counseling african americans

Counseling African Counseling African AmericansAmericans

Mandy Cleveland, M.A.Mandy Cleveland, M.A.

Who is African American?Who is African American?

• Historically –Historically –– Term was used to describe people of African Term was used to describe people of African

descent who were born in the United States descent who were born in the United States and who may have experienced or inherited a and who may have experienced or inherited a history of slavery and oppression.history of slavery and oppression.

• Modern – Modern – – Modern definitions also include those who have Modern definitions also include those who have

immigrated to the United States and who immigrated to the United States and who choose the term “African American” because it choose the term “African American” because it best fits their group identitybest fits their group identity• E.g. people of color from Africa, the West Indies, the E.g. people of color from Africa, the West Indies, the

Caribbean, and South AmericaCaribbean, and South America

African American vs BlackAfrican American vs Black

• These terms have been used interchangeably These terms have been used interchangeably in the literaturein the literature– However, each term may hold a different meaning However, each term may hold a different meaning

for individual clientsfor individual clients– Important to understand how clients self identifyImportant to understand how clients self identify

• Younger people often choose Younger people often choose African AmericanAfrican American while the older prefer the term while the older prefer the term BlackBlack– Preference for the term Preference for the term BlackBlack is strongest among is strongest among

the college educated, affluent, rural areas, and the the college educated, affluent, rural areas, and the SouthSouth• (Emonson, 1993)(Emonson, 1993)

Questions AA clients may Questions AA clients may have about Counselorshave about Counselors

– Understand that Black individuals and families are distinct from Understand that Black individuals and families are distinct from other individuals and families?other individuals and families?

– Understand that racism, classism, sexism, and other sources of Understand that racism, classism, sexism, and other sources of discrimination are real issues for Black clients and not a sign that discrimination are real issues for Black clients and not a sign that they're "too sensitive" or paranoid?they're "too sensitive" or paranoid?

– Treat me as an individual deserving respect and at the same time Treat me as an individual deserving respect and at the same time avoid being biased or paternalistic or having a personal agenda?avoid being biased or paternalistic or having a personal agenda?

– Know something about Black cultural expressions: values, Know something about Black cultural expressions: values, music, styles of speech, dress, mannerisms, and popular and music, styles of speech, dress, mannerisms, and popular and classic music and literature?classic music and literature?

– See me as deviant simply because I'm different from him or her?See me as deviant simply because I'm different from him or her?

Relevant FactorsRelevant Factors

• Historical oppression and racismHistorical oppression and racism

• Present socio-economic statusPresent socio-economic status

• Physical and mental health concernsPhysical and mental health concerns

• Family structureFamily structure

• ValuesValues

• ReligionReligion

• Understanding Black Identity DevelopmentUnderstanding Black Identity Development

Historical Oppression and Historical Oppression and RacismRacism

• 10 million Africans, brought as slaves into the 10 million Africans, brought as slaves into the Americas from the sixteenth to the nineteenth Americas from the sixteenth to the nineteenth centuriescenturies

• In the Southern U.S., the economy was In the Southern U.S., the economy was virtually destroyed due to the war, freeing of virtually destroyed due to the war, freeing of the slaves, and Reconstructionthe slaves, and Reconstruction


• Northern cities like New York and Northern cities like New York and Philadelphia designated certain areas of the Philadelphia designated certain areas of the city where African Americans could live, and city where African Americans could live, and certain jobs where they could workcertain jobs where they could work

• The struggle to achieve basic civil rights and The struggle to achieve basic civil rights and criminalize outright discrimination didn’t take criminalize outright discrimination didn’t take place until the 1960splace until the 1960s


• Had to fight for voter registration, equal Had to fight for voter registration, equal opportunities for education, equal access to opportunities for education, equal access to common public facilities like bathrooms and common public facilities like bathrooms and lunch counters, and most famously, the right to lunch counters, and most famously, the right to sit at the front of a public transportation bussit at the front of a public transportation bus

• Federal government eventually provided Federal government eventually provided increased enforcement of desegregation, and increased enforcement of desegregation, and punished some wrongdoers for discriminationpunished some wrongdoers for discrimination

Present StatusPresent Status

• 36.6 million 36.6 million

• Roughly 13% percent of the U.S. populationRoughly 13% percent of the U.S. population

• Almost 2/3rds of the AA population is in the Almost 2/3rds of the AA population is in the lower socio-economic class today. lower socio-economic class today.

• 10.3 percent of White families with children 10.3 percent of White families with children under 18 are below the poverty level compared under 18 are below the poverty level compared to 24.9 percent of Black families with children to 24.9 percent of Black families with children under 18. under 18.

Present StatusPresent Status

• In 2001, the overall rate of unemployment for In 2001, the overall rate of unemployment for all Americans was 5.8 percent but the all Americans was 5.8 percent but the unemployment rate for African Americans was unemployment rate for African Americans was 10.2 percent10.2 percent

• AA men have the lowest participation in the AA men have the lowest participation in the work force compared to men in other racial work force compared to men in other racial groupsgroups

Educational Equity?Educational Equity?

• In 2000, 12 percent of Black males attained a In 2000, 12 percent of Black males attained a BA compared to 20 percent of White malesBA compared to 20 percent of White males

• Similarly, 11 percent of Black females Similarly, 11 percent of Black females attained a BA compared to 18 percent of attained a BA compared to 18 percent of White femalesWhite females

Structural DiscriminationStructural Discrimination

• Companies choosing to build factories away from Companies choosing to build factories away from urban areas with large AA populationsurban areas with large AA populations

• Cities choosing to build public transit systems that Cities choosing to build public transit systems that provide easy access to inner city jobs from the provide easy access to inner city jobs from the suburbs, but not from inner city to central city jobs or suburbs, but not from inner city to central city jobs or from inner city to suburban jobsfrom inner city to suburban jobs

• Funding education through local property tax Funding education through local property tax revenues, when AA inner-city communities have a revenues, when AA inner-city communities have a higher proportion of depressed property valueshigher proportion of depressed property values

Middle class and Upper Middle class and Upper classclass• This segment of the population often has a distinct set This segment of the population often has a distinct set

of experiences from other African Americansof experiences from other African Americans• They are often better educated, have more financial They are often better educated, have more financial

security, and more work opportunities security, and more work opportunities – What message does this convey?What message does this convey?

• They may also endure bicultural stress and receive They may also endure bicultural stress and receive negative feelings from both African Americans and negative feelings from both African Americans and WhitesWhites– Why?Why?

Mental Health StatisticsMental Health Statistics

• African Americans rarely use private therapists, but more African Americans rarely use private therapists, but more often may use community mental health centers often may use community mental health centers (overrepresented)(overrepresented)

• An APA task force found that large numbers of disadvantaged An APA task force found that large numbers of disadvantaged and minority citizens lacked access to adequate health care and minority citizens lacked access to adequate health care (mental health)(mental health)

• African Americans are significantly more likely to terminate African Americans are significantly more likely to terminate counseling prematurelycounseling prematurely

• Ethnic match between therapist and client proved to have a Ethnic match between therapist and client proved to have a greater impact on the number of sessions attended than did greater impact on the number of sessions attended than did treatment outcomestreatment outcomes– Does it matter though?Does it matter though?– What does the class think?What does the class think?

Mental HealthMental Health

• According to NIMH Study the rates of According to NIMH Study the rates of depressive disorders and substance abuse for depressive disorders and substance abuse for African Americans were very similar to African Americans were very similar to WhitesWhites

• The incidence of schizophrenia is slightly The incidence of schizophrenia is slightly higher for African Americans (could be related higher for African Americans (could be related to SES)to SES)

Mental Health Cont.Mental Health Cont.

• Mental health problems may not be equally addressed Mental health problems may not be equally addressed

• MH professionals may misinterpret behavior as being MH professionals may misinterpret behavior as being normative for African Americans when it is really a normative for African Americans when it is really a symptom of mental illness (D.O. Lewis, Balla, & symptom of mental illness (D.O. Lewis, Balla, & Shanok, 1979).Shanok, 1979).

• Black patients are often given more severe diagnoses Black patients are often given more severe diagnoses than Whites, regardless of the race of the psychiatrist than Whites, regardless of the race of the psychiatrist (Loring & Powell, 1988)(Loring & Powell, 1988)

Family StructureFamily Structure

• Households with married couples with children Households with married couples with children comprised less than half of the households among comprised less than half of the households among African Americans. (Census, 2000) African Americans. (Census, 2000)

• 78% of single parent families were headed by 78% of single parent families were headed by females. (Census, 2000) females. (Census, 2000)

• AA single mothers are the least likely to be divorced AA single mothers are the least likely to be divorced (17%), most likely to never be married (65%), and (17%), most likely to never be married (65%), and more likely than Whites to live within an extended more likely than Whites to live within an extended family situation (e.g. with grandparents) (18%) family situation (e.g. with grandparents) (18%) – How do these statistics fit into societal norms?How do these statistics fit into societal norms?

Family Structure Cont.Family Structure Cont.

• Among single AA mothers 23% live with related Among single AA mothers 23% live with related familyfamily

• 4% live with unrelated, or augmented, family. 4% live with unrelated, or augmented, family. (Census, 2000) (Census, 2000)

• Many negative claims have been made concerning the Many negative claims have been made concerning the influence of AA family structure on social, influence of AA family structure on social, psychological, and economic well-beingpsychological, and economic well-being

Family Structure Cont.Family Structure Cont.

• For example, the AA family headed by a For example, the AA family headed by a female is frequently characterized as inferior female is frequently characterized as inferior and blamed for many of the problems in the and blamed for many of the problems in the African American communityAfrican American community

• Positive aspects of AA family structure are Positive aspects of AA family structure are often overlookedoften overlooked

ValuesValues

• According to McCollum (1997) African Americans According to McCollum (1997) African Americans as a group tend to value strong kinship bonds, are as a group tend to value strong kinship bonds, are work and education oriented, have strong dedication work and education oriented, have strong dedication to religious values and church participation, and tend to religious values and church participation, and tend to be more group oriented, rather than individualisticto be more group oriented, rather than individualistic

• These values are in many ways similar to West These values are in many ways similar to West African heritage which values elements like family African heritage which values elements like family structure, notions of kinship, and religious concepts structure, notions of kinship, and religious concepts and practices. (Hine, Hine, & Harrold, 2000)and practices. (Hine, Hine, & Harrold, 2000)

ReligionReligion

• The religious customs of African Americans have The religious customs of African Americans have helped them to survive slavery, deal with racism, helped them to survive slavery, deal with racism, oppression, economic hardship, and many other oppression, economic hardship, and many other forces that demoralized and exploited their people. forces that demoralized and exploited their people.

• Indigenous religions of the slaves continued long Indigenous religions of the slaves continued long after they left Africaafter they left Africa

• These religions underscored:These religions underscored:– the unity of the natural and the supernatural, the secular the unity of the natural and the supernatural, the secular

and the sacred, and the living and the deadand the sacred, and the living and the dead

ReligionReligion

• Conversion to Christianity shaped AA culture Conversion to Christianity shaped AA culture

• The sharing of religious beliefs and practices The sharing of religious beliefs and practices created multiracial congregations, and a created multiracial congregations, and a common ground of spiritual equalitycommon ground of spiritual equality

• AA worshipers also influenced the practice of AA worshipers also influenced the practice of Christianity through the development of Christianity through the development of elements like gospel music and a vibrant elements like gospel music and a vibrant worship styleworship style

ReligionReligion

• Although many slave owners tried to use Although many slave owners tried to use Christian beliefs to control and justify their Christian beliefs to control and justify their treatment of Blacks, the freedom to worship treatment of Blacks, the freedom to worship together as a congregation reinforced African together as a congregation reinforced African Americans collective identity and helped them Americans collective identity and helped them to persevere through hard times.to persevere through hard times.

Black Identity DevelopmentBlack Identity Development

• Dr. William E. Cross Jr. (1971) developed an African Dr. William E. Cross Jr. (1971) developed an African American identity development model that traces the American identity development model that traces the individual’s “group” or racial identity growth. individual’s “group” or racial identity growth. – One of the first racial identity modelsOne of the first racial identity models

– The Cross ModelThe Cross Model

• The basis of this model is that self-perception is The basis of this model is that self-perception is based on racial factors, especially for African based on racial factors, especially for African Americans, because society has determined that race Americans, because society has determined that race is a salient characteristic. is a salient characteristic.

Cross ModelCross Model

• Stages: Pre-encounter, encounter, immersion-Stages: Pre-encounter, encounter, immersion-emersion, internalization, and internalization-emersion, internalization, and internalization-commitment. commitment.


• Pre-encounterPre-encounter – Unaware of one’s own – Unaware of one’s own racial or cultural identity. Person is racial or cultural identity. Person is unconscious of negative stereotypes unconscious of negative stereotypes against African Americansagainst African Americans– Consciously or unconsciously devalue their Consciously or unconsciously devalue their

own Blackness and concurrently value White own Blackness and concurrently value White values and ways. Pressure to assimilate and values and ways. Pressure to assimilate and acculturate into White society acculturate into White society


• EncounterEncounter – A specific event or – A specific event or experience happens that causes a experience happens that causes a person to feel the need for change by person to feel the need for change by becoming aware of her/his own racial becoming aware of her/his own racial identityidentity


• Immersion-emersionImmersion-emersion - Individuals seek to - Individuals seek to immerse themselves in their ethnic immerse themselves in their ethnic culture through active exploration of culture through active exploration of cultural identity. Ethnic culture becomes cultural identity. Ethnic culture becomes a positive, beautiful worldview, and the a positive, beautiful worldview, and the majority culture may be seen as negative majority culture may be seen as negative or flawed.or flawed.

– Feelings of guilt and anger seem to dissipate Feelings of guilt and anger seem to dissipate with a rise in pridewith a rise in pride


• Internalization StageInternalization Stage - Identity is solidified, and the - Identity is solidified, and the individual may have a deep and integrated sense of individual may have a deep and integrated sense of their racial/ethnic identity. The individual is more at their racial/ethnic identity. The individual is more at ease with their own standard of cultural identity. ease with their own standard of cultural identity.

• Internalization-commitment StageInternalization-commitment Stage - The individual - The individual has a long-term commitment and involvement in has a long-term commitment and involvement in their own cultural identity. their own cultural identity. – Commitment to community/people of similar cultural Commitment to community/people of similar cultural

heritageheritage

– Anti-White feelings subside as the person becomes more Anti-White feelings subside as the person becomes more flexible, more tolerant, and more bicultural/multicultural flexible, more tolerant, and more bicultural/multicultural

ModificationsModifications

• This model was later expanded to include all people This model was later expanded to include all people of color of color – Minority Identity Theory ModelMinority Identity Theory Model

• This model included the stages of:This model included the stages of:– 1. Conformity1. Conformity– 2. Dissonance2. Dissonance– 3. Resistance3. Resistance– 4. Introspection4. Introspection– 5. Integrative Awareness5. Integrative Awareness

Racial/Cultural Identity Racial/Cultural Identity Development ModelDevelopment Model

• ConformityConformity - Individuals accept the - Individuals accept the values of the majority culture. Ethnic values of the majority culture. Ethnic individuals in this culture may value individuals in this culture may value White role models, White standards White role models, White standards of beauty and success, and may of beauty and success, and may even believe it is better to be white. even believe it is better to be white. There may be underlying negative There may be underlying negative emotions toward self.emotions toward self.


• Dissonance StageDissonance Stage - Individuals begin - Individuals begin to acknowledge the personal impact to acknowledge the personal impact of racism. An event, or trigger, of racism. An event, or trigger, causes the individual to examine and causes the individual to examine and question their own set of beliefs. question their own set of beliefs. Confusion and conflict toward Confusion and conflict toward dominant cultural system emergesdominant cultural system emerges


• ResistanceResistance – Active rejection of the – Active rejection of the dominant culture and active involvement dominant culture and active involvement in one’s own culturein one’s own culture

• IntrospectionIntrospection – – Starts to question the Starts to question the values of both his/her minority group and values of both his/her minority group and the dominant groupthe dominant group

• Integrative AwarenessIntegrative Awareness – Person develops – Person develops cultural identity based on both minority cultural identity based on both minority and dominant cultural valuesand dominant cultural values

Guidelines for clinical Guidelines for clinical practice practice • Client’s reactions- “Sometimes clients Client’s reactions- “Sometimes clients

feel uncomfortable working with a feel uncomfortable working with a counselor of a different race; would this counselor of a different race; would this be a problem for you?”be a problem for you?”

• Examine clients worldviews and believes Examine clients worldviews and believes about counselingabout counseling

• Egalitarian relationship (self disclosure). Egalitarian relationship (self disclosure). Talk about non-counseling topics if client Talk about non-counseling topics if client is hostile or aloof.is hostile or aloof.

Guidelines for clinical Guidelines for clinical practicepractice• Reaction to racial oppressionReaction to racial oppression- How much - How much

does racism play a role in client problem? does racism play a role in client problem?

• How client responded to discriminationHow client responded to discrimination

• Positive assets of client (e.g. family, church, Positive assets of client (e.g. family, church, etc.)etc.)

• Help client define goals Help client define goals

• Degree of adoption to majority culture Degree of adoption to majority culture valuesvalues

• Personal experience of the individualPersonal experience of the individual

counseling african americans

Documents

term african american

percent of black families

black clients

black individuals

people of african descent

term blackpreference

percent of white families

black cultural expressions