldegreeofconsciousness,andthatheisonlyhalfalivewhenheisold.Astheyearsadvance,hisconsciousnessofwhatgoesonabouthimdwindles,andthethingsoflifehurrybywithoutmakinganyimpressionuponhim,justasnoneismadebyaworkofartseenforthethousandthtime.Amandoeswhathishandfindstodo,andafterwardshedoesnotknowwhetherhehasdoneitornot.

Aslifebecomesmoreandmoreunconscious,theneareritapproachesthepointatwhichallconsciousnessceases,thecourseoftimeitselfseemstoincreaseinrapidity.Inchildhoodallthethingsandcircumstancesoflifearenovel;andthatissufficienttoawakeustothefullconsciousnessofexistence:hence,atthatage,thedayseemsofsuchimmenselength.Thesamethinghappenswhenwearetraveling:onemonthseemslonger

thenthanfourspentathome.Still,thoughtimeseemstolastlongerwhenweareyoungoronajourney,thesenseofnoveltydoesnotpreventitfromnowandtheninrealityhangingheavilyuponourhandsunderboththesecircumstances,atanyratemorethanisthecasewhenweareoldorstayingathome.Buttheintellectgraduallybecomessorubbeddownandbluntedbylonghabituationtosuchimpressionsthatthingshaveaconstanttendencytoproducelessandlessimpressionuponusastheypassby;andthismakestimeseemincreasinglylessimportant,andthereforeshorterinduration:thehoursoftheboyarelongerthanthedaysoftheoldman.Accordingly,timegoesfasterandfasterthelongerwelive,likeaballrollingdownahill.Or,totakeanotherexample:asinarevolvingdisc,thefurtherapointliesfromthecentre,themorerapidisitsrateofprogression,soitisinthewheeloflife;thefurtheryoustandfromthebeginning,thefastertimemovesforyou.Henceitmaybesaidthatasfarasconcernstheimmediatesensationthattimemakesuponourminds,thelengthofanygivenyearisindirectproportiontothenumberoftimesitwilldivideourwholelife:forinstance,attheageoffiftytheyearappearstousonlyone-tenthaslongasitdidattheageoffive.

Thisvariationintherateatwhichtimeappearstomove,exercisesamostdecidedinfluenceuponthewholenatureofourexistenceateveryperiodofit.Firstofall,itcauseschildhood—eventhoughitembraceonlyaspanoffifteenyears—toseemthelongestperiodoflife,andthereforetherichestinreminiscences.Next,itbringsitaboutthatamanisapttobeboredjustinproportionasheisyoung.Consider,forinstance,thatconstantneedofoccupation—whetheritisworkorplay—thatisshownbychildren:iftheycometoanendofbothworkandplay,aterriblefeelingofboredomensues.Eveninyouthpeoplearebynomeansfreefromthistendency,anddreadthehourswhentheyhavenothingtodo.Asmanhoodapproaches,boredomdisappears;andoldmenfindthetimetooshortwhentheirdaysflypastthemlikearrowsfromabow.Ofcourse,Imustbeunderstoodtospeakofmen,notofdecrepitbrutes.Withthisincreasedrapidityoftime,boredommostlypassesawayasweadvanceinlife;andasthepassionswithalltheirattendantpainarethenlaidasleep,theburdenoflifeis,onthewhole,appreciablylighterinlateryearsthaninyouth,provided,ofcourse,thathealthremains.Soitisthattheperiodimmediatelyprecedingtheweaknessandtroublesofoldage,receivesthenameofaman’sbestyears.

Thatmaybeatrueappellation,inviewofthecomfortablefeelingwhichthoseyearsbring;butforallthattheyearsofyouth,whenourconsciousnessislivelyandopentoeverysortofimpression,havethisprivilege—thatthentheseedsaresownandthebudscomeforth;itisthespringtimeofthemind.Deeptruthsmaybeperceived,butcanneverbeexcogitated—thatistosay,thefirstknowledgeofthemisimmediate,calledforthbysomemomentaryimpression.Thisknowledgeisofsuchakindastobeattainableonlywhentheimpressionsarestrong,livelyanddeep;andifwearetobeacquaintedwithdeeptruths,everythingdependsuponaproperuseofourearlyyears.Inlaterlife,wemaybebetterabletoworkuponotherpeople—upontheworld,becauseournaturesarethenfinishedandroundedoff,andnomoreapreytofreshviews;butthentheworldislessabletoworkuponus.Thesearetheyearsofactionandachievement;whileyouthisthetimeforformingfundamentalconceptions,andlayingdowntheground-workofthought.

Inyouthitistheoutwardaspectofthingsthatmostengagesus;whileinage,thoughtorreflectionisthepredominatingqualityofthemind.Hence,youthisthetimeforpoetry,

andageismoreinclinedtophilosophy.Inpracticalaffairsitisthesame:amanshapeshisresolutionsinyouthmorebytheimpressionthattheoutwardworldmakesuponhim;whereas,whenheisold,itisthoughtthatdetermineshisactions.Thisispartlytobeexplainedbythefactthatitisonlywhenamanisoldthattheresultsofoutwardobservationarepresentinsufficientnumberstoallowoftheirbeingclassifiedaccordingtotheideastheyrepresent—aprocesswhichinitsturncausesthoseideastobemorefullyunderstoodinalltheirbearings,andtheexactvalueandamountoftrusttobeplacedinthem,fixedanddetermined;whileatthesametimehehasgrownaccustomedtotheimpressionsproducedbythevariousphenomenaoflife,andtheireffectsonhimarenolongerwhattheywere.Contrarily,inyouth,theimpressionsthatthingsmake,thatistosay,theoutwardaspectsoflife,aresooverpoweringlystrong,especiallyinthecaseofpeopleoflivelyandimaginativedisposition,thattheyviewtheworldlikeapicture;andtheirchiefconcernisthefiguretheycutinit,theappearancetheypresent;nay,theyareunawareoftheextenttowhichthisisthecase.Itisaqualityofmindthatshowsitself—ifinnootherway—inthatpersonalvanity,andthatloveoffineclothes,whichdistinguishyoungpeople.

Therecanbenodoubtthattheintellectualpowersaremostcapableofenduringgreatandsustainedeffortsinyouth,uptotheageofthirty-fiveatlatest;fromwhichperiodtheirstrengthbeginstodecline,thoughverygradually.Still,thelateryearsoflife,andevenoldageitself,arenotwithouttheirintellectualcompensation.Itisonlythenthatamancanbesaidtobereallyrichinexperienceorinlearning;hehasthenhadtimeandopportunityenoughtoenablehimtoseeandthinkoverlifefromallitssides;hehasbeenabletocompareonethingwithanother,andtodiscoverpointsofcontactandconnectinglinks,sothatonlythenarethetruerelationsofthingsrightlyunderstood.Further,inoldagetherecomesanincreaseddepthintheknowledgethatwasacquiredinyouth;amanhasnowmanymoreillustrationsofanyideashemayhaveattained;thingswhichhethoughtheknewwhenhewasyoung,henowknowsinreality.Andbesides,hisrangeofknowledgeiswider;andinwhateverdirectionitextends,itisthorough,andthereforeformedintoaconsistentandconnectedwhole;whereasinyouthknowledgeisalwaysdefectiveandfragmentary.

Acompleteandadequatenotionoflifecanneverbeattainedbyanyonewhodoesnotreacholdage;foritisonlytheoldmanwhoseeslifewholeandknowsitsnaturalcourse;itisonlyhewhoisacquainted—andthisismostimportant—notonlywithitsentrance,liketherestofmankind,butwithitsexittoo;sothathealonehasafullsenseofitsuttervanity;whilsttheothersneverceasetolaborunderthefalsenotionthateverythingwillcomerightintheend.

Ontheotherhand,thereismoreconceptivepowerinyouth,andatthattimeoflifeamancanmakemoreoutofthelittlethatheknows.Inage,judgment,penetrationandthoroughnesspredominate.Youthisthetimeforamassingthematerialforaknowledgeoftheworldthatshallbedistinctiveandpeculiar—foranoriginalviewoflife,inotherwords,thelegacythatamanofgeniusleavestohisfellow-men;itis,however,onlyinlateryearsthathebecomesmasterofhismaterial.Accordinglyitwillbefoundthat,asarule,agreatwritergiveshisbestworktotheworldwhenheisaboutfiftyyearsofage.Butthoughthetreeofknowledgemustreachitsfullheightbeforeitcanbearfruit,therootsofitlieinyouth.

Everygeneration,nomatterhowpaltryitscharacter,thinksitselfmuchwiserthantheoneimmediatelyprecedingit,letalonethosethataremoreremote.Itisjustthesamewiththedifferentperiodsinaman’slife;andyetoften,intheonecasenolessthanintheother,itisamistakenopinion.Intheyearsofphysicalgrowth,whenourpowersofmindandourstoresofknowledgearereceivingdailyadditions,itbecomesahabitforto-daytolookdownwithcontemptuponyesterday.Thehabitstrikesroot,andremainsevenaftertheintellectualpowershavebeguntodecline—whento-dayshouldratherlookupwithrespecttoyesterday.Soitisthatweoftenundulydepreciatetheachievementsaswellasthejudgmentsofouryouth.Thisseemstheplaceformakingthegeneralobservation,that,althoughinitsmainqualitiesaman’sintellectorhead,aswellashischaracterorheart,isinnate,yettheformerisbynomeanssounalterableinitsnatureasthelatter.Thefactisthattheintellectissubjecttoverymanytransformations,which,asarule,donotfailtomaketheiractualappearance;andthisisso,partlybecausetheintellecthasadeepfoundationinthephysique,andpartlybecausethematerialwithwhichitdealsisgiveninexperience.Andso,fromaphysicalpointofview,wefindthatifamanhasanypeculiarpower,itfirstgraduallyincreasesinstrengthuntilitreachesitsacme,afterwhichitentersuponapathofslowdecadence,untilitendsinimbecility.But,ontheotherhand,wemustnotlosesightofthefactthatthematerialwhichgivesemploymenttoaman’spowersandkeepstheminactivity—thesubject-matterofthoughtandknowledge,experience,intellectualattainments,thepracticeofseeingtothebottomofthings,andsoaperfectmentalvision,forminthemselvesamasswhichcontinuestoincreaseinsize,untilthetimecomeswhenweaknessshowsitself,andtheman’spowerssuddenlyfail.Thewayinwhichthesetwodistinguishableelementscombineinthesamenature—theoneabsolutelyunalterable,andtheothersubjecttochangeintwodirectionsopposedtoeachother—explainsthevarietyofmentalattitudeandthedissimilarityofvaluewhichattachtoamanatdifferentperiodsoflife.

Thesametruthmaybemorebroadlyexpressedbysayingthatthefirstfortyyearsoflifefurnishthetext,whiletheremainingthirtysupplythecommentary;andthatwithoutthecommentaryweareunabletounderstandarightthetruesenseandcoherenceofthetext,togetherwiththemoralitcontainsandallthesubtleapplicationofwhichitadmits.

Towardsthecloseoflife,muchthesamethinghappensasattheendofabalmasqué—themasksaretakenoff.Thenyoucanseewhothepeoplereallyare,withwhomyouhavecomeintocontactinyourpassagethroughtheworld.Forbytheendoflifecharactershavecomeoutintheirtruelight,actionshavebornefruit,achievementshavebeenrightlyappreciated,andallshamshavefallentopieces.Forthis,Timewasineverycaserequisite.

Butthemostcuriousfactisthatitisalsoonlytowardsthecloseoflifethanamanreallyrecognizesandunderstandshisowntrueself—theaimsandobjectshehasfollowedinlife,moreespeciallythekindofrelationinwhichhehasstoodtootherpeopleandtotheworld.Itwilloftenhappenthatasaresultofthisknowledge,amanwillhavetoassignhimselfalowerplacethanheformerlythoughtwashisdue.Butthereareexceptionstothisrule;anditwilloccasionallybethecasethathewilltakeahigherpositionthanhehadbefore.Thiswillbeowingtothefactthathehadnoadequatenotionofthebasenessoftheworld,andthathesetupahigheraimforhimselfthanwasfollowedbytherestofmankind.

Theprogressoflifeshowsamanthestuffofwhichheismade.

Itiscustomarytocallyouththehappy,andagethesadpartoflife.Thiswouldbetrueifitwerethepassionsthatmadeamanhappy.Youthisswayedtoandfrobythem;andtheygiveagreatdealofpainandlittlepleasure.Inagethepassionscoolandleaveamanatrest,andthenforthwithhismindtakesacontemplativetone;theintellectissetfreeandattainstheupperhand.Andsince,initself,intellectisbeyondtherangeofpain,andmanfeelshappyjustinsofarashisintellectisthepredominatingpartofhim.

Itneedonlyberememberedthatallpleasureisnegative,andthatpainispositiveinitsnature,inordertoseethatthepassionscanneverbeasourceofhappiness,andthatageisnotthelesstobeenviedonthegroundthatmanypleasuresaredeniedit.Foreverysortofpleasureisneveranythingmorethanthequietiveofsomeneedorlonging;andthatpleasureshouldcometoanendassoonastheneedceases,isnomoreasubjectofcomplaintthanthatamancannotgooneatingafterhehashadhisdinner,orfallasleepagainafteragoodnight’srest.

Sofarfromyouthbeingthehappiestperiodoflife,thereismuchmoretruthintheremarkmadebyPlato,atthebeginningoftheRepublic,thattheprizeshouldratherbegiventooldage,becausethenatlastamanisfreedfromtheanimalpassionwhichhashithertoneverceasedtodisquiethim.Nay,itmayevenbesaidthatthecountlessandmanifoldhumorswhichhavetheirsourceinthispassion,andtheemotionsthatspringfromit,produceamildstateofmadness;andthislastsaslongasthemanissubjecttothespelloftheimpulse—thisevilspirit,asitwere,ofwhichthereisnoriddance—sothatheneverreallybecomesareasonablebeinguntilthepassionisextinguished.

Thereisnodoubtthat,ingeneral,andapartfromindividualcircumstancesandparticulardispositions,youthismarkedbyacertainmelancholyandsadness,whilegenialsentimentsattachtooldage;andthereasonforthisisnothingbutthefactthattheyoungmanisstillundertheservice,nay,theforcedlabor,imposedbythatevilspirit,whichscarcelyeverleaveshimamomenttohimself.Tothissourcemaybetraced,directlyorindirectly,almostallandeveryillthatbefallsormenacesmankind.Theoldmanisgenialandcheerfulbecause,afterlonglyinginthebondsofpassion,hecannowmoveaboutinfreedom.

Still,itshouldnotbeforgottenthat,whenthispassionisextinguished,thetruekerneloflifeisgone,andnothingremainsbutthehollowshell;or,fromanotherpointofview,lifethenbecomeslikeacomedy,which,begunbyrealactors,iscontinuedandbroughttoanendbyautomatadressedintheirclothes.

Howeverthatmaybe,youthistheperiodofunrest,andageofrepose;andfromthatverycircumstance,therelativedegreeofpleasurebelongingtoeachmaybeinferred.Thechildstretchesoutitslittlehandsintheeagerdesiretoseizealltheprettythingsthatmeetitssight,charmedbytheworldbecauseallitssensesarestillsoyoungandfresh.Muchthesamethinghappenswiththeyouth,andhedisplaysgreaterenergyinhisquest.He,too,ischarmedbyalltheprettythingsandthemanypleasingshapesthatsurroundhim;andforthwithhisimaginationconjuresuppleasureswhichtheworldcanneverrealize.Soheisfilledwithanardentdesireforheknowsnotwhatdelights—robbinghimofallrestandmakinghappinessimpossible.Butwhenoldageisreached,allthisisoveranddone

with,partlybecausethebloodrunscoolerandthesensesarenolongersoeasilyallured;partlybecauseexperiencehasshownthetruevalueofthingsandthefutilityofpleasure,wherebyillusionhasbeengraduallydispelled,andthestrangefanciesandprejudiceswhichpreviouslyconcealedordistortedafreeandtrueviewoftheworld,havebeendissipatedandputtoflight;withtheresultthatamancannowgetajusterandclearerview,andseethingsastheyare,andalsoinameasureattainmoreorlessinsightintothenullityofallthingsonthisearth.

Itisthisthatgivesalmosteveryoldman,nomatterhowordinaryhisfacultiesmaybe,acertaintinctureofwisdom,whichdistinguisheshimfromtheyoung.Butthechiefresultofallthischangeisthepeaceofmindthatensues—agreatelementinhappiness,and,infact,theconditionandessenceofit.Whiletheyoungmanfanciesthatthereisavastamountofgoodthingsintheworld,ifhecouldonlycomeatthem,theoldmanissteepedinthetruthofthePreacher’swords,thatallthingsarevanity—knowingthat,howevergildedtheshell,thenutishollow.

Intheselateryears,andnotbefore,amancomestoatrueappreciationofHorace’smaxim:Niladmirari.Heisdirectlyandsincerelyconvincedofthevanityofeverythingandthatallthegloriesoftheworldareasnothing:hisillusionsaregone.Heisnomorebesetwiththeideathatthereisanyparticularamountofhappinessanywhere,inthepalaceorinthecottage,anymorethanhehimselfenjoyswhenheisfreefrombodilyormentalpain.Theworldlydistinctionsofgreatandsmall,highandlow,existforhimnolonger;andinthisblissfulstateofmindtheoldmanmaylookdownwithasmileuponallfalsenotions.Heiscompletelyundeceived,andknowsthatwhatevermaybedonetoadornhumanlifeanddeckitoutinfinery,itspaltrycharacterwillsoonshowthroughtheglitterofitssurroundings;andthat,paintandbejewelitasonemay,itremainseverywheremuchthesame—anexistencewhichhasnotruevalueexceptinfreedomfrompain,andisnevertobeestimatedbythepresenceofpleasure,letalone,then,ofdisplay.(68)

(68)Cf.Horace,Epist.I.12,I-4.]

Disillusionisthechiefcharacteristicofoldage;forbythattimethefictionsaregonewhichgavelifeitscharmandspurredonthemindtoactivity;thesplendorsoftheworldhavebeenprovednullandvain;itspomp,grandeurandmagnificencearefaded.Amanhasthenfoundoutthatbehindmostofthethingshewants,andmostofthepleasureshelongsfor,thereisverylittleafterall;andsohecomesbydegreestoseethatourexistenceisallemptyandvoid.ItisonlywhenheisseventyyearsoldthathequiteunderstandsthefirstwordsofthePreacher;andthisagainexplainswhyitisthatoldmenaresometimesfretfulandmorose.

Itisoftensaidthatthecommonlotofoldageisdiseaseandwearinessoflife.Diseaseisbynomeansessentialtooldage;especiallywhereareallylongspanofyearsistobeattained;foraslifegoeson,theconditionsofhealthanddisordertendtoincrease—crescentevita,crescitsanitasetmorbus.Andasfaraswearinessorboredomisconcerned,Ihavestatedabovewhyoldageisevenlessexposedtothatformofevilthanyouth.Norisboredombyanymeanstobetakenasanecessaryaccompanimentofthatsolitude,

which,forreasonsthatdonotrequiretobeexplained,oldagecertainlycannotescape;itisratherthefatethatawaitsthosewhohaveneverknownanyotherpleasuresbutthegratificationofthesensesandthedelightsofsociety—whohavelefttheirmindsunenlightenedandtheirfacultiesunused.Itisquitetruethattheintellectualfacultiesdeclinewiththeapproachofoldage;butwheretheywereoriginallystrong,therewillalwaysbeenoughlefttocombattheonslaughtofboredom.Andthenagain,asIhavesaid,experience,knowledge,reflection,andskillindealingwithmen,combinetogiveanoldmananincreasinglyaccurateinsightintothewaysoftheworld;hisjudgmentbecomeskeenandheattainsacoherentviewoflife:hismentalvisionembracesawiderrange.Constantlyfindingnewusesforhisstoresofknowledgeandaddingtothemateveryopportunity,hemaintainsuninterruptedthatinwardprocessofself-education,whichgivesemploymentandsatisfactiontothemind,andthusformstheduerewardofallitsefforts.

Allthisservesinsomemeasureasacompensationfordecreasedintellectualpower.Andbesides,Time,asIhaveremarked,seemstogomuchmorequicklywhenweareadvancedinyears;andthisisinitselfapreventiveofboredom.Thereisnogreatharminthefactthataman’sbodilystrengthdecreasesinoldage,unless,indeed,herequiresittomakealiving.Tobepoorwhenoneisold,isagreatmisfortune.Ifamanissecurefromthat,andretainshishealth,oldagemaybeaverypassabletimeoflife.Itschiefnecessityistobecomfortableandwelloff;and,inconsequence,moneyisthenprizedmorethanever,becauseitisasubstituteforfailingstrength.DesertedbyVenus,theoldmanlikestoturntoBacchustomakehimmerry.Intheplaceofwantingtoseethings,totravelandlearn,comesthedesiretospeakandteach.Itisapieceofgoodfortuneiftheoldmanretainssomeofhisloveofstudyorofmusicorofthetheatre—if,ingeneral,heisstillsomewhatsusceptibletothethingsabouthim;asis,indeed,thecasewithsomepeopletoaverylateage.Atthattimeoflife,whatamanhasinhimselfisofgreateradvantagetohimthateveritwasbefore.

Therecanbenodoubtthatmostpeoplewhohaveneverbeenanythingbutdullandstupid,becomemoreandmoreofautomataastheygrowold.Theyhavealwaysthought,saidanddonethesamethingsastheirneighbors;andnothingthathappensnowcanchangetheirdisposition,ormakethemactotherwise.Totalktooldpeopleofthiskindislikewritingonthesand;ifyouproduceanyimpressionatall,itisgonealmostimmediately;oldageisherenothingbutthecaputmortuumoflife—allthatisessentialtomanhoodisgone.Therearecasesinwhichnaturesuppliesathirdsetofteethinoldage,therebyapparentlydemonstratingthefactthatthatperiodoflifeisasecondchildhood.

Itiscertainlyaverymelancholythingthatallaman’sfacultiestendtowasteawayashegrowsold,andataratethatincreasesinrapidity:butstill,thisisanecessary,nay,abeneficialarrangement,asotherwisedeath,forwhichitisapreparation,wouldbetoohardtobear.Sothegreatestboonthatfollowstheattainmentofextremeoldageiseuthanasia—aneasydeath,notusheredinbydisease,andfreefromallpainandstruggle.(69)Forletamanliveaslongashemay,heisneverconsciousofanymomentbutthepresent,oneandindivisible;andinthoselateyearsthemindlosesmoreeverydaybysheerforgetfulnessthaneveritgainsanew.

(69)SeeDieWeltalsWilleundVorstellung,Bk.II.ch.41,forafurtherdescriptionofthishappyendtolife.]

Themaindifferencebetweenyouthandagewillalwaysbethatyouthlooksforwardtolife,andoldagetodeath;andthatwhiletheonehasashortpastandalongfuturebeforeit,thecaseisjusttheoppositewiththeother.Itisquitetruethatwhenamanisold,todieistheonlythingthatawaitshim;whileifheisyoung,hemayexpecttolive;andthequestionariseswhichofthetwofatesisthemorehazardous,andiflifeisnotamatterwhich,onthewhole,itisbettertohavebehindonethanbefore?DoesnotthePreachersay:thedayofdeath[isbetter]thanthedayofone’sbirth.(70)Itiscertainlyarashthingtowishforlonglife;(71)forastheSpanishproverbhasit,itmeanstoseemuchevil—Quienlargavidavivemuchomalvide.

(70)Ecclesiastesvii.1.]

(71)Thelifeofmancannot,strictlyspeaking,becalledeitherlongorshort,sinceitistheultimatestandardbywhichdurationoftimeinregardtoallotherthingsismeasured.

InoneoftheVedicUpanishads(Oupnekhat,II.)thenaturallengthofhumanlifeisputdownatonehundredyears.AndIbelievethistoberight.Ihaveobserved,asamatteroffact,thatitisonlypeoplewhoexceedtheageofninetywhoattaineuthanasia—whodie,thatistosay,ofnodisease,apoplexyorconvulsion,andpassawaywithoutagonyofanysort;nay,whosometimesevenshownopallor,butexpiregenerallyinasittingattitude,andoftenafterameal—or,Imaysay,simplyceasetoliveratherthandie.Tocometoone’sendbeforetheageofninety,meanstodieofdisease,inotherwords,prematurely.

NowtheOldTestament(Psalmsxc.10)putsthelimitofhumanlifeatseventy,andifitisverylong,ateightyyears;andwhatismorenoticeablestill,Herodotus(i.32andiii.22)saysthesamething.Butthisiswrong;andtheerrorisduesimplytoaroughandsuperficialestimateoftheresultsofdailyexperience.Forifthenaturallengthoflifewerefromseventytoeightyyears,peoplewoulddie,aboutthattime,ofmereoldage.Nowthisiscertainlynotthecase.Iftheydiethen,theydie,likeyoungerpeople,ofdisease;anddiseaseissomethingabnormal.Thereforeitisnotnaturaltodieatthatage.Itisonlywhentheyarebetweenninetyandahundredthatpeopledieofoldage;die,Imean,withoutsufferingfromanydisease,orshowinganyspecialsignsoftheircondition,suchasastruggle,death-rattle,convulsion,pallor—theabsenceofallwhichconstituteseuthanasia.Thenaturallengthofhumanlifeisahundredyears;andinassigningthatlimittheUpanishadsarerightoncemore.]

Aman’sindividualcareerisnot,asAstrologywishestomakeout,tobepredictedfromobservationoftheplanets;butthecourseofhumanlifeingeneral,asfarasthevariousperiodsofitareconcerned,maybelikenedtothesuccessionoftheplanets:sothatwemaybesaidtopassundertheinfluenceofeachoneoftheminturn.

Atten,Mercuryisintheascendant;andatthatage,ayouth,likethisplanet,ischaracterizedbyextrememobilitywithinanarrowsphere,wheretrifleshaveagreateffectuponhim;butundertheguidanceofsocraftyandeloquentagod,heeasilymakesgreatprogress.Venusbeginsherswayduringhistwentiethyear,andthenamaniswhollygivenuptotheloveofwomen.Atthirty,Marscomestothefront,andheisnowallenergyandstrength—daring,pugnaciousandarrogant.

Whenamanreachestheageofforty,heisundertheruleofthefourAsteroids;thatistosay,hislifehasgainedsomethinginextension.Heisfrugal;inotherwords,bythehelpofCeres,hefavorswhatisuseful;hehashisownhearth,bytheinfluenceofVesta;Pallashastaughthimthatwhichisnecessaryforhimtoknow;andhiswife—hisJuno—rulesasthemistressofhishouse.

Butattheageoffifty,Jupiteristhedominantinfluence.Atthatperiodamanhasoutlivedmostofhiscontemporaries,andhecanfeelhimselfsuperiortothegenerationabouthim.Heisstillinthefullenjoymentofhisstrength,andrichinexperienceandknowledge;andifhehasanypowerandpositionofhisown,heisendowedwithauthorityoverallwhostandinhisimmediatesurroundings.Heisnomoreinclinedtoreceiveordersfromothers;hewantstotakecommandhimself.Theworkmostsuitabletohimnowistoguideandrulewithinhisownsphere.ThisisthepointwhereJupiterculminates,andwherethemanoffiftyyearsisathisbest.

ThencomesSaturn,atabouttheageofsixty,aweightasoflead,dullandslow:—

Butoldfolks,manyfeignastheyweredead;

Unwieldy,slow,heavyandpaleaslead.

Lastofall,Uranus;or,asthesayingis,amangoestoheaven.

IcannotfindaplaceforNeptune,asthisplanethasbeenverythoughtlesslynamed;becauseImaynotcallitasitshouldbecalled—Eros.OtherwiseIshouldpointouthowBeginningandEndmeettogether,andhowcloselyandintimatelyErosisconnectedwithDeath:howOrcus,orAmenthes,astheEgyptianscalledhim,isnotonlythereceiverbutthegiverofallthings—[Greek:lambanonkaididous].DeathisthegreatreservoirofLife.EverythingcomesfromOrcus;everythingthatisalivenowwasoncethere.Couldwebutunderstandthegreattrickbywhichthatisdone,allwouldbeclear!