cosmic creation and evolution the cosmic evolution of ... · physics without metaphysics cosmic...

Circlon Synchronicity 2 James Carter

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PROTONS

ELECTRONS2x222x22 2x222x22 Living Universe Matter

Creation Spiral

The Cosmic Evolution of MatterJames Carter

How the Slowly Changing Dynamics Between Electrons and Protons Created the Matter and Antimatter in the Universe Without a Singularity, Guth Inflation, or the

other Metaphysical Assumptions of Big Bang Theories.

This Model Depicts the Electron/Proton Bifurcation Stage of the Early Universe. It Replaces Big Bang’s Singularity with

a Matter/Antimatter Duality and Instant Inflation with a Cosmic Reproduction Process Lasting Billions of Years.

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PROTONS

ELECTRONS2x222x22 2x222x22 Living Universe Matter

Creation Spiral

Cosmic Creation and Evolutionof Matter, Energy, and Gravity

James Carter

This Model Depicts the Electron/Proton Bifurcation Stage of the Early Universe. It Replaces Big Bang’s Singularity with

a Matter/Antimatter Duality and Instant Inflation with a Cosmic Reproduction Process Lasting Billions of Years.

An Alternative to Big Bang Theory That CombinesAll of Its Common Features Into a Step by Step

Evolutionary Creation Process for Today’s Cosmos


Circlon Synchronicity An Experimental Physicist’s New Theory of Physics and Cosmology

James Carter

An Alternative to the Big Bang Theory of Particle Physics that Combines All of

Its Common Features Into a Step by Step Evolutionary Creation Process for

Today’s Cosmos

Gravity is merely an obscene dance with equivalent musicbetween the changing absolute values of mass, space, and time.

The principle of Circlon Synchronicity makes the theoretical physics of science and cosmology

both conceptually and structurally obsolete.

The Einstein bending of light is the real measurement of an apparent angle due to inertial changes in Earth’s gravitational momentum. It has nothing to do with the sun’s gravitational force and its value can be correctly

calculated from measurements Earth’s gravity.

Absolute Motion PressGreen River Gorge Road

Franklin, Washington


Copyright © James Carter 2019 Second Edition

All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval sys-tem, or transmitted, in any form by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying,

recording, or otherwise, without the prior permission of Absolute Motion Press. Anyone can quote from this book as long as James Carter is given credit.

Printed in the United States of America January 20, 2020

James Carter [email protected]

Additional information about the Physical Principles of Absolute Motion and the Circlon Synchronicity of the Living Cosmos can be found at:

www.living-universe.comwww.circlon.com

www.circlon-theory.com

Other books available by James Carter

These books can be purchased at www.Living-Universe.comOr at WWW.LULU.COM

ISBN 978-1-79488-264-5Color Edition

Physics without Metaphysics

Cosmic Creation and Evolution of Matter, Energy and Gravity

Why Einstein Was an Ignorant Fool


Physics Without Metaphysics

The Standard Model Theories of Physics and the Big Bang are based on four fundamental metaphysical assumptions that have never been experimentally verified

Eternal Electron Mass ConstantAll standard model Physics and Big Bang theories begin with the metaphysical assump-tion that the electron/proton mass ratio of 1/1836 is a universal and eternal constant that has not changed since the beginning of time and will remain the same in the future. Numerous measurements of the cosmos and here on Earth conclusively show that this ratio has been gradually increasing from a time near the beginning of the cosmos when the electron/proton ratio was 1/1.

Point ParticlesThe theory of Quantum Mechanics makes the metaphysical assumption that electrons, protons, photons, and other particles of matter exist at points in uncertain locations and are surrounded by shapeless fields and waves that emanate to infinity from these points. All measurements of the shapes of particles of matter and photons show the multi-dimensional, fractal, torus shape of the circlon on all levels of scale from the microscopic to the supernova. The Circlon Shape interpretation of quantum me-chanics replaces the uncertainty principle with the physical circlon shapes of the electron, proton, and photon.

E = MC2 & Massless PhotonsThe primary metaphysical assumption of Special Relativity theory is the idea that the mass of matter and antimatter can be converted into the pure energy of massless pho-tons and also that the pure energy of massless photons can be converted into the pure rest mass of matter and antimatter. “Pure energy” and “pure rest mass” can never be detected separately. Energy/mass is a single entity that is always locked together in equal quantities in both the measurement of photons e/m = cC) and atoms e/m = CC. The massless photon was just an idea Einstein had so he could believe in a spacetime continuum aether that can contain pure energy in the form of massless momentum.

Equivalent Downward Force and Motion of GravityThe sole metaphysical assumption of general relativity theory is that the direction of the force and motion of gravity points down towards Earth’s center. Einstein called this assumption the equivalence of the motion and force of gravity with the motion and force of inertial momentum. The force and motion of gravity has never been measured to be equivalent to the force and motion of inertia, but they are always calculated to be equal. All mea-surements with accelerometers and atomic clocks conclusively show the direction of gravitational motion and force is upward and points away from Earth’s center.

None of these four metaphysical assumptions are used in the Living Cosmosdescription of Big Bang physics and the measurements of matter and photons.


Physics Without Metaphysics 6Gravitational Expansion of Mass, Space, and Time 25Accelerometer Measurements of Force and Change in Momentum 25The New Gravitational Constant GV 39Introduction to a Living Cosmos 41Living Cosmos: An Alternative to the Big Bang Theory 42Initial Conditions of a Living Cosmos 43Creation and Evolution of the Living Cosmos 44Arbitrary Beginning for a Living Cosmos 45Era of Antineutron Bifurcation 46Matter = Antimatter Equality 48 2256 Tiny Nuclear Bombs 49Nuclear Synthesis 502.7 Kelvin Cosmic Frozen Fire 50Hubble Red-Shifted Galaxies 51Dark Energy Myth 52Dinosaurs Running Along on the Continents 52Enormous Dinosaur Bones 53Shrinking Atoms and Cracking Continents 55Solar Energy and Cosmic Rays 56Seven Unmeasured Imaginary Paradoxes of the Big Bang Theory 57Creation of Matter Without Antimatter 59Paradox Between Red Shifts of Hubble and CBR Photons 60Let there be Atoms 61Other Beliefs in Impossible Things 62The Big Bang Theory Begins 64Electrodynamics of Circlon Synchronicity 64Points in Space and Time 65Conservation of Momentum 67The Chemical Era 68The Era of Conscious Thought TEE = 1/1700 to TEE = 1/1836 69The Idea of Entropy 69The Yin and Yang Deities of Creation 70The Secret Lives of Quasars 72Super Luminal Velocity of Quasars 72Linear Momentum & Centrifugal Force 78e = mc2 is Wrong and E/M = cC & E/M = CC are Right 79Absolute Accelerometer Measurements 80Measuring Positive and Negative Centrifugal Forces 82Laws of Motion and Einstein’s Postulates and Assumptions 85Einstein’s Third Unknown Metaphysical Assumption 86Einstein’s Postulates 87The Variable Speed of Light versus the Absolute Motion of Clocks 90Conservation of Linear and Angular Momentum 90

Contents


The True Two-way Speed of Light is 299,792,223.8 m/s 92Inertial Time versus Gravitational Time 93The Fitzgerald Length “Contraction” 93The Lorentz Transformations of Mass, Space, Time, and Gravity 96A Lorentz Transformation Thought Experiment 96Global Positioning System Clock Calculations 101The Twin Paradox 102The Triplet Paradox Experiment 102Photon Physics without Metaphysics 107Charge Coil Dynamics and Photon Emission 109Internal Coil Structure of the Hydrogen Atom 111The Mechanics of Photon Motion c+ & c- 113Binary Pulsars 117The True Meaning of E = MC2 118Experimental Measurement of Photon Mass 119The Circlon Model of Nuclear Structure 120The Electromagnetic Charge Chain 121The Neutron 122The Rules of Circlon Nuclear Structure 124The Dual Event Transformation 127NUCLEAR GLOSSARY 131Periodic Table of the Circlon Model of Nuclear Structure 134Nuclear Stability Model 136Pound-Rebka Experiment Invalidates the Equivalence Principle 137The Pound Rebka Photon 139Four Photon Doppler Effects 140Linear Actuator Measurements 142Pound-Rebka Theories 143Up Gravity versus Down Gravity 147Gravity is Child’s Play 149Transverse Doppler Shifts in Momentum and Time 151The Common Sense Principle of Cause and Effect 154Einstein’s Reversal of the Cause and Effect of Time 155Space Aliens and Gravity 159The Gravity Cannon Test for the Law of Gravity 161Four Gravity Theories 162Two Pulling Gravity Aether Theories 163Two Pushing Particle Gravity Theories 163Three Possible Gravity Measurements 164The Orbiting Chain Thought Experiment 166Gravitational Expansion of Mass, Space, and Time 167Joules of the Living Universe 170


INTRODUCTION TO CIRCLON SYNCHRONICITY

Definitive Experimental Falsification of General RelativityA New Theory of Gravity Without a Spacetime Continuum

The Andromeda Galaxy (M 31) The above image of Andromeda is experimental proof that photons are not deflected or “curved” in any way by gravity when they pass near the sun. If each photon in this photograph was not lined up perfectly in Euclidian space and time with its emitting star, the whole picture would appear as a homogenous dim grey cloud.

ABSTRACT When Einstein presented the General Relativity theory, he made the pre-diction that the path of every photon that passes stars and through and around galaxies is slightly deflected in its path by the gravity of these bod-ies. He calculated the angle of deflection for starlight passing the edge of the sun to be 1.75 arc seconds. The deflection of the star’s other photons passing much farther from the sun would all be deflected by smaller but still significant amounts. In 1919, Arthur Eddington measured the sun’s starlight deflections to be very close to Einstein’s prediction. This means


each photon passing through the cosmos would be deflected countless times as it passed through the gravitational fields and curved space of the billions of stars in each galaxy. No photon could pass through the cosmos without undergoing billions of tiny deflections around its original momen-tum vector. Even a tiny deflection would produce an enormous horizontal displacement of photons when viewed light years away from the deflecting star. In the above photo of Andromeda, each of the trillions of photons recorded on the photographic plate appear to be perfectly lined up with the star that emitted them. Where are all the deflected photons? If any of these photons were even slightly deflected, they would now be millions of miles if not light years away from one side or the other of our telescope. These photons had moved through Andromeda for many thousands of years and then traveled for over two million light years before reaching our telescope. If any number of them had been deflected from their true paths by even one millimeter, this photo would be blurred beyond any recognition. If Einstein was right about his idea of a non-Euclidian curv-ing gravitational spacetime continuum, it would completely destroy the clarity all astronomical observations. Now in 2020, new physical measurements and calculations of Ein-stein’s angle of solar deflection show the effect to be only an optical illu-sion and not an actual change in a photon’s actual path through Euclidian space and time. The apparent angles of curvature are dynamically mea-sured and calculated to be the same as those predicted by Einstein. How-ever it is also calculated that the measured angles are made from the per-spective of the observer’s changing momentum and not from any changes in the photon’s actual momentum vector. The measured deflection results from changes in the gravitational momentum at Earth’s surface and not from any changes in the photon’s path caused the sun’s gravity. This photo and these measurements show conclusively Einstein’s downward pointing Four-Dimensional Spacetime Continuum is nothing more than a smoke and mirror illusion and has nothing to do with photon motion. The equivalence principle is false, as well as all the other downward pointing gravitational field and aether theories. It is a measured and calculated fact that the Earth’s surface falls up with absolute gravitational momentum as the size of the electron slowly expands.

Experimental Rejection of the Equivalence Principle It is ironic that the 1919 experiment measuring starlight appearing to curve as it passed the sun was what gave General Relativity its tremendous burst in popularity and now today in 2019, it is this same experiment that

provides the ultimate disproof of its experimental validity.


If theEinsteindeflectionofstarlightreallywascausedbycurvingnon-Euclidian space near the sun, it would make most astronomy impossible. Be-yond the planets, the whole of the cosmos would appear as an impenetrable gray fog. We would still be able measure the dominant background of the 2.7 K blackbody photons and the directions of cosmic rays but most other cosmic observations would be blurred beyond recognition. The following experimen-talmeasurementsconcludethattheapparentdeflectionisanopticalillusioncaused by measured changes in the geometry of Earth’s gravitational momen-tum and not by imagined and calculated changes in a gravitational spacetime continuum surrounding the sun.

Author’s Note I must state here that I am exclusively an experimental physicist. I do con-duct actual physical experiments but my primary activity is in the calculations of experimental values before they are measured. While my predictions might be classed as thought experiments, I accept all measurements at face value and I never engage in the speculations of theoretical physicists that predict results thatarecontrarytotheprinciplesandconservationlawsofthescientificmeth-od of physical measurement. All of my measurements are primarily based on changes in the momentum vectors of atoms and photons as measured by force and calculated as energy. Gravity is represented here as a single accelerometer measurement of force and a calculation of momentum. No theory of gravity beyond the extrapolation of accelerometer readings is used in this explana-tion.Thismodelofstarlightdeflectioncontainsonlylocalmeasurementsofgravitational deceleration and cosmic measurements of mass, space, and time. These are principles of physical measurement that are the opposite of theories. Theories are used to make predictions of measurements based on metaphysi-cal assumptions. A theory is used before the calculations of an assumption are measured. If the prediction is correct, the theory becomes a principle of measurement and if the prediction is wrong the theory remains a metaphysical assumption. I make no metaphysical assumptions other than believing in the physical accuracy of my accelerometers, clocks, and measuring rods.

Experimental Measurements of Solar Deflections and Time Delays The following thought experiments are based on calculations of the Ein-stein’s predicted bending of starlight as it passes the sun and other bodies of mass. They show the calculated angles for General Relativity’s starlight de-flectionsandtheactualmeasurementoftheapparentdeflectionofphotonsasthey pass by the surface of the sun and the a measurement of the Shapiro Time Delay in which radar signals appear to curve and slow as they pass near the sun back and forth between Earth and Mercury. These last two measurements conclusively show that gravity has exactly no effect on the perfectly straight


Euclidianmomentumvectorsofallphotons.Themeasureddeflection resultsfrom the curvature of the gravitational space and time of Earth and not from any curvature in the inertial space and time of photons.

Einstein’s PredictionsDeflectionatsun’ssurface = 4GM/C2R = 1.75 arc-second

DeflectionatPluto’sorbit = 4GM/C2R = .0002072 arc-secondDeflectionat1LYfromsun = 4GM/C2R = .000001286 arc-second

A Space Alien’s View of Our Solar System Inthefirstobservation,spacealiensonaplanetorbitingAlphaCenturihavefocused in on our solar system with a 200 inch telescope identical to the Hale telescope on Palomar mountain. They are attempting to measure the mass of our solarsystembymeasuringthegravitationaldeflectionofstarlightphotonsthatpasses the outer edge of the solar system at Pluto’s orbit. Attheirlocation,4lightyearsfromthesun,thestarlightdeflectionatPluto’sorbit (.0002 arc sec) would displace the photons from their telescope’s mirror by a horizontal distance of 38,000 km. They still might be able to see photons from the sun but the background stars would appear as a homogeneous grey fog.

A Photo of the Andromeda Galaxy In this observation, we will observe and photograph photons from the An-dromeda galaxy with the 200 inch Hale telescope. In this measurement, we will consider only photons emitted by Andromeda stars that have passed within at leastonelightyearofanotherstar.Thesephotonswillallbedeflectedinonedirection or another by a horizontal distance of at least 1,004,216 km by the timetheyreachEarthaftertheir2.5millionlightyearjourney.Thedeflectionofphotons by Einstein’s maximum of 1.75 arc seconds for a sun sized star would be displaced by 12.2 light years from their original trajectories by the time they reached the Milky Way. For photons to be able to record the position of their emittingstarwithinAndromeda,theycouldnotbedeflectedbyevenasmuchasamillimeter.Ifphotonsweretoundergoanygravitationaldeflectionastheytraveled through Andromeda, the above photo would appear as a dim grey blob and not as a galaxy with billions of individual stars. While the same number ofAndromedaphotonswillreachourreflector,nonewillbeontheiroriginalmomentum vectors and together will appear as a grey blob of light. No photons would be lined up perfectly in the direction of their emitting stars.

Actual Measurement of Einstein’s Apparent Bending of Starlight Thisexplanationoftheapparentdeflectionofphotonsastheypassthesunis calculated entirely from the values of three complimentary principles of mea-surement.

Earth’s escape/surface velocity, its deceleration of gravity, and its radius.


The Gravitational Expansion of Mass, Space, and Time

esV = √2gR = 11,200 m/s & g = esV2/2R = 9.807 m/s2

A body’s escape/surface velocity esV is measured as √2 times its decelera-tion of gravity g at Earth radius R. & A body’s acceleration of gravity g is measured as its escape/surface velocity squared esV2 divided by two times its radius R.

Each of Earth’s three gravitational parameters of Velocity, Force and Ra-dius can be determined from the measurement of the other two, (esV=√2gR),(g = esV

2/2R), and (R = esV2/2g). For the purposes of this explanation, these

equations are used to measure Earth’s surface acceleration g = 9.807 m/s2 and then calculate its gravitational surface momentum of p = 11,200 m/s. These measurements and calculations are used to determine that the Einstein star-light angle is real but only in Earth’s non-inertial gravitational space-time. The equations are then used to calculate the sun’s surface gravity of 274.2 m/s2 to measure the apparent Shapiro’s time delay of photons passing through the gravitational space-time of the sun. These values are measured with accelerometers, clocks, and rulers here on Earth and they are all that is needed to calculate the angle at which starlight ap-pears to curve as it passes the sun as well as the apparent measured time delay ofradarphotonsthatarereflectedoffMercuryandreturntoEarth.OnlytheEuclidian geometry of the Newtonian laws of force and momentum are used to arriveatavalueof1.74arc-secondfortheapparentdeflectionofstarlightand.000190 second for the apparent round trip photon time delay between Earth and Mercury. These measured values of Euclidian geometry are basically ex-actly the same as General Relativity’s calculated values using non-Euclidian geometry and the equivalent momentum vectors of photons. In these measure-ments,photonsundergonoactualdeflectionwithinEuclidianinertialspace.Itis the changing geometry of gravitational momentum within the Earth and sun that only gives the outward appearance of starlight curving and time delay.

Earth “curves” to meet the photons. Photons do not curve to meet Earth.Gravity is the effect of the changing geometry of Earth’s momentum.

Photons are not effected in any way by gravity or any other field theory. Photon momentum can only be changed when they are emitted, reflected, or absorbed by an atom. They only appear to curve or slow when they are viewed relative to the changing gravitational momentum of the Earth and sun. The extent of a body’s changing gravitational momentum extends only to its surface and it can have no physical effect on passing photons.


Einstein’s Gravity is Upside Down, Backwards, and Inside Out The whole counter-intuitive theory of General Relativity is based on the metaphysical assumption that imaginary downward radial gravitational force and motion are equivalent but not equal to the real gravitational inertial force and momentum that is measured at Earth’s surface to move upward. Einstein used his unmeasurable equivalence theory to imagine a downward pointingequivalentforceandmomentumproducedbyaninfinitegravitationalfield.HebelievedtheupwardforceandmomentummeasuredatEarth’ssur-face was just an imaginary idea used by his subconscious mind to constantly maintain his body’s balance against gravity’s “perceived” upward force.

Einstein’s Gravitational Imagination Apparently, even Einstein wasn’t smart enough to consider and believe in his own subconscious mind’s interpretation of gravity developed from moni-toring itwithhisfive senses sincebirth.Howwas it possible thatEinsteincould lie in bed next to a Newtonian accelerometer and not imagine, feel, and calculate that his bed was accelerating upward with decelerating time to main-tain a constant upward velocity of 11,200 m/s. Luckily, Einstein was a theoretical physicist and not an experimentalist. This allowed him to ignore all empirical measurements and concentrate on making gravity do whatever he wanted with his metaphysical equations. Even if the force of gravity was not measured to point down, he could make it point down with his upsidedown equations. Even though gravity is measured as up-ward momentum produced by upward force, Einstein’s backward equations calculated downward momentum produced by equivalent force. While gravi-tational energy can only be measured when bodies fall or are lifted, the inside out General Relativity equations calculate that a body’s real potential energy increases as itmoves away fromEarth’s gravitational “fields”. Itwas thenimagined and correctly calculated that this increasing energy causes atomic clocks on satellites to run faster as they move away from Earth. When Einstein imagined and calculated that gravity was caused by the curving motion of his four-dimensional spacetime continuum, he made the predictionthatphotonsfromdistantstarswouldbedeflected1.75arc-secondsby this curving space when they passed near the sun. Einstein was so focused on his magical ideas about gravity that he failed to realize that if his predicted starlightdeflectionwascorrectitwouldcompletelydestroytheopticsofthescience of astronomy.

The Astrophysical Disaster of General Relativity Einstein’s apparent bending of starlight is caused by the changing geom-etry of Earth’s gravitational momentum. In the theory General Relativity, it is


perceived as unmeasurable changes in the geometry of a universal spacetime continuum. In the principle of the Expansion of Gravitational Momentum, photons undergo no changes in trajectory or momentum as they pass the sun orothermassbodies.Themeasureddeflectioncomesfromtheperspectiveofrelativity theorists trying to calculate their imagined effects of equivalent force and momentum using non-Euclidian geometry. If the inertial momentum vectors of photons were actually changed by gravityfieldsorcurvingspace,asrelativitytheoristshavealwaysimagined,itwould be a disaster for astronomical observations. Consider the photons that Eddington failed to capture on his photographic plates in 1919. They are now a hundred light years away moving through the Milky Way on the trajecto-ries of Eddington’s measured angle of 1.75 arc-seconds. These photons are all believed to move at slightly different angles depending on their distance to the sun when they passed. A simple calculation shows that these photons are now at a horizontal distance of 128,000,000,000 km away from their original momentum vectors before they passed the sun. This is just for the photons that pass the sun near its surface. Virtually every photon passing the sun at other radiiouttoinfinitywillhaveitsownuniquedeflectionangleandalteredmo-mentum vector.

Photons Cannot Be Deflected by GravityIn General Relativity, the gravitational field of every atom in the cosmos is constantly changing the momentum vectors of every photon in the cosmos. In the principle of absolute gravitational momentum, as in electrodynamics, the linear and angular momentum of photons is absolute and unchanging.

The only change that has ever been measured in a photon’s momentum vectoroccursatabsorptionwhereitsmomentumisconservedoratreflectionwhere its momentum is conserved by the Compton effect and changes are measured as Doppler effects. If according to General Relativity, the presence of gravitational mass was able to change a photon’s straight line path by even the slightest amount, the photons from distant stars and galaxies would be far removed from their origi-nal Euclidian vectors and would appear as a diffuse cloud of random pho-tons everywhere we looked. Each photon would slightly change its path many times as it passed through and around galaxies. With all this random light pollution, the whole cosmos would appear as a dim gray fog and it is doubtful if the Hubble telescope could even see beyond the solar system. Even the ran-dom light pollution from streetlights here on Earth makes certain astronomical observations impossible near cities.


The Lorentz Transformation of Mass, Space, and Time Besides the Einstein bending of starlight, General Relativity’s only other calculated measurement is the gravitational red shift. This is caused by the Lo-rentz transformation of mass, space, and time and has nothing to do with Gen-eral Relativity’s fundamental assumption of equivalent or relative momentum. In fact, the Lorentz transformation is actually a disproof of equivalent momen-tum. Lorentz transformations are a measure of changes in a body’s absolute momentum. The equivalent momentum at Earth’s surface would not cause a gravitational red shift. See Pound-Rebka Experiment. The Lorentz transformation is not a theory. It is the principle of physical measurement used to calculate and measure the conservation of momentum P = ms/t. It consists of three equations for calculating the measured values of mass inkilograms(m’=M/√1-v2/c2),timeintervalsinseconds(t’=T/√1-v2/c2), and spaceinmeterss’=S√1-v2/c2). M, S, and T represent the measured values of Mass, Space, and Time at a position of Zero Momentum Rest for the cosmos.

General Relativity’s Cosmological Paradox EversinceEinsteinfirstproposedthe theory, thegreatunexplainedpara-dox for General Relativity theorists has always been their complete inability to confirmthevalidityoftheexperimentalphysicist’smeasurementsofphotonsappearing to curve their paths as they pass the sun. Although the measurements appearedtobereal,theirvaliditycouldnotbeconfirmedbymeasurementsofphotons in general. While the measured photons appeared to curve away from their emitting stars, the rest of the photons in the cosmos did not curve away from their original emission vectors. The paradox is this. If each photon’s path is slightly changed when it passes a body of mass, how is it possible the Hubble telescope is able to view each photon in the exact direction of the star that emitted it? Except for the cosmic blackbody radiation, the cosmos contains almost no spectral photons that cannot bepotentiallyidentifiedwiththeirsource. In General Relativity theory, photons are calculated to slow to less than c as they approach the sun and then speed back up to c after they pass it. This is thought to be the cause of the observed Shapiro time delay of photons passing near the sun. The electrodynamics of Special Relativity has no explanation of how these photons are able to slow and then speed back up or how if ever they are able to get back to their original Euclidean momentum vectors. This is in-direct opposition to what happens when comets pass the sun. They speed up as they approach the sun and then continually slow after they pass. According to electrodynamics, photons are potentially blue shifted as they approach the sun and potentially red shifted as they move away. This is a trans-verse gravitational Doppler shift (Lorentz transformation) relative to the sun’s gravitational momentum but it has no actual effect on the inertial motion or the wavelengths of the photons themselves. This blue shift would only be real


when the photons are absorbed on the sun by atoms with slowed time dilation caused by the upward gravitational momentum at the sun’s surface. The pho-tons themselves are not changed in any way but are perceived by the atoms asblueduetotheatoms’slowedclocks.Thesephotonswouldbereflectedoremitted as red for the same reason. Transverse shifted photons have the same red shifts in all directions when emitted and the same blue shifts when ab-sorbed. The quandary here among relativity theorists is that because of the Shapiro time delay, a postulate of Special Relativity (the constant speed of light) must be abandoned to account for a General Relativity calculation that is only based on a calculation of equivalent force and motion rather than a real physical measurement. General Relativity theorists all seem to imagine that the above effects are perfectly explained by the equivalence principle. While all experimental physicists are able to accurately measure absolute force and momentum, no one has ever been able to measure “equivalent” force and momentum or gravitational “potential” energy.

Einstein’s Bogus Bending of Starlight To understand the mechanics of the apparent bending of starlight, we must look at it purely from the perspective of the experimental physicist’s physical measurements rather than the imagined metaphysical calculations of theoreti-cal physicists. If the effects are explained in terms of actual measured changes in the Earth’s and sun’s gravitational momentum, it is plain to see that no changes in individual photon momentum vectors are required to account for the false observation of General Relativity’s curving spacetime continuum. NotheoryatallisrequiredtoaccountforEinstein’simagineddeflectionof photons by curved space because no such phenomenon can be measured to occur within the measurements and calculations of Euclidian geometry’s space and time. There can be no “theory” of gravity beyond the simple description and extrapolation of the measurements of Earth’s force, momentum, and radius.

TheangleoftheEinsteinnon-deflectionoflightcanbecalculatedfromjust accelerometer measurements of force and momentum at Earth’s surface. The acceleration of gravitational momentum and the deceleration of gravi-tational time is not a new “theory of gravity” because it is just a principle of measurement. The only other measurements needed to calculate the apparent deflectionsaretheradiusofEarthandradiusofitsorbitaroundthesun.Noneof General Relativity’s metaphysical non-Euclidian complex mathematical baggage is needed to produce precise calculations for the measurements of apparent photon bending.


The Apparent Solar “Bending” of Starlight

Earth

Einstein Angle = 1.74 arc-second @ Apohelion

SunMean Earth’s orbital radius Rm =149,600,000 kmTime of photon travel Tm = Rm/c = 499 secEarth’s orbital radius @ apohelion Ra = 152,097,701 kmTime of photon travel Ta = Ra/c = 507 secEarth’s orbital radius @ perihelion Rp = 147,098,074 kmTime of photon travel Tp = Rp/c = 490 sec

Earth gravity g = 9.807 m/s2Distance D = gT2/2 = 1221 km 725 km per arc-secondEinstein angle @ mean Rm = 1.68 arc-secondEinstein angle @ apohelion = 1.74 arc-secondEinstein angle @ apohelion = 1.62 arc-secondperihelion

What an observer on Earth actually sees is a star that according to the Eu-clidian geometry of empty inertial space should be hidden just behind the solar disk. What has actually happened is that in the 8 minutes it takes for the photons to reach Earth from the sun, Earth’s gravitational momentum has carried its surface upward a distance 1221 km so that the observer can now see the star just outsidethesolardisk.Thiseffecthasnothingtodowithsolargravitydeflect-ing photons and is caused completely by the measured upward gravitational momentum of Earth’s surface. It is the same basic effect with the Shapiro Time Delay except that it is the changing geometry of the sun’s gravitational momen-tumthatcausesthemeasuredillusionofdeflectionsandtimedelaysofphotonspassing between Earth and Mercury. Gravitational Expansion’s actual measured values of mass, space, time, and gravity are identical to the metaphysical calculations of General Relativity. Both begin with the same physical measurements of the force, velocity, and radius of Earth’s gravity. The difference is that General Relativity calculates radial gravi-tational momentum to be equivalent but not equal to absolute linear and angular momentum.Todothis,Einsteinhadtoimagineavirtuallyinfinitegravitationalcontinuumfieldthatphysicallyconnectedtheforceofeveryatominthecosmoswith the mass of every other atom. With the gravitational expansion of mass, space, and time, the force of each atom’s gravity extends no farther than its sur-face. Both Gravitational Expansion and General Relativity, describe gravity as the changing geometry of space and time. In General Relativity theory, it is theinfinityofexternalgravitationalspacesurroundingatomsandphotonsthatchanges and curves with non-Euclidian time and geometry. With the measure-ments of Gravitational Expansion, it is the internal gravitational space within at-oms that expands and curves. In General Relativity, gravity is a theory of Space-time. Gravitational Expansion is just a measurement of Mass, Space, and Time.


The Shapiro Time Delay

Shapiro Time Delay from Earth to Mercury

RM

MercuryEarth

RE 149,600,000 km 58,000,000 kmT2

T3T4

T1

SUN

Calculated Distance

Photon Distance

Sun’s Upward Fall

F1

F4

F2

F3

Shapiro Time Delay Values & CalculationsSun’s Surface Gravity----------------------------------------- .2742 km/s2

Sun’s upward excape/surface velocity -- Ves = √2gR = 617,800 km/sRadius of Earth orbit --------------------------- RE = 149,600,000 kmRadius of Mercury orbit ----------------------- RM = 58,000,000 kmGeometric Distance @ T0 ---------------- RE + RM = 207,600,000 kmCalculated Time of travel Earth to Sun RE/c ------- T0 = 498.67 sec.Calculated Time of travel Mercury to Sun RM/c --- T0 = 193.33 sec.Calculated Time of travel Earth to Mercury ------ -- T0 = 692 sec.Calculated round trip travel Earth to Mercury ------ T0 =1384 sec.Upward Fall of Sun’s Radius F1 = gT2/2 during --- T0 = 34,092.44 kmUpward Fall of Sun’s Radius F2 = gT2/2 during---- T2 = 5,124.49 kmUpward Fall of Sun’s Radius F3 = gT2/2 during --- T3 = 5,124.49 kmUpward Fall of Sun’s Radius F4 = gT2/2 during --- T4 = 34,092.44 kmPhoton distance Earth to Sun ------------ T1 = 149,600,003.9 km = 498.66668 sPhoton distance Sun to Mercury -------- T2 = 58,000,013.3 km = 193.33338 sPhoton distance Mercury to Sun -------- T3 = 58,000,017 km = 193.33339 sPhoton distance Sun Earth --------------- T4 = 149,600,020.6 kim = 498.66674 sTotal measured round trip time ------- T1+T2 +T3 +T4 = 1384.000190 secCalculated round trip travel Earth to Mercury ------ T0 =1384.000000 sec

Shapiro Time Delay to Mercury and Back = .000190 secondGeneral Relativity calculations for the delay are between .000180 & .000199

The Shapiro Time Delay of .000190 second is calculated by measuring the hypotenuses of four right triangles formed by the orbital radii of Earth and Mercury and the upward gravitational fall of the sun’s surface. General Relativ-ity’s prediction of this value is between .000199 s and .000180 s depending on how various physical parameters are tweaked in the calculations. My calcula-tions do not allow tweaking the values of Space,Time, or the Speed of Light.


Philosophical Considerations The theory of General Relativity and the principle of Absolute Gravita-tional Force and Momentum are based on opposite geometries of space and time. Both begin with the same “non-existent” universal three-dimensional Euclidian void of inertial zero momentum empty space. General Relativity su-perimposes its four-dimensional spacetime continuum on Euclidian space and allows it to continually curve in four dimensions around the centers of both moving and stationary bodies of mass. This proposed spacetime continuum serves as the “aether” through which photon waves and gravitational space moves. The paths of photons are predicted to bend with the non-Euclidian curvatureofthispotentiallyinfinitecontinuum. In the experimental principle of absolute gravitational force and momen-tum, it is not the external void of space that curves but rather the internal inertial gravitational space within atoms that appears to expand and curve with time. It is not space that expands but the internal structure of the atoms themselves. The upward force of gravity is an acceleration in space and a deceleration in time that maintains a constant upward escape/surface velocity Ves=√2gR=11,200 m/s at Earth’s surface. This velocity represents absolute momentum that is calculated as mass and measured as a slowing of atomic clocks.

Gravity is Local and General Relativity Infinite In the concept of General Relativity, the gravitational force exerted by each atom extends continuously, unalterably, and undetected to every other atom in the universe. Compare this to the principle gravitational expansion where the gravity of each atom and star in the cosmos is measured to ex-tends no farther than its outer surface. The measured gravitational expansion of Earth is caused by the individual expansion of each atom and does not cause the whole of the universe to expand as a unit like it does with the Dark Energy theory of expanding space. The cause of gravity is the circlon shapes of all electrons, protons, and pho-tons continually expanding with near perfect Circlon Synchronicity through-out the whole universe. The only divergence in this process is that electrons expand slightly faster than protons and this is the yin/yang dichotomy that causes today’s electron/proton mass ratio of 1/1836 to get larger with the pas-sage of gravitational time. The effect is the continuing evolution of atoms, energy, and gravity. This expansion of mass, space, and time gives life to the Cosmos as a growing entity. (see Living-Universe.com)

Peculiar Gravitational Psychologies InthefiftyyearsorsothatIhavebeentryingtopromotetheprincipleofthe Gravitational Expansion of Mass, Space, and, Time, I have had to con-


tend with the peculiar phenomenon I call adverse gravitational psychology, in which everyone absolutely refuses to believe in or even consider my empiri-cal measurements of gravitational expansion. Even though everyone can feel and measure the surface of Earth constantly pushing them upward, no one can believe it is true except small children who deal with this upward force ev-ery day in their play and experimental physicists who measure this force and momentum with their accelerometers. Even otherwise very intelligent people prefertobelieveinincomprehensiblemagicalideaslikeinfinitegravitationalattractions between all atoms or a universal but undetectable curving space-time continuum was physically connected to every atom.

Quantum Gravity The actual measurement and bodily feeling of gravity is much simpler and fareasiertounderstandandcalculatethanthebazaartheoriesofinfiniteattrac-tions and curving spacetime. General Relativity’s metaphysical gravity of uni-versalreachisinfinitelymorecomplexandcounter-intuitivethanaphysicalmodel of gravity that extends no further than the outer surface of each proton’s and electron’s circlon shape. It is the individual local expansion of each atom that is the true quantum of gravity and not waves of gravitons or local distor-tionsininfinitegravitationalfields.

Gravitational Philosophy and Scientific Logic I hate to think what William of Oakham would say to all these people who believe in General Relativity’s complex metaphysical calculations of a univer-sal continuum and reject all local measurements of gravity as just equivalent. EvenIsaacNewtoncouldn’tfigureitout!Hesaid; “We are to admit no more causes of natural things than such are both true and sufficient to ex-plain their measurements.” Newton invented the concept of the accelerometer as the fundamental tool of measurement (Pendulum Clock) but for some unknown psychological, emotional, or politically correct reasons, he could never bring himself to be-lieve that his accelerometer measurements always calculated the true direction of force and momentum vectors.

Expanding Gravity is Impossible Because Expanding Spacetime is True I have been told by several seemingly clever people that it would be im-possible for the circlon shaped structures of protons, electrons, and photons tocontinuallyexpandintotheinfinityofspace.However,thesesamepeoplehaveafirmbeliefthattheGuthinflationoncecausedthewholecosmostoex-pand from the point of a singularity to nearly its present size in a tiny fraction of a second.


Actually, gravitational expansion is a really very slow process in terms of the human comprehension of time. Let’s assume that you could transform yourself into one of Maxwell’s demons and shrink down in space and time to the size of a proton. From this perspective, you could watch the circlon structure of the proton’s Compton wavelength (1.321 x 10-15 m) spinning at the speed of light in two different directions.You assume that this reciprocalwavelikemotion hassomething to do with the proton’s gravitational expansion, so you sit back and start counting revolutions to determine how long it takes for the size of the proton todoubleinsize.Youmustwatch8,000,000,000,000,000revolutionsbeforetheproton has doubled its size. ComparethattoBigBangtheory’sproposedGuthinflationwherethecosmicsingularity began at a diameter of less than one millimeter and then expanded in size by 130,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000 times in a tiny fraction of a sec-ond. Now, compare these ideas to the very popular many worlds interpretation of Quantum Mechanics where the whole cosmos, space and all, bifurcates instantly every time an atom emits a photon. These examples show quite conclusively that an experimental physicist’s measurements of Mass, Space, Time, and Gravity are simple indeed when compared to the cherished beliefs of all those turkeys who call themselves theoretical physicists. Philosophically, belief in the simple mea-surements of gravity has intrinsic simplicity when compared to the many adverse unmeasured metaphysical assumptions of the Standard Model Theories of Phys-ics and the Big Bang.

The Four Metaphysical Assumptions of Physics and the Big Bang There are basically only four metaphysical assumptions in the Standard Mod-el Theories of Physics and the Big Bang. I have found them all to be totally in-compatible with experimental principles of physical measurement. If these four unmeasurable ideas are rejected, all of physics and cosmology can be measured and calculated in terms of their actual physical parameters and no theories based on metaphysical assumptions are necessary to describe the physical characteris-tics of atoms, photons, and gravity (mass, space, and time).1. E = MC2 and the Massless PhotonMomentum, angular momentum, and energy are measures of photon mass.2. Equivalent of Gravitational Force and Inertial MomentumGravitational force and momentum are measured to point up and not down.3. The Intrinsically Uncertain Location and Momentum of Point ParticlesThe Circlon Shapes of electrons and protons are the same size as their uncertain locationsh/2π=mlc/2π.4. Universal and Eternally Constant Electron/Proton Mass Ratio of 1/1836Cosmologists’ unquestioned beliefs in the eternal electron/proton mass ratio have completely prevented them from developing reasonable theories, models, and calculated interactions for the creation and evolution of the cosmos.


In the Living Cosmos, the rotational Energy/Mass = C2 of the electron has been gradually decreasing from an e/p mass ratio of 1/1, near its beginning, to today’s value of e/p = 1/1836. In this process, the electron’s decreasing rotational E/M = C2 is converted to the linear E/M = c2 of atoms and photons. The total Energy/Mass of the cosmos as well as its intrinsic momentum has remained constant and conserved from the beginning of its creation to today. The total momentum contained in all cosmic protons, electrons, neutrinos, and photons is a universal constant that has never changed from its universal total value of ex-actly zero. The only change to occur in total cosmic momentum is the evolution-ary process by which the angular momentum of the electron is gravitationally transformed into the linear momentum of atoms and photons.

The Creation and Evolution of the Living Cosmos This slow evolution of the electron’s mass presents cosmologists with a pre-cise step by step creation and evolutionary sequence for the cosmos that explains all of its major features without resorting to Big Bang theory’s metaphysical assumptionslikeasingularity,Guthinflation,expandingspacetime,equivalentmass and energy, equivalent force and momentum, and the matter/antimatter inequality paradox. .

The 2.7 K cosmic Blackbody Radiation Electron evolution is a long and slow process that began with the very slow bifurcation of antineutrons that gradually accumulated into galaxies, that then transformed into individual stars. The stars were then quickly transformed into compact clouds of electrons and protons. This sudden creation of electrons and protons from the synchronous decay of neutrons within these clouds occurred when the electron/proton mass ratio reached 1/146.5. Because of their increased size,ElectronsandProtonswerenolongerconfinedwithinneutronsandcouldnowcoupletogetherintoatomsandemitspectralphotonsforthefirsttimeinthe history of the cosmos. This sudden simultaneous burst of photons throughout the whole cosmos formed the 2.7 K Cosmic Blackbody Radiation that we still observe today at its original temperature.

The Hubble Red Shift As the electron’s mass continued to decrease it caused the Bohr radius to also decrease by a proportionate amount. This caused spectral photons to decrease in wavelength and increase in momentum and energy. The Hubble red shifted photons from distant galaxies are not Doppler shifted by galactic momentum. Billions of years ago, atoms with more massive electrons emitted photons with much longer wavelengths and less momentum and energy than they have today. The Hubble red shift is not the effect of an expanding universe. Rather, it is the effect of a contracting Bohr radius.


Dark Energy The observations of the decreased energy and intensity of distant superno-vae used by cosmologists to formulate their ideas of Dark Energy have nothing to do with an expanding spacetime continuum. This phenomenon can be com-pletely explained by electron evolution. Billions of years ago thermal photons from supernovae had less energy than they do today and this caused them to be less intense than local supernovae.

Stable Solar Energy Thenuclearenergyindustryaslongdemonstratedtheextremedifficultyincontrolling nuclear fusion. The sun could not have maintained its near perfect-ly stable energy output for billions of years if it had to rely on the random and unpredictable process of nuclear fusion. Constant solar energy output is the result of the electron’s rotational Energy/Mass = CC slowly being transformed intothelinearEnergy/Mass=ccofatomsandphotons.Thesmallfluctuationsin the sun’s energy output generally result from random and sporadic nuclear fusion, whereas the evolution of electron Energy/Mass supplies the sun with an extremely stable and perfectly constant supply of energy.

Cosmic RaysElectron evolution is also the source of the enormous energy of cosmic rays. As the electrons within atoms give up their energy, they are able radiate it away with photons. However, atomic nucleus ions have no external electrons to radiate photons. As the electrons within the neutrons of the nucleus give up their E/M = cc, they are able to transfer it to the nuclear structure, but with no electrons, they are not able to radiate it away. As these nuclei travel through space for billions of years they can build up tremendous amounts of energy within their structures.

Large Dinosaur Bones As the Bohr radius continues to grow smaller with the decrease in electron mass, it causes the size of atoms to also grow smaller. Millions of years ago, Earth was large and less dense than it is today. This caused its surface gravity to be much less and this allowed very large dinosaurs to walk and run which they couldn’t with the greater gravity of today.

Einstein’s Theories of Relative motion make up the first experimental half of my two Principles of Absolute Force and Momentum and Relative Gravity and Energy. The two laws of physics are the constant speed of light and the relative speed of gravity. The Absolute Momentum of photons is relative to the Absolute Gravitational Momentum of matter.


Gravity CannonThe Gravity Cannon TestThe gravity cannon is a definitive experimen-tal test that can easily differentiate between the four possible general theories of gravity. This test is so simple and basic that once it has been performed, the results can be put on You Tube to make it possible for the true nature of gravity to be understood by ev-eryone. Even the small child will be able to clearly see and understand just how gravity really works.

The Gravity Cannon ExperimentThe Gravity Cannon experiment is the ultimate test to either validate the Gravitational Expansion of Mass, Space, and Time or falsify General Relativ-ity’s metaphysical assumption of a curving spacetime continuum. The test will show conclusively whether the force of gravity is internal to matter or external to the cosmos. The gravity cannon is an extremely simple and inexpensive mechanical de-vice with only two moving parts. It has the absolute ability to differentiate be-tween the equivalent downward inertial momentum calculated and predicted by General Relativity and the absolute upward gravitational momentum mea-sured with accelerometers. TheonlythingdifficultorexpensiveabouttheGravityCannonexperimentis that it has to be performed in outer space. The cannon itself is a large clear glass sphere with a round shaft drilled through it at its center. A round cannon-ballofsomeheavymaterialsuchasGoldismachinedtolooselyfitinsidetheshaft.Tobeginthetest,thecannonballisheldbrieflyatoneendofthebarrelandthen released. If General Relativity’s idea is correct, equivalent momentum will be added to the ball by equivalent force and it will accelerate down the barrel, reach maxi-mum velocity at the cannon’s center and then decelerate to a stop at the other end of the barrel. The process will then continually repeat itself in reverse with the ball accelerating back down the barrel and then slowing to a stop at the opposite surface of the glass sphere. If the absolute momentum of measured gravitational expansion is correct, the Gold ball will move toward the center with decreasing acceleration until it eventually appears to stop just short of center. The results of this test will be completely unambiguous and will decisively separate the measurements of absolute gravitational momentum from all equivalent momentum and attraction theories of gravity.


Accelerometers that measure force to calculate momentum, energy and velocity are the only instruments available to modern experimental physi-cists. All measured values eventually break down into individual changes in momen-tum. When we watch TV our eyes measure the individual variations in momentum of the photons emitted by the screen. When we measure gravity with accelerometers and clocks, we can only conclude that it is a three-dimensional upward pushing force that produces three-dimensional outward momen-tum. There are no accelerom-eter measurements that show gravity to be a two-dimension-al downward pulling force.

Gravity Forces Mass Through Time

The Earth Falls Up

Upward Force of Gravity Produces Inertial Motion

(Radial Gravitational Momentum)

15105051015

ms2

15105051015

ms2

Gravitational Expansion of Mass, Space, and Time

Accelerometer Measurements of Force and Change in Momentum There are four basic quantities in the Newtonian experimental measure-ment process: Mass, Space, Time, and Gravity. All conceivable experimental measurements are made with Newtonian accelerometers to quantify individual values for Mass, Space, Time, and Gravity. These values are combined together in the calculations of momentum, angular momentum and measurements of centrifugal and centripetal force, and linear and rotational kinetic energy. En-ergy is the idea used to divide the equal momenta produced by of a single force into multiple values. Gravity is the measure of force used to calculate radial gravitational momentum. Linear momentum and force exist on individual one-dimensional vectors, angular momentum and centripetal force exist on two-dimensional planes and the force and momentum of gravity are measured and calculated at the surface of three-dimensional spheres. Einstein’s imaginary ideas about equivalent force and momentum causing inertial space to curve have only been measured with null results.


Experimental Interactions of Mass, Space, Time, and Gravity

There is a great deal of confusion and contradiction in the standard model relativity theories of physics and the Big Bang. There is little consensus about the true experimental nature of Mass, Space, Time and Gravity and their measured physical quantities of Momentum, Force, and Energy. Most theoretical physicists calculate and believe that mass, momentum, Force, and energy are stand along entities that can be physically separated from one another. Einstein’s primary theoretical mistake was his metaphysical assumption of massless photons containing single and separate quantities of energy and momentum. Physical measurements of photons calculate them to be eternal units of a yin yang dichotomy of Energy/Mass = cC. Big Bang’s initial assumption of a singularity of pure energy (e = mc2) has never been reconciled with the measured Energy/Mass (E/M = CC) contained in the electrons, protons, photons, atoms, and stars in today’s cosmos. The conservation of momentum as calculated by the Lorentz transformation is the primary parameter of all physical measurements. Energy is the secondary parameter used in calculating a change in momentum. Einstein’s second theoretical mistake was his metaphysical assumption of the Equivalence Principle with its downward direction of accelerating gravitational motion and force. All measurements with clocks and accelerometers clearly show that measured upward deceleration of Earth’s gravitational momentum produces an upward gravitational force and a deceleration of time. The Force of gravity F = MS/T2 extends no further than the surface of each atom. Gravity is measured as changing momentum and then calculated as kinetic energy. Mass, Space, Time, and Gravity = MS/T & MS/T2 Mass, Space, Time, and Gravity are the four basic metaphysical assumptions for the reality of physical measurement. They have no separate definitions outside of these two equations. Their separate values can be measured but only as a part of the whole. The following 12 equations contain the full spectrum of parameters in our measured reality. There are no measurements we can make that are not calculated by one or more of these equations.

1 kg = T/S, 1 meter = T/M, 1 sec = MS, PG = MS/T, and g = MS/T2 p = ms/t = mv = momentum and F = ms/t2 = ma = Force

Kinetic energy e = ms/t2/2 & Photon energy e = mc2/2 + e = mC2/2Electron and photon angular momentum Iw = meaoaC and mlC/2π

Lorentz transformation m’ = M/√1-s/t2/c2


Momentum and Force versus Kinetic Energy All physical measurements are primarily based on changes in momentum vectors as measured by force and quantified with kinetic energy. These areultimately the only measurements of Mass, Space, Time, and Gravity that can be made by experimental physicists. The only two quantities in any physical measurement process are momentum and Force combined into two separate values of absolute acceleration and deceleration. Energy is a secondary quantity in the calculation used to separate a single Force into two equal changes in momentum. A moving body does not contain energy. Energy does not appear as a measured value until the momentum of one body is decelerated. Deceleration produces a Force that accelerates a second body and conserves the equal and opposite changes in the momentum of both bodies. Conservation of absolute momentum is the two-way Lorentz transformation relative to ZMR and conservation of energy is measured as single changes in momentum relative to a force. In this measured action and reaction, a quantity of momentum is equally divided and conserved and is calculated as multiple unequal conserved kinetic energies. The conservations of momentum and energy are just opposite calculations of the same thing. Momentum is the motion of mass relative to rest p = mv and energy is the motion of mass relative to the speed of light e = m(v/c)2/2.

Deceleration versus AccelerationThe deceleration in the momentum of one body is the Force that causes the accelerated momentum of a second body. Deceleration and acceleration produce equal and opposite momenta in the two bodies. The magnitude of a Force is measured as two separate and unequal energies of the bodies. Energy is simply the idea used to quantify a single body’s change in momentum.

Deceleration is always the cause of force and acceleration is always the opposite effect of force. A Force always produces two equal and opposite momenta and two unequal relative quantities of energy.

Atoms and Photons are Composed of Momentum and Not Energy A photon does not contain Energy. It contains equal quantities of Linear Momentum p = mc and Angular Momentum Iw = mlC/2π.Whenaphoton isabsorbed, the change in its momentum is measured as two separate unequal energies e = mc2/2 + e = mC2/2 = mcC. The energy of its linear momentum is Doppler shifted relative to each observer’s inertial frame but its angular momentum is absolute and has the same value for all photons in all frames. The atomic value of any photon is Energy/Mass = cC. When a photon is ab-sorbed, the energy of its two momenta change the momentum of the absorbing


atom. The atomic value of any atom is Energy/Mass = CC. It is an inseparable unit of the atom’s mass spinning at C in two different directions. All experimental measurements of photons and atoms are calculations of changes in momentum produced by force. Energy is the general quantity of a force being divided into multiple momenta. When we watch TV, photons are emitted by atoms at the screen and absorbed in our eyes. Our optical cells record that violet photons produce a change in momentum about twice as great as red photons. Energy plays no part in this process because our cells cannot detect and record something that does not physically exist.

There are many ways that momentum can be measured but there are no measurements that do not quantify momentum. Energy is always calculated from a change in momentum and physically exists only as an idea in the theorist’s mind. Energy is positive when it results from a deceleration and negative when measured as an acceleration. In this way, energy is always conserved but only as a relative effect of momentum conservation.

Energy is a Momentary Quantity, Not a Continuous SubstanceEnergy has no definition in experimental physics other than as the calculated value of a single change in momentum.

All measurements of energy are combinations of changes in linear momentum, angular momentum or gravitational momentum. Momentum is the absolute quantity of a single body’s motion and angular momentum is the relative angular motion between two bodies. Momentum can only be measured as energy relative to a stationary force and angular momentum is always measured as centripetal forces relative to a center of mass.

Momentum is a Conserved Absolute and Equal Dual Quantity. Energy is a Single Quantity of Motion Relative to a Force.

Momentum (+p = mv) + (-p = mv) = 0 is conserved as duel equal and oppo-site quantities of momentum that together equal zero relative to Zero Momentum Rest. Kinetic energy e = mv2/2 + e = mv2/2 is conserved as two unequal quantities relative to the deceleration and acceleration produced by a single force. Momentum p = mv is the primary passive measure of the motion of matter and kinetic energy e = mv2/2 is the secondary active measure of change in momentum. Momentum has eternal existence and energy is just a momentary measurement of changing momentum. Energy does not “exist” before or after a measurement. Energy is merely a potential property of momentum and does not show itself until one momenta is changed and conserved with an opposite momenta. A Force creating two equal momenta is measured as two unequal quantities of energy F = mv2 = (e = Mv2/2 + e = mV2/2).


Momentum is the true, absolute and eternal reality. Energy is just an arbitrary value for its relative measurement.

General Relativity’s Metaphysical Calculation of Potential Energy With its Equivalence Principle, General Relativity imagines an upside down and backward non-experimental view of gravity in which a one kilogram Gold ball located at one kilometer above Earth’s surface is said to have 10,000 Joules of virtual Potential Energy.

Potential Energy = mgh = 1kg x 10 m/sec2 x 1000 m = 10,000 JoulesVelocity of fall v = gt from 1000 m = 141.4 m/sec

Time of fall t = v/g from 1000 m = 14.14 sec The problem with the idea of potential energy as a real quantity is that it can never be given a measurable value. If the gold ball has PE = 10,000 J with Earth, then it must also have PE = 886,205,000 J with the sun and ?????? J with the Andromeda galaxy. It is illogical to believe that the Gold ball contains a near infiniteamountofpotentialenergyrelativetoallbodies in thecosmos.If thisenergy had mass, as all energy does, we would be able to weigh it as we can with other quantities of energy. Some General Relativity theorists believe it is a GPS clock’s “relative poten-tial energy” that causes it to run faster than sea level clocks. This cannot be true because potential energy cannot be measured. It is the decreased gravitational momentum Pg of the clock’s escape/surface velocity Pg = mVes that decreases its mass and decreases the length of its recorded intervals due to the Lorentz trans-formation of mass. space, and time combined with the conservation of angular momentum.

The Principle of Absolute Gravitation Momentum With the Principle of Absolute Gravitation Momentum it is calculated and measured that the Gold ball’s 10,000 Joules of relative kinetic energy is actually contained within Earth’s upward gravitational momentum and not within the relative motion of the “falling” ball. When the Gold ball is accelerated up to a point 1000 m above Earth’s surface its gravitational momentum is actually being decelerated from Ves = 11,179.5 m/sec at its surface to Ves = 11, 178.6 m/sec at the ball’s location. As the ball appears to “fall” back to Earth, it actually remains stationary and undergoes no change in motion and its upward gravitational momentum of 11,179.5 m/sec remains con-stant. When the greater momentum of the upwardly moving Earth impacts the ball, its faster momentum is conserved with the ball’s slower momentum and this change in its absolute gravitational momentum is measured as 10,000 Joules of kinetic energy. The same value of energy can be calculated from either the ball’s relative velocity with Earth at 140 km/sec or the difference in kinetic energy be-


tween the ball’s momentum and the momentum at Earth’s surface .88 m/sec. Every event in the above descriptions can be accurately measured and cal-culated0 with clocks, and accelerometers. General Relativity’s description of these events can be accurately calculated based on metaphysical assumptions liketheequivalenceprinciplebuttheycanneververifiedbyanyactualphysi-cal measurements of linear momentum p or radial gravitational momentum Pg. The Lorentz Transformation of Mass, Space, Time, and Gravity

m’ = M/√1-v2/c2 The Lorentz Transformation is the principle of measurement used to cal-culate and measure the conservation linear momentum, angular momentum and gravitational momentum. It calculates the changing measured values of Mass, Space, Time, and Gravity produced by the absolute deceleration and acceleration of the Energy/Mass = CC of atoms. The equation is arranged in three different configurations to calculate the changingmeasured values ofMass, Time, Space, gravity, and the speed of light c.

Mass m’ = M/√1-v2/c2, Time t’ = T/√1-v2/c2, & Space s’ = S√1-v2/c2

Radius = 6,379,137 mg = 9.8291 m/s

2

Ves = 11,178.6 m/s = PgEnergy of Ves = 62,480,549 J

2

Radius = 6,378,137 mg = 9.8322 m/s

2

Ves = 11,179.48 m/s = PgEnergy of Ves = 62,490,387 J

2

Energy of 1 kg ball falling 1000 mg = 9.832 m/s

Height of Fall = 1000 mEnergy of Fall = 9832 JoulesVelocity of Fall mv = 140 m/s

Potential Energy PE = 9832 J at top

Energy of momentum differencebetween escape/surface velocites at

sea level and 1000 meters above.Difference in Pg = mv = .88 m/s

Energy of .88 m/s @ Ves = 9838 Joules

Gravitational Momentum = Pg vs Energy = PE

E = 62,490,387 J Bottom - E = 62,480,549 J Top Difference 9,838 J

1000 m

Energy is relativeMomentum is absolute

Relative Momentum p = 140 m/sAbsolute Momentum Pg = .88 m/sKinetic Energy e = mv /2 is the same2

2

GPS Orbit = 4.175 RGPS Ves = Pg = 5,471 m/sec

GPS Clock Interval Pg = t’ = 1.0000000002497 sec

Sea Level = 1 RSL Ves = Pg = 11,198 m/sec

SL Clock Interval Pg = t’ = 1.0000000006976 sec

1-v2/c2t’ =T

MomentumClock Interval


These equations are used to calculate the measured values of changes in mo-mentum produced by the deceleration and acceleration of the E/M = CC of clocks and the E/M = cC of photons. They are used to calculate the clock time intervals of GPS satellites and the momentum changes of photons and linear actuators in the Pound-Rebka experiments.

GPS Satellite Clock Corrections Corrections in GPS clocks are made with two separate Lorentz transformations of momentum. The gravitational momentum Ves is less at the satellite’s position than at Earth’s surface and this causes its clock to run faster. The linear momentum of the surface clock (Earth’s rotation) is less than the satellite’s orbital velocity and this causes its clock to run slower. The true rate of the satellite clock is calculated by combining and conserving these two separate momenta into a single momentum vector.

Measuring the Speed of Light c and C When the mass of a clock is accelerated from Zero Momentum Rest, where it has no linear momentum, to an absolute momentum vector of p = mv, its Energy/Mass = cc increases. As the rotating and vibrating components of the clock gain mass, the clock’s rate must slow in order to conserve angular momentum Iw = mvr. At a position of ZMR, M = 1 kilogram, S = 1 meter, T = 1 second, and the speed of light c = 299,792,223.8 m/s. Here on Earth, the speed of light is measured to be 299,792,458 m/s. With this value, the Lorentz transformation calculates that on Earth m’ = 1.00000078 kg, t’ = 1.00000078 sec, and Earth’s momentum is p = m x 375 km/s. For astronauts traveling at 86.7 % c, m’ = 2 kg, t’ = 2 sec and the speed of light would be measured at 2 c. The two-way speed of light does not change but is measured to increase due to the slowing of the clocks used in its measurement. If the astronauts do not consider their clocks slowing to one half and assume c to be constant, they will measure that their meter sticks have contracted to 500 mm. Astronauts or technicians on Earth can always determine the velocity of their absolute momentum, but not its vector, by measuring the two-way speed of light in their inertial frames. The slowing of their clocks from increasing momentum causes either the speed of light to be measured as increasing or the length of their meter sticks to be measured as contracting. In both cases, neither the speed of light nor the length of the meter actually changes. The only change is in the Energy/Mass = cc of clocks used to measure them.

From all of the above, it is concluded that all measurements of force are reduced to calculations of changes in absolute momentum that are quantified as units of energy.


An Experimental Physicist’s Measured Theory of Gravity

ºMass, Space, and Time are the three dimensions of our measured physical reality and Gravity is the fourth unmeasured dimension of our imagined conscious reality.

Mass, Space, Time, and Gravity = MS/T & G = MS/T2 Mass, Space, Time, and Gravity are the four basic metaphysical assump-tions for the reality of physical measurement. They have no separate measur-abledefinitionsoutsideofthesetwoequations.Theirseparatevaluescanbemeasuredbutonlyasapartofthewhole.Thisaunifiedprincipleofmeasure-ment for atoms, photons, gravity, and cosmology. This physical principle of the cosmos is not meant to be a physics “theory” of matter and gravity. It is merely measurements of absolute linear and angular momentum and contains no unmeasured metaphysical assumptions such as spacetime, aethers, or gravi-tational“fields”.Thefollowing14equationscontainthebasicparametersinour measured reality. There are no measurements we can make that are not calculated by one or more of these equations. Gravity is measured and calcu-lated as absolute momentum and requires no separate “theory” or additional metaphysical assumptions.

1 kg = T/S, 1 meter = T/M, 1 sec = MS Photon angular momentum Iw = mlC/2π = 1.055 x 10-34

Electron angular momentum Iw = meaoaC = 1.055 x 10-34

PG = MS/T, and g = MS/T2 momentum p = ms/t = mv

Force F = ms/t2 = ma Kinetic energy e = ms/t2/2 = mv2/2

Photon energy e = mc2/2 + e = mC2/2 = mcCLorentz transformations of Mass m’ = M/√1-v2/c2

Lorentz transformations of Time t’ = T/√1-v2/c2

Gravitation momentum esV = √2gR Gravitation Force g = esV2/2R

Whenexperimentalphysicists look to thecosmos tofindunitsofMass,Space, Time, and Gravity to measure, they discover that all that can be ulti-mately detected and measured are the motions of the three fundamental par-ticles of matter: protons, electrons, and photons. Each particle is composed of two separate quantities of the universally conserved cosmic substance of Energy/Mass = C. Energy & Mass are the inseparable components of matter


and photons. Energy/Mass is calculated as units of linear momentum p = mc and angular momentum Iw = mrC = mlC/2π. Each particle has two separate and equal quantities of Energy/Mass = c. In protons and electrons E/M = CC, the Mass of the primary coils of their circlon shaped structure is spinning a the rotational speed of light C and the same mass of their secondary coils is spinning at C in the opposite direction.

4 Photon Energies

e = mC2/2 + mC2/2 = mCC

+

Opposite PhotonCoil Spin @ C

Negative Electric Coils

Positive Magnetic Coils

c

e = mC2/4 + mC2/4 = mCC/2Rotational Kinetic Energy

e = mc2/4 + mc2/4 = mcc/2Linear Kinetic Energy

Proton & Electron Rest Mass/Energy

e = mcC

Secondary Coil Spin Primary Coil S

pin

Tertiary Coil

Circlon Coil Spinof Electrons & Protons

Linear Motion @ c

In the case of the photon E/M = cC, the Mass of its physical wave-like structure is moving at the linear speed of light c and also spinning a C. The rel-ative linear momentum p = mv of moving atoms is measured with the Lorentz transformationm’=M/√1-v2/c2 and calculated as absolute linear momentum E/M = cc. Photons are not separate particles in this cosmic electron/proton duality. Electronsandprotonscombineintoatomsthatthenemit,reflect,andabsorb


photons accompanied with conserved changes in their momenta. Momentum changes in atoms and photons are the sole empirical values available in the scientificmethodofexperimentalmeasurement.

Experimental Physics Without Theory As an experimental physicist and not a theorist, I will show how the many experiments used to describe and verify the standard model relativity theories andtheBigBangarebasedonmetaphysicalassumptionsandnotonverifiableprinciples of experimental measurement. Relativity theories are based on three different metaphysical assumptions each with different interpretations Mass, Space, Time, and Gravity. These can be called the theory of energy and mass, the theory of gravity, and the theory of inertial time

The Metaphysical Theory of Energy and Mass This is the unmeasured assumption of the separate equivalence of energy and mass used to calculate a massless photon E = mc2 and an at rest atom M = e/c2. These calculations purport to measure an aether-like medium called a spacetimecontinuumcontainingelectricandmagneticfieldsinwhichtotrans-port massless photons. Neither a photon’s mass nor energy can be measured independently. All that we actually measure are a photon’s linear momentum and angular mo-mentum and the photon’s energy is then calculated from these measurements. Energy is the secondary value of a change in momentum. Energy is the effect of a change in momentum and not the cause. Momentum is a calculation of absolute motion and energy is the measurement of a relative change in motion. The experimental physicist measures the atom E/M = CC and the photon E/M = cC as containing constant and equal quantities of Energy and Mass combined in a single inseparable unit. No experiment has ever been able to detect an actual separation of Energy and Mass into stand alone entities. When a body’s momentum is accelerated, its kinetic energy E = mv2/2 is increased. This energy increase is accompanied with a proportionate quantity of mass m’ =M/√1-v2/c2. The Energy/Mass of any moving body is a single constant and conservedYin/Yangdichotomy.Whenanatomemitsaphoton,amassstruc-turefromtheelectron’selectricfieldiscombinedwithanequalandoppositemassstructurefromtheproton’smagneticfieldtoformastationaryelectro-magnetic photon spinning in opposite directions at the rotational speed of light C. One of these angular momenta then splits into the linear momentum p = mc of two photons. The photons have equal quantities of kinetic energy from the their linear momentum at p = mc, e = mc2/2 and from their angular momentum Iw = mCr, e = mC2/2.


Whenever an atom emits, reflects, or absorbs a photon, there is a transfer of momentum but there is no measured conversion between Mass and Energy. Moving photons do not contain “pure energy” and stationary atoms do not contain “pure mass”. They both contain “pure” Energy/Mass and the sole measured parameters of both are linear and angular momentum.

The Metaphysical Theory of Gravity All theories of gravity are based on the metaphysical assumption of equiva-lent downward force and momentum and not on the physical measurement of upward gravitational force and its calculation of gravitational momentum. This unmeasured assumption calculates a gravitational aether field called a4-dimensional spacetime continuum. In opposition to all principles of mea-surement, this assumption requires that the active force of gravity points down while the passive force of gravity points up. The theoretical equation derived for calculating gravitational force (F = ms/t2 = Gm1m2/r

2) is upside down and backwards. It causes the direction of the force and motion of gravity to point down and it reverses the temporal direction of cause and effect. When we measure gravity, we use the measured upward force at Earth’s surface to calculate its upward momentum. A force produces an opposite acceleration and deceleration that represent changes in momentum. A force is always the effect of the causes of equal changes in mo-mentum between two bodies of mass. Energy is merely the calculation used to quantify separate changes in momentum.A Force is the Effect of two changes in momentum and never their Cause. The Experimental Principle of Gravity Gravity is nothing more that what we feel and measure. It is not what we might want to imagine beyond the feeling of our senses. Because we feel gravity constantly pushing us up, there is no logical reason to believe that we could “fall” down. The experimental equations for measuring the momentum and force of the gravitational interaction are based on the measurement of gravitational force and the calculation of gravitational momentum. The true gravitational constant G for Earth is not a downward force but an upward velocity. It is the upward momentum of Earth’s escape/surface velocity (esV=√2gR=11,200m/s).Itisquantifiedasdeceleratingupwardmomentumms/tthatproducesameasuredupward Force of (g = esV

2/2R = 9.8 m/s2). It is decelerating gravitational mo-mentum at Earth’s surface that produces the measured upward gravitational Force. Gravity is a cause and effect interaction in which a constant decel-eration of upward gravitational momentum is measured as a constant upward force.


General Relativity’s unmeasured downward equivalent force is produced without a physical force’s cause of decelerated momentum. This assumed pseudo force without a cause is imagined to produce the effect of unmea-sured downward equivalent momentum.

General Relativity’s False Gravitational Constant The philosophical problem with General Relativity’s gravity calculation (ms/t2 = Gm1m2/r

2) is that Mass exists on both sides of the equation and as such cannotbeexperimentallyquantified.TheforceofNewtonsgravitationalcon-stant G is an effect of gravity not its cause. Mass is not an active component in the calculation of gravitational force (F = ms/t2 = esV

2/2R) or in the measure-ment of gravitational momentum (esV=ms/t=√2gR).Earth’smassisnotusedin the calculation of its escape/surface velocity. Earth’s mass is an unknown that cannot be calculated until after Earth’s gravitational momentum Ves has been measured to determine Earth’s density. Earth’s gravitational interactions arequantifiedbytheoveralldensitygRofitselectronsandprotonsandnotbyjust their mass alone. Gravitational force theories falsely use the metaphysical assumption of an attraction by “gravitational mass” as the cause of gravity and the equivalent energy of falling bodies as its effect. All bodies in the cosmos with gravitation-al mass are imagined to be inter-connected by the curvature of a universal me-dium (aether) called Space/Time. The fact that this metaphysical continuum cannot be experimentally detected is required by the principle for the equiva-lence of gravitational force and motion and with measured force and motion. Gravity is measured to be the acceleration of Mass through Space com-bined with the deceleration of gravity’s fourth dimension of Time. In this way, the gravitational momentum at Earth’s surface appears to remain con-stant because Gravitational Space is accelerating and Gravitational Time is decelerating at proportionate rates.

The Theory of Static Inertial Time Thefinalmetaphysicalassumptionoftherelativitytheoriesmostlyappliesto the Big Bang theory of the creation and evolution of the cosmos. Without anyexperimentalverification,allstandardmodeltheoriesmakethefundamen-tal assumption that both electron/proton and positron/antiproton mass ratios are 1/1836. It seems to be the unquestioned belief of all theoretical physicists that these equal ratios are constant and eternal and have not changed since the beginning of cosmological time. This assumption is the foundation of all interpretations of quantum mechanics and all theories of electrodynamics and atomic structure.


Belief in this unquestioned universal constant has caused theoretical cos-mologists to construct many false calculations for their measurements of galaxy and star formation, the creation of neutrons and atoms, the Hubble red shifts, Dark Energy, the changing momentum and temperature of the cosmic blackbody photons, the matter/antimatter paradox, the enormous energy of cosmic rays, the constant energy output of the sun, the large size of dinosaur bones, and the cause of Earth’s plate tectonics. What this theory assumes is a single arrow of inert cosmological time that has no effect on the structure and properties of electrons and protons. Inertial time passes without any physical effect on matter. Theorists deny the existence of the opposite arrow of active gravitational time that produces real and lasting changes in the physical parameters of atoms.

Inertial TimeUnitsofinertialtimecanbequantifiedandmeasuredasthelinearmotionofpho-tons (light years) or the rotational motion of Earth (days). Inertial time is easily divided into naturally repetitive intervals like the frequency of Cesium-133 at-oms or the rotation of Earth. Inertial clocks increase the length of their intervals when their momentum is increased.

Gravitational Time Gravitational time is the opposite of inertial time. It is continuous and pro-vides no phenomena by which it can be divided into consecutive intervals corre-sponding to intervals of inertial time. The only clock that can show consecutive intervals of gravitational time is the Living-Cosmos clock for monitoring the progression of the cosmic evolution of the 1/1836 electron/proton mass ratio from 1/1 near the beginning of the cosmos to its value today. Gravitational time is the rate of the gravitational expansion of mass, space, and time. Gravitational time cannot be directly measured because intrinsic changes in mass, space, and time cancel the calculated values.

Measuring Gravitational Time in the Cosmos As astrophysicists use electrodynamics to make cosmic calculations through the lens of a gradually increasing electron/proton mass ratio, it is quite easy to see that the sudden blast of photons that became the 2.7 K Cosmic Blackbody Radiation occurred at an early stage of the cosmos when the electron/proton mass ratio was 1/146.5. In the distant universe, observers calculate the progression of the gradually increasing e/p mass ratio from the increasing red shifts of more and more dis-tant galaxies. Light from distant galaxies is not Doppler shifted to red by their outward motion. It is just that the increasing e/p mass ratio has caused spectral photons in the Milky Way to become blue shifted by the decreasing mass of the


electron and the proportional decrease in the Bohr radius. If we go back in time to when the e/p mass ratio was less than 1/146.5, only neutrons were able to form from the coupling of electrons and protons. Prior to this point in cosmic evolution, there were no photons because electrons and protons were unable to couple into atoms. The electron’s Primary coils were too small to attach to the outside of the proton’s Secondary coils and form an atom. They could only attach to the inside to form a neutron. If we go all the way back to the cosmic beginnings, when the e/p ratio was 1/1, the protons and electrons were matter/antimatter pairs, and the universal balance between matter and antimatter was perfect. As the increasing e/p mass ratio progressed, bifurcating semi-stable neutrons were formed in a very long process that spread them to the far reaches of the cosmos. As this process con-tinuedtheantineutronswerefirstconcentratedintogalaxiesandthenintostars.Then as the e/p mass ratio reached 1/146.5, electrons could now attach to the outside of protons to form atoms. At this transition, the neutrons all decayed simultaneously into electrons and protons that then coupled into atoms and emitted the photons of the cosmic blackbody radiation at a blackbody spectrum temperature of 2.726 K.

Conclusion The gravitational interactions that we calculate from physical measurements of momentum is upsidedown and backwards from Newton’s and Einstein’s cal-culations of an imaginary downward force based on their unmeasured principle of equivalence. The cause of a body’s gravity is its changing absolute gravita-tional momentum and not its constant relative gravitational force. Force is a two-way entity. Change in momentum creates a Force that simul-taneously produces an equal and opposite change in momentum. General Rela-tivity’s gravity violates the conservation laws of both momentum and energy because its calculations of gravity produce change in momentum without en-ergy in falling bodies and then produce energy is without change in momentum when bodies are lifted. Gravitational theorists try to imagine that the tempo-ral direction of experimental Cause & Effect can be reversed when measuring gravitational Force & Momentum. With the Gravitational Expansion of Mass, Space, and Time, it is “What you see is what you get”. The gravity that we all feel is a very simple mechanical interaction caused by a constant upward velocity measured at Earth’s surface. This is all that we measure gravity to be. Calculations of gravitational in-teractions can be used to explain the complex details of cosmic creation and evolution. There can be no “theory” of gravity beyond these experimental prin-ciples of measurement. Theoretical physicists are at a complete loss to imagine an attraction theory of gravity that does not violate the Cause & Effect conser-vationlawsofthescientificmethodofphysicalmeasurement.


The New Gravitational Constant GV g is a force that produces gravitational momentum and GV is the momentum.

To determine the value of the gravitational velocity constant (GV) in order to replacetheoldgravitationalconstant(G)wemustfirstdeterminetheratiobetweenEarth’s overall density and the intrinsic density of Hydrogen at the Bohr radius (ao).Bycoincidence,wefindthatthedensityofEarth(5,518.9kg/m

3) is very close to the intrinsic density of the Hydrogen molecule (H2) at the Bohr radius (5,432.3 kg/m3). The density of Earth is 1.015942 (HM/ao

3). We take the cube root of this value (1.005286) to establish a new parameter of matter called masslength (ML). Masslength is a unit of mass divided by a unit of length. The masslength at the Bohr radius is exactly one (aoML = 1.0 HM/ao) and the masslength of Earth at sea level is 1.005286 HM/ao, and the masslength at the surface of the moon is (.85054 HM/ao). Once we determine the masslength at a body’s surface, we can determine its intrinsic expansion radius (R0). At this radius, the body’s masslength is equal to one (ML = 1.0 HM/ao). The expansion radius of Earth is (ER0 = 6,404,995 m) and the expansion radius of the moon is (MR0 = 1,478,486 m). To calculate the constant for gravity (GV) we measure Earth’s mean sea-level gravity to be about (g = 9.807 m/s2) and then determine its escape/surface velocity to be about (Ves= √2gR = 11,179 m/s). While both escape and surface velocities have exactly the same values for points at or above Earth’s surface, for points inside Earth, the surface velocity decreases to zero at its center, whereas escape velocity continues to increase to a maximum at the center. Escape velocity is the upward velocity needed for a space ship to escape the earth’s upward gravitational surface velocity and surface velocity is the static upward gravitational motion of a point at a given distance from a body’s center. We calculate the escape/surface velocity at Earth’s expansion radius (R0) to be (Ves = 11,149 m/s) and divide this by the number of Bohr radii in the expan-sion radius R0 in order to arrive at the escape/surface velocity of the hydrogen molecule at the Bohr radius. This value is the gravitational velocity constant of GV = 9.2116013 x 10-14 m/s. This constant is not a force, an attraction or an acceleration;GV is just the constant velocity of the circumference of the Bohr radius away from its center. The Bohr radius of each atom moves away from its center at the constant velocity of GV. This constant is every bit as fundamental and absolute as the speed of light (C). Just as the speed of light is very fast, the speed of gravity is very slow. For the Bohr radius to increase its dimension to one meter would take 1013 seconds or about 344,000 years. On the other hand, with 1017 Bohr radii stacked up between us and the center of Earth, our velocity away from its center is 11,179 m/s. With the gravitational velocity constant (GV)wecanfindabody’svalueof(g) at any radius (r) using the formulas:

ao 2go

Ro

GV = = 9.2116013 x 10-14 m/sMLGV

2 Ro2

2ao2 rmean Earth g = = 9.807 m/s2


With this second equation we can calculate the gravity of Earth at the North Pole to be (gp = 9.852 m/sec2), that at the equator to be (ge = 9.786 m/sec2), and the gravity on the moon’s surface to be (gm = 1.6205 m/sec2). These values are the same as those measured at these locations.

Gravity go @ Ro =GV

2 Ro

2 ao2

= 9.704 m/s2 earth = 2.24 m/s2 moon

Gravity go @ Ro =g RE

2

Ro2 = 9.704 m/s2

Escape/Surface Velocity @ Ro = Ves = 2 go Ro = 11,149 m/s earth = 2573.6 m/s moon

Escape/Surface Velocity @ 2Ro = Ves 1/2 = 7883.5 m/s earth = 1819.8.6 m/s moon

Time of Fall from 2Ro to Ro = Ro /1RVes - 2RVes = (11,149 - 7883.5 = 3265.5) = 32.69 min

RE Gv2 ML3

2 ao2g = = 9.807 m/s2Ves

2RE=Acceleration of gravity = earth = 1.6205 m/s2 moon

2

Masslength of earth = ML = = 1.005286 MH/aoDEDao

3

Expansion Radius Ro (ML = 1.0) = = 6,404,995 m earth = 1,478,486 m moonao3 ME

MH

3

Masslength @ surface = ML = = earth = 1.005286 MH/ao moon = .85054 MH/aoao

3 MR3 MH

3

= 9.2116 x 10-14 m/sGravitational Velocity Constant = GV = 2g ao2

RE ML3

Escape/Surface Velocity @ R = = = 11,179 m/s earth = 2373.5 moon2 g RGV R ML

3

ao

Mass of Earth ME = 5.979 x 10 24 kgMass of H2 molecule MH = 3.3719078 x 10-27 kgRadius of Earth RE = 6,371,315 mRadius of Moon RM = 1,738,300 mBohr Radius ao = 5.29177294 x 10-11 mAcceleration of gravity earth g = 9.807 m/sec 2

Acceleration of gravity moon g = 1.62 m/sec 2

Acceleration of gravity @ Bohr radius g = 8.018 x 10-17 m/sec 2

Escape/surface velocity earth Ves = 11.179 m/sEscape/surface velocity moon Ves = 2373.5 m/sEscape/surface velocity Bohr radius Ves = 9.2116 x 10-14 m/sGravity Constant = Gv = 9.2116 x 10-14 m/sMasslength Bohr Radius ML = 1.0MH/aoMasslength earth ML = 1.005286 MH/aoMasslength moon ML = .85054 MH/aoExpansion Radius of earth Ro = 6,404,995 mExpansion Radius of moon Ro = 1,478,486 mEarth gravity go @ Ro = 9.704 m/s2

Moon gravity go @ Ro = 2.24 m/s2

Escape/surface velocity of earth @ Ro Ves = 11,149 m/sEscape/surface velocity of moon @ RoVes = 2573.6 m/sTime for a body’s expansion radius Ro to double = 32.69 minutes

Gravitational ExpansionMeasurements, Constants, Equations and Values


Introduction to a Living Cosmos

The Living Cosmos is a New Model of the Big Bang Creation The Living Cosmos is based on the same astronomical observations used by Big Bang theories to explain the beginning and subsequent evolution of the cosmos.Thetwomaindifferencesisthatfirst,theLivingCosmosbeginswitha matter/antimatter duality instead of a pure energy singularity and second, it rejects Big Bang theory’s fundamental assumption that the electron/proton mass ratio of 1/1836 is a universal and eternal constant. The evolution of the Living Cosmos is driven by a constant decrease in the mass of the electron relative to the proton and the changing electrodynamics between the two particles. The angular momentum (Energy/Mass = C) lost by the electrons is converted into the linear momentum (Energy/Mass = c) of photons and continually supplies the universe with kinetic energy (e = mv2/2). The Living Cosmos model details the physical interpretations of actual observations and measurements of the cosmos. The experimental evidence of cosmic phenomena is taken at face value and no metaphysical assumptions are made for any unmeasured physical values. An example of this is the Hubble constant. The undisputed conclusions of these measurements is that spectral photons emitted in the distant past had lon-ger wavelengths and less energy than spectral photons emitted today. The elec-trodynamics behind these values is a predicted result of an evolving electron/proton mass ratio. With Big Bang theory’s unquestioned eternal electron/proton mass ratio of 1/1836, theorists are forced to imagine that the Hubble effect is not a simple electrodynamic effect local to each atom but rather a universal direct Doppler effect produced by a general “explosion” of the cosmos in which the outer gal-axies are moving away from one another a speeds approaching the speed of light. Theorists are divided as to the actual cause of these red shifts. Some be-lieve they are Doppler effects caused by receding galaxies and the others claim the shifts to be non-Doppler effects caused by the photons becoming stretched as they traveled through expanding spacetime for billions of years. The Living Cosmos model is presented as a step by step evolutionary jour-ney of discovery through the history of the cosmos from its beginning as a mat-ter/antimatter duality to the estimated 2256 protons and electrons that exist in the universe today. At each stage in these evolutionary sequences, the increasing electron/proton mass ratio is able to predict and account for all of the otherwise unexpected phenomena. The Living Cosmos model is explained in terms of the philosophical prin-ciplesandlogicofthescientificmethod’sexperimentalmeasurementofmass,space, time, and gravity and their calculations of force, momentum, and energy. It has no equations that are not derived from F = ma, p = mv, and E/M = C2.


Living Cosmos: An Alternative to the Big Bang Theory

The Standard Model Big Bang Theory is based on the unmeasured but unquestioned metaphysical assumption that the electron/proton mass ratio e/p = 1/1836 is an unchanging, universal constant. To support this idea, theorists are forced to imagine that the universe began with the sudden appearance of a singularity of “pure” energy. This unknown type of energy was then imagined to be transported instantly to the far reaches of the known universe, where it was transformed into electrons and protons at e/p = 1/1836. This matter was produced without any ap-parent creation of antimatter. These particles of matter then somehow managedtofindonean-otherinthevastnessofspace,coupletogetherinto atoms, and emit a universe-wide blast of photons with a constant 3000 K blackbody temperature corresponding to e/p = 1/1836. These photons are imagined to have “cooled” to the present temperature of 2.7 Kthroughanimaginaryprocessthatviolatesthefirstandsecondlawsofthermodynamicssignificantly.Theuniversalhomogeneouscloudofradiating atoms then slowly cooled, divided, and collapsed into stars, then galaxies, and finally great walls of galaxies. General Relativityhas no explanation for this fractal accumulation of the original cosmic matter. The transition from a single point of energy to the present uni-verse according to the Big Bang Theory requires cosmologists to make a whole series of metaphysical assumptions that have no counterparts in theconservationlawsandprinciplesforthescientificmethodofexperi-mental measurement. The Living Cosmos Principle is based on the principles and conserva-tionlawsofthescientificmethodfortheexperimentalmeasurementofmass,space, time, and gravity. The initial physical assumption of cosmic evolution is the eternal, separate, and opposite existence of protons and electrons. These particles have always had a total mass equivalent to that of about 1080 protons and a total energy of about 1067 J. The total energy/mass E/M = c2 of the atoms and photons in the cosmos has always been about 1067 J/1050 kg, where c is the speed of light in a vacuum. The positive reality of the Living Cosmos begins as a single anti-hydrogen atom sitting at rest at the “center” of the negative reality of the universal void. Whatmakesthisanti-atom“alive”isthatitfirsthadeternalexistenceandthen,in contrast to the constant size and mass of positrons, the antiprotons slowly increased in size with a proportional decrease in mass. To conserve energy and angular momentum, this transformation eventually caused the anti-atoms to


collapse into antineutrons and then bifurcate into pairs of high-energy stable antineutrons. This process began a series of 256 non-sequential antineutron bifurcations that lasted many billions of years. The process began very slowly, sped up, and then stopped when the mass and size of an antiproton equaled those of a positron. The cosmos then contained 2256 eternal electrons and pro-tons, as it still does, that were bound together into stable neutrons. Because the bifurcation process began slowly and then became very rapid towards the end, it stopped with the last of the bifurcated antineutrons being mostly concentrat-ed into large neutron clouds at the locations of the present galaxies, stars, and planets. The neutrons all eventually decayed into electrons and protons and coupledintoatoms,andtheirkineticandionizationenergiesfilledtheuniversewith 2.7 K spectral blackbody photons.

Initial Conditions of a Living Cosmos The Living Cosmos is not a universal “theory” of either everything or anything. It is a physical model of the experimental measurements made on Earth and in the cosmos. The physical principles of the cosmos must be con-structed from these calculations, and metaphysical theories must be used to proposeideasthatcannotyetbeconfirmedwithexperimentalvalues.TheLiv-ingCosmosisnotatheory,butratheraphysicalmodelbasedonthescientificmeasurement method. It requires none of the unmeasured metaphysical as-sumptions used in the Big Bang Theory. The initial physical assumption of the Living Cosmos model of creation is based on the following two experimental principles of cosmic measurement.

Protons and Electrons Electrons and protons are eternal and have always existed in equal num-bers with a total energy/mass ratio E/M = c2. Electrons evolve with decreasing E/M, while E/M remains constant for protons. The rotational E/M = CC lost by electrons provides the linear E/M = c2 for the motion of atoms and the emis-sion of photons throughout the cosmos.

Photons Photons are eternal antimatter/matter dualities with E/M = cC created from the combination of equal units of rotational and linear E/M from an emitting atom.Photonswerefirst formedduring theevolutionof theelectron/protonmass ratio between e/p = 1/146.5 and the present value of e/p = 1/1836. Prior toe/p=1/146.5,theneutronsremainedstablewiththeelectronsconfinedin-sideprotons.Aftere/p=1/146.5,theelectronsweretoolargetofitinsidetheprotons but could then attach to the outside of protons, form atoms, and emit photons.


These dual cosmic principles of experimental measurement are not meta-physical assumptions. The Living Cosmos model contains no metaphysical as-sumptions and only assumes the validity of the conservation laws established by the physical measurement process. Big Bang theorists believe that the universe began as pure energy and that it now mostly contains mass. In the Living Cosmos model, energy and mass are always equal and complementary aspects of the units of E/M that we call electrons, protons, and photons. Individual units of energy or mass can only be conceptually separated from a unit of E/M. Energy and mass are equal, opposite, and inseparable parameters of E/M = CC for atoms, E/M = cC for photons, and momentum E/M = cc. In the Living Cosmos, there is absolute conservation of atomic and photon momentum, angular momentum, and E/M. The Living Cosmos contains absolute motion but no “space,” “ether,” or “continuum” other than the negative reality of an imaginary universal void. This void is the position of zero momentum for all moving atoms and photons. Time is a measure of the relationship between the rotational and linear motion of E/M. When E/M = cC from a photon is absorbed by an atom, it maintains its rotational E/M = C and transfers its linear E/M = c (momentum) to the ab-sorbing atom. When a photon is emitted, its remaining rotational E/M = C is divided between two photons and combined with the linear E/M = c of the atom to provide the photon with equal portions of linear E/M = c and rotational E/M = C.

Creation and Evolution of the Living Cosmos There was never a hot initial explosion of pure energy from a singularity. Rather, we live in a very cold, eternal Living Cosmos containing only the pure rotational E/M = CC of spinning circlon-shaped particle dualities and the lin-ear E/M of atoms, c2, and of photons, cC. Apositionwithzeromomentumdefinestheprimordialinitialtemperatureofthe anti-atoms, absolute zero, i.e., 0 K. Rotational energy was generated due to their spinning with an equivalent linear speed equal to the speed of light C in different planes, but none of the linear energy needed to decay or create the momentum of photons existed. The only constants in the Living Cosmos are the structural relationships among mass, space, time, and gravity and the values of force, momentum, angular momentum, and E/M.


Arbitrary Beginning for a Living Cosmos Antiproton/positron mass ratio a/p = 1836/1 to 146.5/1Bohr radius ao = al∞/4π=1=5.292×10

-11

Fine structure constant a=4πao/a∞ = .0073Hydrogen ionization photon = l∞=4πao/a=9.11×10

-8 Neutron stability number = MP/ME√a = -157

The universe does not contain any absolute three-dimensional space. All we can ever measure is an infinite number of one-dimensional values. With the second dimension of time, we can measure the two additional dimensions of motion, but these still occur within the one-dimensional space of the void. Absolute three-dimensional space cannot be measured and is purely imagi-nary. The four-dimensional space-time of gravitational force and motion is measured with an interval of time and along single vector in space. The four-dimensional phenomenon of gravity is best understood in terms of our three-dimensional senses and imaginations. The third gravitational dimension of the universe is not absolute like the first two, but rather is constantly changing with the gravitational transformation of mass, space, and time. The Living Cosmos Principle is based on the single initial physical as-sumption of the eternal and separate existences of protons and electrons. These particles have always had a total mass equivalent to that of about 1080 protons and a total energy of about 1067 J. At this arbitrary initial point, the Living Cosmos was a single anti-hydrogen atom sitting at rest in the “center” of the universal imaginary void of zero momentum. These two equal and opposite eternal particles were coupled together into an anti-hydrogen atom at 0 K. All of the rotational E/M = CC of the universe was contained completely within the spinning coils of the Circlon shapes of these two particles. The single eternal anti-atom had an evolving a/p of 1836/1. What makes the cosmos “alive” is that the antiproton is slowly growing in size with a pro-portional decrease in mass, while the mass and size of the positron re-main absolute. In this process, the rotational E/M = CC of the antiproton is slowly converted into the linear E/M = c2 (vibration) between the two particles com-prising the atom. The internal linear energy of the anti-atom continued to build up until a/p reached 146.5/1 and the positron was captured by the antiproton to form an antineutron.


Era of Antineutron BifurcationAntiproton/positron mass ratio a/p = 146.5/1 to 1/1Bohr radius ao = al∞/4π=12.5=6.615×10

-10 Fine structure constant a=4πao/l∞ = .0000465Hydrogen ionization photon = l∞=4πao/a = .000179 NeutronStabilityNumber=MP/ME√a=-137

The Living Cosmos process through which the universe became filled with electrons and protons that then accumulated into galaxies and stars is analo-gous to the manner in which a single diatom can continually divide until it eventually fills the oceans with different species of algae, each concentrated into many individual fractal plumes. Over eons, a/p evolved from 1836/1 to 146.5/1. This increase in relative size of the circlon shape of the antiproton changes the way that the primary and secondary coils of the two particles physically align with one another. The size ratio between the primary and secondary coils of the antiproton andthepositronattheirconnectionpointisgivenbyP/S=√a. Today P/S = √a = 1/11.7 for the electron and proton, and the ratio between the primary and tertiary coils P/T is a = 1/137. Ata/p=146.5,P/Sreached√a = 1/1. Thus, the primary coil of the posi-tronwasidenticalinsizetothesecondarycoiloftheantiproton.At√a = 1/1+, the primary coil of the positron, which had been around the outside of the sec-ondarycoiloftheantiproton,couldfitinsidetheantiprotoncoil.Theeffectofthis change in P/T = a caused the positron to be captured in-side the secondary coil of the antineutron and the anti-hydrogen atom be-came an antineutron. Essentially, the anti-hydrogen atoms was turned in-side out to become an anti-neutron. This primordial antineutron now contained the tremendous amount of lin-ear E/M = c2 that had been building up in the structure of the anti-atom over eons, which caused the antineutron to bifurcate into a pair of identical anti-neutrons in the instant after it formed. The two new antineutrons contained no linear E/M = c2 = 0. All of the E/M = c2 contained in the parent particle had been divided between the equal momenta Mv of the particles moving apart at virtually the speed of light. This period in cosmic evolution is analogous to GuthinflationintheBigBangTheory,whereinoneinstant,matterandenergysuddenly appeared and in the next instant the matter with no momentum was transported billions of light years out into the universe. The only difference is that, in the Living Cosmos, it is momentum rather than magic that transports the matter billions of light years into the universal void. With none of the E/M = c2 needed for decay, these new antineutrons were completely stable as they traveled into the far reaches of the universe. Then,


after billions of years of the rotational E/M = CC of the antiproton being con-verted to linear E/M = c2, the antineutrons eventually had enough E/M = c2 to simultaneously bifurcate and convert it into the equal momenta Mv of the four antineutrons moving apart at less than the speed of light with vectors at op-posite right angles to their original motion. This bifurcation was caused when E/M = c2 within the structure of the an-tineutrons became equal to the difference in rotational E/M = CC between the two particles. This process gave the total particle the exact amount of E/M needed for matter/antimatter annihilation, but because E/M = CC was not equal among the particles, the antimatter/matter pair bifurcated into a pair of antineutrons instead of photons. For photons, E/M = cC can only be created from equal quantities of rotational E/M = C and linear E/M = c. These four particles remained stable for billions of years and then bifurcat-ed simultaneously when the decreasing E/M = CC of the antiproton be-came equal to the E/M = CC of the positron plus the E/M = c2 of the anti-neutron. The eight new particles were all moving with equal momentum along oppo-site vectors located in one of three imaginary and cosmic perpendicular two-dimensional planes. These eight antineutrons had reproduced in less time than their parents, and the shared momentum of their decays was also proportionally less, be-cause the percentage decrease of E/M = CC of the antiproton relative to the constant E/M = CC of the positron was constantly decreasing as the masses and sizes of their connected Circlon shapes approached one another. These eight particles were the beginning of 256 non-sequential bifurca-tions of the cosmic antineutrons. This binary reproduction process increased the exact number of antineutrons in the cosmos by the powers of two 24, 25, 26, 27, … 2256. Each decay cycle occurred simultaneously with steadily decreasing par-ticle lifetimes and was accompanied by proportional decreases in decay en-ergy. This rapidly increasing reproduction process stopped abruptly when a/p reached 1/1 and e/p became 1/1+. For the antiproton, E/M = CC was reduced to the same E/M = CC as the positron and there was no more E/M = c2 for decay. After 250 bifurcations, the antineutrons ran out of decay energy and reproduction stopped. At this point in the evolution, the cosmos contained its present eternal total of 2256 electrons and protons with an eternal mass equivalent to that of about 1.158×1077protonsor1.67×1027 kg. These particles were all fused together into stable neutrons and spread out to the far reaches of the universe. Most were concentrated in large clouds around the areas in which stars are located today. These clouds were separated by a few light years but were clustered together within the area of the present galaxies. The galaxies were hundreds of light years apart but clustered together within great galactic walls.


The reason for the fractal accumulation of the antineutrons in the cos-mos was the non-sequential bifurcation/decay process. The periodic rate of antineutron bifurcation increased from very slow to very fast. The increase in this periodic rate was accompanied by a proportional decrease in the equal momentum of ejected antineutron pairs.

mv = mv * mv = mv * mv = mv * mv = mv Thenon-sequentialbifurcationprocessgavethefirstfewantineutronsbil-lions of years to spread out into the universal void while traveling at nearly the speedof light.After thisfirst generationofgreatwall antineutronshadspread to the far reaches of the present cosmos, a second generation of galactic antineutrons began bifurcating, but these antineutrons were unable to move far away from the locations of the last great wall antineutrons. These galactic antineutrons eventually spread out within the cosmic locations of the present galaxies. A third generation of stellar antineutrons then continued bifurcating more rapidly but with even less momentum between them. When the stellar antineutrons had spread out into the galaxies until they were a few light years apart, they became Atomic Antineutrons as they began bifurcating. With less and less momentum to separate them, the last of the 2256 bifurcated atomic antineutrons became concentrated in large stellar clouds at the locations of the last stellar antineutrons.

Matter = Antimatter EqualityAntineutron/positron mass ratio 1/1Bohr radius ao = al∞/4π=∞Fine structure constant a=4πao/l∞=1/∞Hydrogen ionization photon = l∞=4πao/a=4πNeutron stability number at 1/1= MP/ME√a = 0

At e/p = 1/1, the decreasing E/M = CC of the negative antiproton became equal to the constant E/M = CC of the positive positron. This instant was the only one in cosmic history at which matter and antimatter existed in exactly equal quantities. At e/p = 1/1+, the antiprotons and positrons were conceptu-ally transformed into electrons and protons when the negative particles be-came less massive that the positive particles. The essential difference between antineutrons and neutrons is that the negative particle producing the increasing internal E/M = c2 of a neutron is less massive than a constant and stationary positive proton. The result is that, unlike an antineutron, an electron can never build up enough E/M = c2 within a neutron to match the E/M = CC of a proton and initiate bifurcation or cause annihilation.


2256 Tiny Nuclear BombsElectron/proton mass ratio e/p = 1/146.5Bohr radius ao = al∞/4π=12.5=6.615×10

-10 mFine structure constant a=4πao/l∞=.0000465Hydrogen ionization photon = l∞=4πao/a = .000179 m Neutron stability number = MP/ME√a = 1

These 2256 neutrons remained stable for millions of years while the linear E/M within their structures continually increased but never by enough to cause them to decay. What caused the particles to decay finally was not their increas-ing internal E/M = c2, but rather a change in the geometry of their circlon shapes.

Fine Structure Ratio Today a =1/137Primary Coil Radius = 1

Secondary Coil Radius = 1/√a = 11.7Tertiary Coil Radius = 1/a = 137

Circlon ShapeDynamics

in Nuclear Structureof Hydrogen-2

SecondaryCoilSpin

Tertiary Coil

No Spin

ProtonLink

NeutronLink

PrimaryCoil Spin

MesonLink

Iw = maoac

Tertiary Coil Energy/Mass = 0Secondary Coil Energy/Mass = e/m = C

Primary Coil Enerrgy/Mass = e/m = CTotal Circlon Shape Enegry/Mass e/m = C2


AsP/S=√a reached 1/1, the primary coil of the electron could no lon-gerfitinsidethesecondarycoiloftheproton.ThetwoCirclonshapesoftheneutron became smaller with increasing e/p. As soon as the primary coil of theelectronhadgrowntoo large tofit inside thesecondarycoilof thepro-ton, the electron popped out from within the physical structure of the proton. In this decay, the electron and proton were ejected from one another with the tremendous amount momentum contained in the linear E/M = c2 that had been building up within the neutrons from the time they were formed. After this cosmic dimensional transformation of a, the larger electrons were able to couple to the outside of the proton with a circlon shaped Bohr particle holding them together. This process formed a hydrogen atom that was abletoemitphotonsintothecosmosforthefirsttime.ThesephotonsE/M=cC were produced with equal units of E/M = CC and E/M = cc of the atom.

Nuclear Synthesis In this high energy electron–proton plasma environment, it was easy for them to couple together into hydrogen atoms and fuse into neutrons. With a neutron stability number of slightly more than 1.0+, the neutrons were virtu-ally stable with extremely long lifetimes. The neutrons fused with protons to produce H-1, H-2, H-3, and H-4 iso-topes. These transformed into He-4 alpha particles, and before long the cos-mos was composed of mostly hydrogen and helium atoms, with the remainder consisting of nuclear isotopes of all the other elements. In the high energy, neutron rich environment within the stellar clouds, nu-clear fusion proceeded rapidly, and soon there were a couple thousand differ-ent nuclear isotopes of the various elements. Because the neutrons were stable, most of these newly created isotopes were also virtually stable. As the nuclear stability number continued to increase, the neutrons became less stable and the heavier of the newly formed nuclear isotopes began to decay. As this process continued, the cosmos lost more and more of its previously stable nuclear iso-topes as they decayed into lighter and lighter stable atoms. Today, after billions of years of cosmic evolution and nuclear decay, the nuclear stability number has evolved to 157 and the cosmos now has only 282 stable isotopes with few very long-lived unstable ones, such as thorium and uranium.

2.7 Kelvin Cosmic Frozen FireBohr radius ao = al∞/4π=12.49=6.61×10

-10 m Fine structure constant a=4πao/l∞ = .0000468Hydrogen ionization photon = l∞=4πao/a = .000177 m Neutron stability number = MP/ME√a = 1+


Instead of the giant explosion of pure energy from a singularity in the Big Bang Theory, the Living Cosmos began its active life with the detonation of 2256 tiny neutron bombs. After the cosmic nuclear synthesis, the electrons coupled to atoms and began emitting photons. This process caused a sudden and enormous blast of blackbody photons from one end of the cosmos to the other. Before this dra-matic event there were no photons in the cosmos. At e/p = 1/147, atoms produce a blackbody distribution curve with a tem-perature of about 2.7 K. As e/p increases, ao decreases, which decreases the wavelengths of photons and increases their E/M = cC and momentum p = Mc. This cosmic process of increasing photon energy has proceeded until today, where e/p = 1/1836 and the blackbody distribution curve for atoms is at about 3000 K. When the atoms emitted their last thermal photons and dropped down into their ground states, the cosmos consisted of a large variety of mostly ground state atoms whose ionization energies had been converted into photons. Among andbetweenthesegreatstellarcloudsofatoms,thecosmoswasfilledwithanintense blackbody radiation of 2.7 K spectral photons with wavelengths be-tween 1 m and .0003 m. These same eternal photons still travel through the universetodaywithconservedmomentump=Mc,angularmomentumIω=Mlc/2π,energye=McC,andwavelengthl = h/Mc.

Hubble Red-Shifted GalaxiesElectron/protonmassratioe/p≈1/900Bohr radius ao = al∞/4π=2.04=1.0796×10

-10 m Fine structure constant a=4πao/l∞ = .00175 Hydrogen ionization photon = l∞=4πao/a=7.75×10

-7 mNeutron stability number = MP/ME√a = 37.6

The Hubble red shift is caused by the individual expansion of electrons and not by the general expansion of the universal void. Aftermanybillionsofyears,thestarsandgalaxieshadbecomeconfiguredby the force and motion of gravity into the forms that we see with the Hubble telescope. The most distant galaxies that we can measure have red-shifted wavelengths in their spectral photons that are 7–10 times longer than the same spectral photons here on Earth. As e/p increases with de-creasing E/M = CC of anelectron,aodecreasesandP/S=√adecreasesproportionally.Thisprocessgradually increases the energy and temperature at which atoms emit spectral photons. In this Hubble era of electron evolution, the spectral photons emit-ted by atoms with heavier electrons had wavelengths that were several times longer than those of the same spectral photons we measure here on Earth.


Dark Energy MythElectron/proton mass ratio e/p = 1/1600Bohr radius ao = al∞/4π=1.148=6.075×10

-11 m Fine structure constant a=4πao/l∞ = .0055Hydrogen ionization photon l∞=4πao/a=1.39×10

-7 m Neutron stability number = MP/ME√a = 11

It is from around this era in cosmic evolution that astronomers have recently observed that the most distant of the measurable supernova explosions have considerably less energy and intensity than supernova explosions in nearby gal-axies. Big Bang theorists try to explain this decreased energy and intensity by imagining a whole new dimensional layer for their spacetime continuum. Un-like the Guth layer of dimensional reality that instantly expanded the entire cos-mos and then disappeared, this new layer takes the form of an increasing anti-gravityforcefieldthatissomewhatstrongeratlongrangethanthegravitationalforce and causes the galaxies to accelerate gradually away from the bulk of the cosmos. This imagined antigravity repulsive force has been called everything from quintessence to dark energy. This whole idea of dark energy is nothing more than an ad hoc assumption bythefollowersofEinsteintovalidatethedearlyheldbutunverifiedbeliefinan eternally constant e/p of 1/1836. The well-established astronomical measure-ments of decreased supernova energy and intensity are not at all unsuspected in the Living Cosmos. The so-called dark energy effect is simply the expected result of decreasing rotational E/M and increasing linear E/M. At this interval on the e/p time clock, supernovas emitted spectral photons with less energy and longer wavelengths than they do today. These less energetic photons decreased the overall energy and intensity of supernovas from that time period. Dinosaurs Running Along on the ContinentsElectron/protonmassratioe/p≈1/1700Bohr radius ao = al∞/4π=1.02=5.506×10

-11 m Fine structure constant a=4πao/l∞ = .00702Hydrogen ionization photon = l∞=4πao/a=9.9×10

-8 m Neutron stability number = MP/ME√a = 151

At this stage of the Living Universe, the evolution of e/p can supply answers to some long contemplated paradoxes and mysteries in geological history of Earth. The constant transformation of electron rotational E/M into photon and atomic linear E/M not only explains the complete structural dynamics of ob-served cosmic evolution, but also is a basic cause of continental plate tectonics, the large size of dinosaur bones, the enormous energies of individual cosmic rays, and other phenomena.


Enormous Dinosaur Bones This evolutionary decrease in ao combined with gravity can account for the extremely large size of dinosaurs. Millions of years ago, when ao was larg-er, atoms were larger and less dense. Dinosaurs, living in the reduced gravity on a larger and less dense Earth, were able to grow very large and while also not being too heavy to walk around. Today, their much heavier weight on a denser Earth would render them incapable of walking or running. If the radius of Earth were twice what it is today, its density would be 1/8 the present value and the gravitational acceleration at its surface would be 1/4 the actual value (2.4 m/s2). This value is almost identical to the gravitational acceleration on the moon. Certainly, dinosaurs that were too heavy to be able to walk around on Earth would have been able to get up and run on the moon.

Shrinking Atoms and Cracking Continents Electrons are attached to atoms at ao. The ao link that holds the elec-tron and proton together in hydrogen and other light elements is considerably larger than the 79 Bohr radius links that hold a gold atom together, which is basically why a gold atom is much denser than 79 hydrogen atoms. The greater the mass and number of electrons of an atom, the less its size is decreased in proportion to that of a hydrogen atom. Heavy atoms shrink considerably less due to the ao evolution than light atoms. When Earth was in a molten state, the heavy elements tended to sink toward its center, while the lightelementsfloatedtothesurface.OncethesurfaceofEarthhadcooledtoasemi-solid state, cracks began to develop in its outer crust, which is composed of mostly elements lighter than iron, such as silicon and oxygen. The conti-nental plates of Earth appeared to spread apart in the observed processes of seafloor“spreading”andplatetectonics,whichisactuallyanopticalillusion.The surface layers of Earth are actually shrinking and cracking like mud on a drying lake bed. The uneven shrinking of the atoms on Earth is also a basic cause of earthquakes on Earth as well as the newly discovered quakes near the surface of the Moon.

Concentration of Matter into the Stars Without Gravitational Force The god particle antineutrons continued bifurcating for a long time but at a faster and faster rate until near the last 2256th bifurcation cycle, the particles had almostnoenergyandthecycleswerejustsecondsapart.Withthefinal256thsynchronous bifurcation, there was no energy left for further bifurcations. The process stopped and the cosmos contained its present eternal quantity of 2256 (1.158 x 1077) total protons and electrons concentrated around stars with their total mass at about 1050 kg.


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2410204010020040010002000400010000200004000010000020000040000010000002000000400000010000000200000004000000010000000020000000040000000010000000002000000000400000000010000000000200000000004000000000010000000000020000000000040000000000010000000000002000000000000400000000000010000000000000200000000000004000000000000010000000000000020000000000000040000000000000010000000000000002000000000000000400000000000000010000000000000000200000000000000004000000000000000010000000000000000020000000000000000040000000000000000010000000000000000002000000000000000000400000000000000000010000000000000000000200000000000000000004000000000000000000010000000000000000000020000000000000000000040000000000000000000010000000000000000000002000000000000000000000400000000000000000000010000000000000000000000200000000000000000000004000000000000000000000010000000000000000000000020000000000000000000000040000000000000000000000010000000000000000000000002000000000000000000000000400000000000000000000000010000000000000000000000000200000000000000000000000004000000000000000000000000010000000000000000000000000020000000000000000000000000040000000000000000000000000010000000000000000000000000002000000000000000000000000000400000000000000000000000000010000000000000000000000000000200000000000000000000000000004000000000000000000000000000010000000000000000000000000000020000000000000000000000000000040000000000000000000000000000010000000000000000000000000000002000000000000000000000000000000400000000000000000000000000000010000000000000000000000000000000200000000000000000000000000000004000000000000000000000000000000010000000000000000000000000000000020000000000000000000000000000000040000000000000000000000000000000010000000000000000000000000000000002000000000000000000000000000000000400000000000000000000000000000000010000000000000000000000000000000000200000000000000000000000000000000004000000000000000000000000000000000010000000000000000000000000000000000020000000000000000000000000000000000040000000000000000000000000000000000010000000000000000000000000000000000002000000000000000000000000000000000000400000000000000000000000000000000000010000000000000000000000000000000000000200000000000000000000000000000000000004000000000000000000000000000000000000010000000000000000000000000000000000000020000000000000000000000000000000000000040000000000000000000000000000000000000010000000000000000000000000000000000000002000000000000000000000000000000000000000400000000000000000000000000000000000000010000000000000000000000000000000000000000200000000000000000000000000000000000000004000000000000000000000000000000000000000010000000000000000000000000000000000000000020000000000000000000000000000000000000000040000000000000000000000000000000000000000010000000000000000000000000000000000000000002000000000000000000000000000000000000000000400000000000000000000000000000000000000000010000000000000000000000000000000000000000000

Creation SpiralPowers of Two

Oct

al P

ower

s of T

wo

Decim

al Powers of Tw

o

This equation shows the exact number of cosmic antineutrons at each stage in the god particle bifurcation process. The cosmic creation process began with one

antineutron and ended with today’s 2256 electrons and protons.

This bifurcation equation begins at octal 21 when the evolving electron/proton mass ratio was greater than

one.ME/MP = 1/1-

137 billion galaxies located in their present positions

were each represented by a single Galactic God Particle

at their centers.

137 billion Stellar God Particles are positioned

in each galaxy. Each potential star is rep-resented by a single

bifurcating antineutron.

The clouds surround-ing the position of each potential star contain about 137

billion evenly spaced God Particle antineu-

trons.

---1033

---1011

---1022

God Particle Antineutron Creation Equation


Exact Number of Electrons and Protons in the Living CosmosIn an effort to be as exacting as possible in this mathematical equation of the God Particle Antineutron Bifurcating Creation, I have included the complete calculation that shows the exact number god particles at each stage in the bi-furcation process of particle creation. This process was very slow when it began and very rapid when it ended. To maintain mathematical purity, I have included both natural octal bifurcation math on the left and the more complex ten fin-gered but all thumbs decimal calculations on the right. Energy/Mass = cc of the Living Cosmos is an eternal constant of 1050 kilograms.

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201

22022203220422052206220722102211221222132214221522162217222022212222222322242225222622272230223122322233223422352236223722402241224222432244224522462247225022512252225322542255225622572260226122622263226422652266226722702271227222732274227522762277230023012302230323042305230623072310231123122313231423152316231723202321232223232324232523262327233023312332233323342335233623372340234123422343234423452346234723502351235223532354235523562357236023612362236323642365236623672370237123722373237423752376237724002401

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4111

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1054

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213021312132213321342135213621372138213921402141214221432144214521462147214821492150215121522153215421552156215721582159216021612162216321642165216621672168216921702171217221732174217521762177217821792180218121822183218421852186218721882189219021912192219321942195219621972198219922002201220222032204220522062207220822092210221122122213221422152216221722182219222022212222222322242225222622272228222922302231223222332234223522362237223822392240224122422243224422452246224722482249225022512252225322542255225622572256

2256 = 1.158 x 1077-1077

-1070

-1060

-1040

-1050

Proton mass = 1.67 x 10-27kg

At bifurcation cycle 2166 the mass of each god particle was approxi-mately one kilogram.

-1039

22562315841784746323908471419700173748157065399693312811280789151680158226259279872


Solar Energy and Cosmic RaysBohr radius ao = al∞/4π=5.292×10

-11 mFine structure constant a=4πao/l∞ = .0073Hydrogen ionization photon = l∞=4πao/a=9.11×10

-8 mNeutron stability number = MP/ME√a = 157

The eternal steady transformation of electron rotational E/M = CC into atomic and photon linear E/M = cc supplies energy to the sun and stars and gives them their extremely constant output over billions of years that has made the slow evolution of life on Earth possible. The uncontrolled nuclear fusion of supernova explosions is far too sporadic to supply the constant and eternal energy output that stars need to support the evolution of life. Today, free neutrons are unstable and split into electrons and protons after about 19 minutes because the buildup of linear E/M in their structures causes them to decay. When neutrons are contained within the structures of atomic nuclei, they continue to increase in linear E/M output, but before it can build up enough to make them decay, they are able to transfer the extra kinetic ener-gy to the whole structure of the nucleus. The nucleus then uses its electrons to combine this excess linear E/M with rotational E/M from the atomic structure and emit it photons into space. Photons contain equal quantities of linear and rotational EM = cC.

All atoms containing neutrons are constantly increasing in linear E/M but are able to use their electrons to release this excess energy in the form of pho-tons. Ionized nuclei in deep space that are far away from any electrons cannot undergo this process. Without electrons to create photons, atomic nuclei have no way to release the linear E/M constantly building up within their struc-tures. Ionized atomic nuclei moving through deep space devoid of electrons can build up tremendous amounts of linear E/M within their circlon-shaped structures. After billions of years, this increasing linear E/M = cc within a nucleus can approach its constant rotational E/M = CC. Thus, a stable ionized Gold-197 nucleus that has been traveling through empty space since its creation would have built up the energy equivalent of a tiny nuclear bomb by the time it arrives at cosmic ray detectors on Earth. Think what would happen if a tiny gold nugget or a diamond crystal with millions of nuclei were to hit a detector. These nuclear “cosmic rays” do not have to travel at high velocity to deliver their tremendous amounts of internal linear E/M. Cosmic rays travel at far less than the speed of light and probably all come from the vicinity of the Milky Way because atomic nuclei traveling between galaxies are highly unlikely.


Conclusions Everything measured in the cosmos, from the 2.7 K cosmic background radiation (CBR) and the Hubble constant to the size of dinosaur bones and the energy of cosmic rays, proves conclusively that e/p has been evolving since the beginning of time and that the variation of this ratio is the only true mea-sure of absolute time in the cosmos. Measurements of e/p began just after the beginning of the last century and are now beginning to show that the e/p has increased from 1/1836.0 to ap-proximately 1/1836.0+. With modern technology, we will someday be able to monitor the temporal variation of e/p on a yearly basis or maybe even monthly. As E/M = CC continues to decrease for electrons, the increasing momen-tum and ionization energy of atoms is continually being converted into pho-tonswithmoreenergyandshorterwavelengths,causingbothcamp-firesandstars to become hotter and warm the cosmos. However, the total increase in the temperature of the universe due to radiating stars is still only a tiny fraction of the original temperature of the CBR, 2.7 K. Dynamic interactions within atoms are constantly combining units of ro-tational E/M with equal units of linear E/M to emit photons. As the cosmos cools, atoms emit photons with decreasing momentum, energy, and longer and longer wavelengths, which is the second law of thermodynamics. Cosmic en-tropy is due to the transfer of energy to the void through the emission of pho-tons with longer and longer wavelengths. The cooling effect of the entropy of the universe is balanced by the warming effect of the decrease in ao causing decreasing photon wavelengths and increasing momentum and energy. If these warming and cooling forces are nearly equal, it is quite possible that the total entropy of the cosmos may actually be zero. This whole process of cosmic evolution was accomplished with the abso-lute conservation of E/M, momentum, and angular momentum. At the pre-sent stage of the Living Cosmos, it contains the same total E/M, momentum, and angular momentum that it had at its beginning. The only difference is that dur-ing the process of electron evolution, almost half of the E/M = CC of the origi-nal anti-atom has been converted into the linear E/M = c2 of atoms, photons E/M = cC, and the momentum of moving atoms E/M = c2/2. This description of the cosmic evolution of the observed universe was accom-plished without any departure from the rules of quantum mechanics or electro-dynamics,astheyapplytheprinciplesandconservationlawsofthescientificmethod of experimental measurement.

Seven Unmeasured Imaginary Paradoxes of the Big Bang Theory1. The universe was largely formed at two consecutive instants in time. At thefirstinstant,asingularityappearedfromnowhere,andatthenextinstant,matter and energy created by the singularity spread out uniformly into space


for billions of light years in all directions. These two imaginary events violate every principle and conservation law in the standard model of physics. In the Living Cosmos, these two events are standard quantum mechanical interac-tions.2. Imaginary pure singularity energy E = Mc2 that is not a photon. This pure energy has no relationship between momentum and angular momentum, un-like that of a photon. This idea of unstructured massless energy in the Big BangTheoryisindirectconflictwithitsassumptionofmasslessphotonangu-larmomentumIω=Mlc/2πandmasslessphotonenergyE=Mc2. In the Liv-ing Cosmos, there is no “pure” energy that is separate from mass. A photon has two separate and equal energies E/M = cC: its rotational and linear energies.3. All matter in the universe was created without any detectable antimatter. The conservation of charge is a fundamental law of quantum mechanics. In the Living Cosmos, the numbers of matter and antimatter particles have always been equal.4. Cooling of the cosmic blackbody photons from 3000 K to 2.7 K. This cooling is imagined to have occurred simply by 99.9% of the photon momen-tum p = Mc and energy E = McC ever produced in the universe disappearing without a trace. Big Bang theorists are desperate to solve this paradox because without the cooling effect of their imaginary expanding space, the whole uni-verse would be too hot for any type of life to exist. There are no measured pa-rameters in electrodynamics that would allow a photon to cool as it spins and travels through the void at E/M = cC. In the Living Cosmos, the temperature of the CBR has al-ways been 2.7 K.5. The widely dispersed gold atoms accumulated into nuggets under the force of gravity, and the rest of the atoms accumulated into stars, galaxies, and great walls of galaxies. Neither the gravitational theory of Newton nor that of Einstein has any possible solution for the fractal separation in scale of the cosmic structure. In the Living Cosmos, the gravitational interaction plays no part in the fractal accumulation of matter into stars and galaxies. It was the weak nuclear interaction that ruled the division and fractal accumulation of the cosmic matter. 6. The Hubble red shift is caused by galaxies expanding into space at speeds approaching the speed of light. The source and nature of the tremendous amounts of momentum and energy E = Mv2/2 required to accelerate the whole universe to these velocities is far beyond imagination. It can only be said that it is left over massless singularity energy. In the Living Cosmos, the Hubble shift requires no additional energy and is a simple electrodynamics effect of the e/p evolution. 7. The 1/1836 electron/proton mass ratio is an absolute and eternal constant. This is the fatal metaphysical assumption of the Big Bang Theory, which has been left completely unquestioned by the hundreds if not thousands of so-


called theoretical physicists that have been working on this theory. If this as-sumption is rejected, then all of the other Big Bang paradoxes simply disap-pear. In the Living Cosmos, the mass of an electron is constantly decreasing. This effect provides the mechanism for most of the unexpected phenomena that are observed in the cosmos.

Big Bang Theory’s Three Major Violations of Natural Law There are many ways that Big Bang theorists violate the laws of experimental physics by proposing natural phenomena that can be calculated but not mea-sured or even detected. Of these, there are three in particular that have never been satisfactorily resolved by any experiment. Creation of Matter Without Antimatter No experimental physicist has ever been able to create a particle of matter from Energy/Mass without also creating an equal particle of antimatter. Why do we not detect any leftover antimatter anywhere in the cosmos from the ini-tial creation of all our protons and electrons? How could these particles have been created without their anti-particles? There are no experimental principles in physics that allow matter or antimatter to be created or destroyed except as identical pairs. The answer is that what is called “matter and antimatter” is really posi-tive magnetic matter (protons) and the negative electric matter (electrons). All of the original positive matter and negative antimatter particles (protons and electrons) are still with us in the Living Cosmos today in the same exact equal numbers. The electron was once the antiparticle to the proton when their mass, size, and shape were the same. The only difference between positive matter protons and positrons and the negative antimatter electrons and antiprotons are the opposite spin directions of their circlon shaped internal coils structures. The proton’s primary coils spin in the opposite direction from the electron’s primary coils. In the same way, the proton’s secondary coils spin opposite to the electron’s secondary coils.

Cooling of the Cosmic Blackbody Radiation The assumption is made by theorists that the CBR has cooled from 3000 K to 2.7 K without any transfer of energy to the rest of the cosmos at large. How is it possible for the CBR to cool if the decreasing momentum and energy from itsphotonsarenottransferredtotherestofthematterinthecosmos?Thefirstlaw of thermodynamics and the conservation of momentum and energy does not allow any form of energy to disappear without a trace. The CBR could not cool without heating up something else. Big Bang people claim the CBR photons originally had 1000 times more momentum and energy than they have today. Where did all of this non-conserved energy and momentum disappear


to? Almost all of the original photons are still here but they have somehow lost 1000% of their momentum and energy and increased their wavelengths by 1000times.Thereisnophenomenonwithinthescientificmethodofmeasure-ment that would allow photons to lose momentum and energy as they travel through space. Also there is no electrodynamic effect that would allow adja-cent photons to move farther and farther apart as they move through space. The answer to this paradox is that the Cosmic Blackbody Radiation had a temperatureof2.7˚Kwhenitwasformedanditstillhasthesametemperaturetoday. These photons have not changed their wavelength, momentum, or en-ergy since they were emitted nor have they moved apart to cool their tempera-ture.

Paradox Between Red Shifts of Hubble and CBR Photons Cosmic photons comprise two distinct groups. More than 99% make up the 2.7 K CBR and the other less than 1% are the spectral photons produced byoverheatedatoms in stars.Thefirst groupconsistsof avirtuallyperfectblackbody distribution spectrum with a single temperature of 2.7 K. The second group consists of mostly spectral photons from atoms at all possible temperatures. While most of these thermal photons were emitted in black-body radiation environments of several thousand degrees Kelvin, their present cosmic-wide temperature is far less than one degree Kelvin. These individual stellar photons have about a thousand times more momentum and energy than individual CBR photons but because the CBR photons out-number the Hubble photons by about a million to one, the overall temperature of the light from the stars is just a little above absolute zero and at much less than 1 K. Big Bang theorists imagined and then believed in the assumption that both the CBR photons and the highest red shifted Hubble photons from galaxies at the edges of the universe were emitted from the same atoms during the firstbillionyearsofcosmichistory.BigBangtheoristsalsoassumethatallofthe photons from both groups were emitted from atoms with temperatures of around3000˚K.Theybelievethatabout300,000yearsaftertheSingularity,the CBR photons were emitted in a sudden burst. Then after about a billion years, these same atoms from the expanded singularity had accumulated into stars and galaxies and began emitting the spectral photons that we see today with the Hubble telescope. One of the great paradoxes in Big Bang theory is how the Hubble group of photons acquired only modest red Doppler shifts of less than Z =10, while the CBR photons acquired enormous red shifts of Z = 1000. According to theory, both groups of photons traveled a similar distance through the same space during nearly 14 billion years since the singularity was imagined to have oc-curred.


This paradox is easily resolved in the Living Cosmos by the evolution of the electron/proton mass ratio. Neither group of photons is Doppler shifted and both received their “shifts” from the evolving energy/mass of the electron. The CBR photons were emitted from a time much further in the past than were the Hubble photons.

Let there be Atoms Thefirstknowninventionofaninstantuniversecreationprocessoccurredwhen the author of Genesis wrote “Let there be Photons”. This simple state-ment is still the basic assumption for Big Bang’s singularity. The problem withthisassumptionisthatit isupsidedown.Thefirst lawforthecreationof photons should be, “Let there be Atoms”. Photons are secondary to atoms. Atoms emit and absorb photons. Photons do not emit and absorb atoms. The singularity is upside down and backwards because it tries to make atoms out of photons instead of the making photons from atoms. If we begin the Liv-ing Cosmos with atoms instead of photons, we can arrive at today’s cosmos without making any metaphysical assumptions or violating our accelerometer measurements of mass, space, time, and gravity. The really weird rule followed by theoretical cosmologists is that they are totally free to construct any number complicated and convoluted theories to explain a process by which vast amounts of pure massless energy could have appeared from nowhere at the beginning of the universe and then quickly transformed into the atoms and photons of today. By contrast, it is strictly ta-boo for cosmologists to propose that only atoms appeared from the singularity and that the only photons back then were those emitted by atoms. This is an electrodynamic law that all cosmologists fail to heed. Any experimental physicist will tell you that it is very easy to get pho-tons from atoms but nearly impossible to get atoms of matter from photons. Certainly, electron/positron pairs and proton/antiproton pairs can be produced fromtheE/Mofphotons,butitisdifficulttomakeatomsoutofthemandwhenyou do, you must make equal numbers of atoms and anti-atoms. If these come in physical contact they will annihilate back into pairs of photons with half the energy of the original photon. Experimental physicists have long known that you cannot create a large quantity of stable matter from photons without physi-cally separating the antimatter from the matter so it cannot annihilate back into photons. Astronomical measurements show that the cosmos contains almost no positrons and antiprotons. The best example of this is the measurement cosmic rays. Cosmic rays give us a very good picture of the physical contents within the cosmos at large. Cosmic rays consist of photons and high speed particles of matter coming from all directions. They are mostly electrons, protons and


alpha particles but there is a sprinkling of stable nuclear isotopes from all the elements. The abundance of individual isotopes in cosmic rays is quite similar to the relative abundance of elements here on earth. If there were any quanti-ties of positrons and antiprotons within the cosmos, they would show up in cosmic rays. Believing that the cosmos could have been created without anti-matter is an impossible thing. Some Big Bang theorists claim that a slight violation in parity caused the singularity to produce slightly more matter than antimatter. A great annihila-tion of matter and antimatter into photons then occurred leaving the universe with its present quantity of matter and no antimatter. The glaring problem with this idea is where did this tremendous amount of photon energy go? There is still a near perfect record of the cosmic blackbody photons but no trace has ever been detected of the far more energetic photons from this imaginary gi-gantic matter/antimatter annihilation.

Other Beliefs in Impossible ThingsExperimental physicists measure all possible things and theoretical physicists imagine all the impossible things that cannot be measured.

Thefirstimpossiblethingsimaginedbyalltheoreticalphysicistsarethespacetimeaetherfieldsand thecontinuumdimensions.Theoristsdefineoneor more of these to explain non-local forces and motion but these forces are impossible to measure by experimentalists. For example, imagined gravita-tionalfieldsarebelievedtoproducedownwardforceandmotionbutnosuchdownward force and momentum have ever been measured. BigBangtheoristsimagineaspacetimefieldintheirtheoriesofmasslessphotons and then go on to invent several more similar but distinctly different entities to explain the features of their imaginary and impossible cosmic cre-ationssuchasGuthinflation,HubbleDopplershifts,DarkEnergyandtheirimagined cooling of the cosmic blackbody radiation. Besides the pure energy singularity itself, the next big impossible thing theycomeupwithistheGuthinflation.Inflationwasinventedanddevelopedby impatient cosmologists who did not want to wait the billions of years that it would take for the galaxies in the universe to move from their point of cre-ation to their present locations. Instead of waiting, theorists spread matter and photons throughout the universe in a virtual instant of time with Alan Guth’s idea of matter expanding out into inertial space without any momentum. Guth inflationisanimpossiblethingthatviolatestheconstantspeedoflightandallother physical laws of force, acceleration/deceleration, momentum, energy, and gravity. Perhaps the favorite impossible thing invented and believed by all Big Bangtheoristsistheideathat2.7˚KCosmicBlackbodyRadiationhascooled


fromanoriginaltemperatureofabout3000˚K.Experimentsshowthattheirisno way that blackbody radiation can be cooled without destroying its black-body distribution curve. The physical way to cool radiation is to move the pho-tons farther apart. Since this changes their distribution curve, theorists believe the wavelengths of CBR photons are constantly increasing while their momen-tum and energy are decreasing by proportionate amounts. The most amazing impossible thing about this expanding space is that it has three different kinds ofexpansionthatallhappenatthesametime.Inthefirsttypeofexpansion,thewavelengths of photons increase, and their momentum and energy decreases. In the second type of expansion the distance between photons is increased to match the blackbody temperature curve. In the third type of expanding space, the space between the galaxies expands but the space within matter and galax-ies does not expand. Both photons and the universal void of space expands while atoms, stars, and galaxies remain a constant size. It seems impossible that this imagined expanding space could cause some things to expand and not others. Also, how is this expanding space able to absorb more than 99% of the momentum and energy ever produced in the cosmos and have no effect on the speed of light or the energies of atoms or stars? There is a strong controversy among Big Bang theorists as to the true cause of the Hubble red shift. One groups says it is left over outward velocity fromtheoriginalGuthinflationandtheothergroupclaimsthegalaxiesareinertially stationary and it is the CBR expanding space that is increasing the wavelengths and decreasing the momentum and energy of the Hubble photons. The crucial problem here is that the Hubble photons have increased in wave-length by a maximum of about 10 times and the CBR photons have increased by about 1000 times. The cosmologists next big impossible thing is the idea of a new type of spacetime continuum called Dark Energy. Unlike the CBR expanding space, this new Dark Energy is a repulsive force that accelerates all matter away from the center of the cosmos. The only reason for these ideas and beliefs about Dark Energy and other impossible things is the cosmologists’ unquestioned faith in the constant and eternal 1/1836 electron/proton mass ratio. It seems the standard solution for all modern cosmology problems and paradoxes is for theorists to immediately invent a new spacetime continuum fieldandadjustitsparameterstosolveeachnewproblem.Thereseemstobeno limit to the number of new and exotic spacetime aethers that Big Bang theorists can imagine. The only way to make progress in theoretical physics is to eliminate impossible metaphysical assumptions entirely and concentrate on thephysicalassumptionsmadebyexperimentalphysicists.Thefirststepto-wards understanding the true nature of the cosmos is to realize that the Hubble red shift is caused by the expansion of the electron and not the expansion of the galaxies.


The Big Bang Theory Begins It wasn’t until well into the 20th century that George Lamaitre began to applyscientificprinciplestotheideathattheuniversehadasuddenbeginningcreated by God. His initial idea was essentially to create the universe from a single giant atom that somehow split apart into the atoms of today. George had theideaoftheLivingCosmosbasicallyfiguredoutbutsincehedidn’tknowabout photons, neutrons, antimatter, nuclear energy, Hubble red shifts, or the 2.7˚KCBR,hewasunabletofillinmanyofthedetails. However, his followers soon took his ideas of creation and turned them upside down into an expanding universe model that began with the arbitrary idea of a Big Bang singularity that created atoms from photons. This was fol-lowed by a long list of metaphysical assumptions describing parameters and principles that painted a somewhat coherent picture of a creation of atoms, stars and galaxies. What came to be called the Standard Model Big Bang Theo-ry contained many contradictions and violations of the physical laws of nature but these were explained away with such ideas as complementarity and relativ-ity. The standard model of the Big Bang combines astronomical measurements with a large number of theories and contradictory assumptions about the ex-istence of unmeasured parameters and certain imagined ancient laws of phys-ics that are no longer in effect today. All of the Big Bang theory’s structural problems stem from its assumptions of eternal electron mass and the idea that atoms can be constructed from photons. According to somequantummechanicalBigBang inventions, 2.7˚K isregarded as a random temperature point in the cooling process of the CBR that began long ago in a much hotter and denser cosmos. In the circlon model ofatomicstructure,2.7˚Kistheonlypossibletemperatureforthispredictedhomogeneous event that transformed a cosmos full of neutrons into atoms radiating photons.

Electrodynamics of Circlon Synchronicity The main feature of circlon electrodynamics calculations is that Planck’s constant h = mlc is not a single metaphysical constant but a combination of thetwophysicalconstantsofphotonmasslengthY=ml and the speed of light h=Yc=mlc. This eliminates the need for the idea of a massless photon as well as the transformation between mass and energy as in m = e/c2 & e = mc2. The correct form of the photon equation is cC = e/m and the mass of matter is m = e/CC. The photon’s equal linear and rotational kinetic energies are e = mc2/2 + mC2/2 = mcC. Mass is the absolute and constant measured component of energy e = mv2/2, momentum p = mv and angular momentum Iw = mvr.

Photon Energy e = hƒ = mlcC/l = mcC = mc2/2 + mC2/2 = ePhoton Angular Momentum Iw = h/2p = mlC/2p


Today, when the Bohr radius is ao = 5.2 x 10-11mandthefinestructurecon-stant is a = .007, the electrodynamics of the Hydrogen atom produces its in-trinsic Lyman spectral photon Lyl∞

= 4pao/a at a wavelength of 9.11 x 10-8m. This is the shortest possible wavelength in the hydrogen spectrum and when it is emitted, it leaves the Hydrogen atom at its ground state. The angular momentum of the ground state Hydrogen atom is Iw = meaoaC = 1.06 x 10-34. This constant for angular momentum is the same for all pho-tons Iw = mlC/2p = 1.06 x 10-34. This value is the universal constant for the masslengths of photon and atomic structure. Unlike the Bohr radius constant andthefinestructureconstant,Planck’sconstantandthespeedoflightarenotchanged by the evolution of electron/proton mass ratio. As electron mass de-creases,thefinestructureconstanta increases and the Bohr radius ao decreases to maintain a constant value for this so called “quantum” of angular momen-tum. This is the angular momentum at an atom’s Bohr radius as well as the angular momentum of all photons. An atom, must have at least this quantity of angular momentum Iw = h/2p = MeaoaC between its proton and electron in order to emit a photon. The wavelengths of spectral photons are transformed as decreasing electron mass causes decreases in the Bohr radius. These changes are required by the conservation of angular momentum. These electrodynamics explain the value of the Hubble constant and are alsoabletocalculateboththe2.7˚Ktemperatureaswellastheprecisetim-ingoftheoftheinitialburstof2.7˚Kcosmicblackbodyphotons.Aselectronmassdecreases,itincreasesthefinestructureoftheCirclonshapeoftheBohrradius. This, in turn, decreases the wavelengths of spectral photons. Decreases in an electron’s mass within the structure of a neutron decreases the neutron’s stability and increases its decay energy.

Points in Space and TimeTimeisnotarealthinginthesamewaythatapoint,byitsverydefinition,isnot a real thing. Time is only an idea used to quantify and unite the linear and rotational motion of mass. The negative reality of space is the idea that divides time into intervals. Philosophically, the idea of a beginning of time is kind of an oxymoron. Time is experienced through the thought process and while thoughts have be-ginnings and ends, a beginning or end of the idea of time itself cannot be imag-ined.Theideaiftimebeganwhenthefirstlivingorganismexperiencedmotionand ended when the last living organism bought a Rolex. Thesameistruefortheideasofthepointandinfinity.Wecannotlogicallybegin the cosmos at either a point in space or a point in time. Points in space andabeginningof timeareevenmoredifficult to imagine than infinity.At


least you can look far into the heavens with a telescope and imagine you can seeinfinity.However,apointcannotbeseenorevenimaginedwiththemostpowerful of microscopes. From this, we can only conclude that the universe could not begin as photons and particles appearing with a “bang” from a point within a spacetime aether that had always existed. The Living Cosmos always contained individual circlon shaped particles of electric (negative) and magnetic (positive) matter within a featureless void. To discover the true nature of what was happening to electrons and pro-tons during the reproduction stage of their evolution, we must begin by study-ing what is happening in the interaction of matter today and then work our way back into the past toward this event. In this way, we can examine the forensic measurements of matter’s evolution in terms of physical laws rather than make metaphysical assumptions about imagined and unmeasured initial conditions to create the idea of a beginning. The only evidence presented here isthemeasurabledynamicsofmatterandphotons.Fromthesefirstprinciplesof measurement, we can trace the evolution of matter back to its existence long before the so called Big Bang singularity that ultimately produced the Cosmic Blackbody Radiation. Thefirstclueinourquestfortheevolutionofmatteristhediscoverythatthe mass of the electron is slowly decreasing while its size has been increas-ing by a proportionate rate. This decrease has been detected in a general way by measurements of electron and proton mass going back to their discoveries at the turn of the 20th Century. This is an experimental measurement that we can make here on Earth. I have no doubt that if we develop the technology to make extremely precise measurements of proton mass, electron mass, the Bohrradius,andthefinestructure“constant”,itwillnotbetoomanyyearsbefore we will be able to detect and then measure the rate of electron evolution in the laboratory. When we look away from Earth and point our telescopes deep into the cosmos, theHubbleredshiftbecomesthefirst independentconfirmationofthis discovery. It shows us that spectral photons emitted by atoms today have much shorter wavelengths than the same spectral photons emitted by the same atoms in the distant past. We must not make any assumptions or theories about the cause of the Hubble shift and instead accept these measurements at face value. What these shifted photons obviously tell us is that atoms in long ago galaxies emitted spectral photons with less momentum and longer wavelength than they do today. This is what we measure, but not what Big Bang cosmologists want to believe. These theorists imagine these large red shifts are direct Doppler shifts caused by distant galaxies rushing into the void at speeds approaching the


speed of light. However, to propose such an idea without any collaborating evidence seems quite preposterous. When cosmologists hear hoof beats in the distance, they will immediately insist that it has to be unicorns. The theo-rist has the choice between trying to account for the tremendous energies of an exploding universe or just calculating the changes in energy produced by evolving electron mass. The experimental physicist must make conclusions from what can be measured while the theoretical physicist is free to imagine impossible things that no one has ever detected. Unless one makes the initial metaphysical assumption of eternal electron mass, there is no logical reason to conclude that Hubble shifts are Doppler shifts caused by the rapid motion of distant galaxies. They are simply the elec-trodynamic effects of expanding electrons and not the Doppler shifts of an expanding universe. Measurements conclude that in the past, atoms emitted photons with lon-ger wavelengths than they do today. The Hubble shift does not require any special explanation because such a shift is required by electron energy/mass transformation. The reason for the cosmological red shift is that as the elec-tron’s energy/mass decreases, the electrodynamics of atoms require them to radiate photons with shorter and shorter wavelengths. The Hubble shift and the circlon shapes of electrons, protons, and neutrons are all we need to trace the evolution of matter and energy back to its earliest beginnings without inventing metaphysical assumptions or theories that are not supported by today’s measurements of quantum mechanics or electrody-namics. Matter’s cosmic evolution is driven by decreasing electron mass mE that in turn decreases the Bohr radius ao with an accompanying increase in the finestructureconstanta. These three values change in a complementary way in order to maintain the universal value of the atomic angular momentum con-stant Iw = h/2p = mlC/2π=ME aoaC.

Conservation of Momentum One of the great unsolved paradoxes of Big Bang theory concerns the simple conservation of momentum. If all of the universe’s protons and elec-trons were ejected from a singularity point at extremely high velocities, their momentum vectors would all be one dimensional voids pointing away from the singularity point. Since adjacent particles would be traveling on virtually parallel momentum vectors, they would have almost no relative momentum or virtual angular momentum to form atoms and emit photons. They would constantly be moving farther apart from one another and there would be little chance of any of them colliding or interacting on their long journeys toward the edge of the void. The physical mechanics of the Big Bang theory com-pletely eliminates any physical mechanism that could gather together these speeding particles of matter into clouds, stars, galaxies, and eventually people.


In Big Bang theory, all of its momentum and energy are used to send particles of matter speeding away in all directions from a single point. In the Living Cosmos, the great explosive decay of neutrons that created the electrons and protons and produced the CBR occurred not at a single point, but from 2256 separate locations throughout the universe. When the neutrons decayed, they were moving in many different direc-tions. The energy of these decaying neutrons put all of the electrons and pro-tons on different high energy trajectories where they could crash into and in-teract with one another rather than in the Big Bang where all the particles were moving away from the point of a universal singularity.

The Chemical Era As the mass/size ratio between the proton and electron grows, there are subtle changes in the chemical reactions that occur from protons and electrons coupling together. Because of a much larger Bohr Radius, chemical compounds in the distant past had somewhat different properties than they do today. Perhaps the chemicals that make up dinosaur bone were stronger then than they are now. It is possible there was a point in cosmological chemistry about three billion years ago when the chemistry was just right for the spontaneous formation of DNA and other organic molecules. Since then, these molecules have reproduced, diversified,andjoinedtogethertopreservethemselves.Perhaps,therewasonlya small window of time in electron evolution when the chemistry was just right for the spontaneous formation of DNA molecules. After this “sweet spot” in cosmic history, DNA molecules were able to reproduce but they could no lon-ger be produced spontaneously. All life on Earth is directly connected to these original DNA molecules. As Timothy Leary said in a lecture I once attended, “Each one of us are the result of an unbroken chain of life that is over three bil-lion years old.” There is no place along this chain where at least some portion of our present bodies was not part of a living organism. At least in principle, our bodies could still contain atoms from one of the original DNA molecules. In the Living Cosmos, the evolution of life is driven by the changing pa-rameters of cosmological chemistry. In the future, molecules that do not exist today may be possible. Certainly, the energy and intensity of chemical reactions will change as the mass of the electron evolves. Thereisanotherfactorthatmayverywellhaveasignificanteffectontheevolution of life in both the past and in the future. This is the increasing insta-bility of the neutron and its link to the decreasing stability of atomic nuclei. At one time in the distant past, common and widespread radioactive nuclei such as Thorium and Uranium may have been stable and this may also have been


true of many other radioactive isotopes of other elements. The end result of this evolving process of increasing nuclear instability is that today we have only 282 stable isotopes and a small number of radioactive isotopes with very long lifetimes. As the stability of the neutron decreases with electron evolution, the least stable of these 282 isotopes will become radioactive. Knowledge of this effect will also change the way we measure things like the age of Earth. One way to determine the age of Earth is to study and quantify the rate that Thorium and Uranium decay through a series of steps into Lead. It is possible that these weakly radioactive elements may have been stable when Earthwasfirstformed.Also,theremayhavebeenmanymorethanjusttoday’s282 stable isotopes. If Thorium and Uranium were once stable or had much longer half lives, then Earth could be much older than previously estimated based on the decay of these elements.

The Era of Conscious Thought TEE = 1/1700 to TEE = 1/1836 Perhaps the most remarkable thing about the whole scenario of a Living Cosmosisthatweareheretotryandfigureitoutanddiscussit.The great un-explained mystery of the universe is not so much the existence of the chemical elements of matter but the existence and origin of consciousness. Sincetheonlyidentifiableactivityintheobservableuniverseistheinteractionbetween electrons, protons, and photons, it must be concluded that the activity of consciousness must also play some part of these interactions. The basic units of consciousness are somehow contained within the individual structures of protons and electrons. If each of our atoms contains a basic unit of awareness, then our higher degree of consciousness results from the connections of the many atoms and molecules within our bodies. These individual atomic senses of awareness are all organized into symmetrical patterns of interactions within our atoms that we sense as feeling and experience as both consciousness and unconsciousness thought. Our total consciousness is the result of the 1029 pos-sible connected interactions between the atoms in our bodies and brains. While the atoms of a rock may have primitive individual awareness, it can-not really be called consciousness. It is possible that true consciousness did not arrive in the Living Cosmos until the spontaneous formation of DNA molecules about three billion years ago.

The Idea of EntropyCosmic evolution is derived from just two physical ratios. The constant Energy/Mass ratio 1/1 of individual electrons and protons and the evolving electron/proton mass ratio e/p = 1/1836 of today. The interaction of these two ratios is the substance of entropy.


Entropy is the process by which total cosmic energy is irreversibly trans-formed from the rotational Energy/Mass = CC of atoms to the linear Energy/Mass = cC of photons and other moving bodies. In the beginning, there was no linear Energy/Mass = cc and all rotational Energy/Mass = CC was contained in the opposite internal motions of the Circlon shapes of the original antiproton/positron pair. In the bifurcation process that divided the single anti-hydrogen atom into 2256 neutrons, the rotational energy/mass (angular momentum) lost by the antiproton becomes the linear energy/mass (momentum) of all moving bodies in the cosmos. Entropy is a function of the general conservation of mo-mentum, angular momentum, and energy.

The Yin and Yang Deities of Creation The eternal existence of a matter/antimatter atom is the initial condition of the Living Cosmos. A religious person, who wants to begin cosmic creation with God, might want to consider that the universe consists of a god of matter and agoddessofantimatter.ProtonsandelectronsareaneternallylivingYin/Yangdichotomy of deities that could be logically referred to as goddesses and gods. This duality of gods has always existed beginning with the antiproton as a yin goddessandthepositronasayanggod.Thisgodandgoddessfirstcoupledto-gether into an atom and then merged into an antineutron, that began a very long serialreproductionprocessthateventuallyfilledtheuniversewith2256 electron and proton deities that contained all the consciousness of today’s Living Cos-mos. The god consciousness that we experience stems from the basic connect-ed awareness of these countless atomic and chemical deities within our bodies.

Electron/Proton Mass Ratio Today--- me/mp = 1/1836Bohr radius ------------------------------ ao = l∞a/4pElectron Angular Momentum --------- Iw = meaoacFine Structure Constant ---------------- a = 4pao/l∞

Photon Energy/Mass ------------------- e/m = cCHydrogen Ionization Photon ----------- l∞ = 4pao/aPhoton Momentum --------------------- p = mcPhoton Angular Momentum ----------- Iw = mlc/2pElectron Momentum -------------------- p = mevElectron Angular Momentum ---------- Iw = meaoacElectron kinetic energy ----------------- e = mev2/2Neutron Stability Number -------------- #ns = mp/me√a

Living Universe Equations


Mathematical Dimensions of the Foundation of Reality

Space is the Non-Dimensional Negative RealityMomentum is the One-Dimensional Reality

Angular Momentum is the Two-Dimensional RealityEnergy is the Three-Dimensional Reality

Gravitational Force and Motion is the Four-Dimensional RealityGravitational Time is the n-Dimensional Positive Reality

One-dimensional Forces and Motions can be on any VectorTwo-dimensional Centripetal Forces are on a Circular Plane

Three-dimensional Forces of Gravity are measured on a Spherical Plane

Mass Exists in Space = msMomentum Moves Mass through Space = ms/t

Space Exists as a Negative Reality and Does Note Change s = t/mTime Quantifies the Motion of Mass t = ms

Angular Momentum Spins Mass in Space = mrs/tForce Measures Momentum Through Time = ms/t2

Centripetal Force Measures Angular Momentum in Time = mrs/t2 Energy Divides Force with Velocity = ms/t2/2

Photon Momentum Moves Photon Mass = mcPhoton Angular Momentum Spins Mass = mlC/2π = constant 10-34 kg m

Photon Kinetic Energy Moves Mass Through Space = mc2/2 Photon Spin Energy Moves Mass in Space = mC2/2

Gravitational Momentum Creates Orbital Motion = mrs/tGravitational Force Pushes Us All Up = mrs/t2

Gravity Forces Mass Through Time and Space Gravity = Inertia

PHOTON

c

Photon Energy & MomentumE = mc2/2 + mC2/2 = mcC & p = mc

Photon Angular Momentum = MlC/2pPhoton Momentum = Mc

The photon’s angular momentum iscontained in the wave-like motion ofthe two oppositely spinning bodies ofpositive magnetic matter and negativeelectric matter. The opposite spins atCof this positive and negative hollowstring contain the photon’s absoluterotational energy and the kinetic energycontained in the photon’s linearmomentum is relative to an observer’sabsolute motion.

Negative ElectricMatter from Electron

Positive MagneticMatter from Proton


The Secret Lives of Quasars Ever since they were first discovered, the true nature of quasars has long been one of the most difficult paradoxes in cosmology and astrophysics. There is nothing in the initial assumptions of the Big Bang and Relativity theories that would lead to the creation of quasars. Also, the principles of relativity theo-ries and quantum mechanics offer no solutions to the gigantic energies that quasars are purported to produce. The experimental observations of over two thousand quasars lead to the inescapable conclusion that all of these peculiar stars reside within the Milky Way.

Quasar Parameters Quasarswerefirstobservedandidentifiedasverydimstarswithspectralphotons that had redshifts were many orders of magnitude greater than any Doppler shifts observed in the Milky Way or other nearby galaxies. In fact, the only galaxies with red shifts as large as quasars were located billions of light years away in the far reaches of the cosmos. Big Bang cosmologists made the metaphysical assumption that the extreme red shifts of both quasars and distant galaxies were direct Doppler shifts caused by an imagined enormous outwardlinearmomentumcausedbytheGuthinflationoftheBigBangsingu-larity. They did not imagine that the quasar shifts could be the transverse Dop-pler shifts of radial gravitational momentum because they believed that gravi-tational momentum could not produce transverse Doppler effects because it was only “equivalent” to “real” linear momentum. Because of their unquestioned acceptance of the equivalence principle, Big Bang and relativity theorists are forced to conclude that the extreme red shifts of quasars are caused by the high recessional momentum of an expand-ing universe instead of just the real measured gravitational momentum of at-oms at a star’s surface. This extremely large outward linear momentum led to the problem of a quasar’s enormous energy. Even though quasars are very dim compared to stars in the Milky Way, if they are really many billions of light years away, then they would have to be orders of magnitude brighter than whole galaxies to even be seen.

Super Luminal Velocity of Quasars Both Newton’s laws and Einstein’s assumptions of relative motion are violated by the enormous transverse velocities of some quasars that have been calculated to move sideways at velocities that are orders of magnitude greater than the speed of light. The Living Cosmos principle of stelar evolution leads directly to the conclusion that quasars and “black holes” as the very largest stars in the evolutionary process. The Living Cosmos would have predicted the existence and nature of quasars had they not already been observed. It is concluded that quasars are very large and very dim stars that exist throughout


the Milky Way. Also, they are so dim that they have not yet been observed in other galaxies. Once the imaginary and unmeasured idea of the equivalence principle is abandoned and measurements of gravitational force and momentum are taken atfacevalue,mostofcosmology’sdifficultproblemsandparadoxessimplydisappear. This is particularly true when it come to quasars. The principles of the Living Cosmos lead directly to the creation of quasars and to a simple explanation of the true nature. In short, quasars are very large and intrinsically bright ordinary stars that appear very dim. We need not look for them outside ourowngalaxybecausetheywouldbetoodifficulttosee.Thelargestofqua-sars are so dim from our perspective that they become invisible black holes.

The prime example of a quasar that must reside in the Milky Way is Qua-sar 3C 345. This a multiple body quasar system that was observed moving apartoveraperiodoffiveyears.Witharedshiftofz=.549,equivalentmo-mentum relativity cosmologists are forced to conclude that 3C 345 is 5.5 bil-lion light years away. If this is true, it would mean that the components of this quasar system were moving apart by at a velocity at least 7 times greater than the speed of light. However, if 3C 345 resides at the far side of the Milky Way about75,000LYawayfromEarth,theseparationvelocitywouldbecalculatedto be about 30 km/s. At5.5billionLYaway,3C345wouldhave tobeasbrightasadozengalaxies but here within the Milky Way, you need a very good telescope just to see it. Several other quasar systems have been observed with far greater superluminal angular separation velocities but if these are all within the Milky Way, instead of at the far ends of the universe, their proper motions would be in keeping with normal stelar motions within galaxies.


It is a conclusion of 3C 345 measurements that this quasar is located in the Milky Way. If its extreme red shift is not caused by extreme distance, it then fol-lows that all quasars are located in the Milky Way because they are way too dim tobeeasilyidentifiedinothergalaxies.IfonequasarexistsintheMilkyWay,it follows that their common characteristics would require that they all reside in our galaxy. Despite their larger size, quasars get dimmer and dimmer the higher their red-shifts. This has to do with their extreme gravitational momentum and the limited trajectories of their emitted photons.

Linear Momentum vs Gravitational Momentum There are two opposite Doppler shifts measured in astronomy. The direct Doppler shift of the relative linear momentum of stars and galaxies and the transverse motion Doppler shifts of both linear and gravitational momentum. Direct shifts can be red or blue but transverse shifts are always red on emission and blue on absorption. As stars become more massive, the increase in their upward gravitational momentum causes their spectral photons to be transverse shifted to red. This shift is non-directional and has the same value in all di-rections. All photons are transverse red-shifted by the measured gravitational escape/surface velocity at the star’s surface. As we measure larger and more massive stars, we see that their gravitational escape/surface velocities Ves can becomeasignificantfractionofthespeedoflight.Thiscausesthestartoemitspectral photons with highly transverse red shifted momentum.

The Belief that Quasars Do Not Exist Today Perhaps themost difficult thing about quasars forBigBang theorists toexplain is their belief that quasars only existed during the early stages of the Big Bang creation. They are unable to imagine the physical processes by which quasars were formed nor what would make them disappear from early galax-ies and never to form again. Why are there no quasars in the inner galaxies? The answer to this is that quasars form like any other stars and exist sprinkled throughout all galaxies. They are just too dim to be readily seen outside of the Milky Way. Quasars radiate spectral photons exactly like any other stars. Quasar light consists of the same spectral photons that have been transverse red shifted by extreme gravitational momentum. As quasars get very large and massive, their atomic interactions are slowed by time dilation caused by Lorentz transforma-tions of gravitational momentum. Larger and larger quasars become dimmer and dimmer to the observer both because they are emitting increasingly red shifted photons with less and less energy and because atoms are also emitting photons at a slower and slower rate so that the overall star is producing less and less heat energy. This is the same absolute radial gravitational momentum that is measured in the Pound-Rebka experiment and GPS clock measurements.


When a quasar is so massive that its escape/surface velocity approaches the speed of light, the gravitational momentum at its surface becomes enormous. Atoms emit photons that are transverse red-shifted by this momentum (l’ = l/√1-v2/c2). For example, if a quasar’s escape/ surface velocity is 1/2 the speed of light, the atoms at is surface would increase in linear Energy/Mass = c2. The photons transverse shifted by this momentum would have a Mass of M = .87, a wavelength of l = 1.15, a momentum of p = mc = .87, and an Energy of (E = Mc2/2 +MC2/2 = McC = .87). Clocks on the quasar’s surface would be slowed to intervalsof(t=T/√1-v2/c2 = 1.15).

Photon Electrodynamics The actual physical mechanics of what happens to the emitting atom as it gains momentum is a function of the Lorentz transformation. As the electron’s Energy/Mass increases with greater gravitational momentum, the Bohr radius increases by a proportional amount and this causes the atom to emit photons with longer wavelengths. The wavelengths of an atom’s emitted spectral pho-tons l=4πao/a are increased by the electron’s increased mass from its gravita-tional momentum. This in turn is caused by conservation of electron and photon angular momentum (Iw = MEaoaC = mlC/2π).This samemechanism of in-creased electron mass produces the Hubble shift. Ancient spectral photons have longer wavelengths because they were emitted by electrons that were more mas-sive than today’s electrons. The 2.7 K cosmic blackbody photons were produced when the electron/proton mass ratio was e/p = 1/146.

Equivalent Force and Momentum The simple reason that General Relativity cosmologists are not able to ac-count for the measured properties of quasars lies in their unquestioned belief in the metaphysical assumption of the equivalence of gravitational force and momentum. They believe that measured gravitational momentum is not real and therefore cannot produce a Lorentz transformation. This unmeasurable as-sumption imagines that the direction of the equivalent gravitational momentum of falling bodies points down. This leaves the quasar with very little intrinsic gravitational momentum to transverse shift its atomic emissions. In the Liv-ing Cosmos, the true measured vector of gravitational momentum is up and the whole surface of the star has the extra absolute radial momentum necessary for its atoms to emit red-shifted photons according to Lorentz transformations. Lorentz transformations are always produced by absolute momentum and never by equivalent momentum. For example, the increasing equivalent momentum of a falling clock does not slow its rate. Only when the clock conserves its mo-mentum with Earth does its clock begin to slow. This slowing begins to occur when the falling clock enters the atmosphere and then increases when it opens a parachute. Its rate becomes constant when it lands and acquires the upward momentum of Earth’s surface.


Quasar Rotation Another feature of quasars that has never been explained by standard cos-mology theories are the many observations of individual quasars that show not just one red shift for the whole star but a range of related red shifts. These varied values are what would be expected in the Living Cosmos description of quasar dynamics. Varying red shifts can be explained quite easily with quasar rotation. Con-sider a quasar with an escape/surface velocity of .5c and and a transverse red shift of 1.15. If it was rotating on its axis at a velocity of .1 c, it would produce direct Doppler blue shifts of -.01 on one side and red shifts of +.01 on the other. Measured shifts from the approaching side would be l = 1.14 and l = 1.16 on the receding side. The center would still have a shift of l = 1.15.

The Torus Shape of Quasars Oneaspectofquasarsthathasbeenverydifficultforrelativitytheoriststo explain is the observation of some quasars that periodically change their brightness over a period of just several days. This is explained by the shape of quasars. When these extremely large and massive bodies rotate at high veloci-ties approaching the speed of light, their decelerating gravitational force pulls themfirstintoadiskshapeandthenintoatoruswherethequasar’scenterofgravity is far removed from its actual physical structure. While these donut shaped bodies are spinning very rapidly like a wheel, they can also slowly rotate on a perpendicular axis. This allows the observer to periodically see the full face of the torus shape and then see just its edge. The would allow the observer to see a periodic change in a quasar’s brightness even though it remained unchanged.

Relativistic Dimming of Quasar Light Quasars are the largest and intrinsically brightest stars in the Milky Way. However, when we observe them, they are very much dimmer than the stars surrounding them. The reason for this has to do with the electrodynamics of photon emission. When atoms are at rest and have zero momentum, the prob-ability that they will emit spectral photons in any particular direction is even. However, when they are accelerated to a substantial momentum, the prob-ability increases that more photons will be emitted on vectors closer to the atom’s momentum vector. This effect is negligible for ordinary velocities but forvelocitiesapproachingthespeedoflight,itbecomessignificant.Withoutresorting to complex quantum mechanical probability calculations, I will just say that for atoms on quasars with extremely high radial momentum the prob-ability is extremely high that they will emit photons very near to their upward momentum vector and extremely low that photons will be emitted at right angles to it.


Atoms at the surface of quasars with extremely high momentum emit al-most all of their photons within small angles of their up/down momentum vec-tors and very few at larger angles. When we observe the sun, we see pretty much equal numbers of photons from every point on its disk. However, when we view a quasar, we only see photons from a small region in its center and ex-tremely few from its outer disk. Even though the very center the quasar might appear bright, the light from the rest of its disk would be minimal because these photons were emitted straight up and not in a line of sight with our telescope.

From Quasars to Black Holes The enormous red shifts of photons from quasars are not direct Doppler shifts of receding momentum as is commonly assumed. Rather they are enor-mous transverse Doppler shifts produced by the high escape/surface velocities of these very large stars. These transverse shifts are caused by the slowing of time resulting from escape/surface velocities that are substantial percentages of the speed of light. Even though they are very large, quasars also appear quite dim compared to smaller stars and get dimmer and dimmer the larger they get. They emit spectral photons of greatly reduced energy due to transverse shifts caused by increases in electron mass from Lorentz transformations. Also, these photons are greatly reduced in intensity due to the slowing of inertial time. The very largest quasars, with escape/surface velocities Ves very near the speed of light, become so dim from transverse shifts, and the slowing of time that they are verydifficult toobserve.Whenquasarsbecometoodimtoobservetheyarecalled black holes.

Conclusions Even though quasars are intrinsically quite bright like other stars, they ap-pear extremely dim for three reasons. 1. The transverse red shifts of their photons greatly reduces their energies.2. The transverse slowing of time by high gravitational momentum reduces the intensity of the atomic emissions of photons.3. We only see photons emitted near to gravitational momentum vectors. We can see photons from near a quasar’s geometric center but most of the photons emitted from the rest of its surface are directed straight up and away from Earth. For the above reasons, all of the 2000 or so carefully measured quasars must reside in the Milky Way. Even though they are intrinsically bright, they areobservedtobeverydimandwouldbeextremelydifficulttoisolateinothergalaxies. The fact that we have yet to observe any quasars in Andromeda sup-ports this conclusion and the discovery of a quasar in that galaxy would vali-date it.


Linear Momentum & Centrifugal ForceAngular Momentum & Centripetal Force

Gravitational Momentum & Gravitational ForceForce F = ma?d. Force equals mass times an unknown combination of ab-solute acceleration and absolute deceleration. Momentum p = mv. Angular Momentum Iw = mvr. and Gravitational Momentum Ves = √2gR.

Mass, existing in Space and moving in gravitational Time is the funda-mental metaphysical assumption of all physical measurements. The assump-tion is that mass is eternal and when located at a position of Zero Momentum Rest, it has an absolute quantity of one and a momentum of p = 0. At this position, Mass = 1 kg, Space = 1 meter, Time = 1 second and Gravity = MS/T & MS/T2 . On any momentum vectors relative to ZMR, mass increases to M = 1+ and time intervals increase to T = 1+ proportionally to increases in abso-lute momentum p = mv. Deceleration on a momentum vector decreases mass and shortens clock time intervals. The linear dimensions of inertial Euclidian Space have a negative reality and are always calculated to remain constant. The radial dimensions of three dimensional gravitational space have a positive reality that are measured by force to calculate increasing gravitational dimen-sions and the subsequent curving of time.

Centrifugal, Centripetal, and Gravitational Force and MotionThe use of accelerometers to measure the motion produced by inertial force, centrifugal force, centripetal force, and gravitational force is at the basic foun-dation of all experimental physics. The paradox is that these simple measure-ments are more or less completely misunderstood by both scientists and layper-sons alike. It seems that almost no one is capable of fully understanding what these forces really are or the important role they play in our everyday realities. Everyone seems to generally imagine forces and motions as upside down and backwards and in particular, almost no one has a proper understanding of the true nature and measurement of both centrifugal force and gravitational force. Both scientists and engineers frequently us the term centrifugal force when they are really describing centripetal force and almost everyone believes that gravitational force points down even though it is measured to point up. Momentum, angular momentum, and gravitational momentum are the fundamental parameters of our physical reality and are measured as force with accelerometers. Linear kinetic energy e = mv2/2 is the calculation to quantify a change in linear momentum, rotational kinetic energy e = mw2/2 is a calcu-lation to quantify angular momentum and gravitational potential energy Ep = mghquantifieschangeingravitationalmomentum. Momentumdefinesabsolutemotion,andenergyisarelativemeasureof


absolute change in momentum. Momentum is a principle of measurement and energy is a calculation used to quantify both relative change in linear momen-tum and absolute change in angular momentum. Because they are individual metaphysical assumptions that are always combined as momentum, Mass, Space, Time, and Gravity can only be mea-sured in terms of each other. The only physical measurement that can be made of the physical interactions between Mass, Space, Time, and Gravity are rela-tivechangesinmomentumquantifiedbyanunknowncombinationofaccel-eration and deceleration. Every moving body has an unknown absolute momentum vector that is a combined unit of mass, space, and time (Energy/Mass = c2). When we change and measure a body’s momentum, it is done with a force that changes its abso-lute momentum to a new unknown vector and value. This new measured mo-mentum vector is produced by an unknown combination of acceleration and deceleration. When we change and measure a body’s angular momentum, it is done with a centrifugal force that either produces acceleration or deceleration in the rotating body that either increases or decreases the body’s centripetal forces. Changes in momentum are measured with accelerometers on a single vectorasForceandchangesinangularmomentumaremeasuredataninfinitenumber of centripetal force points on a rotating plane.

e = mc2 is Wrong and E/M = cC & E/M = CC are RightEnergy and Mass are two sides of the same coin and are always equal and can-not be physically separated in any experimental way. E/M = cC is the formula for photons, E/M = CC is the formula for protons, electrons, and stationary atoms, and E/M = c2 is the absolute linear Energy/Mass of a moving atom’s momentum. The force produced by an energy always produces two equal and opposite quantities of momentum <p1 = >p2 = mV = Mv and two unequal quantities of energy. e = mV2/2 has more energy than e = Mv2/2. Kinetic energy is quanti-fiedbydividinge=mv2 into two unequal parts. The total energy of a force is measured with two accelerometers that divide the force into two equal values of momentum and two unequal quantities of energy. Energy/Mass, is a conserved eternal quantity. The quantity of mass m = e/c2 contained in the cosmos is always equal to its total energy e = mc2 and neither quantity ever changes separately. This is because they are two parts of a whole and cannot be separated from one another in any meaningful way. When a body is accelerated to increase its energy, its mass is also increased by an equal amount. Mass is equal to energy m = e/c2 and energy is equal to mass e = mc2. All photons have a momentum of p = mc and an angular momentum of h/2π =mlC/2π=mCr.A photon is amatter/antimatter duality composed


of a length positive magnetic cosmic string from a proton combined with an equal length of negative electric cosmic string from an electron. The angular momentum of a photon’s wave-like motion is a universal constant of nature. The two pieces of cosmic string are also spinning at C in opposite directions, withequalquantitiesofangularmomentumh/2π=mCr.Whenthesetwoop-posite spins are added together, the total angular momentum from the spinning strings is zero. However, total energy of a photon’s spinning strings e = mC2/2 can be measured and combined with the energy of its linear motion e = mc2/2 for a total photon energy of e = mc2/2 + mC2/2 = mcC. The photon’s momen-tum p = mc provides 1/2 of its measured energy and the angular momentum of its rotating mass provides the other half e = Iw2/2. The energy of its momentum is relative to an observer’s motion and the energy of its angular momentum remains constant for all observers.

PHOTON

c






Kinetic Energy versus Momentum Momentum produced by a force can only be measured relative to the rest frame of an accelerometer and total energy produced by a force can only be measured relative to the rest frame of the two accelerometers measuring equal and oppo-site momenta. The kinetic energy inherent in angular momentum e = mr2w2/2 is an absolute and constant quantity that is measured to have the same value in the moving frames of any observers. When the values of mass, rotational velocity, and radius are changed to maintain constant angular momentum, the rotational energy is also changed. As with momentum, angular momentum contains a body’s kinetic energy but it is not a measure of it. Different spinning bodies, such as photons, can have the same values for angular momentum but greatly different rotational kinetic energies.

Absolute Accelerometer Measurements Accelerometers measure the force producing the acceleration or decel-eration of mass. Two accelerometers are needed to measure a force’s unequal deceleration and acceleration. Accelerometers are the only possible measuring devices for quantifying changes in a body’s momentum or angular momentum.


Modern experimental physicists have thousands of different measuring de-vices for determining all of the many different quantities in physics. However, at their most fundamental level, each of these instruments measures and calcu-lates changes in momentum and angular momentum through the measurement of accelerations and decelerations produced by force. As an example, consider the radar gun used by police to measure the speeds of automobiles. This device determinestrafficspeedsbymeasuringchangesinthemomentumofphotonsreflectedfrommovingvehicles.TheHubbleredshiftsaremeasuredaschang-es in the momentum of spectral photons. All of an experimental physicist’s many measured and calculated values are based on accelerometer readings of either a linear force or centrifugal force that changes momentum or angular momentum.

The Momentum, Force and Energy of Cannons and Cannonballs In the following thought experiment with a cannon and cannonball, their individual momentum is easy to calculate because they are always equal. How-ever, the recoil energy from the force of the gunpowder is much greater for the ball than the cannon. Momentum is measured from the acceleration produced by a single quantity of force and energy is calculated from the opposite accel-erations produced by force. In this sense, momentum is absolute and energy is relative even though they are the same thing and always equal. Momentum is measured as motion in a single absolute frame and energy divides changes in motion between two relative frames.

m = 100 kgv = p/m = 1 m/sp = mv 100energy = mv2/2 = 50 J

m = 1 kgv = p/m = 100 m/sp = mv = 100energy = mv2/2 = 5,000 J

Cannon ball has the samemomentum as the cannon

but has 100 times more kinetic energy.

Cannon Ball vs Cannon Momentum and EnergyForce = mass x acceleration ma = Momentum = mv

A Force always produces twoequal momenta but it almost

never produces two equal quantities of kinetic energy.

p=100 Momentum p = 100Force

Energy= mv2 =mv2/2 mv2/2

p = mv = p = mv

Since we are unable to measure the cannonball’s momentum without changing it, we can calculate its exact velocity and energy by measuring the cannon’s equalmomentum. If the cannon is rifled, and causes the cannon-


ball to spin, then calculating the total energy of the ball, when it hits the tar-get, becomes more complicated. The cannonball’s linear energy e = mv2/2 is strictly relative to its motion with the target. However, its rotational energy e = mr2w2/2 is absolute and has the same value relative to all moving targets.

Measuring Positive and Negative Centrifugal ForcesCentrifugal Force is a Momentary Transverse Push. Centrifugal forces are measured as momentary transverse accelerations or decelerations. Whereas, a linear force that changes momentum is on a vector relative to the accelerom-eter’s position of rest, centrifugal forces that change angular momentum are perpendicular measurements relative to the center of a two-dimensional plane.

Centripetal Force is a Constant Two-Dimensional Radial Pull. Centripetal force is a constant and equal balance of radial acceleration and deceleration. Centripetal force can be measured at anyplace on the table with two acceler-ometers set at 90˚ apart and aligned with the center. One measures a constant one-half transverse acceleration and the other measures the equal one-half of a transverse deceleration.

Both centrifugal and centripetal forces are measured with accelerometers attached to a rotating body. Centripetal force is a measure of the total posi-tive centrifugal forces that have created the rotation. A free-wheeling rotating turntable produces a constant centripetal force at any location on the table. Transverse centrifugal forces produce either positive or negative changes in the turntable’s angular momentum and rotational energy. Momentary centrifugal forces are equally added to or subtracted from the table’s constant centripetal forces. The turntable measurements of force and momentum are done with two ac-celerometers.Centrifugalforceaccelerometersarealignedat180˚andcentrip-etalforceaccelerometersarealignedat90˚.Centrifugalforcesaremeasuredas positive and negative one-dimensional pushes that are equal and opposite to the two-dimensional centripetal pulling force. These two forces are really justthesameforcealignedat90˚fromoneanother.Themomentumandlinearenergy produced by centrifugal force are stored in the angular momentum and rotational energy of centripetal force.

Change in Momentum Produces Force that is Measured as Energy It is a common misconception of both scientists and laymen alike when they say, “To increase the rotation of the turntable we must add energy to it.” This statement is true only in a relative sense. When we measure and change the rate of the turntable’s rotation it is done by adding equal, consecutive units of centrifugal force. Each unit of force increases or decreases the table’s centrip-


etal force, angular momentum, and rotational energy. Changing Momentum is the cause of Force and energy is its measurement. It should be clear from this, that when we accelerate the table by using centrifugal force to equally increase its angular momentum and centripetal force, we are using linear kinetic energy to add rotational kinetic energy in the table. This rotating turntable experiment begins at Position 1 with the balls rest-ing in a radial groove. Ball #1 is just leaving the table at v = 4 and the table is spinning at v = 4. The total angular momentum and energy of the table and the balls is Iw = 1. The table’s centripetal force is F = 1 and its centrifugal force is F = 0.

2

32

2

3

3

3

4

11

4

4

4

Position # 1

Position # 3

Posit

ion

# 2 Position # 4

V = 4

Turntable Forces

V =

3.8

V = 3.6

V = 3.4

CentripetalForce

Centri

petal

Force

NegativeCentrifugal

Force

PositiveCentrifugal

Force

Centri

petal

Force

NegativeCentrifugal

Force

PositiveCentrifugal

Force

Neg

ativ

eC

entr

ifuga

lFo

rce

PositiveCentrifugal

Force

w = 3.7

w = 3.9w = 3.

4

w = 3.5CentripetalForce

When the balls are all released from centripetal pulling force, centrifugal pushing forces becomes active and begin pushing the balls out the groove. As the balls move out toward the edge of the table, their velocity and energy are increased by the centrifugal push from the back edge of the groove in the


table. Accelerometers on the balls measure a positive centrifugal pushing force from the turntable and accelerometers mounted to the table measure an equal and opposite negative centrifugal pushing force that decreases table’s rotational velocity. The centrifugal force converts rotational energy from the table to the linear energy of the accelerating ball. In this process, the table is slowed but its energy and angular momentum remain constant until the next ball is released. As the balls roll out to Position #2, angular momentum is being trans-ferred to the accelerating balls from the decelerating table. As the balls’ veloc-ity speeds up, their energy increases, and as the turntable’s velocity slows, its energy decreases by an equal amount. Total combined angular momentum and energy of the table and the balls remain constant. In this experiment, accelerometers are used to measure the positive and negative centrifugal forces that change the angular momentum and energy of both the table and the balls. This is a passive measurement that involves no change in total angular momentum or kinetic energy. What is measured are the centrifugal forces required to transfer angular momentum and energy from the table to the balls. This experiment consists of measurements at eight positions on a single ro-tation of the table and balls. Four positions measure the table’s decreasing cen-tripetal force as the balls move along the grooves and the other four positions measure proportional decreases in positive and negative centrifugal forces. The arrows represent accelerometer readings with their length indicating their equal force and their size indicating the amount of acceleration or deceleration pro-duced. Red arrows represent accelerations and black arrows are decelerations. All arrows are measurements of the forces that change the balance of angular momentum between the table and the balls. As the Balls leave their grooves, their angular momentum is converted into linear energy of momentum. How-ever, even after the balls leave the groove in the table and are far away, the total angular momentum and energy of the balls and table remains conserved.


Laws of Motion and Einstein’s Postulates and Assumptions

1. Law of Momentum and Angular Momentum, p = ms/t & Iw = mvrA body at rest has zero momentum. A body in linear motion maintains constant momentum unless acted on by a force. A rotating body maintains constant an-gular momentum regardless of complementary changes in mass, velocity, and radius

2. Law of Acceleration/Deceleration of Force, F = ma?d Force equals mass times an unknown combination of absolute acceleration and deceleration.

3. Law of reciprocal acceleration and deceleration in the conservation of momentum and energy. Every acceleration of mass (momentum) is produced by an equal deceleration of momentum.

E p F < E > F p E . 1/2mv2 < mv < ms/t2 < E = mv2 > ms/t2 > mv > 1/2mv2

A force equally divided between two unequal mass bodies produces two equal and opposite momenta and two unequal separately conserved kinetic energies. Whereas momentum is a dual physical quantity of absolute motion, energy is a single calculation of relative individual momenta. Energy is not a real physical quantity like momentum. Energy is just the conceptual way that changes in momentum are measured. Force divides momentum equally and separates energy into unequal quantities.

4. The Lorentz Transformation of Momentum m’ = M/√1-v2/c2

This law combines and quantifies the relative and absolute motions of the first three laws into the absolute momentum of matter and photons relative to zero momentum photon rest.

5 The Conservation of Energy/MassThe Energy/Mass of matter E/M = CC, the Energy/Mass of photons E/M = cC, and the Energy/Mass of moving bodies E/M = c2 remain constant and conserved. When two equal and opposite momenta mv + mv = mv2 are formed by a force of total energy E = mv2, it is divided unequally into kinetic energies ek = 1/2mv2 & 1/2mv2

Newton’s three laws deal with the conservation of momentum relative to any arbitrary position of rest. They are really just a single law that addresses


the Lorentz transformation from three different absolute perspectives. The transformation calculates the conservation of momentum and angular momentum relative to the speed of light and the speed of gravity. These “laws of physics” are basically a single experimental principle of mass, space, time, and gravity for the measurement of inertial force, momentum, Energy/Mass, and the force and motion of gravity as they all relate to the speed of light. Einstein postulated that the laws of physics remain the same when atoms are accelerated or decelerated to different inertial reference frames. This was a verygeneralstatementandhedidnotidentifyspecificlawsofnaturenorhowthey would be measured to remain unchanged. In fact at the time, he did not evenknowaboutsomeofthelawslistedbelow.Contrarytohisfirstpostulate,the experimental method easily shows that some of these laws remain constant while others are changed by motion both physically and in the way they are measured. These basic laws of experimental physics were established long before Einstein developed his relativity theories. He simply incorporated each of these laws into the metaphysical assumptions of the theories and attempted to make both subtle and revolutionary changes in each of these laws.

Einstein’s Third Unknown Metaphysical AssumptionEinstein based his relativity theories on three fundamental assumptions that have never been verified by any experimental measurement. The first two are prominent in any discussions of atomic physics, astronomy, and cosmology but the third has always been regarded as an eternal law of chemistry rather than an evolving electrodynamic principle.

1. The rest Energy/Mass E/M = C2 of matter can be converted into //the pure momentum p = mc and pure energy e = mc2 of massless photons. It is assumed that massless photons are composed of and travel at c through a physical aether-like medium called a spacetime continuum or an elec-tromagnetic field.

2. Earth’s gravitational force g = ms/t2 = 9.8 m/sec2 and motion Ves = √2gRE = 11.2 km/sec are directed toward Earth’s center.

3. The electron/proton mass ratio of e/p = 1/1836 has been an eternal and universal constant since the “beginning” of time.

These three unmeasured metaphysical assumptions are the foundation of Einstein’s special and general relativity theories of physics and cosmology. They are also used in the standard model theories of quantum mechanics, elec-trodynamics, evolutionary cosmology and various string theories.


Einstein’s PostulatesTo frame these three assumptions, Einstein felt it necessary to include two somewhat ambiguous and contradictory “postulates”.

First postulate:The laws of physics are the same in all inertial frames of reference.or more precise: The laws of motion are measured to be the same regardless of the observer’s moving frame.

Thebasicphilosophicalflawwiththisfirstpostulateisthatitmakesthevery unlikely assumption that the matter of the cosmos could exist in more than one inertial reference frame. We know from measurements of photon momentum that all photons move at c in the same inertial frame. How could we prove or why would we want to believe that atoms did not move and have momentum relative to the same universal inertial frame as photons? If each atom had a different zero momentum reference frame, we would measure Hy-drogen atoms to all have different masses. Experiments show that Lorentz transformations occur within a single in-ertial frame of reference that is equivalent but not equal to each of Einstein’s imaginaryframesofreference.Thefirstpostulateistotallyunnecessarybe-cause the cosmos can logically have only one natural inertial frame of refer-ence where:

Values of Absolute Zero Momentum FrameMomentum = zero, Mass = one, Inertial time = one, Gravitational time = one, Photons move at c, Photons and atoms spin at C, Linear Energy/Mass of atoms is zero E/M = 0, Rotational Energy/Mass is E/M = CC, and the Energy/Mass of photons is E/M = cC. All of these values are transformed within each of Einstein’s many imagi-nary “frames of reference” but there is still only one zero momentum frame that is common to the cosmos. The Lorentz transformation calculates the cor-rect values for total two-way momentum in all of Einstein’s moving frames. However, correct one-way transformations cannot be calculated in any of Ein-stein’simaginaryfirstpostulateframes.(seeTripletParadox)

Second PostulateWithout the first postulate’s absolute relative motion between multiple frames, the second postulate’s constant speed of photons becomes re-dundant. The second postulate becomes the same as the first. “All pho-tons travel at exactly c within one-dimensional voids common to the same zero momentum inertial void of all atoms.” The two-way speed of light is always measured at c and the one-way speed of light can only be estimated at c +/-v by Doppler shifts in photon momentum.


Einstein’s postulates were not meant to be new physics laws but rather to be constraints on existing physics laws so they would conform to his new metaphysicalassumptions.Thefirstpostulateisnegativeandunnecessarybe-cause no one believes that the laws of physics cannot be correctly measured by moving observers. Themainproblemwiththefirstpostulateisthatitisnotbasedincosmictime. It seems to imply that the “laws of physics” have been the same since the beginningoftime.Thefirstpostulateispresentedas a negative principle of measurement even though there is no experimental evidence offered to support its negative claims.

What Did Einstein Mean by “Laws of Physics” Anyway? The main problem with Einstein’s postulates is that he never really identified or defined what laws of physics remain the same and what laws would change when bodies are accelerated or decelerated to different inertial frames. Obviously, the only laws that remain unchanged by absolute motion are the laws of motions represented by the Lorentz transformations of mass, space, time, and gravity. Beyond these, there are many other physical relationships and constants listed below that could be called “laws of physics”. Measurements clearly show that some of these “laws” are changed by acceleration and deceleration and some are not. For example, the speed of light c is usually identified as a “law of nature” but it has a different measured value in every inertial reference frame. This is an apparent change caused by the slowing of clocks used to measure it.

Measured Speed of light in Earth’s frame c = 299,792,458 m/sTrue Speed of light at zero momentum rest frame c = 299,417,717.4 m/sThe Bohr RadiusThe Fine Structure ConstantPlanck’s ConstantThe Mass of the ElectronThe Mass of the ProtonThe Hydrogen SpectrumThe Energy/Mass of Photons E/M = cCThe electron/proton Mass Ratio of e/p = 1/1836The Gravitational Force & Momentum ConstantThe One Kilogram Platinum Bar in ParisThe One Meter Rod in ParisThe frequency of Cesium-133 atoms = t = 9.192 631 77 GHz = 1 second


In Conclusion Einstein’s two contradictory postulates and three unmeasured metaphysi-cal assumptions can make very accurate calculations to explain many physical events. However, none of these arbitrary relationships are needed to determine the parameters of any actual experiments. While Einstein’s relativity theories may work beautifully, they describe an imaginary reality that is upside down, backwards, and inside out from our true measured physical reality. Thefirstpostulate’svirtualrelativemotioncannotbereconciledwiththeindividual legs of Twin Paradox experiments or by the fact that photons al-ways have the same intrinsic velocity in empty space but are measured to have different values in every moving reference frame, The idea of a massless photon contained within the momentum and en-ergyofanimaginaryelectromagneticfieldcannotbereconciledwithexperi-ments that measure photons moving with the inertia of their linear momentum p = mc and containing the energy of that momentum p = mc plus the rotational energy of their angular momentum Iw = mlC/2π.

Photon Energy = mc2/2 + mC2/2 = mcC

Newton and Einstein’s imaginary assumption that the force and momen-tum vector of gravity pointed towards Earth’s center cannot be reconciled with experiments performed with accelerometers and atomic clocks that positively verify the upward pushing force of gravity that we all feel. The upward de-celeration of escape/surface velocity Ves that we measure with satellite clocks andMossbauereffectspositivelyconfirmsthatthedirectionofEarth’sgravi-tational momentum vector is up and not down. Where Einstein’s metaphysical relative and massless assumptions really begin to fall apart is when they are used in the various cosmologies derived from his relativity theories. The common assumption of all Big Bang theorists that the 1/1836 electron/proton mass ratio is an eternal constant has never beenverifiedbyanyexperiment.ThemajorcosmologicalparameterssuchastheGuthinflation,theformationofmatterandphotons,theaccumulationofgalaxies and stars, the Hubble constant, the 2.7 K temperature of the cosmic blackbody radiation, and Dark Energy can only be properly understood in terms of an electron/proton mass ratio that has been evolving in value over the course of cosmic history. Believing in length contraction comes from not realizing the clock’s mass and intervals have increased. The false but accurate measurement of length contraction is the only way an observer’s absolute motion can be indirectly determined.


The Variable Speed of Light versus the Absolute Motion of Clocks

Even though the speed of light is always constant in empty space, it is mea-sured to have a different value in every moving inertial frame due to the time dilation of clocks. The following series of thought experiments are devised to show what natural laws and constants remain the same through changes in momentum and which laws are altered by acceleration or deceleration. For ease in calculation, the velocity of .867 c is chosen for these experi-ments but Lorentz transformations are valid for any absolute velocity relative to the universal position of zero momentum photon rest. At this velocity, the linear Energy/Mass = c2 (relativistic mass) of the ship and crew is equal to the rotational Energy/Mass = C2 (rest mass) of their atoms. This doubling of the ship and crew’s Energy/Mass has slowed the rates of onboard inertial clocks to one-half and speeded the rate of pendulum gravity clocks to 1.414 The experiment begins when the atoms contained in a group of experi-mental physicists and their spaceship are accelerated from rest to a velocity of 86.7% the speed of light. They use an onboard Inertial Navigation System to determine when they have reached this velocity. The technicians then as-semble a number of experiments to measure the “laws of physics”. These tests were performed when the ship was at rest and then again at speed in order to detect any changes in locally measured values. Conservation of Linear and Angular MomentumThefirstthreelawsofnaturetobecalculatedandmeasuredareNewton’sfourlaws of momentum. p = mv, Iw=mvr,F=ma?d,andm=M√1-v2/c2. Momentum is mass times velocity and angular momentum is mass times rotational velocity times radius. These are the ultimate conserved components of all atoms and photons in the cosmos. Momentum a passive quantity that can only be detected by a linear Force that is measured on a single vector as mass times an unknown combination of absolute acceleration and decelera-tion. An accelerometer measures changes in momentum relative to itself but it can never separate its single reading into absolute acceleration from abso-lute deceleration. Angular momentum is an active absolute quantity that is the same in all reference frames that is measured by radial centripetal force. West bound automobiles must accelerate and increase their momentum to be-gin their journey but East bound drivers must decelerate to reduce the absolute momentum of their cars in order to move Eastward against Earth’s constant angular momentum. The Lorentz transformation is simply a combination of the laws of mo-mentum and Force and is the mechanism used for calculating and measuring the conservation of linear momentum. The Lorentz transformation is a mea-sure of momentum that is calculated as an increase in the Energy/Mass = c2


of moving bodies. Increasing mass causes inertial clocks to slow and slowed clocks make distances to appear contracted that in turn causes velocities to appear to speed up. The technicians use three different clocks clocks to measure time. A Ce-sium clock and a gyroscope to measure inertial time and a pendulum clock to measure gravitational time. The gyroscope rotor is spinning at 3600 rpm and ticks off one second after each 60 revolutions. As they accelerate fast-er and faster they note that their Cesium clock and gyroscope clock remain synchronized even though they know that they must both be slowing down. What causes the gyroscope clock to slow is that as the Lorentz transforma-tion increases the its rotor’s mass, its rotational velocity must slow in order to conserve angular momentum Iw = mvr. It is also the conservation of angular momentum that causes the Cesium clock to slow by the same rate as its atoms increase in mass. The Astronauts use accelerometers to quantify the laws of momentum at theirextremevelocity.Theyfirstmeasurethemassofaonekilogrambarbymeasuring the force needed to accelerate it to a given velocity. The then use thevelocityandaclocktomeasurethelengthofameterrodandfinallytheyuse the meter rod and velocity to determine the interval lengths of the acceler-ometer’s clock. All of their measurements come out exactly the same as they had back at rest on Earth. The bar still weighted one kilogram, the measuring rod was still onemeterinlengthandtheaccelerometer’sclockstillverifiedbothvalues.Allmeasurements of mass, space, and time, appear to be the same, even though the technicians knew their intrinsic values have been changed by their absolute linear momentum. These unchanged measured values of mass, space and time would seem to verify Einstein’s 1st postulate that stated the laws of physics are the same in all inertial frames. This all depends on what he considered to be “laws of physics”. The technicians knew from their inertial navigation system that they were traveling at .867 c and also calculated that at this velocity the Lorentz transformation would double their mass, slow their inertial clocks to one/half, speed up their gravity clocks by 1.414 times, and cause their meter rods to be measured at 500 mm. Einstein’s second postulate was a new law of nature that stated that pho-tons always moved through empty space at c = 299,792,458 m/s. When the sci-entists use their clocks and meter rods to test this law and measure the speed of light,theyfindtotheirsurprisethatthetwo-wayspeedhasincreasedtonearly600,000,000 m/s. There are two possible explanations for this doubling of c. Either their clocks have slowed to one-half or their meter rods have contracted to one-half but not both. Either way the actual intrinsic speed of light has not changed. Only the parameters of the astronaut’s measuring instruments have changed.


The True Two-way Speed of Light is 299,792,223.8 m/s We measure the speed of light c here on Earth to be exactly 299,792,458 m/s.Thisvalueisexactbecauseitisusedtodefinethelengthofthemeterandthe duration of a second. This is not the true value of c because it is measured to have a different value in every other inertial reference frame. Measuring the Speed of Light c and C When the mass of a clock is accelerated from Zero Momentum Rest, where it has no linear momentum, to an absolute momentum vector of p = mv, its mass increases and the rate of its ticking slows down. At a position of ZMR, M = 1 kilogram, S = 1 meter, T = 1 second, and the speed of light c = 299,792,223.8 m/s. Here on Earth, the speed of light is measured to be 299,792,458 m/s. With this value, the Lorentz transformation calculates that on Earth m’ = 1.00000078 kg, t’ = 1.00000078 sec, and Earth’s absolute momentum is p = m x 375 km/s. For astronauts traveling at 86.7 % c, m’ = 2 kg, t’ = 2 sec and the speed of light would be measured at 2 c. The two-way speed of light does not change but is measured to increase due to the slowing of the clocks used in its measurement. If the astronauts do not consider clock slowing and assume c to be constant, they will measure that their meter sticks have contracted to 500 mm. Astronauts or technicians on Earth can always determine the velocity of their absolute momentum, but not its direction, by measuring the two-way speed of light in their inertial frame. The slowing of their clocks from increasing momentum causes either the speed of light to be measured as increasing or the length of their meter sticks to be contracting. In both cases neither speed or length actually changes. The only change is in the clocks used to measure them.

Earth’s daly rotation is an inertial clock and the moon’s monthly orbit is a gravity clock.

In another test, a spectrometer is used is used to measure individual pho-tons of the Hydrogen spectrum. They know that the mass of the electron has been doubled by their momentum and that this will double the length of the Bohr radius which in turn doubles the wavelengths and halves the momentum of Hydrogen spectral photons. This is the so called transverse Doppler effect. While this double red shift in the Hydrogen spectrum can be measured by observers at rest, it cannot be measured in the spaceship because the spec-trometer has undergone the same transverse shifts in its atoms. Even though the wavelengths of Hydrogen spectrum photons have actually doubled, the slowed clocks will measure them at their original momentum, energy and wavelengths.


Inertial Time versus Gravitational TimeLorentz transformations caused by increased lin-ear momentum cause all inertial clocks to slow and pendulum gravity clocks to speed up. This diver-gence between inertial time and gravitational time indicates that they flow in opposite directions and meet in the middle as metaphysical time. An additional test is performed to measure the gravitational force constant with accelerometers and pendulum clocks attached at the bow and stern oftheship.Theastronautsfirstperformedthistestin a high Earth orbit to measure the amount of grav-itational acceleration produced by the ship’s Ener-gy/Mass = c2 at rest m =1. The pendulum clocks are then synchronized with the craft’s Cesium clocks. The same measurements are made again when theshipreachesitsfinalmomentum.Becauseofthecraft’s doubled mass, the doubled gravitational ac-celeration on the clock’s pendulum would increase its rate by 1.414 times its Earth rate and 2.828 times theslowedlocalCesiumclock’srate(t=2π√L/g=1t’=2π√L/2g=.707).Thedoubledmassoftheclock’s pendulum would not effect its rate of tick-ing but it is found that if the length of its pendulum is doubled, it will run at the same rate as the local Cesium clock. This is another example of an appar-ent Fitzgerald contraction.

The Fitzgerald Length “Contraction” In their measurements of light speed, the scientists detect a .5 contraction in the length of their meter rods when using their local measured clock. This is also true when they change the length of a gravity clock’s pendulum to adjust its time intervals, This is the so called Fitzgerald contraction but as we can see here, it is a non-physical length effect that is an artifact of the measurement process using slowed or speeded up clocks. At absolute rest, atoms have only rotational

Earth measurem

ent 300,000 km

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Energy/Mass = C2 (angular momentum) and zero momentum. When they are accelerated, they acquire linear Energy/Mass = c2 (momentum). At .867 c, their E/M = C2 is equal to their E/M = c2. The only thing that really changes in a Lorentz transformation is an increase or decrease in the clocks’ linear Energy/Mass = c2 (momentum) while their rota-tional Energy/Mass = C2 (angular momentum) remains constant. The faster the observers go, the more divergence they measure between the speed of light and their clocks. Observers can then use these measured changes in light speed or rod length to calculate their true velocity relative to the zero momentum photon rest frame of the cosmos. The three parameters of mass, space and time involved in the Lorentz transformation are just the components of changing linear momentum. Linear Energy/Mass = c2 is the only changing reality and space and time are merely metaphysical ideas used to quantify linear momentum as the absolute mo-tion of Energy/Mass. Of the three Lorentz transformation calculations of mass, space and time, mass is the only parameter that actually changes. Changes in the mass of any clock’s moving parts changes the lengths of its recorded inter-vals and changes in clock intervals will change length measurements when the two-way speed of light is used as a constant for space and time in the measured values. The following thought experiment demonstrates why length contraction is not a physical effect and how the idea arises from the experimenter’s choice of constants and physical parameters in the measurement process. In the experiment, a 300,000 km ruler with a mirror at the end is attached to a space ship. Photons are blue shifted to double their momentum when emitted toward the mirror and then red shifted to half their original momen-tumwhentheyarereflectedbacktotheship.Theclocktimingofthephotons’return is used to determine the length of the ruler. The intrinsic velocity of both the blue and red photons is exactly c relative to the empty space of zero momentum rest. Before the ship takes off, it is measured that it takes two seconds for the photons to return to the ship. However, when the ship and ruler are moving at 87% c, it only takes one second for the photon to travel to the mirror and back. This is because the observer’s inertial clocks have slowed to one half their Earth rate due to the doubling of its mass. If the observers don’t realize their clocks have slowed and assume the speed of light to be constant, they will incorrectly assume that the ruler has contracted to one half its Earth length. If the aether people try to use a Michaelson Interferometer to measure their absolute motion they will get a zero fringe shift. The small fringe shifts measured by interferometers back on Earth result from the Sagnac effect de-tecting Earth’s daly rotation.


The Sagnac Effect

RotationalRest

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In drawing #1, green un-shifted photons travel in opposite directions on a cir-cular path around the interferometer. They meet at the point where they started. In drawing #2, the circular path is rotating to the right. The photons emitted in the direction of the motion are blue shifted and take momentum from the apparatus and the photons emitted against the motion are red shifted and add to its momentum. Both sets of photons move at exactly c in opposite directions. Because their paths are rotating, they do not meet until the blue photons have made more than one revolution and the red photons have made less than a revolution. The exact rotation of the inter-ferometer can be measured as red and blue fringe shifts. They both move at exactly c and travel the same distance in the same time but the blue photons are perceived to move faster than the red photons relative to the Sagnac apparatus. The Sagnac effectissomewhatuniqueamongscientificexperimentsbe-cause it has been claimed at one time or another to both verify and falsify Spe-cial Relativity, General Relativity, and aether theories. These theories offer dif-ferent and somewhat contradictory explanations of this effect. However, none of these metaphysical assumptions are necessary because the Sagnac effect is based on a simple principle of measurement that requires no theory to explain. The constant speed of light is a measurement and not a theory.All photons are measured to move at exactly c through the same zero momen-tum rest frame of empty space. Their velocity relative to an observer is always plus or minus c and is precisely measured as red and blue Doppler shifts in photon momentum. In linear measurements, Doppler shifts cannot be physically separated from a photon’s actual dimensions but with the circular motion of the Sagnac inter-ferometer, the complementary absolute red and blue shifts are equal and can be precisely measured as fringe shifts to quantify rotary motion and conserve angular momentum.


The Lorentz Transformations of Mass, Space, Time, and Gravity

m’ = M/√1-v2/c2

A moving body’s kinetic mass m’ is equal to its zero momentum rest mass M divided by the square root of one minus its absolute velocity squared v2 divided by the speed of light squared c2.

A Lorentz Transformation Thought Experiment GPS Clock Calculations

A Triplet Paradox Experiment

The Lorentz transformation of mass equation is a principle of measure-ment that is classed as one of the laws of physical measurement just like linear momentum (p = mv), angular momentum (Iw = mvr), Force (F = ma), accel-eration (a = s/t2), (Energy/Mass = C2) of matter, (E/M = cC) of photons, and the relative momentum (E/M = c2) of moving bodies. The Lorentz transformation combines the above seven laws of experimental physics for the measurement and calculation of the conservation of momentum. It comes into play when-ever a body of mass undergoes measurable acceleration or deceleration. This equation calculates the changes in a body’s mass that occur with measured changes in its momentum. When a body is accelerated, its mass increases and when it is decelerated, its mass decreases to a minimum value at Zero Momen-tum Rest.

Energy/Mass is the Fundamental Component of Reality The measured Energy/Mass of electrons, protons, and photons is the sole substance of our physical reality and the metaphysical idea of Spacetime Con-tinuum Energy is just a way to calculate changes in momentum. When Einstein borrowed the old equation e = mc2 and used it as a funda-mental metaphysical assumption for the massless photon in his Special Rela-tivity theory, he made the mistake of imagining that energy and mass could be physically separated as stand alone entities. Energy and mass are always equal in every conceivable experimental measurement and calculation of a Lorentz transformation. Energy and mass are the same thing and cannot be separated in any way except as concepts in equations to measure their values separately. The are like the two sides of a coin. We can examine the “heads” side or the “tails” side of a coin but there is no conceivable way that they can be physi-cally separated. There are three ways that the Energy/Mass of atoms and photons can be measured and calculated. The rotational E/M = CC of atoms at rest where the mass of the circlon shapes of electrons and protons is spinning at rotational C


in two different directions. The linear E/M = c2 of the momentum of atoms in motion and the equal in linear and rotational E/M = cC of photons. (e = mc2/2 + e = mC2/2 = mcC). When the Energy/Mass of a body is measured, the result is always the angular momentum of a rotating body or the linear momentum of a body in motion. A photon has two equal quantities of energy from the linear and rotational motions at c and C of its single mass. For an example of the differences in Energy/Mass, consider a spaceship moving at 86.7% c. The Energy/Mass = c2 of the rocket’s linear momentum (kinetic mass increase) would now be equal to the Energy/Mass = CC of the angular momentum of the rocket’s atoms. At this point, the rocket’s linear E/M = c2 would be equal in measured value to the rotational E/M = C2 of all its atoms. This doubling in mass of the craft and the components of its clocks causes the length of recorded clock intervals to double as their rate slows to one-half. Clocks must slow when the mass of their internal components is in-creased because their angular momentum remains conserved and constant. Therehasneverbeenafundamentaldefinitionof“energy”otherthantosay it can only be measured as a two-way force producing two equal and op-posite changes in momentum that can also be calculated and measured as two unequal quantities of kinetic energy. Energy is just a secondary component of momentum and only becomes momentarily real and measurable during equal changes in momentum produced by a force caused by a change in momentum. A single force is measured as two unequal energies. The force of gunpowder in a cannon produces two exactly equal and opposite momenta in cannon and cannonball but the cannonball has far greater kinetic energy than the recoiling cannon. The Lorentz transformation of time (t’ = T /√1-v2/c2) calculates the length of a clock’s time intervals as it slows down or speeds up in direct proportion to increases or decreases of the Energy/Mass of the clock’s momentum vector relative to Zero Momentum Rest. When a 1 kg clock is accelerated, its mass increases and its recorded time intervals grow longer. When a clock is deceler-ated, its mass decreases back to m = 1 kg at rest and its time intervals grow shorter to a maximum rate and minimum interval of t’ = 1.0. When the clock reaches ZMR and has no linear momentum to dilate its intervals. This change in the duration of clock intervals has nothing to do with the imaginary metaphysical concept of “time itself”. Motion induced changes in clock rates are simply the mechanical effects of the conservation of angu-lar momentum on the increasing or decreasing mass in the clock’s internal moving mechanisms. As a clock’s linear Energy/Mass (momentum p = mv) increases with increasing velocity, the rotational Energy/Mass (angular mo-mentum Iw = mvr) of its rotating and vibrating components remains constant.


It is the conservation of angular momentum that causes the components clocks and atoms to slow their rotational motion and increase the intervals of time that they record. This process is reversed when clock is decelerated and the lengths of its recorded intervals are decreased.

The Lorentz Transformation is Not a Theory. The Lorentz transformation is a principle of measurement and not a theory. It is simply the equation used for calculating the conservation of momentum with the measured values of mass, space, time, and gravity. To obtain correct values for momentum vectors, the equation must be used whenever accelera-tion and deceleration are measured. At low velocities, changes in mass are insignificant but real.Theyhavebeen carefullymeasuredwithGPSclocksand in the direct and transverse photon Doppler shifts and momentum changes measured in the Pound-Rebka Experiment. While Einstein incorporated the Lorentz transformation into both of his relativity theories as a principle of measurement, it was not a component of the metaphysical assumptions made in either the special or general theories of relativity. He borrowed the Lorentz equation to be used in the calculations of his own metaphysical assumptions about the force and motion of atoms, pho-tons, and gravity. All physical theories of gravity and physical motion must use this equation to get accurate measurements. The Lorentz transformation of mass, space,and time does not produce a physical change in the length of rulers but rather a change in the parameters ofthemeasurementprocess.Ifmovingobserversusealaserrangefindertomeasure the length of an extended body, their slowed clocks would cause them to measure either a contraction in the body’s length or an increase in the speed of light.

Einstein’s 1st Postulate Falsified Contrary to the conclusion Einstein’s 1st postulate, the slowing of clocks due to increased momentum provides an experimental method for astronauts inside their ship to measure their absolute velocity relative to ZMR but not the direction of that motion. If they were moving at 1/2 c, they would measure the speed of light in any direction to be 1.15 c. The speed of light does not change but the astronaut’s slowed clock makes it appear to speed up. The speed of light is measured to have a different value in every moving frame.


Complementary Measurements of Relative Motion Bothm’=M/√1-v2/c2andt’=T/√1-v2/c2 determine the inertial frame for eachbodyofmasssuchasanatomicclock.Thereareaninfinitenumberofin-ertial frames with different values for their momentum vectors p = mv, but the cosmos contains only a single Zero Momentum Rest frame where p = 0, v = 0, m’ = 1, M = 1, t’ = 1 and T = 1. The values of p, v, m’, and t’ are changed in every other imagined moving frame. All clocks with the same ZMR velocity (v) have the same mass increase and increased clock intervals regardless of the direction of their motion. It is the ab-solute velocity of a clock’s momentum vector that determines its mass value and time intervals and not the relative velocity between any two bodies. Two clocks can be moving side by side at v = x and have no relative velocity between them or they can be moving in opposite directions with a relative velocity of v = 2x. In both cases the values for their mass and time intervals will be the same. Even though the relative motion between bodies in two moving frames has no effect on their mass and time, it is the only component of each body’s abso-lute momentum vector that can be measured. The experimental process is unable to separate a single measured acceleration vector into the separate components of its absolute acceleration and deceleration vectors that produce changes in a clock’s mass and time intervals.

A Lorentz Transformation Thought ExperimentThe following experiment allows observers to separate absolute motion from relative motion. It demonstrates that Lorentz transformations always establish absolute momentum and never relative motion. Imagine two pairs of spacecraft containing Cesuim-133 clocks and techni-cians. Each pair of craft is separated by some distance and moving toward one another at a measured relative velocity of 1 km/s. One craft is at Zero Momentum Rest with a velocity of v = 0 while the other is moving toward it at v = 1.0 km/s. The second pair of spacecraft are moving nearly side by side at v =150,000 km/s (1/2 c) and v = 150,001 km/s respectively. From their relative motion, we must conclude that each pair of clocks is moving along separate momentum vectors that are nearly identical. In each case, the technicians measure them to be mov-ing toward one another with an average relative velocity of v = 1.0 km/s. In the course of the experiment, the two crafts move close together, pass, and then move farther apart. The purpose of the experiment is to acquire infor-mation about the true absolute motion of each of their clocks. The technicians use Doppler shifted photons to monitor their changing relative motion as they pass. This relative velocity measured with Doppler shifts is only valid for indi-vidual points in time. Photons are blue-shifted as the clocks approach and then are red shifted as they recede from one another. At the time interval when the


two ships pass, there are no Doppler shifts between them (except for minor transverse shifts) indicating they have no relative motion. However, when all of the Doppler measurements are calculated together, it is determined that the two ships’s average relative velocity is v = 1.0 km/s. At the point where the spaceships pass, it is easy for the technicians to com-pare the difference in their clocks’ intervals and determine their true absolute velocities. If one clock is actually at rest with a mass value and time interval of t’ = 1.0 and the other has an absolute velocity of v = 1.0 km/s, then the mass and time interval of the moving clock would be m’ & t’ = 1.0000000000056. How-ever, with one clock moving at 150,000 km/s and the other moving at 150,001 km/s, then thefirstclockwould record time intervalsof1.15470054and thesecond clock’s intervals would be 1.15470310. The difference in clock rates be-tween a v = 1.0 km/s relative velocity at rest and a v = 1.0 km/s relative velocity at 1/2 c is enormous. The clock interval increase for 1.0 km/s at ZMR is more than 5 orders of magnitude smaller than the difference in intervals for v = 1.0 km/s of relative motion between clocks moving at v = 1/2 c.

Lorentz Transformation Mass and Time Values for 1/2 cMass of Clock at 1 km/s--------------- m’ = M/√1-v2/c2 = 1.0000000000056 kgClock interval for 1 km/s ------- t’ = T/√1-(1 km/s)2/c2 = 1.0000000000056Mass of Clock at 150,000 km/s------ m’ = M/√1-v2/c2 = 1.15470054 kgMass of Clock at 150,001 km/s------ m’ = M/√1-v2/c2 = 1.15470310 kgClock interval for 150,001 km/s -t’ = T/√1-(150,001 km/s)2/c2 = 1.15470310Clock interval for 150,000 km/s -t’ = T/√1-(150,000 km/s)2/c2 = 1.15470054Difference in clock intervals of 150,001 km/s & 150,000 km/s ---.00000256Difference in clock intervals of v = 0 km/s & v = 1 km/s----.0000000000056Difference in mass increase for v=1 between v =1 and v =150,001-- 457,142A 1 km/s velocity increase at 1/2 c produces 457,142 times more kinetic mass than a 1 km/s velocity increase from rest.

The Zero Momentum Rest Frame of Atoms and Photons Theideaofazeromomentumrestframem’=M/√1-02/c2 is a metaphysi-cal principle for the mass and clock intervals of m’, M, t’, & T, all = 1.0. This imaginary zero velocity metaphysical frame is just a featureless void of empty three-dimensional space that can never be measured because it has no physical parameters.AsEinstein imagined there are an infinite number of other pos-sible moving frames that can be measured with clocks and accelerometers. Each frame has a different value for its momentum vector (p = mv) and a different time interval (t’/T) for its clock. These frames all share relative motion with the single ZMR frame. In all moving frames, mass and time intervals have equal values of (m’ = 1+) & (t’ = 1+). Increasing the velocity of a clock increases its


mass and momentum and the conservation of angular momentum in turn in-creases the length of its time intervals. Two actual experiments that use the Lorentz transformation principle to calculate the mass and time differences between two Lorentz transformation frames are the GPS clock measurements and the Pound-Rebka measurements of gamma photon momentum.

Global Positioning System Clock Calculations In the GPS measurements, clock intervals between two different moving framesarecalculatedandmeasured.Thefirst frameis thecombinedvelocityvector of the rotational (orbital) velocity (ov = 448 m/s at equator) at Earth’s surface and the measured perpendicular upward gravitational escape/surface ve-locity at Earth’s surface esV = √2gRE = 11,189 m/s. The Lorentz transformation velocity v = √esv

2 + ov2 at Earth’s equator is 11,198 m/s. The second frame is

the combined vector of the GPS satellite’s orbital velocity oV = 3868 m/s and the vertical upward gravitational escape/surface velocity esV = 5471 m/s at its orbit. The Lorentz transformation velocity v = √esV

2 +oV2 of each of the 24 GPS

satellites is 6700 m/s and all of their clocks run at the same rate. The constantly changing relative velocities between them has no effect on their constant clock rate.

V2es=

1-

T0

V2o+C2

Tk

=Vtd V2es V2o+

Orbiting Atomic Clock Rate Equations

12 123

4567

8910

11

Esca

pe V

eloc

ity =

esV

Orbital Velocity = oV

Time D

ilatio

n Velo

city =

tdV

Orbit

Intrin

sic M

otion

Thro

ugh

Graviat

ional

Spac

e

Time dilation velocity (tdV) of an orbit isequal to the square root of the sum of theescape velocity squared (esV2) and theorbital velocity squared (oV2).

A clock’s kinetic time interval (Tk) is equalto its rest time interval (T0) divided by thesquare root of one minus the escape velocitysquared (esV2) plus the orbital velocitysquared (oV2) divided by the speed of lightsquared (C2).

Orbital time dilation results notf rom a combina t ion ofgravitational potential and orbitalmotion. Rather, it is caused bythe combined velocity vector(tdV) of two velocities at rightangles to one another. TheLorentz mass transformation atthe combined vector of orbitalvelocity (oV) and escape velocity(esV) causes the time dilation oforbiting clocks,

Earth Clock and GPS Clock Experimental ValuesMass of 1kg clock at relative motion- m’ = M/√1-v2/c2 = 1.000000000113 kgRelative velocity interval----------------- t’ = T /√1-v2/c2 = 1.000000000113Mass of Earth clock at 11.2 km/s---------m’= M/√1-2/c2 = 1.000000000697 kgMass of 1 kg GPS clock at 6.7 km/s---m’ = M/√1-v2/c2 = 1.000000000249 kgEarth Clock’s velocity interval ----t’ = T /√1- (11.2)2/c2 = 1.000000000697GPS Clock’s velocity interval ------ t’ = T /√1-(6.7)2/c2 = 1.000000000249 Interval slowing needed to synchronize GPS clocks -------- .000000000448 These calculations are not made with the equations of General Relativity theory’s metaphysical assumptions of undetectable gravitational potentials and


equivalent gravitational force and motion. These potentials are derived from mea-sured inertial gravitational accelerations and escape/surface velocities and they cannot be measured independently. It matters not whether you use calculated gravitational potentials or measured escape/surface velocities in your calculations. The results will come out the same either way because the calculated potentials are derived from measured velocities and accelerations. The metaphysical as-sumptionofimaginarygravitationalfieldpotentialsisnotneededtocalculatethecorrect GPS clock rates.

The Twin ParadoxThere is a third type of Lorentz transformation experimental measurement that makes a comparison between not two but four or more Lorentz velocity frames. One example of this is the so called Twin Paradox experiment where one twin stays home in an assumed zero velocity Earth frame and the other goes on a long, high velocity, journey into space and back. When the astronaut twin returns home, he is younger than his brother due to the difference between the unchanging clock intervals of Earth’s rest frame and the increased length in clock intervals of the Twin’s outbound or inbound velocities. If both legs of the journey are at the same measured velocity, then the dilated clock time intervals will be the same for the back and forth portions of the trip. The glaring problem with calculating the results of a twin paradox experiment is that the actual Zero Momentum Rest frame cannot be easily located and Earth’s true momentum cannot be located beyond comparing Earth’s location with the motion of bodies in the universe in general and the Doppler shifts in the momen-tumof2.7˚KCosmicBlackbodyRadiationphotonsinparticular.

The Triplet Paradox Experiment The thought experiment illustrated here is performed by identical triplets. Adam, Bob & Chad. Adam stays on Earth for two years and watches his clock. Bob uses his accelerometer to measure an acceleration to 375 km/s in the direction of the constellation Leo, maintains that velocity for one year and then records the time on his clock, turns around and accelerates to 750 km/s back towards Earth. This gives him a relative velocity with Earth of V = 375 km/s. Chad accelerates to 375 km/s in the direction of Aquarius and then after one year he records the elapsed time on his clock, turns around and accelerates to 750 km/s back towards Earth. This also gives him a relative velocity with Earth of V = 375 km/s. Both triplets spend two years traveling at a velocity of V = 375 km/s relative to Earth. If we use relativity’s time dilation formula t’ = t/√1-v2/c2 to calculate the clockratesfor375km/s,wefindtheintervalsofBob’sandChad’sclocksaret’= 1.000000781 versus Adam’s zero velocity intervals of t’ = 1.0. These measured values are only valid for the special situation where Earth is at rest in the Zero Mo-mentum Rest frame. Common sense tells us that Earth cannot possibly be at rest


in the ZMR frame. If nothing else, we can see Earth moving relative to the sun and the sun moving relative to the galaxy. Earth’s true momentum vector must remain unknown until the triplet paradox experiment has been completed. By measuring the difference in time intervals between each

Triplet Paradox Experimental Values Clock interval of Zero Momentum Frame - t’ = T /√1- 02/c2 = 1.0Lorentz mass of relative velocity ------- m’ = M/√1-3752/c2 = 1.000000781 kgClock interval of relative velocity --------- t’ = T /√1-3752/c2 = 1.000000781Lorentz mass of fastest legs -------------- m’ = M/√1-7502/c2 = 1.000003124 kgLorentz mass of stationary clocks ----------m’ = M/√1-02/c2 = 1.0 kgClock interval of fastest legs --------------- t’ = T /√1-7502/c2 = 1.000003124Clock interval of stationary “legs” ---------- t’ = T /√1- 02/c2 = 1.0Average clock interval of to and fro legs ----------------------- = 1.000001562Increased mass of Earth at 375 km/s ---------------------------- = 1.000000781Clock interval of Earth’s 375 km/s Lorentz velocity frame -- = 1.000000781Measured interval between Earth clock & Triplet’s clock ---- = 1.000000781Measured mass and time interval of Earth clock------- m & t’ = 1.0

Earth’s Absolute Motion

375 km/s relative to CBR

375 km/s

Triplet’s Journey in 2.7˚K Cosmic Blackbody Radiation Time

l=1

l=1

l =1

l=1

Chad’s outward& Bob’s returnJourney Bulbs

All photonsare emittedat c in alldirections.

l = 1.00125

l=1

l=1

l = .99875

Adam’sEarth Rest

375 km/s


Earth Rest

l = 1.0025

l=1

l =1

l = .9975

Bob’s outward& Chad’s return

Journey

750 km/s


Time IntervalT = 1.00000312

Time IntervalT = 1.000000781Time Interval

T = 1.00000

Zero MomentumCBR Photon Rest


leg of an astronaut’s journey, it is possible to measure the magnitude of Earth’s velocity along the vector of the twin’s journey. Only if the two intervals are the same can we determine that Earth is at rest along that vector. Now, if we use the formula to calculate Earth’s values within a 375 km/s velocity vector between Leo and Aquarius, we get different intervals for all three clocks. Adam’s Earth clock with an assumed interval of T = 1.0 is now calculated to have a Lorentz interval of t’ = 1.000000781. On Bob’s trip toward Leo, he is actually traveling at 750 km/sec relative to the ZMR frame. This increases the momentum of his atomic clock and increases its interval to t’ = 1.000003125. This is four times slower than Adam’s slowed Earth clock. After one year, Bob turns around, marks his clock, and accelerates to 750 km/s toward Earth to obtain a relative velocity of 375 km/s. In actuality, this is all deceleration that brings Bob to the position of ZMR. On Bob’s “trip” back to Earth, he is actually sitting still while it is Earth that is traveling at 375 km/s to meet him. With no momentum to slow his clock, Bob’s clock is running faster than Adam’s clock with a time interval of t’ = T /√1-02/c2 = 1.0. Bob can determine he is actually at v = 0 ZMR by observing no dipole anisotropy in the temperatureandmomentumofthe2.7˚KCBRphotons. When Chad accelerates to 375 km/s in the opposite direction towards Aquar-ius, he is actually decelerating to a stop. This decreases his clock’s momentum to zero and causes it to run at its maximum rate of t’ = 1.0. He also will not be able tomeasureanydipoleanisotropyinthemomentaof2.7˚KCBRphotons.Hesitsat rest for one year while Earth moves away from him at v = 375 km/s. He then records the time on his clock and accelerates to a momentum vector of v = 750 km/s towards Earth, giving him a relative velocity of 375 km/s. His clock will now have an interval of t’ = 1.000003125 for his true velocity of v = 750 km/s. In these calculations, Bob and Chad spent half their journeys sitting at rest with clock intervals of t’ = 1.0 and the other half moving at v = 750 km/s with clock intervals of t’ = 1.000003125. The average momentum frame time dilation interval of the traveling triplets is t’ = 1.000001562. Relative to Adam’s unmea-sured Earth clock’s rate of t’ = 1.000000781, the traveling triplets will measure their average time dilations for both their trips to be t’ = 1.000000781. By record-ing the elapsed time on their clocks when they turn around, Bob and Chad will be able to determine the correct clock time intervals for each leg of their journeys. This will allow the triplets to determine that the true motion of Earth is 375 km/s towards Leo without using the stars or the CBR dipole anisotropy as a reference. While it is true that special relativity’s twin paradox calculations for a zero velocity frame and the calculations for an arbitrarily moving Earth rest frame yield identical results for the total time dilation of Bob’s and Chad’s round trip journeys, they give greatly different results for the time intervals of individual legs of the triplet’s journeys. When the triplets record the time intervals for each legof their journeys, theyfind that theyarenot equal even though theywerecareful to maintain a precise relative velocity of V = 375 km/s with Earth. This


relativevelocitycanbemeasuredandverifiedwithbothinertialnavigationac-celerometers and photon Doppler shifts between Earth and the spacecraft. The triplets can then use the measured differences in these two clock intervals to calculate the true value for Earth’s velocity and momentum vector. These results clearly show that the Zero Momentum Rest frame is the only possible preferred frame and all of special relativity’s arbitrary “rest” frames can be measured to be moving frames with unique momentum vectors. While special relativity’s relative motion theory is able to calculate the correct aver-age time intervals for the triplet’s two-way trips, it fails completely to give cor-rect time intervals for individual one-way legs of the trips without incorporating Earth’s true momentum vector p = mv relative to the absolute frame.

The Zero Momentum Preferred Rest Frame The absolute negative existence of the Zero Momentum Rest frame calculates and measures the position and magnitude of Earth’s momentum and establishes the true values for its mass, space, time, and gravitational force and motion.

The measured time interval of 1.000000781 second, hour, year etc. tells us that Earth is moving at 375 km/s along the same x vector of the triplet’s trips. The difference in time intervals between each leg of the triplet’s trips determines the direction and magnitude of Earth’s Lorentz velocity. There are three vectors ofmotionandthismeasurementonlyidentifies.Earth’struemomentumvectorxyz velocity is v = 375 km/s along the x axis and zero velocity along the y and z vectors. This value is obtained from the measurement cosmic blackbody pho-tons. In a triplet paradox experiment where Adam, Bob and Chad travel along the x, y, and z vectors, it would be possible to compare Earth’s momentum vector with the momentum vectors of photons relative to the same Zero Momentum Framewhereaonekilogramclockism’=M/√1-02/c2 = 1 kg.

Zero Momentum Rest is not an Aether Frame ZMR is the measured preferred absolute rest frame of the Living Cosmos. Special Relativity calculations are only correct when the idea of intrinsic rela-tive motion is abandoned and the equations are based on the ZMR. In any other of relativity’s inertial frames, Lorentz calculations will yield incorrect values for experimental measurements of the time intervals in individual legs of a Twin Paradox experiment. Not even the most dedicated relativity enthusiast can deny that the location of the Living Cosmos’s Zero Momentum Rest frame represents the preferred rest frame for all accelerometer readings, photon Doppler shifts, and Lorentz transformations used to calculate and measure the conservation of linear mo-mentum. All photons move at exactly c within this frame and it is the only frame in which it is possible to make correct calculations for one-directional time dila-


tions. It is also the only frame in which there are zero Doppler shifts in emitted and absorbed photons. While the very existence of the Doppler effect demands a common rest frame for all photons, Doppler shifts, by their very nature, can only be used to measure relative motion. Doppler shifts are two way measure-ments of one way motion. Except at ZMR, all photons are Doppler shifted by unknown amounts at both emission and absorption. All that can ever be mea-sured is the relative motion between source and observer. Even true believers in aether will usually choose ZMR as the location for their aether since it appears to be the common frame for the speed of light. They propose that all photons are measured to move at c relative to their idea of a zero velocity Lorentz aether. Most aether people try to put their aether’s rest frame at the common frame of their idea of cosmic blackbody light waves. Special relativity does not attempt to locate a position of rest for its meta-physicalassumptionofa4-dimensionalspacetimecontinuumfield.Itisapos-tulate of the theory that the parameter of absolute space can’t be measured be-cause the laws of nature are measured to be the same in all moving frames. Einstein didn’t say that an absolute frame did not exist. He simply couldn’t figureoutawaytophysically locate it.Hadhe livedlongenoughtosee thePound-Rebka experiment, GPS clock measurements, and the cosmic blackbody radiation, he would have certainly abandoned his idea of intrinsic relative mo-tion.

The Lorentz Transformation of Personal Mass and Energy What the Lorentz transformation of mass, space, time, and gravity means is that, when we accelerate an automobile East on the highway, both the car and our body increase in mass in proportion to the momentum increase of the ac-celeration. In this case, the change in our energy and mass is very small, but by comparison,themassinherentinourkineticenergybeginstobecomesignifi-cant when we consider the absolute velocity of 375 km/s that our bodies have relativetotheZMRframeidentifiedbythedipoleanisotropyof2.7˚KCosmicBlackbody Radiation. This velocity has increased our linear Energy/Mass = c2 and gives a 100 kg person a kinetic energy of 1.8 x 1013 Joules and an increased kinetic mass of about 200 milligrams. Our absolute velocities relative to ZMR givesuseachreallinearkineticenergiesthatareaboutequaltothefirstatomicbomb that was exploded in New Mexico (1013 Joules) (see Joules of the Uni-verse). This energy is completely hidden from us and could only be realized by the negative kinetic energy needed to slow us down to a stop at ZMR. While this velocitymightatfirstseemtobeveryfast,itisonlyabout1/800th the speed of light. For our bodies to double in mass, we would have to travel in a spaceship at 87% the speed of light. At this velocity, our rest mass and kinetic mass would be equal and we would each have personal kinetic energies equal to about one million atomic bombs (1019 Joules).


Photon Physics without Metaphysics The corpuscular view of light cannot explain the celerity of light. This was Newton’s theory of light, renewed by the photon of the relativistic theory. The celerity of the photon is regarded as a law of Nature. Relativists think it is per-fectly futile to seek an explanation.

Jean de ClimontPhoton Structure and Dynamics Circlon Synchronicity is an experimental principle of the mass, space, time, and gravity of atoms and photons. It is based on the circlon shaped physical mass structures of electrons, protons and photons. Circlon synchronicity means that all electrons, protons, and photons in the Living Universe have identical parameters and are in perfect synchronicity with one another in time and space. All atoms have an individual relative momentum vector of p = mv and all photons have an absolute momentum vector of p = mc relative to the zero momentum photon rest frame.

Aether Theories Einstein’s postulate for the constant speed of light has led many theorists to believe that some form of universal medium such as an aether or field must be required for all photons to move at the same speed of light c within the same uni-versal reference frame. This is the way sound waves move in air and water with their speed depending on the temperature and density of the medium. Just because a photon has wave characteristics, does not mean it has to have a medium to travel through. The physical linear structure of the photon itself is its own moving mass medium. It travels through empty space at c and C on its own inertial momentum and angular momentum p = mc and Iw = mlC/2π. Photons are made out of the same coil shaped mass structures as atoms. Although Einstein claimed not to believe in aether as a carrier of photon waves, he invented a similar aether-like field substance called a spacetime con-tinuum for his massless photons and gravitational waves to travel through. Since then, Einstein’s critics have invented many different unmeasured metaphysical types of aether and fields to transmit massless photon and gravity wave units through space in a process analogous to the way that sound waves are transmit-ted though air or solid matter. None of these theories is ever physically complete because there is never any experimental verification of the aether itself. We can measure many things about atoms, photons, and gravity but no one has ever been able to measure anything about spacetime, aether, or fields that are not connected to electrons and protons. Some dissident theorists propose separate aethers for photons and gravity, while others, like Einstein, try to invent a single spacetime aether that does ev-erything. The most commonly proposed aethers are either rigid or elastic solids.


Others propose massless continuous fluids, while still others imagine their aether to be composed of countless, either stationary or rapidly moving un-measured particles to which each theorist gives his own peculiar pet names. Some theorists even propose their aether to be composed of a stationary lat-tice of electron/positron dipoles that are packed into space, back to back, wall to wall, and treetop tall. Some claim their aether to have an overall universal density similar to a neutron star. Ordinary matter has the miraculous ability to pass through this dense material lattice without any resistance. Still others claim that these “positron/electron” dipoles are massless because they imagine that while electrons have mass, antimatter positrons must have “anti-mass” and when they combine together into a neutral dipole they are massless. One theorist even claims that the universe is filled with otherwise indefinable and undetectable “black boxes” that are filled with “fibers” that vibrate as photon waves pass through them. The one thing that all of these imaginary aether, field and particle mediums have in common is that none has ever been detected by an experimental measurement. Electric and magnetic fields have been measured, but always in connec-tion with electrons and protons and never in connection with the empty void of space itself. Electric and magnetic fields are structural stationary photon-like extensions of electrons and protons and have nothing to do with aether. Surprisingly, few of Einstein’s critics have ever questioned his initial metaphysical assumption that the photon is a massless wave/particle duality that moves as a wave disturbance through the spacetime medium. The photon is considered by convention to be massless even though photons are measured to carry momentum, angular momentum, and energy as they travel through space. The only thing that we can ever measure about a massless photon is its momentum p = mc. How do you quantify momentum without mass? In contrast, if photons are allowed to have their measured mass, they can travel and spin from one end of the universe to the other under the power of their own inertia. Photon dynamics can be understood from the simple results of experimental measurements and there is no need to invent elaborate meta-physical theories to understand how photons move through the void of empty space. Photons are just like rifle bullets that contain the two separate energies of their moving (c) and spinning (C) mass. A rifle bullet’s kinetic energy is e = mv2/2 + mVr2/2. A photon’s kinetic energy is e = mc2/2 + mCr2/2 = mcC.

Photon Doppler Shift Measurements All photon measurements show that when atoms moving with different relative velocities emit photons, their motions have no effect on the velocity c that the photons travel through space. The atom’s individual motion produces Doppler shifts in the emitted photon’s momentum and wavelength but has no


effect on its angular momentum or its constant velocity c that all photons move relative to the empty void of zero momentum space. Since all photons are Doppler shifted by the absolute motion of the atoms that emit or reflect them and Doppler shifted again by the absolute motion of the device that measures them, there is no experimental way to determine the separate absolute motions of either source or observer. However, the sum of these Doppler shifts can always be used to measure the precise relative veloc-ity between them. Also, even though the photon’s relative velocity between source and observer will always be less than or greater than c, the average two way velocity between them will always be measured at exactly c. Each photon measurement contains a pair of unknown Doppler shifts that can only be resolved as a single relative motion. While one way measurements of photon velocity v are always Doppler shifted at c+/-v, two way measure-ments of photon velocity cancel all Doppler effects and always show v at ex-actly c = (c+v) + (c-v). One way measurements of photons show their relative motion with matter and two-way measurements show their absolute motion with other photons.

Negative ElectricCharge Coil

AElectron

Positive MagneticCharge Coil

B Proton

Electron Proton

C

Charge Coil Dynamics and Photon Emission What theorists call electric and magnetic fields are actually structural parts of the electron and proton that extend outward from their edges and are not “fields” existing as separate entities within space. Electric and magnetic fields are large etherial particles extending out into space from each electron and proton respectively. When the expanding negative electric charge coil of an electron (A) comes in contact with a proton’s positive magnetic charge coil (B), they intertwine with one another and pull the two particles together until they reach equilib-rium at the Bohr radius (C). As these two charge coils pull together (C), they align and adjust to form a stationary photon that reaches synchronicity when they become the same size


and occupy the same space while spinning in opposite directions (D). The sta-tionary photon’s secondary coils spin in opposite directions while maintaining their centers on a single two-dimensional plane and the 11.7 times smaller pri-mary coils spin in opposite directions with their centers on an infinite number of different two-dimensional planes.

Primary Coil Spin @ C Secondary Coil Spin @ C

D

These two equal and opposite charge coils combine to become a stationary photon (E). It is the stationary photon link at the Bohr radius that holds the

proton (F) and electron (G) together within the hydrogen atom.

SecondaryCoil Spin

Electron

Proton

G FE

Bohr Radius

StationaryPhoton

When this alignment process reaches synchronicity, the negative electric coil structure of the electron and the positive magnetic coil structure of the proton combine to form a stationary electric/magnetic photon. This photon has a mass = 2, a wavelength = 1/2 and an angular momentum of h/π = mlc/π. It has an energy of e = mc2 = 2, Half of this is the rotational kinetic energy = mC2/2 = 1 from the primary coils spinning at C on all planes and the other half is from the rotational kinetic energy = mC2/2 = 1 of the secondary coils spinning in opposite directions at the speed at C with their centers on a single plane. The tertiary coils move in one dimension, the secondary coils move in two dimensions and the primary coils move in n dimensions. The circumference of the Bohr link stationary photon is 2πao and when it splits into a pair photon they each have a wavelength of 4πao/a. This is 2/a times longer than the Bohr link’s circumference. When a stationary photon bifurcates, the oppositely spinning magnetic and


electric secondary coils break in two and separate their two spins at C into two opposite directions at c. As the two new photons unravel from the Bohr link’s secondary coils, they stretch out to twice the secondary coils original length. The emitted photons are the stretched out lengths of oppositely spinning primary coils.Internal Coil Structure of the Hydrogen Atom

rea

aoa

ClassicalElectron Radius

le = 2paao

re = aoa2 = lea2p

= 4pao

Compton wavelegth le

Classical Electron Radius

ao

le

re

number of secondary coilspa

= 430.51

pa

= 430.51

2p reale =

= 9.11267052 x 10 mLyman ∞ Photon

-84prea3= 2le

a2=4paο

aLyl∞ =

re = 2.81794092 x 10-15 m = 1

le = 860.1 re

l∞2

ao = 5.29177249 x 10-11 m

le = 2.42631058 x 10-12 m

me = 9.1093897 x 10-31 kg = 1

ao = 18,779 reao = 21.81 le

ao = .529177Å

Bohr radius

First Intrinsic Photon

xllea=xl4p re

a2=xl= = 6.65Å x-ray4paoxl

rea2

le2pa

Bohr radius

ao

Proton

Electron

Photon Link

Coil Structure of the Hydrogen AtomFrom Electron Radius, to Bohr Radius, to Lyman Intrinsic Photon

l∞ = 32,338,047 rel∞ = 37,558 le

l∞ = 1,722 aο

l∞ = 911.267052 Åmass of l∞ = 2.4254 x 10-35 kg

l∞ = 137.036 xl

energy of ∞ = 2.179 x 10-18 Jl

aο

area3

le2pa2

StationaryPhoton

le2p

It is quite difficult make realistic drawings depicting the mechan-ics of the hydrogen atom because of the vast size differences between the different links in its radiation chain. Of the 7 links shown here, the photon link is the largest link in the chain and is over √a7 = 32,000,000 times larger than the electron’s smallest classical electron radius link.


Each consecutive link is √a = 11.7 times larger than the previous link. The above drawings show two different ways of depicting the Hydrogen atom’s circlon shaped structural links. From the outside, the whole chain appears as just its largest link because the progressively smaller links are hidden inside of the atom’s seven coils.

PHOTON

c






Photon Dynamics When synchronicity is reached within the stationary photon structure (E), it splits into two photons that have equal wavelengths, equal and opposite momenta and equal and opposite angular momenta on opposing planes. Each photon has m = 1, l = 1, Iw = h/2π = mlc/2π and e = 1. This energy is one half the kinetic energy e = mc2/2 of the photon’s momentum at c and the other half is from the angular momentum of its primary coils spinning at C on all planes and in opposite directions. e = mc2/2 + mC2/2 = mcC. When an atom emits a photon, there is no transformation between mass and energy. What happens is the transformation of two opposite rotational motions of mass at C into two opposite linear motions of mass at c. A quantity of angular momentum becomes two equal quantities of linear momentum. The random relative motions (heat) of the electron and proton prior to the coupling of their charge coils produce the atom’s initial quantity of angular momentum Iω = mvr (A,B and C arrows). The number of Iω = h/2π units determines the number of photons that the atom can emit until its angular mo-mentum becomes less than 2h/2π = h/π and it does not have enough Iω to emit a pair of photons. The atom reaches its ground state when it can no longer emit any photons until it receives one or more units of angular momentum from another photon or from random mechanical motion (heat).


The Celerity of Light&

The Photon Doppler Shifts2.7˚KCosmicBlackbodyRadiationRest

Momentun of Photon Pair at CBR Restp = 1 p = 1V = C

Frequency C/l = .707Momentum mC = .707

Wavelength 1/mc = 1.414Energy mC2 = .707Mass = 1/lC = .707

Iw = mlC/2p

V = C

p = 1.414 p = .707Absolute Momentum of Photon Pair at Moving Point of Emission

1/3C

Total Angular Momentumof Opposite Spinning

Secondary CoilsIw = h/2p +h/2p = h/p = mlC/p

Frequency C/l = 1.414Momentum mC = 1.414Wavelength 1/mC = .707

Energy mC2 = 1.414Mass l/lC = 1.414

Iw = h/2p

V = CV = C

Relative Velocity V = 2C2.7˚KCosmicBlackbodyRadiationPhotonRest-C

Velocity of Emitting Atom V = 1/3C

V = 1 1/3 CC

CV = 2/3 C

Momentun of Stationary Photon at Point Break p = 2Velocity of Stationary Photon at Point Break V = 1/3C

CC

1 1/3C2/3C

StationaryPhoton

Magnetic CoilsElectric Coils

The Mechanics of Photon Motion c+ & c- All photons are emitted as identical pairs from the common position of photon zero momentum rest. The stationary photon has zero net energy be-cause the opposite angular momenta of its coils cancel and there is no relative energy between them. Individually, the coils have energy but together their energies cancel. Within the stationary photon, the magnetic coils of the proton and the elec-tric coils of the electron are spinning at C and in opposite directions while ad-justing and aligning with one another. When they reach reverse synchronicity, both coils bifurcate and combine into two identical photons that move apart on a single vector at 2 c. When the coils divide, the secondary magnetic coils from the proton com-bine with the opposite secondary electric coils from the electron. They stretch out into the electric/magnetic primary coil wavelength. Photons are 2/a = 274 times larger than the stationary photon that emitted them. This is because when the secondary coils of a circlon shape are stretched out into a primary coil wavelength l, they are 2/a times longer than the circumference of the station-ary photon’s tertiary coil. Opposite halves of the electric/magnetic coils com-bine to form a pair of identical photons moving in opposite directions.


When photons are emitted from a moving atom they share momentum with it but not velocity. During the time f the stationary photon is being transformed into a pair of photons, their wavelengths and momenta are being Doppler shifted by the atom’s momentum. Even though these photons are identical at the point of the photon break, they become red and blue shifted during the time of emission by sharing momentum with the atom. In the time l/c between photon break and emission, momentum is added to one photon and removed from the other by the atom’s absolute motion. Photons share momentum with the moving atom but not its velocity relative to zero momentum rest. Photons get all of their velocity c from the opposite spins of the electric/magnetic secondary coils of the stationary photon. Photons get no velocity from the emitting atom’s linear motion. All of a photon’s velocity comes from the primary coil spin velocities of the stationary photon C. The velocity c of photons is always constant because they get all of their velocity from the coils of matter spinning at C and none from the inertial motions v of matter. The absorp-tion of a photon by an atom is virtually the same process in reverse.

Time Interval1.0000000000



The 2.7˚ CBR Dipole Anisotropy

l=1

l=1

l =1

l=1

Photon Rest

l = 1.0025

l=1

l =1

l= .9975

750 km/s

375 km/s

The Earth is in Absolute Motion of 375 km/s relative to the 2.7˚ Cosmic Blackbody Radiation

l = 1.00125

l=1

l=1

l=.99875

375 km/sEarth Rest

RelativeVelocity

375 km/s

RelativeVelocity

375 km/s

This drawing shows the unseen Doppler shifts caused by Earth’s absolute motion toward Leo relative to the Zero Momentum Rest Frame of the Cos-mic Blackbody Radiation as measured by the CBR dipole anisotropy. A mov-ing light bulb emits red and blue Doppler shifted photons on opposite sides of the bulb along the vector of motion.


For an example of how the change in a body’s kinetic energy must also change its mass, consider a thought experiment in which a flywheel has evenly spaced mirrors attached to its outer surface like the fins of a paddle-wheel. The wheel is made of an exceedingly strong imaginary material and is spun so fast that the mirrors are moving at a velocity of 1/3 c. Two lasers, A and B, shoot photons at the mirrors on opposite sides of the wheel so that the mirrors are moving at 1/3 c toward the photons from laser A and at 1/3 c away from laser B photons. These photons are all emitted from the lasers with a wavelength, and momentum of exactly one, and all move at exactly c relative the same inertial CBR rest frame common to all photons. These photons reflect from the mirrors at the same velocity c that they had before striking the mirror. The velocity of the mirrors has no effect on the photons’ velocity but does change their momentum and wavelength. The l = 1 photons from laser A are blue-shifted to a wavelength of l = .707 as they reflect from the approaching mirror, and their energy and mass are increased to 1.414. In this process, the velocity of the spinning wheel is slowed as mass and energy are transferred to the reflecting photons. The photons from laser B are red-shifted as they reflect from the receding mirror to a wavelength of l = 1.414 and a momentum of .707. In this case, the velocity of the wheel increases as energy/mass is transferred from the photons to the wheel. In both of these examples, momentum is conserved and both mass and energy remain separate and constant. Mass and energy are two sides of the same coin and always remain con-stant, conserved and equal. If we attempt to explain this experiment in terms of massless photons then the con-servation of mass and energy is lost. The photons from laser A take energy away from the wheel and decrease its mass. Laser B photons transfer energy to the wheel and increase its mass. In both cases, energy remains constant but mass either vanishes into or appears from nowhere. How can mass and energy be equivalent if energy remains constant but mass does not? If the energy of moving mass produces extra mass how can the energy of moving photons not have mass?

Photon Flywheel

l = 1

l = 1

mass & energy =.70711 l = 1.414

mass & energy = 1

1/3 C

1/3 C

mass & energy = 1

mass & energy = 1.414 l =.70711

A

B

In this drawing the photons are drawn to scale for a velocity of 1/3 C.

mirrors

Momentum = 1

Momentum = 1

Momentum = .707 l = 1.414

Momentum = 1.414 l = .707


This is a scale model of photons being Doppler shifted in ten different situa-tions by one third of the speed of light. Photons emitted with the motion of the plane have half the wavelengths and twice the energy of the photons emitted against its motion. The above drawings all reproduce experimental measurements of photon force and motion and do not involve any “theories” of photons proposing aethers, fields, dimensions and any other unmeasured parameters or metaphysical media.

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Binary Pulsar Observations

A

B D

C

300 km/sec=.001C

300 km/sec

l = .999

30 km/sec = .0001C

Sun l = 1

l = 1.001

l = .999

l = 1

l = 1.001

1,001.1 photons/sec999.1 Photons/sec

998.9 Photons/sec1000.9 Photons/sec

1,000 Photons/sec

A BA B C D A B C D A B C D A B C D A B C D A B C D

Winter

Spring

Summer

l = 1

l = 1

l = .999

l = 1.001

Rela t ive ve loc i tybetween photon andobserver = 1.0001C

Rela t ive ve loc i tybetween photon andobserver = .9999C

Rela t ive ve loc i tybetween photon andobserver = 1.0000C

1,000.1 Photons/sec

999.9. Photons/sec

30 km/sec = .0001C

200,000 light years

The photons from this pulsar have traveled for two hundred thousand years before being observed and measured on earth, yet to the limit of

measurement they remain in perfect order of the time they were emitted. They form a line of photons with wavelengths that smoothly change back and forth from between

(λ=1.001)and(λ=.999)asthepulsarrevolves around its companion.

When the observer uses the 1000 pulses per

second of the pulsar as a measure of time to measure the velocity of the photons relative to his moving observation

pointonEarth,hefindsthatthemeasuredvelocityoflightisnotalways c in his rest frame. In spring, when the earth’s orbital motion

is transverse to the pulsar’s position, the green photons from pulsar positions (A) and (B) are measured at 1000 pulses/sec. In summer, when he is traveling at .0001c away

from the pulsar, he receives the green photons at 999.9 pulses/sec and thus measures the velocity of the photons to be .9999c in his rest frame. In winter, when he is traveling at .0001c toward the

pulsar he receives 1.001 pulses/sec and thus measures the velocity of the photons to be 1.001c.

Binary Pulsars The observation of binary pulsars offers very convincing experimental evidence that all photons move at exactly c within the common reference frame of Zero Momentum photon rest. A binary pulsar emits rapid bursts of X-ray photons at very regular intervals as it revolves around a companion star. When photons from a pulsar are carefully measured, it is found that they are blue shifted when the revolving pulsar is moving toward the earth and red shifted when the pulsar is moving away. Even though the pulsar may be two hundred thousand light years from earth, the photons remain perfectly lined up in their orderofemission.Theyareobservedasrepeatingsequencesoffirstredshiftedphotons and then blue shifted photons. If the changing motion of the revolving pulsar had any effect on the photons’ velocity of c, then the photons could never have remained in their sequence of emission for two hundred thousand years. If any of these photons moved even slightly faster or slower than c, they would be observed as a jumbled up mixture of red and blue shifted photons.


The True Meaning of E = MC2 The energies of the electron, proton are divided into two opposite rotation-al energies. The rotational kinetic energy of the primary coils of their circlon shape and the opposite rotational kinetic energy of their secondary coils. The energy of the photon is divided into four separate kinetic energies.The linear energy of its magnetic coil mass, the linear energy of the electric coil mass, the rotational energy of the magnetic coil mass, and the rotational energy of its electric coil mass. The two linear coil energies are Doppler shifted by the relative motion of the observer but the two opposite rotational coil energies of the electric and magnetic coils are absolute and are measured to be the same in all moving frames

4 Photon Energies

e = mC2/2 + mC2/2 = mCC

+

Opposite PhotonCoil Spin @ C

Negative Electric Coils

Positive Magnetic Coils

c

e = mC2/4 + mC2/4 = mCC/2Rotational Kinetic Energy

e = mc2/4 + mc2/4 = mcc/2Linear Kinetic Energy

Proton & Electron Rest Mass/Energy

e = mcC

Secondary Coil Spin Primary Coil S

pin

Tertiary Coil

Circlon Coil Spinof Electrons & Protons

Linear Motion @ c


This experiment measures a photon’s Doppler shifted momentum, energy and wavelength. It will show a different value between Einstein’s idea of the “pure energy” massless photon and the physical parameters of mass, space, and time in the mea-surements of photon momentum, wavelength, and energy. These experiments identify photon mass but are unable to separate its value from the unknown Doppler shift in a photon’s absolute momentum. Einstein’s massless photon would have the same propor-tional photon Doppler shifts for momentum and energy. A photon with mass would have no Doppler shifts in momentum or wavelength a 50% less Doppler shift in its energy..

Newtonian Energy Doppler shift @ 375 km/s

c2/2+v2/2 = .998749917 e = c2/2+v2/2 = .997501395

c2/2+v2/2 = 1.001251648 e = c2/2+v2/2 = 1.002503544

Ne = mc2/2+mv2/2√1-v2/c2 = .998749135 red

mc2/2+mv2/2√1-v2/c2 = 1.00125086 blueNe =

LASER

LASER

The Definitive Measurement of the Absolute Motion of Both Inertial Mass and Photon Mass

Transverse Doppler Shift

√1-v2/c2l rest

l motion =

√1-v2/c2 @ 375 km/s = .999999217c - v = .998749134

c + v = 1.001250865353

c + v√1-v2/c2 = 1.00125165 bluep =

Doppler shift of Momentum @ 375 km/s

c - v√1-v2/c2 = .998749916 redp =

= .001250865353375,000299,792,458

l = .998749916p = 1.00125165e = 1.00125165

l = 1p = 1e =1

l = 1.00125165p = .998749916e = .998749916

l = 1.00125165p = .998749916e = .998749916

l = .998749916p = 1.00125165e = 1.00125165

l = 1p = 1e =1

l = 1p = 1e =1

l = 1p = 1e =1

375 km/s

l = 1p = 1Ne = .997501395Re = .996252874

l = 1p = 1Ne =1.002503544Re =1.003758079

Dipole Anisotropy of the Cosmic Blackbody Radiation

Earth has an Absolute Motion of 375 km/s Relative to the Photon Rest of the 2.7˚K CBR.

This motion can be detected independently of the CBR by measureing the difference in Dopplershifts between a photon’s energy and its wavelength and momentum. This measurement canalso be used to show the photon has a mass structure and that it is not just “pure energy”.

Relativity’s Energy Doppler shift @ 375 km/s mv2√1-v2/c2 = .997499052 redRe =

Re =v2 = .997499834 e = mv2 = .996252874

v2 = 1.002503295 e = mv2 = 1.003758079mv2√1-v2/c2 = 1.00250251 blue

.001250865 c

This experimental measurement could easily be preformed in a small laboratory. All that wouldbe required is four lasers and sensors capable of accurately measuring photon wavelength and energy.

Experimental Measurement of Photon Mass Doppler shifts in photon momentum and energy could be detected with lasers aligned to the 375 km/s velocity vector of the CBR. Such an experiment could eas-ily be performed in a small underground laboratory. Four lasers would be aligned with, against, and at right angles to the CBR dipole anisotropy. Sensitive detectors would measure changes in the photon’s momentum and energy as Earth’s rotation moved the lasers into and out of alignment with the vector of CBR motion.


TheCirclon Model

of Nuclear Structure

SecondaryCoils

TertiaryCoil

ProtonLink Neutron

Neutron

PrimaryCoils

MesonLink

The Circlon Model of Nuclear Structure

The Circlon Shape Allparticlesofmatter,arecombinationsorconfigurationsoffourbasicstable particles. These are protons, electrons, photons, and neutrinos. All of these particles can be created when other particles of matter collide with one another at velocities near the speed of light. Each new particle is always created with an exact opposite antiparticle. These are the antiproton, positron, photon, and antineutrino. All eight of these particles are constructions of two basic kinds of hollow string that have mass, dimension, and shape. Particles with positive charge like protons and positrons are composed of positive magnetic string and particles with a negative charge like electrons and antiprotons are composed of negative electric string. Each photon is composed of an equal piece of both electric and magnetic string. Neutrinos are composed of a piece of magnetic string and antineutrinos are made of electric string.


To form the physical structure of each particle, this cosmic string is wound into several series of different sized coils that form a structure called a circlon shape. The circlon has the basic shape of a torus that is composed of several series of smaller structures with the circlon shape. The circlon has a tertiary coil that is composed of smaller circular-shaped secondary coils that are composed of smaller circular shaped primary coils. At this point we may assume that these coils are composed of a hollow string, which is the fundamental component of reality. The circlon shape is fundamental to particles of matter in the universe. It existsinessentiallytwovarieties;theproton(positivestring)andtheelectron(negative string). These are identical except for oppositeness in internal spins (charge) and a difference in scale. The electron is 1,836 times larger than the proton and the proton is 1,836 times more massive than the electron.

The Electromagnetic Charge ChainProtons and electrons are totally mechanical particles of matter that must touch to interact. It was long considered that each particle was attached to its own electromagnetic field that could be extended far out into the space aroundthem.Insteadoffields,thecirclonshapedprotonsandelectronshavepotentialsizes that are unlimited in scope. Once formed, protons and electrons immedi-ately extend their size by creating a single chain of progressively larger links withtheprotonorelectronatoneendandthedirectionofinfinityattheother.Thesechainsnevergetclosetoinfinitelengthbecausetheysooninteractwiththe single chain of another proton or electron. As soon as a proton and electron connect, their chains switch from expansion to contraction and they are pulled together. As the links in the chain get progressively smaller, the last links at the end of each chain combine to emit a pair of photons as the next smaller links in the chain connect. As the atom gets smaller and smaller it emits photons of shorter and shorter wavelengths. Each time an atom emits a photon it gives up a unit of angular momentum (Iw=h/2π=mlc/2π).Anatomstopsemittingphotons when the angular momentum between the proton and electron is less than the one unit needed to produce a photon. At this ground state, the charge chains are at equilibrium and the proton and electron maintain a constant dis-tance. If angular momentum is added to a ground state atom the largest links in its chain will combine to produce photons. The charge chain of the proton hasbeencalledthe“magneticfield”andtheelectron’schargechainisreferredtoasthe“electricfield”. Theprotonlinkisthefirstlinkintheproton’schainandcontainsmostofits mass and maintains a position at the far edge of the circlon shaped particle. The meson link is the second link of the proton’s chain and within an atom, itssizeandmassare(1/√a) 11.7 times larger and 11.7 times less massive. The mass of a proton is 938 meV and the mass of a free pi-meson is 139.57 meV (938/139.57= 6.721)


A meson link forms spontaneously from within the circlon structure of a bare proton. As soon as the meson link is formed, a third muon link is formed from within the structure of the meson link. An unlimited number of ever larg-er links will continue to form until the charge chain comes in contact with the charge chain of another particle.

The Meson Link When protons are bombarded with high energy particles, the meson link can be broken free to become a pi-meson. The pi-meson is more massive than a meson link because it acquired mass from the large amount of energy that it took to break it loose from the proton link. The pi-meson is a well known particle with a relativity long lifetime. It decays when this bare meson link spontaneously forms a second link that transforms it into a muon. A meson is simply a physical part of the proton. Its structure grew from within one of the bare proton’s secondary coils. It grows into the next fractal layer of the posi-tive mass string that makes up the circlon shaped mass structure of a proton.

The Neutron A neutron is basically a Hydrogen atom that is turned inside out. When the bond between a proton and electron are subjected to enough energy, their mutual charge chains collapse to the point where the bare electron becomes trapped inside of the bare proton link. Where the circlon shape of the proton was spinning like a wheel the neutron is now spinning end over end more like a ball. In this condition, neither particle can extend a charge chain out to other particles. The neutron’s extra mass comes from the energy that it took to force the electron inside of the proton’s structure. This extra mass makes the neutron smaller than a proton. Without a meson link, the neutron is just the right size tofitinsideofthesecondarycoilsofanotherproton’smesonlink.Thisformsa deuterium nucleus. A free neutron will decay within about nineteen minutes. When this happens, a proton and electron are not “created”. They are simply released from the bond that they shared within the neutron. The extra mass of the neutron is released as the decay energy of the particles. The meson link is a hollow torus shaped physical structure. It holds the neutron simply because it is rolling around inside of the meson’s secondary coils and can’t get out. The proton is actually a part of the meson link’s sec-ondary coil structure. A proton and meson can be broken apart but they are not separate entities. Cut off a piece of rope and both pieces are still the same rope. Neutrons are actually formed inside of a meson link during the process of electron capture. When a nuclear isotope has fewer neutrons than it needs to be stable it will use some of its structural energy to collapse one of its elec-trons into a proton and form a neutron. I do not believe that a neutron can form


in any way except through electron capture within a nucleus. A neutron can also be forced inside of a meson during neutron capture and in the process of nuclear fusion. The neutrons are like rolling balls within an atom’s meson. They remain unchanged within the meson until they undergo beta decay. When this hap-pens, the electron is ejected and the proton remains within the nucleus and generates a new magnetic charge chain that eventually couples to the electric charge chain of an external electron. This process is called beta decay.

The alpha particle (He-4 nucleus) is the most stable and has the highest binding energy of any nuclear particle. Its formation takes preference over the formation of any other nuclei. An extreme example of this is the almost instant decay of Beryllium-8. When the structure of a nuclei is disrupted through a decay or a collision, an alpha particle can form spontaneously and become ejected. An alpha particle exists at the center of every nucleus but a nucleus can contain only one alpha particle. Whenever an alpha particle is formed spontaneously from other weak bonds within a nucleus it is immediately eject-ed. Fusion is the process by which an alpha particle is formed or a proton is added to a nucleus. Fission is when the bonds between a proton and a neutron come apart. Beta decay results from the splitting of a neutron back into a pro-ton and electron. In the process of beta decay, there is sometimes enough extra energy for the formation of a positron/electron pair. When this happens, the positron soon couples to an electron to form a Positronium atom. Positronium atoms are very well studied low energy combinations of an electron and posi-tron that exist for a short period of time before they annihilate into a number of photons. Positronium exists in the two spin states. Para-positronium has anti-parallel spins and has a lifetime of (1.25 x 10-10 sec) It decays through the emission of an even number of photons. Ortho-positronium has parallel spins and has a lifetime of (1.42 x 10-7 sec). It decays through an odd number of photons. It is through radiation chains that protons and electrons interact with one another and are able to produce photons by combining the last links in both chains. However, for the purpose of understanding the Circlon Model of Nu-clearStructure,itisonlynecessarytoconsiderthefirsttwolinksinthepro-ton’s radiation chain. These are the proton link and the meson link, which to-gether form the promestone. The proton link is identical in size to the meson’s secondary coils. These three particles are assembled to form the approximately 2,000 nuclear isotopes of all the elements. These isotopes are constructed ac-cording to the Rules Circlon Nuclear Structure.


The Rules of Circlon Nuclear StructureThe following Nuclear Structure Rules describe how Promestones are added, one at a time, to form the nuclear structures of successive elements from Hy-drogen (#1) through Circlonium (#118). To form a stable nucleus, one or more neutrons must be added with each Promestone. As the nucleus grows, one element at a time, its structure must obey the Hydrogen and Alpha Center Rules, and, as structural complex-ity increases, one or more of the ten other rules.

Hydrogen Rule Each meson has four Nucleon Receptors equally spaced along its cir-cumference. One of the meson’s four Nucleon Receptors must always be oc-cupied by a proton. The other three Nucleon Receptors are spaced at 90 degree intervals from the proton. In the hydrogen nucleus, the Nucleon Receptors at 90 degrees from the proton must remain vacant. Nucleon Receptors are not physical structures in that they “look” no different from the restof themeson’scircumference; theymerely representthe four places where nucleons (protons and neutrons) and other mesons can attach to a meson within a nucleus.

DEUTERIUM TRITIUMPROMESTONE

MESON NEUTRON

PROTON

MESON

NEUTRON

PROTON

HYDROGEN-1

H-1

HYDROGEN-2

H-2

HYDROGEN-3

H-3


The Alpha Center Rule The center of each nucleus heavier than Hydrogen is formed by an Alpha Center. The structure of the Alpha Center, which is essentially an alpha particle, consists of two mesons crossed at right angles to one another, with a proton and neutron at each intersection. The two remaining Nucleon Receptors of each meson are vacant so that the He-4 nucleus has four vacant Nucleon Receptors. These four Recep-tors all contain neutrons in He-8, which is the heaviest unstable isotope of Helium.

MESON

PROTON

NEUTRON

NEUTRON

MESON

PROTON

MESON

MESON

HELIUM-8

He-8

ALPHA CENTER

HELIUM-4

ALPHA PARTICLE

He-4

HELIUM-3

He-3

Meson Rules Four simple rulesgovern theconfigurationofprotonsandneutronswithin the mesons that form the completed inner structure of all nuclei large enough for the rules to apply. Rule of Four The two mesons that form the Alpha Center of a nucleus will each contain four neutrons and four protons when their structure is complete. These two mesons will have one neutron and one proton at each joint where they connect. (This rule applies to all elements from Carbon on.)Rule of Three All mesons outside of the Alpha Center will contain three neutrons when their structure is complete. (This rule applies to all elements from Sodium on.)Rule of Two Whenever two mesons are joined together at one point they will contain two nucleons (one neutron and one proton) at this joint when their structure is complete. (This rule applies to all elements from Lithium on.)Rule of One Whenever two mesons outside of the alpha center are crossed so that they are joined in two places, they will have one proton at one joint and one neutron at the other joint when their structure is complete.(This rule applies to all elements from Nitrogen on.)


LithiumLeg

Li-7

NitrogenCross

LithiumLeg

AlphaCenter

N-15

Nitrogen-15Lithium-7Lithium

Leg

LithiumLithium forms when a Promestone attaches to one of the Alpha Center’s va-cant nucleon receptors. This structure is called a Lithium Leg, and all ele-ments except palladium and the noble gases have at least one. This process is repeated in successive elements, until the Alpha Center’s three other vacant receptorsarefilledwithLithiumLegs,formingCarbon.

NitrogenNitrogen forms when a Promestone is attached in a cross formation with one of carbon’s four Lithium Legs to form a Nitrogen Cross. Lithium Legs and Nitrogen Crosses hold the electrons of an atom’s outermost electron shell. In a Nitrogen Cross, the proton occupies one pair of crossed nucleon receptors, and the neutron occupies the other pair. The Nitrogen Cross is simi-lar in structure to the Alpha Center, except that its structure is complete when it has one proton at one of the junctions of its crossed mesons, and one neutron at the other junction. This process is repeated with successive elements, until the three remaining Lithium Legs are converted to Nitrogen Crosses to form Neon. At this point, a second Lithium Process begins with Sodium and ends at Argon to form another outer layer of nuclear structure. This step-by-step building of outer layers of nuclear structure is called the Lithium Process. TherearefiveLithiumProcesses,endingwithNeon,Argon,Krypton,Xenon,and Radon respectively. A sixth Lithium Process begins with francium and radium, but is in-terrupted by the third Scandium Process, and cannot be expected to resume formation until Copernicium #112 and then complete that process at element #118 (Circlonium).


Vanadiun-51 Pre-Chromium-52 Chromium-52

Cr-52V-51

21182

21282

11381

The Dual Event Transformation When a fourth Scandium Ear is added to a Vanadium nucleus, it causes a Promestone from one of its Lithium Legs to immediately move from the third LithiumLayerdownintothefirstScandiumLayer,whereitcombineswithaScandium Ear to form a Chromium Cross. This is a Dual Event Transforma-tion, and it occurs in the formation of twelve other elements, namely Copper, Niobium, Ruthenium, Palladium, Cerium, Terbium, Gold, Protactinium, Ura-nium, Neptunium, Plutonium, and Berkelium. The need for a Dual Event Transformation is indicated in the elec-tronconfigurationfortheseelements(seetheverticalrowofnumbersatthelower left of each isotope). These numbers indicate the number of electrons in each of the atom’s electron shells. Since each Promestone holds an electron, it showsupintheelectronconfigurationwhenaPromestonemovesfromanup-per position in the nucleus to a lower one, as the electron held by that Prome-stone is likewise pulled down into an inner shell.Dual Event Transformation RulesChromium RuleTwenty-fivepercentofanylayerofChromiumCrossesmustform in one step and be the result of a Dual Event Transformation. Thus, one Chromium Cross is formed in Chromium and two Chromium Crosses are formed in Cerium and Protactinium.Niobium Rule Whena layeroffirst four, then three,andfinally sixScan-dium Ears are formed, it immediately initiates a Dual Event Transformation, in which a Promestone moves down into the internal structure of the nucleus from a Lithium Leg.


This forms a Chromium Cross in the case of chromium, a fourth Scan-dium Ear in the case of Niobium, and a seventh Scandium Ear in the case of Ruthenium. This rule is not obeyed by elements heavier than Ruthenium.

This is a copy of the Copper block from the Periodic Table of the Circlon Model of Nuclear Structure

COPPER

11882

29

Cu-63

6365

Copper BallsLike Chromium, Copper is formed in a Dual Event Transformation, when a Promestone is added to one of Nickel’s Chromium Crosses to form a Copper Ball. This creates a dynamical imbalance that causes a Promestone to move down from the Lithium Layer to the Scandium Layer, and form a second Copper Balloppositethefirst.InaCopperBall,thethirdmesonisattachedtowherethetwo mesons of the Chromium Cross cross and attach to each other. One of these two junctions contains three mesons and a proton, while the other contains three mesonsandaneutron.ThesetwoCopperBallsbothbeginandcompletethefirstlayer of two Copper Balls. At this point the third Lithium Process resumes with the addition of a Lithium Leg to form Zinc. Copper’s two remaining Chromium Crosses do not become Copper Balls until the formation of Palladium.Copper RuleWhenever the last ball in a layer of two, four, or eight Copper Balls is formed, it does so as the result of a Dual Event Transformation, initiated by the formation ofeitherthefirst,thethird,ortheseventhballinthelayer.ThisruleappliestoCopper, Palladium, Gold, and Roentgenium.


Nickel-62 Pre-Copper-63 Copper-63

Ni-60 Cu-63Pre Cu-63

11882

11982

12081

Palladium RuleThe last two balls in a layer of four or eight Copper Balls cannot form until the layer of Scandium Ears of the next Scandium Process has completed its forma-tion. This rule applies to Palladium, Gold, and Roentgenium.

Terbium RuleWheneverthefirstballinalayerofeightCopperBallsisformed,itdoessoas a result of a Dual Event Transformation, as in the case of Terbium and Berkelium.

Berkelium-247

Bk-247

Gold-197

Au-197


LanthanumSpear

LanthanumSpear

Th-232 pre-Pa-233

pre-Protactinium ProtactiniumThorium

Pa-233

Lanthanum RuleA Lanthanum Spear will always occur in the element prior to the beginning, and completion, of a layer of eight Chromium Crosses. This rule applies to Lantha-num, Gadolinium, Actinium, and Curium. A Lanthanum Spear, which is essentially a false start at the third Scandium Process, is always a temporary nuclear structure that eventually moves down into the internal nuclear structure in a Dual Event Transformation. Lanthanum is formed when a Promestone is attached to one of barium’s Nitrogen Legs to form a Lanthanum Spear.

LanthanumSpear

Lanthanum-139

La-139

Thorium RuleInorderforthefirstfiveChromiumCrossesintheActinideGrouptoform,the“pressure” of one Lanthanum Spear must be maintained in the external struc-ture of the nucleus. When a Promestone is added to a Thorium nucleus, it forms a third Lanthanum Spear. As soon as this resulting pre-Protactinium nucleus is formed, the two other Lanthanum Spears move down into the third Scandium Layer to form two Chromium Crosses opposite each other. The resulting protactinium nucleus is transformed into Uranium by the addition of another Promestone, whichfirstmomentarily formsa secondLanthanumSpearand theneither itor the Lanthanum Spear opposite falls down into the third Scandium Layer to form a third Chromium Cross. WhenaPromestone isadded toaneptuniumnucleus to formafifthChromium Cross, the Lanthanum Spear then moves down to form the sixth Chromium Cross of Plutonium. This rule applies to Thorium, Protactinium, Uranium, Neptunium. and Plutonium.


NUCLEAR GLOSSARYArchetope Symmetry PrincipleAll elements have at least 3 known isotopes and some have as many as twenty-nine. The 112 named elements contain nearly two thousand known isotopes. Of these about 280 are stable or have very long lifetimes. Each element has a particular isotope that is most representative of that element. This archetypal isotope is called the element’s Archet-ope. The primary consideration in determining an element’s Archetope is symmetry. An Archtope’s balance neutrons must maintain an internal symmetry that matches the Ar-chetopes surrounding it on the periodic table. Most Archetopes obey all three Archetope Rules. In almost all cases, an element’s Archetope is its most abundant isotope.Chromium CrossThe nuclear structure that is formed by the crossing and linking together of two adjacent Scandium Ears.Copper BallThe nuclear structure that is formed when a Promestone is attached to a Chromium Cross, at a 45 degree angle to that Cross’s two component Promestones.Dual Event TransformationDualEventTransformationsoccurasinterruptionsinthenaturalflowoftheScandiumProcess. When a Dual Event Transformation occurs, the Lithium Process moves one step backwards, enabling the Scandium Process to move two steps forward. They occur at the beginnings and endings of layers and sub-layers in the internal nuclear structure. One explanation of why this occurs, is that the weight of the external nuclear structure is too great for the resistance of the internal nuclear structure, and a Promestone from the external structure “falls” into the internal structure.Lanthanum SpearThe nuclear structure formed when a Promestone is attached to the side of one of the legs of a nucleus. A Lanthanum Spear is just like a Scandium Ear, except that it at-taches farther out on the nuclear leg while it “waits” to migrate down into the internal nuclear structure, to join with a Scandium Ear, to form a Chromium Cross. Lanthanum, Gadolinium, Actinium, Protactinium, Uranium, Neptunium, and Curium each have one Lanthanum Spear, and Thorium is the only element with two.Lithium LegThe nuclear structure formed by the attachment of a Promestone to one of helium’s va-cant nucleon receptors. This process transforms an alpha particle to a lithium nucleus. All elements except the noble gases and Palladium have at least one Lithium Leg in their outer nuclear structure.Lithium ProcessThe sequence by which an outer layer of nuclear structure is formed. This is a two-step process,inwhichfirstalayeroffourLithiumLegsisformed,andtheneachistrans-formed into a Nitrogen Cross with the addition of a Promestone.MesonThe meson is the fourth link in a proton’s radiation chain. In the nucleus of the atom, theneutronsfitwithinthesecondarycoilsofthemesons,andlockthenucleustogether.Nitrogen CrossThe nuclear structure that is formed by the attachment of a Promestone at right angles to


the Promestone that forms a Lithium Leg. From Nitrogen on, all elements contain at least one Nitrogen Cross in their outer structure, except Silicon, Germanium, Tin, and Lead.Nucleon ReceptorsThe four places on the meson where it can attach to protons, neutrons, and other mesons. A proton is always located at one of a meson’s Nucleon Receptors and the others are located at 90 degree intervals from the proton.PromestoneThefirsttwolinksintheproton’sradiationchain.ThePromestoneisthenucleusoftheHydrogen-1 atom, and as such, along with the neutron, is the basic building block of all the elements. A Promestone with a neutron trapped within the secondary coils of its Meson link is a Deuteron, or Hydrogen-2 nucleus. A Promestone with two neutrons is a Triton, or Hydrogen-3 nucleus.Scandium EarThe nuclear structure that is formed when a Promestone is attached to the side of one of the legs of a nucleus and becomes part of its internal nuclear structure.Scandium ProcessThe sequence by which an internal layer of nuclear structure is formed. This is a three-stepprocess,inwhichfirstalayerofScandiumEarsisformed,whichisthenconvertedinto a layer of Chromium Crosses, which is then converted into a layer of Copper Balls

CopperBall

ChromiumCross

Scandium Ear

Nuclear Stability NumberTheideaoftheNuclearStabilityNumberisanewconceptfortheclassificationof the structure of atomic nuclei. It is a very simple system that matches nuclear structureswithasuperiordegreeofaccuracy.Thissystemfitsthewholerangeofelements very well. Elements that fall outside of these rules have what are called Stability Anomalies, and provide a means of testing the idea of circlon nuclear structure. These anomalies must be explained in terms of the unique nuclear structure of the elements exhibiting them. The Stability Number for each element is the increase in mass that its Archetope has over the Archetope of the previous element. This difference in mass is measured in whole units of proton or neutron mass. For most elements, the Archetope is quite unambiguous, since almost half of the elements have either only one stable isotope or no stable isotopes, and thus only one longest-lived isotope. For most of the other elements with more than one stable isotope, the choice of Archetope is quite straightforward, since the relative natural abundance of the various isotopes of a particular element will usually, quite overwhelmingly, point to a single isotope. These most abundant isotopes almost invariably match the neutron patterns of the Archetopes closely associated with their particular element on the periodic table.


U-238

(235)(238)*

92

2919322082

URANIUM

+5

226-240

Atomic Number

Lithium Leg

Scandium Ear

Copper Ball

Lanthanum Spear

Nitrogen Cross

Alpha Center

Chromium Cross

Atomic weights of isotopesfound in nature.Parentheses indicate radioactivity.Asterisk indicates most abundantisotope found in nature.

Arrow with tail indicates DualEvent Transformation and showswhere a Promestone moves froma higher position in the nucleusto a lower position.

Stability Number of element

Element symbol and atomicweight of nuclear model

Arrow indicates thePromestone added totransform this elementfrom the previous one(This is Promestone #92).

Electron/Meson Shells Experimental isotopic RangeThe atomic weights of the lightest and the heaviestartificial isotopes of thiselement that have been created in the laboratory.

Archetope Rules1. The Atomic Weight of Archetopes will be even for even numbered elements and odd for the odd numbered elements.

2. The Archetope of an element is that isotope which is most abundant in na-ture, or in the case of elements which have no stable isotopes, it is the longest lived isotope.

Number Rules1. The Stability Number of odd numbered elements to Arsenic is +3, and the Stability Number of odd numbered elements from Arsenic on is +1.

2. The Stability Number of even numbered elements up to Zinc is +1, and the Stability Number of even numbered elements from Zinc on is either +3 or +5.

Stability AnomaliesAny element that violates either the Stability Number Rules or the Archetope Rules has a Stability Anomaly which must be explained in terms of that ele-ment’s unique nuclear structure, and also in terms of that element’s place in the sequential process of nuclear structure.


PrPr

PrPr

PrPr

PrPr

PrPr

PrPr

PrPr

PrPr

PrPr

PrPr

Pr

?B?B

?B

SmSm

Sm

Nd

NdNd

NdNd

NdNd

NdNd

NdNd

NdNd

NdNd

NdNd

NdNd

NdNd

NdNd

SmSm

SmSm

SmSm

SmSm

SmSm

SmSm

SmSm

SmSm

SmSm

Sm

EuEu

EuEu

EuEu

EuEu

EuEu

EuEu

EuEu

EuEu

EuEu

EuEu

Eu

GdGd

GdGd

GdGd

GdGd

GdGd

GdGd

GdGd

GdGd

GdGd

TbTb

TbTb

TbTb

TbTb

TbTb

TbTb

TbTb

TbTb

TbTb

DyDy

DyDy

DyDy

DyDy

DyDy

DyDy

DyDy

DyDy

DyDy

Dy

HoHo

HoHo

HoHo

HoHo

HoHo

HoHo

HoHo

HoHo

HoHo

HoHo

ErEr

ErEr

ErEr

ErEr

ErEr

ErEr

ErEr

ErEr

ErEr

ErEr

ErEr

TmTm

TmTm

TmTm

TmTm

TmTm

TmTm

TmTm

TmTm

TmTm

TmTm

TmTm

Tm

YbYb

YbYb

YbYb

YbYb

YbYb

YbYb

YbYb

YbYb

YbYb

YbYb

Yb

LuLu

LuLu

LuLu

LuLu

LuLu

LuLu

LuLu

LuLu

LuLu

HfHf

HfHf

Hf

HfHf

HfHf

HfHf

HfHf

HfHf

HfHf

HfHf

HfHf

Hf

TaTa

TaTa

TaTa

TaTa

TaTa

TaTa

TaTa

TaTa

TaTa

TaTa

WW

WW

W

WW

WW

WW

WW

WW

WW

WW

WW

WW

ReRe

ReRe

ReRe

ReRe

ReRe

ReRe

ReRe

ReRe

ReRe

Re

OsOs

OsOs

OsOs

OsOs

OsOs

OsOs

OsOs

OsOs

OsOs

OsOs

OsOs

OsOs

OsOs

IrIr

IrIr

IrIr

IrIr

IrIr

IrIr

IrIr

IrIr

IrIr

IrIr

IrIr

IrIr

IrIr

Ir

PtPt

PtPt

PtPt

PtPt

PtPt

PtPt

PtPt

PtPt

PtPt

PtPt

PtPt

PtPt

PtPt

Pt

AuAu

AuAu

AuAu

AuAu

AuAu

AuAu

AuAu

AuAu

AuAu

AuAu

AuAu

AuAu

AuAu

AuAu

HgHg

HgHg

HgHg

HgHg

HgHg

HgHg

HgHg

HgHg

HgHg

HgHg

HgHg

HgHg

HgHg

HgHg

Hg

TlTl

TlTl

TlTl

TlTl

TlTl

TlTl

TlTl

TlTl

TlTl

TlTl

TlTl

TlTl

Tl

PbPb

PbPb

PbPb

PbPb

PbPb

PbPb

PbPb

PbPb

PbPb

PbPb

PbPb

PbPb

PbPb

PbPb

Pb

BiBi

BiBi

BiBi

BiBi

BiBi

BiBi

BiBi

BiBi

BiBi

BiBi

BiBi

BiBi

BiBi

FrFr

FrFr

FrFr

FrFr

FrFr

FrFr

FrFr

FrFr

FrFr

FrFr

FrFr

FrFr

FrFr

Fr

RaRa

RaRa

RaRa

RaRa

RaRa

RaRa

RaRa

RaRa

RaRa

RaRa

RaRa

RaRa

Ra

AcAc

AcAc

AcAc

AcAc

AcAc

AcAc

AcAc

AcAc

AcAc

AcAc

AcAc

AcAc

ThTh

ThTh

ThTh

ThTh

ThTh

ThTh

ThTh

ThTh

ThTh

ThTh

ThTh

ThTh

PaPa

PaPa

PaPa

PaPa

PaPa

PaPa

PaPa

PaPa

PaPa

Pa

PuPu

PuPu

PuPu

PuPu

PuPu

PuPu

PuPu

Pu

AmAm

AmAm

AmAm

AmAm

AmAm

AmAm

EsEs

EsEs

EsEs

EsEs

EsEs

EsEs

EsEs

CeCe

CeCe

CeCe

CeCe

CeCe

CeCe

CeCe

CeCe

CeCe

CeCe

CeCe

CeCe

Ce

HH He

HeHe

He

LiLi

LiLi

Li

BeBe

BeBe

Be

BB

BB

BB

CC

CC

CC

CC

NN

NN

NN

N

OO

OO

OO

O

FF

FF

FF

F

NeNe

NeNe

NeNe

NeNe

Ne

NaNa

NaNa

NaNa

NaNa

NaNa

NaNa

NaNa

MgMg

MgMg

MgMg

MgMg

MgMg

AlAl

AlAl

AlAl

AlAl

Al

SiSi

SiSi

SiSi

SiSi

SiSi

PP

PP

PP

PP

SS

SS

SS

SS

SS

ClCl

ClCl

ClCl

ClCl

ClCl

ArAr

ArAr

ArAr

ArAr

ArAr

KK

KK

KK

KK

KK

KK

K

CaCa

CaCa

CaCa

CaCa

CaCa

CaCa

Ca

ScSc

ScSc

ScSc

ScSc

ScSc

ScSc

TiTi

TiTi

TiTi

TiTi

TiTi

TiTi

Ti

VV

VV

VV

VV

VV

CrCr

CrCr

CrCr

CrCr

CrCr

Cr

MnMn

MnMn

MnMn

MnMn

MnMn

FeFe

FeFe

FeFe

FeFe

FeFe

Fe

FeCo

CoCo

CoCo

CoCo

CoCo

CoCo

Co

NiNi

NiNi

NiNi

NiNi

NiNi

NiNi

CuCu

CuCu

CuCu

CuCu

CuCu

CuCu

Cu

ZnZn

ZnZn

ZnZn

ZnZn

ZnZn

ZnZn

ZnZn

ZnZn

ZnZn

Zn

GaGa

GaGa

GaGa

GaGa

GaGa

GaGa

GaGa

GaGa

GaGa

GaGa

Ga

GeGe

GeGe

GeGe

GeGe

GeGe

GeGe

GeGe

GeGe

GeGe

GeGe

Ge

AsAs

AsAs

AsAs

AsAs

AsAs

AsAs

AsAs

AsAs

AsAs

AsAs

SeSe

SeSe

SeSe

SeSe

SeSe

SeSe

SeSe

SeSe

SeSe

SeSe

SeSe

Se

BrBr

BrBr

BrBr

BrBr

BrBr

BrBr

BrBr

BrBr

BrBr

BrBr

BrBr

Br

KrKr

KrKr

KrKr

KrKr

KrKr

KrKr

KrKr

KrKr

KrKr

KrKr

KrKr

Kr

RbRb

RbRb

RbRb

RbRb

RbRb

RbRb

RbRb

RbRb

RbRb

RbRb

RbRb

RbRb

RbRb

SrSr

SrSr

SrSr

SrSr

SrSr

SrSr

SrSr

SrSr

SrSr

SrSr

SrSr

Sr

YY

YY

YY

YY

YY

YY

YY

YY

YY

Y

ZrZr

ZrZr

ZrZr

ZrZr

ZrZr

ZrZr

ZrZr

ZrZr

ZrZr

ZrZr

ZrZr

NbNb

NbNb

NbNb

NbNb

NbNb

NbNb

NbNb

NbNb

NbNb

NbNb

Nb

MoMo

MoMo

MoMo

MoMo

MoMo

MoMo

MoMo

MoMo

MoMo

MoMo

TcTc

TcTc

TcTc

TcTc

TcTc

TcTc

TcTc

TcTc

TcTc

TcTc

RuRu

RuRu

RuRu

RuRu

RuRu

RuRu

RuRu

RuRu

RuRu

Ru

RhRh

RhRh

RhRh

RhRh

RhRh

RhRh

RhRh

RhRh

RhRh

RhRh

PdPd

PdPd

PdPd

PdPd

PdPd

PdPd

PdPd

PdPd

PdPd

PdPd

Pd

AgAg

AgAg

AgAg

AgAg

AgAg

AgAg

AgAg

AgAg

AgAg

AgAg

AgAg

AgAg

Ag

CdCd

CdCd

CdCd

CdCd

CdCd

CdCd

CdCd

CdCd

CdCd

CdCd

CdCd

CdCd

InIn

InIn

InIn

InIn

InIn

InIn

InIn

InIn

InIn

InIn

InIn

InIn

InIn

InIn

SnSn

SnSn

SnSn

SnSn

SnSn

SnSn

SnSn

SnSn

SnSn

SnSn

SnSn

SnSn

SnSn

SnSn

Sn

SbSb

SbSb

SbSb

SbSb

SbSb

SbSb

SbSb

SbSb

SbSb

SbSb

SbSb

SbSb

SbSb

SbSb

Sb

TeTe

TeTe

TeTe

TeTe

TeTe

TeTe

TeTe

TeTe

TeTe

TeTe

TeTe

TeTe

TeTe

TeTe

Te

II

II

II

II

II

II

II

II

II

II

II

II

II

I

XeXe

XeXe

XeXe

XeXe

XeXe

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XeXe

XeXe

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Xe

CsCs

CsCs

CsCs

CsCs

CsCs

CsCs

CsCs

CsCs

CsCs

CsCs

CsCs

CsCs

CsCs

CsCs

CsCs

Cs

BaBa

BaBa

BaBa

BaBa

BaBa

BaBa

BaBa

BaBa

BaBa

BaBa

BaBa

BaBa

BaBa

BaBa

BaBa

LaLa

LaLa

LaLa

LaLa

LaLa

LaLa

LaLa

LaLa

LaLa

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LaLa

BkBk

BkBk

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BkBk

BkBk

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CmCm

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CmCm

CmCm

H

ArKr

RnRn

RnRn

RnRn

RnRn

RnRn

RnRn

RnRn

RnRn

RnRn

RnRn

RnRn

RnRn

RnRn

Rn

UU

UU

UU

UU

UU

UU

UU

U

EuSm

O

172

262

261

260

259

258

257

256

255

254

253

252

251

250

249

248

247

246

245

244

243

242

241

240

239

238

237

236

235

234

233

232

231

230

229

228

227

226

225

224

223

222

221

220

219

218

217

216

215

214

213

212

211

210

209

208

207

206

205

204

203

202

201

200

199

198

197

196

195

194

193

192

191

190

189

188

187

186

185

184

183

182

181

180

179

178

177

176

175

174

173

171

170

169

168

167

166

165

164

163

162

161

160

159

158

157

156

155

154

153

152

151

150

149

148

147

146

145

144

143

142

141

140

139

138

137

136

135

134

133

132

131

130

129

128

127

126

125

124

123

122

121

120

119

118

117

116

115

114

113

112

111

110

109

108

107

106

105

104

103

102

101

100

9998

9796

9594

9392

9190

8988

8786

8584

8382

8180

7978

7776

7574

7372

7170

6968

6766

6564

6362

6160

5958

5756

5554

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5150

4948

4746

4544

4342

4140

3938

3736

3534

3332

3130

2928

2726

2524

2322

2120

1918

1716

1514

1312

1110

98

76

54

32

1

172

262

261

260

259

258

257

256

255

254

253

252

251

250

249

248

247

246

245

244

243

242

241

240

239

238

237

236

235

234

233

232

231

230

229

228

227

226

225

224

223

222

221

220

219

218

217

216

215

214

213

212

211

210

209

208

207

206

205

204

203

202

201

200

199

198

197

196

195

194

193

192

191

190

189

188

187

186

185

184

183

182

181

180

179

178

177

176

175

174

173

171

170

169

168

167

166

165

164

163

162

161

160

159

158

157

156

155

154

153

152

151

150

149

148

147

146

145

144

143

142

141

140

139

138

137

136

135

134

133

132

131

130

129

128

127

126

125

124

123

122

121

120

119

118

117

116

115

114

113

112

111

110

109

108

107

106

105

104

103

102

101

100

9998

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9594

9392

9190

8988

8786

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8382

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7978

7776

7574

7372

7170

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6766

6564

6362

6160

5958

5756

5554

5352

5150

4948

4746

4544

4342

4140

3938

3736

3534

3332

3130

2928

2726

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1918

1716

1514

1312

1110

98

76

54

32

1

EuGd

DyHo

ErTm

YbYb Lu

HfW

ReOs

PtAu

TlPb

Bi

Gd-

162

Ba-1

48Sb

-136

Pd-1

20Y-

101

Fe-6

2Sc

-51

C-1

6Be

-12

Li-1

1H

e-8

Kr-

96G

e-84

F-23

Si-3

4A

r-44

Rn-

226

Pb-2

16A

u-20

4W

-190

Tm-1

76U

-240

Th-2

36N

o-26

0

Mn-

50

He-

3Li

-6F-

17C

l-34

Ni-5

6G

e-64

Rb-

74N

b-86

Cd-

100

Nd-

130

Ba-1

16Sm

-134

Gd-

142

Hg-

176

Tl-1

84R

n-20

0R

a-20

6Lr

-254

Fm-2

44U

-226

Th-2

12

?A?A

?A?A

LrLr

LrLr

LrLr

NoNo

NoNo

NoNo

NoNo

No

MdMd

MdMd

MdMd

MdMd

MdMd

Md

FmFm

FmFm

FmFm

FmFm

FmFm

FmFm

FmFm

FmFm

CfCf

CfCf

CfCf

CfCf

CfCf

CfCf

CfCf

CfCf

NpNp

NpNp

NpNp

NpNp

NpNp

NpNp

NpNp

Np

PoPo

PoPo

PoPo

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PoPo

PoPo

PoPo

AtAt

AtAt

AtAt

AtAt

AtAt

AtAt

AtAt

AtAt

AtAt

AtAt

AtAt

AtAt

TlPt

W ReOs

HfW

YbLu

DyGd

Sm

PmPm

PmPm

PmPm

PmPm

PmPm

PmPm

PmPm

PmPm

PmPm

PmPm

PmPm

Pm

CePr

Te

PdTc

RuMo

NiCr

CaArHg

IrTa

TbNd

Re-

185

NEP

TUN

IUM

2 9 20 32 20 8 293

Np-

237

(237

)

AMER

ICIU

M

2 8 23 32 20 8 295

Am

-243

(243

)

PLU

TON

IUM

2 8 22 32 20 8 294

Pu-2

44

(244

)

CURI

UM

2 9 23 32 20 8 296

Cm

-246

(247

)

BERK

ELIU

M

2 8 25 32 20 8 297

Bk-2

47

(247

)

CALI

FORN

IUM

2 8 26 32 20 8 298

Cf-2

52

(251

)

PRO

MET

HIU

M

2 8 21 20 8 261

Pm-1

45

(145

)

SAM

ARIU

M

2 8 22 20 8 262

Sm-1

52

144

(147

)14

814

9(1

50)

152

154

EURO

PIU

M

2 8 23 20 8 263

Eu-1

53

151

153

GAD

OLI

NIU

M

2 9 23 20 8 264

Gd-

158

152

154

155

156

157

158

160

TERB

IUM

2 8 25 20 8 265

Tb-1

59

159

DYS

PRO

SIU

M

2 8 26 20 8 266

Dy-

164

156

158

160

161

162

163

164

2 13 30 32 20 8 2107

Bh-2

67

Bohr

ium

2 14 30 32 20 8 2108

Hs-

270

Has

sium

2 15 30 32 20 8 2109

Mt-2

71

Mei

tner

ium

2 16 30 32 20 8 2110

Ds-

272

Dar

msta

dtiu

m

1 16 32 32 20 8 2111

Rg-

271

Roen

tgen

ium

2 16 32 32 20 8 2112

Ci-2

72

CIRC

LONI

UM

HO

LMIU

M

2 8 27 20 8 267

Ho-

165

165

ERBI

UM

2 8 28 20 8 268

Er-1

68

162

164

166

167

168

170

THU

LIU

M

2 8 29 20 8 269

Tm-1

69

169

YTTE

RBIU

M

2 8 30 20 8 270

Yb-

174

168

170

171

172

173

174

176

EIN

STEI

NIU

M

2 8 27 32 20 8 299

Es-2

55

(254

)

FERM

IUM

2 8 28 32 20 8 2100

Fm-2

56

(257

)

MEN

DELE

VIUM

2 8 29 32 20 8 2101

Md-

257

(258

)

NO

BELI

UM

2 8 30 32 20 8 2102

No-

258

(259

)

FRAN

CIU

M

1 8 16 32 20 8 287

Fr-2

23

(223

)

RAD

IUM

2 8 16 32 20 8 288

Ra-

226

(226

)

LAW

REN

CIU

M

2 9 30 32 20 8 2103

Lr-2

59

(260

)

2 10 30 32 20 8 2104

RF-

262

Ruth

erfo

rdiu

m

2 11 30 32 20 8 2105

Db-

263

Dub

nium

2 12 30 32 20 8 2106

Sg-2

66

Seab

orgi

um

(261

)(2

62)

LAN

THAN

UM

2 9 16 20 8 257

La-1

39

(138

)13

9

CERI

UM

2 8 18 20 8 258

Ce-

140

136

138

140

142

2 8 19 20 8 259

Pr-1

41

141

NEO

DYM

IUM

2 8 20 20 8 260

Nd-

144

142

143

(144

)14

514

614

8(1

50)

ACTI

NIU

M

2 9 16 32 20 8 289

Ac-

227

(227

)

THO

RIU

M

2 10 16 32 20 8 290

Th-2

32

(232

)

PROT

ACTI

NIUM

2 9 18 32 20 8 291

Pa-2

31

(231

)

URA

NIU

M

2 9 19 32 20 8 292

U-2

38

(238

)

PRAS

EODY

MIU

M

Na-

23

Cu-

63

28181N M L K

Pd-1

10

2820160O N M L K

Au-

197

282032161P O N M L K

281

28181

2818180 281832181

281M L K

palla

dium

, the

re a

re d

iscr

epan

cies

betw

een

the

two

mod

els

in t

heel

ectro

n sh

ells

pre

dict

ed b

y ea

chm

odel

. T

he e

lect

ron

shel

ls,

whi

chsu

rrou

nd

the

nucl

eus,

ar

ean

alog

ous

to i

ts P

rom

esto

neL

ayer

s, s

ince

eac

h Pr

omes

tone

hold

s an

ele

ctro

n. T

he s

truc

ture

of t

he P

rom

esto

nes

with

in t

henu

cleu

s sh

ould

be

refle

cted

in th

est

ruct

ure

of t

he e

lect

ron

shel

lssu

rrou

ndin

g th

e nu

cleu

s.

With

each

of

th

e e

lem

ents

up

to

pall

adiu

m,

the

elec

tron

she

lls

have

bee

n ex

actly

the

sam

e fo

rbo

th th

e St

anda

rd M

odel

, and

the

Cir

clon

M

odel

.

How

ever

,be

ginn

ing

with

pal

ladi

um,

the

elec

tron

she

lls

of t

hese

tw

om

odel

s de

part

fro

m o

ne a

noth

er.

It i

s th

is d

iscr

epan

cy t

hat

can

mak

e po

ssib

le a

n ex

peri

men

tal

test

, whi

ch c

ould

sho

w o

ne m

odel

to b

e su

peri

or o

ver

the

othe

r. W

hen

the

trans

ition

is m

ade

from

rhod

ium

to

pa

llad

ium

, th

e

Stan

dard

Mod

el a

ssum

es t

hat

both

the

elec

tron

from

rho

dium

’s(O

) sh

ell

and

palla

dium

's n

ewel

ectr

on g

o do

wn

into

the

(N

)sh

ell.

How

ever

, as

we

can

easi

lyse

e fr

om th

e C

irclo

n M

odel

of t

henu

cleu

s, th

ese

two

elec

trons

dro

pdo

wn,

not

into

the

(N)

shel

l, bu

tra

ther

into

the

(M) s

hell.

The

(M)

shel

l has

rem

aine

d at

18

sinc

e th

efo

rmat

ion

of c

oppe

r. I

f w

e lo

okat

the

mod

el o

f Cu-

63, i

t is

eas

yto

see

tha

t th

e fi

rst

Sca

ndiu

m

Proc

ess

is

n

ot

com

plet

e un

til

its

two

rem

aini

ng

Chr

omiu

mC

ross

es

hav

e b

een

tran

sfor

med

int

o C

oppe

rB

alls

to c

ompl

ete

the

laye

rof

four

. Th

ese

two

Cop

per

Bal

ls d

o no

t fo

rm u

ntil

palla

dium

. W

e m

ust

reex

amin

e th

eex

perim

ents

use

d to

ver

ifyth

e el

ectro

n co

nfig

urat

ions

pred

icte

d by

the

Stan

dard

Mod

el.

With

out a

phy

sica

lm

odel

of t

he n

ucle

us to

go

on, a

n ex

perim

ente

r cou

ldea

sily

as

sum

e th

atpa

llad

ium

’s

last

tw

oel

ectro

ns re

side

in th

e (N

)sh

ell

sinc

e th

e (M

) sh

ell

has

been

ina

ctiv

e an

dap

pare

ntly

“fu

ll” f

or 1

6co

nsec

utiv

e el

emen

ts.

It

may

be

poss

ible

, by

expe

rimen

ting

with

hig

hly

ioni

zed

palla

dium

ato

ms,

to d

eter

min

e w

hich

of

thes

e tw

o el

ectr

on s

hell

mod

els

mos

t ac

cura

tely

desc

ribe

s ph

ysic

al r

ealit

y.Th

e sa

me

situ

atio

n oc

curs

in t

he t

rans

itio

n fr

ompl

atin

um

to

gold

, so

ioni

zed

gold

ato

ms

coul

dal

so

be

used

in

th

isex

perim

ent.

In

th

e 4

mod

els

ofel

emen

ts t

o th

e ri

ght,

the

elec

tron

she

lls

of t

heSt

anda

rd M

odel

are

sho

wn

in t

he w

hite

box

es a

ndth

ose

of th

e C

irclo

n M

odel

are

show

n in

the

col

ored

boxe

s.

The

mes

ons

inea

ch

nu

cleu

s ar

eco

lor-

code

d to

mat

ch th

eir

resp

ectiv

e el

ectr

on s

hells

.

Any

new

the

ory,

suc

h as

the

Cir

clon

M

odel

of

Nuc

lear

Stru

ctur

e, n

eeds

an

expe

rim

ent

that

ca

n be

pe

rfor

med

to

dem

onst

rate

its

sup

erio

rity

ove

rth

e cu

rren

t ex

istin

g th

eory

. U

pun

til

pall

adiu

m,

the

Cir

clon

Mod

el a

nd th

e St

anda

rd Q

uant

umM

echa

nica

l M

odel

of

nucl

ear

stru

ctur

e ar

e id

enti

cal

on a

quan

titat

ive

if n

ot a

qua

litat

ive

basi

s.

Beg

inni

ng

w

ith

ELEC

TRO

N S

HEL

LS

(235

)

The

Circ

lon

Mod

el o

f N

ucle

arSt

ruct

ure,

pre

sent

ed o

n th

is c

hart,

is e

xpla

ined

in

deta

il in

The

Oth

er T

heor

y of

Nuc

lear

Phy

sics

. W

ith h

undr

eds

of il

lust

ratio

ns,

this

boo

k in

trod

uces

a n

ewth

eory

of

nucl

ear

stru

ctur

e in

whi

ch t

he i

dea

of t

he s

tron

gnu

clea

r fo

rce

is r

epla

ced

by th

eas

sum

ptio

n th

at t

he p

hysi

cal

shap

es o

f pro

tons

, neu

trons

, and

mes

ons

are

such

tha

t th

ey c

anin

terlo

ck m

echa

nica

lly w

ith o

nean

othe

r to

form

the

nucl

ei o

f all

the

elem

ents

. T

he s

eque

ntia

lpr

oces

s of

nuc

lear

stru

ctur

e an

dth

e va

riou

s as

pect

s of

nuc

lear

stab

ility

are

exp

lain

ed in

term

s of

four

sets

of s

impl

e ru

les:

•Nuc

lear

Stru

ctur

e R

ules

•Sta

bilit

y N

umbe

r Rul

es•A

rche

tope

Rul

es•M

eson

Rul

es

T

his

book

di

scus

ses

and

illus

trate

s su

ch

idea

s a

s t

he:

•Qui

ntes

sent

ial S

hape

of

Mat

ter

•Arc

heto

pe S

ymm

etry

Prin

cipl

e•U

biqu

itous

Cir

clon

Pri

ncip

le•D

ual

Even

t Tr

ansf

orm

atio

ns•S

tabi

lity

Ano

mal

ies

•Iso

topi

c Is

omer

s•K

ey N

eutro

ns

To

ord

er a

cop

y of

The

Oth

erTh

eory

of N

ucle

ar P

hysi

cs p

leas

ese

nd $

17.0

0 to

:

Abs

olut

e M

otio

n In

stit

ute

2950

0 G

reen

Riv

er G

orge

Rd

Enum

claw

WA

980

22

Add

ition

al c

opie

s of

thi

s ch

art

(shi

pped

in m

ailin

g tu

bes)

can

be

purc

hase

d se

para

tely

for

$15

.00

each;or,acopyofboththebook

and

the

char

t can

be

obta

ined

for

$29.

00.

Pri

ces

incl

ude

post

age

and

hand

ling

with

in t

he U

.S.

All

othe

r co

untri

es a

dd $

2.00

to th

eto

tal.

THE

OTH

ER T

HEO

RYO

F N

UCL

EAR

PHYS

ICS

by J

ames

Car

ter

grap

hic

desi

gn b

y M

aren

Cos

ta

GAL

LIU

M

3 18 8 231

Ga-

69

69 71

GER

MAN

IUM

4 18 8 232

Ge-

74

70 72 73 74 76

ARSE

NIC

5 18 8 233

As-

75

75

SELE

NIU

M

6 18 8 234

Se-8

0

74 76 77 78 80 82

BRO

MIN

E

7 18 8 235

Br-8

1

79 81

KRYP

TON

8 18 8 236

Kr-

84

78 80 82 83 84 86

IND

IUM

3 16 20 8 249

In-1

15

113

115

TIN

4 16 20 8 250

Sn-1

20

112

114

115

116

117

118

119

120

122

(124

)

ANTI

MO

NY

5 16 20 8 251

Sb-1

21

121

123

TELL

URI

UM

6 16 20 8 252

Te-1

26

120

122

123

124

125

126

128

130

IOD

INE

7 16 20 8 253

I-12

7

127

XEN

ON

8 16 20 8 254

Xe-

132

124

126

128

129

130

131

132

134

136

THAL

LIU

M

3 16 32 20 8 281

Tl-2

03

203

205

LEAD

4 16 32 20 8 282

Pb-2

06

204

206

207

208

BISM

UTH

5 16 32 20 8 283

Bi-2

09

209

POLO

NIU

M

6 16 32 20 8 284

Po-2

10

(209

)

ASTA

TIN

E

7 16 32 20 8 285

At-2

11

(210

)

RAD

ON

8 16 32 20 8 286

Rn-

222

(222

)

NEO

N

8 210

Ne-

20

20 21 22

FLU

ORI

NE

7 29

F-19

19

OXY

GEN

6 28

0-16

16 17 18

NIT

ROG

EN

5 27

N-1

5

14 15

CARB

ON

4 26

C-1

2

12 13

BORO

N

3 25

B-11

10 11

ARG

ON

8 8 218

Ar-

36

36 38 40

CHLO

RIN

E

7 8 217

Cl-3

5

35 37

SULF

UR

6 8 216

S-32

32 33 34 36

PHOS

PHOR

US

5 8 215

P-31

31

SILI

CON

4 8 214

Si-2

8

28 29 30

ALU

MIN

UM

3 8 213

Al-2

7

27

MAN

GAN

ESE

2 13 8 225

Mn-

55

55

IRO

N

2 14 8 226

Fe-5

6

54 56 57 58

COBA

LT

2 15 8 227

Co-

59

59

NIC

KEL

2 16 8 228

Ni-6

0

58 60 61 62 64

COPP

ER

1 18 8 229

Cu-

63

63 65

TECH

NET

IUM

2 13 18 8 243

Tc-9

9

(97)

RUTH

ENIU

M

1 15 18 8 244

Ru-

102

96 98 99 100

101

102

104

RHO

DIU

M

1 16 18 8 245

Rh-

103

103

PALL

ADIU

M

0 16 20 8 246

Pd-1

06

102

104

105

106

108

110

SILV

ER

1 16 20 8 247

Ag-

107

107

109

RHEN

IUM

2 13 30 20 8 275

Re-

185

185

(187

)

OSM

IUM

2 14 30 20 8 276

Os-

192

184

186

187

188

189

190

192

IRID

IUM

2 15 30 20 8 277

Ir-1

93

191

193

PLAT

INU

M

2 16 30 20 8 278

Pt-1

96

190

192

194

195

196

198

GO

LD

1 16 32 20 8 279

Au-

197

197

CAD

MIU

M

2 16 20 8 248

Cd-

114

106

108

110

111

112

113

114

116

ZIN

C

2 18 8 230

Zn-6

6

64 66 67 68 70

MER

CURY

2 16 32 20 8 280

Hg-

202

196

198

199

200

201

202

204

POTA

SSIU

M

1 8 8 219

K-3

9

39 (40) 41

CALC

IUM

2 8 8 220

Ca-

40

40 42 43 44 46 48

SCAN

DIU

M

2 9 8 221

Sc-4

5

45

TITA

NIU

M

2 10 8 222

Ti-4

8

46 47 48 49 50

VAN

ADIU

M

2 11 8 223

V-51

(50) 51

CHRO

MIU

M

1 13 8 224

Cr-

52

50 52 53 54

RUBI

DIU

M

1 8 18 8 237

Rb-

85

85 (86)

STRO

NTI

UM

2 8 18 8 238

Sr-8

8

84 86 87 88

YTTR

IUM

2 9 18 8 239

Y-89

89

ZIRC

ON

IUM

2 10 18 8 240

Zr-9

2

90 91 92 94 (96)

NIO

BIU

M

1 12 18 8 241

Nb-

93

93

MOL

YBDE

NUM

1 13 18 8 242

Mo-

98

92 94 95 96 97 98 100

CESI

UM

1 8 16 20 8 255

Cs-

133

133

BARI

UM

2 8 16 20 8 256

Ba-1

38

130

132

134

135

136

137

138

LUTE

TIU

M

2 9 30 20 8 271

Lu-1

75

175

176

HAF

NIU

M

2 10 30 20 8 272

Hf-1

80

174

176

177

178

179

180

TAN

TALU

M

2 11 30 20 8 273

Ta-1

81

(180

)18

1

TUN

GST

EN

2 12 30 20 8 274

W-1

84

180

182

183

184

186

12 Mg

11 Na1 H 3 Li 19 K 37 Rb 55 Cs 87 Fr88 Ra

104

?A

4 Be 20 Ca 38 Sr 56 Ba

21 Sc22 Ti

23 V24 Cr

25 Mn

26 Fe27 Co

28 Ni29 Cu

30 Zn31 Ga

34 Se35 Br

13 Al14 Si

15 P16 S

17 Cl

5 B6 C

7 N8 O

9 F

72 Hf73 Ta

74 W75 Re

76 Os77 Ir

78 Pt79 Au

80 Hg81 Tl

84 Po85 At

39 Y40 Zr

41 Nb42 M

o43 Tc

44 Ru45 Rh

46 Pd47 Ag

48 Cd49 In

52 Te53 I

105

?B10

6?C

107

?D10

8?E

109 ?F

110

?G111 ?H

112 Ci

113 ?J

116

?M11

7 ?N10

3 Lr71 Lu

36 Kr18 Ar10 Ne2 He 86 Rn54 Xe 118

?O

33 As 83 Bi51 Sb 115 ?L

32 Ge 82 Pb50 Sn 114

?K 68 Er90 Th

57 La91 Pa

92 U93 Np

94 Pu95 Am

96 Cm97 Bk

98 Cf99 Es

100

Fm10

1M

d10

2No

58 Ce59 Pr

60 Nd61 Pm

62 Sm63 Eu

64 Gd65 Tb

66 Dy67 Ho

69 Tm70 Yb

89 Ac

Lant

hani

des

Actin

ides

The

Circlo

n Mod

elof

Nucle

ar Str

ucture

By J

ames

Car

ter

© 2

010

T

he g

raph

abo

ve sh

ows t

he n

early

200

0 is

otop

es th

at h

ave

been

cre

ated

and

ide

ntif

ied

by r

esea

rche

rs.

The

sta

ble

isot

opes

are

iden

tifie

d by

yel

low

box

es a

nd b

lack

ele

men

tsy

mbo

ls.

The

mos

t co

mm

on i

soto

pe o

f ea

ch e

lem

ent

isid

entif

ied

by a

bla

ck li

ne a

roun

d th

e ye

llow

box

. Whe

n an

elem

ent h

as n

o st

able

isot

opes

, its

long

est l

ived

isot

ope

isid

entif

ied

by a

yel

low

line

aro

und

the

isot

ope

box.

The

row

of is

otop

e m

odel

s at

the

top

of th

e gr

aph

corr

espo

nds

to th

eM

axim

um S

truct

ure

Line

and

sho

ws

sele

cted

ele

men

ts w

ithth

eir

nucl

ear

stru

ctur

e fi

lled

with

neu

tron

s.

The

yello

wne

utro

ns a

re th

ose

whi

ch h

ave

been

add

ed to

the A

rche

tope

of

that

ele

men

t (s

ee M

axim

um S

truc

ture

Lin

e in

The

Oth

erTh

eory

of N

ucle

ar P

hysi

cs).

The

row

of i

soto

pe m

odel

s at t

hebo

ttom

of t

he g

raph

cor

resp

onds

to th

e B

asic

Stru

ctur

e Li

nean

d sh

ows s

elec

ted

elem

ents

with

bal

ance

neu

trons

rem

oved

. T

he y

ello

w n

eutro

ns, w

hich

app

ear i

n th

ose

mod

els

heav

ier

than

rubi

dium

, are

bal

ance

neu

trons

that

hav

e be

en a

dded

toth

e ba

sic

stru

ctur

e of

thes

e nu

clei

to m

ake

them

mat

ch th

eis

otop

es a

t the

low

er e

dge

of th

e gr

aph.

NU

CLE

AR

STA

BILI

TY M

OD

EL

KN

OW

N IS

OTO

PE G

RA

PH

T

he N

ucle

ar S

tabi

lity

Mod

el is

a c

ompo

site

, seq

uent

ial

mod

el o

f al

l th

e kn

own

elem

ents

, an

d th

e un

disc

over

edel

emen

ts to

ato

mic

num

ber 1

12.

It re

pres

ents

the

step

by

step

cons

truct

ion

of 2

72 is

otop

es a

nd c

onta

ins

112

Prom

esto

nes

and

160

neut

rons

. Ea

ch is

labe

led

with

the

elem

ent s

ymbo

lan

d at

omic

wei

ght

of t

he n

ucle

us t

hat

is f

orm

ed w

ith t

head

ditio

n of

that

par

ticul

ar n

ucle

on.

Each

pro

ton

is re

pres

ente

dby

a p

ink

circ

le a

nd e

ach

neut

ron

by a

yel

low

box

. Th

em

eson

that

is a

ttach

ed to

eac

h pr

oton

is c

olor

ed to

mat

ch it

sel

emen

t gro

up o

n th

e pe

riodi

c ta

ble.

Up

to th

e is

otop

e bi

smut

h-20

9, w

hich

is th

e he

avie

st k

now

nst

able

isot

ope,

all

nucl

eons

in th

is m

odel

form

stab

le is

otop

esw

hen

they

are

add

ed to

a n

ucle

us e

xcep

t for

ato

mic

wei

ghts

5an

d 8,

and

the

Pro

mes

tone

s w

hich

for

m t

echn

etiu

m a

ndpr

omet

hium

. T

he P

rom

esto

nes

and

neut

rons

add

ed a

fter

bism

uth-

209

form

a s

eque

nce

of is

otop

es th

at in

clud

es th

elo

nges

t liv

ed i

soto

pes

of t

hese

uns

tabl

e el

emen

ts.

Toun

ders

tand

how

this

mod

el w

as c

onst

ruct

ed th

e re

ader

nee

don

ly b

egin

at t

he y

ello

w b

ox fo

r hyd

roge

n-1

on th

e K

now

nIs

otop

e G

raph

abo

ve a

nd t

hen

envi

sion

a l

ine

that

flo

ws

thro

ugh

the

grap

h un

derli

ning

as m

any

of th

e ye

llow

box

es a

spo

ssib

le w

hile

alw

ays

cont

inui

ng s

eque

ntia

lly th

roug

h th

eel

emen

ts.

Each

box

on

this

"sta

bilit

y lin

e" w

ill th

en re

pres

ent

one

of th

e is

otop

es w

ithin

this

mod

el.

NU

CLE

AR

STA

BILI

TY M

OD

EL

La-

139

Ni

61R

e-18

5

W 184

Lu-

175

Ba

137

Si 29 P-31

Hg

200

Ho-

165

Gd

155

Yb

172

Er

168B

a13

5

Eu-

151

Se 79

Cd

110

Cd-

108

Fe 58

Co-

59

Ti

49N

e21

Na-

23

C 13N

-14

Hg-

198

Nd

143

Te 124

Pt 196

Se 77

V-5

1

Ca 41

Dy

161

Zn 68

Xe

130

Bk

249

Dy

163

Bk

248

Ge-

70

Zn 66

S 33A

r-36

O 18N

e-20

C-1

2

Be 9

Ti-4

6

Ca 42

Pd 106

Ag-

107

Fe 57

Zn-

90

Sr 88C

e-14

0

Ni

62

Yb-

170

Nd

146

Yb

173

Os

190

Gd-

152

Se 80

Rn-

212

Pb 208

Hf-

176

Ba

138 U 23

8U 23

6

Es

254

Am

244

Ir-1

91

Os

189

Ta-1

81

Hf

180

No

259

U 235

Rn

221

Fr-2

23

Pb 206

Bi-2

09

?D-2

67

?C 265

Lr-

260

Th

231

Cu-

63

Cr

54

Nb-

93

Zr 91

Cl-3

5

S 34Pd 10

5

Hf

177

Te 126

Al-2

7

Mg

25Pu 24

2

Dy

162

Cf-

250

Rn

213

Am

245

Ga-

69

Zn 65

Y-8

9

Sr 87

Yb

174Ac-

227

Gd

158

U 237

Cf

251

No-

258

Rn

218

B-1

0

B 11

F-19O 17

Ag

109Ni-6

0

Ti

50

Hf

178

N 15 O-1

6

Er-

166

Er

167

Ba

136

Yb

171

Es

255

Cf

252C

a-40

Ar

38

?E-2

68

?C 266

Te-1

22

Sn 118

Ra-

224

Rn

222

Po-2

10

Pb 205

Ba-

134

Xe

132

Lr

261

W-1

82

Hf

179

Hg

199

Pu 241

Si 30 S-32

Ne

22M

g-24

Te 123

Pt 195

Se 78C

r-52

Ca 43

Zn-

64

Cr

53

Dy

164

Xe

129

Dy-

160

Eu

153

Zn 67

Mn-

55

Ti

47

Te 125

Gd

154

Td-

159

Ar

37K

-39

Ci-2

72

Rn

220

?C-2

64

Ra

226

Pb-2

04

Hg

202

?G-2

70

Th

229

Os-

186

Os

187

Th-

228

Sm 150

Md-

257

Rn

217

Bk-

247

Rn

214

Ru-

100

Mo

96Pu

-240

Gd

157

Sm-1

48

Ru

102

Pr-1

41

Cd

112

Te-9

9

Zr 92

Pa-2

33

Pt 193

Mo-

94

Mo

95

?H-2

71

Rn

219

Fm-2

56

Rn

215

U-2

34

Sm 149

Cm

-246

Pt 194

Au-

197

Nd

144

Pm-1

45

Ru

101

Np-

239

Gd

156

Pd-1

04

Mo

97

Nd-

142

Cd

111

Li 7

Be-

8

Sc-4

5

Ca 44

H 1H

e 3H

-2H

e-4

Li 5 Li-6

Rh-

103

Mo

98

?F-2

69

Th

230

I-12

7

Sn 120

Ti-2

03

Hg

201

At-

211

Pb 207

?B-2

63

Ra

225

Tm

-169

Sm 147

Am

-243

W 183

Es-

253

Rn

216

Sn 117

Sb-1

21

Xe

131

Cs-

133

Si-2

8

Mg

26

Sn-1

16

Cd

114

Kr-

82

Ge

73

Rb-

85

Kr

83

As-

75

Ge

71B

r-81

Ge

74

In-1

15

Cd

113

Sr-8

6

Kr

84

Se-7

6

Ge

72

Pt-1

92

Os

188

?A-2

62

Th

232

Xe-

128

Sn 119

Fe-5

6

Ti

48

Cir

clon

ium

-272

Th

e pe

riodi

c ta

ble

pres

ente

d he

re is

div

ided

into

13

diff

eren

t gr

oups

, eac

h w

ith i

ts o

wn

colo

r. E

ach

vert

ical

row

of

the

Lith

ium

Proc

ess e

lem

ents

is g

iven

a se

para

te c

olor

and

the

elem

ents

of

each

of

the

four

Sca

ndiu

mPr

oces

ses

have

diff

eren

t col

ors.

With

in e

ach

box

on t

he t

able

, a

nucl

eon

mod

el o

f its

Arc

heto

pe is

dis

play

ed f

or th

e el

emen

t. A

nel

emen

t's A

rche

tope

is th

at is

otop

e w

hich

mos

tch

arac

teriz

es th

e st

ruct

ure

of th

at e

lem

ent a

ndal

so sh

ares

a sy

mm

etry

with

the A

rche

tope

s of

the

elem

ents

aro

und

it on

the

perio

dic

tabl

e.In

alm

ost a

ll ca

ses,

an e

lem

ent's

Arc

heto

pe is

eith

er it

s m

ost a

bund

ant i

soto

pe o

r its

long

est

lived

isot

ope.

The

num

bers

to th

e rig

ht o

f eac

hm

odel

are

the

atom

ic w

eigh

ts o

f the

sta

ble

orlo

nges

t li

ved

isot

opes

of

that

ele

men

t(p

aren

thes

is

indi

cate

ra

dioa

ctiv

ity)

.

PER

IOD

IC T

ABL

E

The

num

bers

to

the

left

are

the

elec

tron

shellspredictedbytheCirclonModel;and

belo

w e

ach

mod

el is

the

elem

ent s

ymbo

l and

atom

ic w

eigh

t of

the

mod

el d

ispl

ayed

.

The

arro

w in

eac

h el

emen

t box

poi

nts t

o th

ePr

omes

tone

that

com

plet

es th

e st

ruct

ure

of th

eel

emen

t, m

akin

g it

easy

for

the

rea

der

tofo

llow

the

proc

ess

of n

ucle

ar s

truct

ure

from

one

elem

ent t

o th

e ne

xt.

The

elem

ents

with

two

arro

ws

are

Dua

l Ev

ent T

rans

form

atio

nel

emen

ts.

In th

ese

elem

ents

two

Prom

esto

nes

are

adde

d to

the

inte

rnal

nuc

lear

stru

ctur

e at

the

sam

e tim

e. O

ne o

f the

se P

rom

esto

nes

isad

ded

from

the

outs

ide

and

the

othe

r m

oves

dow

n in

to th

e in

terio

r fro

m th

e ex

terio

r of t

henu

cleu

s.

The

natu

re o

f th

ese

Dua

l Ev

ent

Tran

sfor

mat

ions

is

refl

ecte

d in

an

atom

'sex

tern

al e

lect

ron

shel

ls.

T

he c

ompl

ete

natu

re a

nd d

escr

iptio

n of

The

Cir

clon

Mod

el o

f N

ucle

arSt

ruct

ure

is c

onta

ined

in

the

book

The

Oth

er T

heor

y of

Nuc

lear

Phy

sics

.H

owev

er, f

or th

e pu

rpos

e of

und

erst

andi

ng n

ucle

ar st

ruct

ure

it is

onl

y ne

cess

ary

to a

ssum

e th

at t

he c

ompo

nent

s of

nuc

lear

stru

ctur

e (p

roto

ns, m

eson

s, a

ndne

utro

ns) a

re a

ll co

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This 39” x 27” full color Circlon Model of Nuclear Structure wall chart contains nuclear models of the most common isotope of each element. My new book “Physics without Metaphysics” also contains these models as well much additional information about the absolute motion of mass, space, time, and gravity and a complete description of Big Bang physics. Both the chart and book can be purchased at www.living-universe.com


La-139

Ni61Re-185

W184

Lu-175

Ba137

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Ho-165

Gd155 Yb

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Eu-151

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Cd110Cd-108

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Pb207

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Sr-86

Kr84

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Pt-192

Os188

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Th232

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Sn119

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NUCLEAR STABILITY MODEL

Copernicium-272

12Mg

11Na

1H3Li

19K37Rb55Cs87Fr

88Ra

104Rf

4Be

20Ca38Sr56Ba

21Sc

22Ti

23V

24Cr

25Mn

26Fe

27Co

28Ni

29Cu

30Zn

31Ga

34Se

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13Al

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16S

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74W

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76Os

77Ir

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80Hg

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84Po

85At

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41Nb

42Mo

43Tc

44Ru

45Rh

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47Ag

48Cd

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52Te

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106Sg

107Bh

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62Sm

63Eu

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65Tb

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Nuclear Stability Model

The Nuclear Stability Model shown on the back cover is a composite, sequential model of all known elements, up to Copernicium-272. Each is la-beled with the element symbol and atomic weight of the nucleus formed with the addition of that particular nucleon. Each proton is represented by a pink circle and each neutron by a yellow box. The meson attached to each proton is colored to match its element group on the periodic table below. Up to the isotope of Bismuth-209, which is the heaviest known stable isotope, all nucleons in this model form stable isotopes when they are added to a nucleus, except for atomic weights 5 and 8, and the Protons that form Tech-netium and Promethium. The Protons and neutrons added after Bismuth-209 follow a line through the longest lived isotopes of those elements. The periodic table presented here is different from a “standard” periodic table in that Lutetium and Lawrencium are moved from the last places in the Lanthanides and Actinides up into the main body of the table. This is because these two elements are each formed with the addition of a Scandium Ear and not with a Chromium Cross or Copper Ball as are the other Lanthanides and Actinide elements. The periodic table is divided into 13 groups, each with its own color. Each vertical row of the Lithium Process elements is given a separate color, while the elements of each of the four Scandium Processes have different colors. SilverandCadmiumare shown tobe the last twoelementsof thefirstScandium Process even though the last two Copper Balls of this process were formed with palladium. This is to maintain symmetry in both the structure of the model and the coloring system. The Lithium Legs that form Silver and CadmiumfirstbecamepartofthenuclearstructurewiththeformationofRu-bidium and Strontium and then moved down into the internal nuclear structure during the formation of Ruthenium and Palladium. Rather than label these two Lithium Legs twice, it makes more sense to label the last two protons of palladium’s Copper Balls as Silver and Cadmium. These elements are thus considered tobe the last twomembersof thefirstScandiumProcessratherthan members of the fourth Lithium Process even though they are each formed by the addition of a Lithium Leg. The above explanation is also applicable to Gold and Mercury, and to elements #111 and #112.


How the Pound-Rebka Experiment Invalidates the Equivalence Principle When Einstein first calculated the transverse gravitational red and blue shifts of Earth’s gravitational potential field, the effect was so small that many thought it would be impossible to measure. It was not until 1959, four years after Einstein’s death, that Robert Pound and Glen Rebka made very accurate measurements of both direct Doppler and transverse shifts in the momentum of emitted and absorbed photons. At the time, theorists realized they had discovered and measured Einstein’s long pre-dicted gravitational red and blue shifts caused by Lorentz transformations in the intervals of clocks. Einstein believed gravitational transformations were pro-duced by unmeasured equivalent motion whereas the Lorentz transformations in special relativity are a measure of absolute inertial motion of mass. Einstein was a fool to believe in equivalent motion because transformations in mass and time are caused by measured and not imagined gravitational inertial motion. Pound-Rebka measures transverse and direct Doppler shifts in the relative momentum of photons and the absolute momentum of gravity. Transverse pho-ton shifts result from Lorentz transformations in the intervals of emitting and absorbing clocks. Direct Doppler shifts are produced by relative motion such as the movement of actuators. Careful examination of the experimental results shows the measured shifts to be simple transverse and direct Doppler shifts caused by changes in momen-tumandnotbytheeffectofEinstein’simaginedgravitationalpotentialfieldorhisequallyimplausibleelectromagneticfield.Photonsareshiftedbyabsolutemotion but only measured by relative motion. Photon shifts can be calculated in Einstein’s imaginary spacetime continuum but only measured in inertial space. Einstein’s calculations are correct but they are based on the metaphysical as-sumptions of two otherwise unmeasurable quantities. Although Einstein’s fol-lowers were able to correctly calculate the measured values of the Pound-Rebka shifts, they only did so by ignoring the Newtonian laws of measured force and motion. While Einstein accepted the quantum mechanical and electrodynamic measurements of atoms and photon motion to be true, he declared the me-chanical measurements of gravitational force and momentum to be not equal to but only just equivalent to the inertial force and momentum of at-oms and photons. Einstein’s equivalent anti-principle of force and mo-tion says that gravitational force and momentum can never be measured because it is not real. They are not equal to but only just equivalent to the force and momentum of atoms and photons that can always be measured. The Pound-Rebka experiment clearly shows that the force and motion of grav-ity is equal to the force and motion of photons and not just their equivalent.


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Clock interval at top1.00000000069594593

Transverse Red Shift is caused by the fasterrunning clock at the top of the tower.

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Pound-Rebka Physical Values This drawing depicts the actual values for photon momentum and wavelength measured by the Pound-Rebka experiment. Observers at the bottom and on the top of the tower observe the pho-tons from green light bulbs located at the tower’s top and bottom. The bot-tom observer measures the bottom green light photons as green and the top observer sees these green photons as red but sees the photons from the top green light as green even though they are measured as blue by the bot-tom observer. These are the indisputable mea-surements of the experiment and everyone believes them to be true. Where the disputes arise is in the many ideas that theorists have to ex-plain the physical mechanisms under-lying these measured shifts in photon momentum. Several mainstream Harvard type theoretical physicists have strikingly different explanations of these red and blue shifts and numerous crackpot theorists also have several different metaphysical theories of gravity and photon momentum. The absolute motion explana-tion of the experiment presented in this book is not a “theory” of gravity or photons. It just presents physical measurements of mass, space, time, and gravity that require no theories. Metaphysical theories are only needed when theorists like Einstein and other crackpots want to change the interpretation of the measure-ments in ways that cannot be detected.


The Pound-Rebka ExperimentThe Pound-Rebka experiment is a quantum mechanical and electrodynamic measurement of the gravitational expansion of mass, space, and time. It deter-mines precise values for the force and motion of gravity and their interactions with the momentum of photons. The conclusion reached by the experiment is that the measured slowing of atomic clocks by escape/surface velocity Ves show that the force and motion of gravity point up. This model is not a theory of gravity because it is just compares the electrodynamic measurement of pho-tons with inertial measurements of gravitational force and motion. This is a principle of measurement and does suggest or require any theories for aethers, fields, or a spacetime continuum. There is no equivalence between gravitational motion and inertial motion because Pound/Rebka measures them to be exactly the same and concludes that gravity is an upward push. Everyone’s idea of gravity is pure fantasy. The idea of a universal gravitational pull of mass, space, and time requires an incomprehensible general structure filling the whole universe that has an inti-mate connection with each atom in the cosmos. A local upward gravitational push does not produce any elaborate universal fantasies because each atom’s gravitational force and motion do not extend beyond its atomic structure.

This experiment combines the mechanical measurement of gravity with the electrodynamic measurement of photons. It provides separate measure-ments for both direct and transverse photon Doppler effects. The interactions between gravity and photons are the physical measurements of mass, space, andtimethatdefinetheforceandmotionofgravity.Theredandblueshiftsmeasured in Pound-Rebka are both direct and transverse Doppler effects caused by differences in the gravitational and inertial velocities between emit-ters and receivers.

The Pound Rebka PhotonThe generic electrodynamic photons measured by Pound and Rebka have the following basic parameters:

Photon energy/mass e/m = cCPhoton energy e = mcCPhoton mass m = lc/hPhoton wavelength l = h/mc

Photon momentum p = mc Planck’s Generic Photon Energy h = mlc = 6.6 x 10-34 Joules

Planck Photon momentum p = mlc = 6.6 x 10-34

Planck Photon Mass m = lc/h = 6.6 x 10-34 kg Planck Photon Wavelength l = h/mc = 1 meter

Angular Momentum of All Photons Iw = mlC/2π=1.055x10-34 kg m


It is not necessary to have an “aether theory of the photon” to understand these calculations because they are just generic measurements. Every theory of photon structure and motion must use these same calculations or their pre-dicted measurements won’t work.

Four Photon Doppler Effects In the process by which an atom emits and absorbs photons, the photon undergoes four separate Doppler effects depending on the quantity and direc-tion of the absolute motion between the atom and photon. First, the emitted photon has a Direct Doppler Effect from the atom’s momentum vector relative to its position of zero momentum photon rest p = 0. Direct Doppler shifts are different for each direction. Second, the emitted photon has a Transverse Doppler red shift from the absolute quantity of the atom’s motion relative to the speed of light. Trans-verse emission shifts are always red and are the same in all directions. Third, a direct shift occurs in an absorbed photon from the observer’s momentum relative to the photon’s vector. Fourth, absorbed photons have a non-directional transverse blue shift re-sulting from the observer’s absolute momentum relative to zero momentum photon rest. Transverse absorption shifts are always blue. In most cases, these four separate Doppler effects cannot be separated from within a single measured shift. However, because gravitational velocity is measured to be in the same direction as inertial velocity, Pound-Rebka is one example where transverse and direct Doppler shifts can be experimentally separated.

The Pound Rebka Gravitational Parameters The absolute gravitational force and motion measured by Pound and Reb-ka that produce Doppler effects in photons is measured with accelerometers.

Acceleration of Gravity at Earth’s Surface g = m/t2 = about 9.8 m/sec2 Upward Escape/Surface Velocity Ves = about 11.2 km/sec

Again, it is not necessary to have a “field theory of gravity” to understand these calculations because they are just generic measurements of physical values. General Relativity uses these same calculated values in its theories but it turns them upside down, backwards and inside out.

The Mossbauer EffectThe Mossbauer effect is the atomic phenomenon that Pound and Rebka used to make their very accurate measurements of transverse and direct Doppler effects of photons caused by measured absolute gravitational velocity.


Atoms emit photons that travel an unlimited distance at c to other atoms that either absorbor reflect them.Atoms reflectmostphotons andcanonlyabsorb a limited number spectral wavelengths. This number decreases as the momentum and energy of the photons increase. The greater the photon’s mo-mentumandenergy,thelesslikelyitcanbeabsorbedandnotreflectedbyanatom. In the longer wavelengths, like visible and radio photons, a very wide range of photons can be absorbed and emitted. In the shorter wavelengths like X-rays and gamma photons only a very limited number of wavelengths can be emitted and absorbed by a particular atom. As the momentum and energy of photons increase, atoms can absorb fewer andfewerphotonsuntilfinallytheycanonlyemitandabsorbasinglephotonofa precise wavelength. In the case of the Pound-Rebka measurements, the atom used is Fe-57 and the photon is a gamma ray photon that has a momentum, energy and wavelength of exactly one l = 1. An Fe-57 atom at rest on Earth’s surface can only emit or absorb this exact gamma photon. The Fe-57 atom reflectsallsimilarsizedphotons.Whenthisphotontravelsfromthebottomofthe tower to the top, it maintains its exact wavelength of l = 1. When two of the Fe-57 crystals used in the Pound-Rebka experiment are placed apart horizontally on level ground, they are each able to readily absorb the l = 1 photons emitted by each other. However, if either crystal is put into even a slight amount linear motion, all absorption of l = 1 photons stops. It doesn’t matter which crystal is moving. Even the tiniest amount of relative mo-tion between the crystals produces direct Doppler effects either at emission or absorption that prevent the photons from being absorbed. When Pound and Rebka placed two Fe-57 crystals apart vertically in the Jefferson Tower, there was no photon absorption at either the top or bottom crystal even though they appeared to be at rest and maintained an exact vertical distance of 22.5 meters. There are only three possible ways to explain this effect. Either the photons acquired Doppler shifts instantly at emission or absorption or they acquired their shifts gradually as they traveled from emitter to receiver. The only other explanation is that the top and bottom of the tower are moving with the same absolute relative motion measured by accelerometers. The receiving and emitting clocks at the top of the tower are moving at a lower escape/surface velocity Ves than the clocks at the bottom. This difference in absolute gravitational momentum causes clocks at the top of the tower to have less energy/mass = cc and record shorter intervals than the heavier clocks at the bottom. The slower upward gravitational velocity at the top has trans-verse shifted the receiver to a wavelength of l = 1.0000000000000025. The l = 1 green photon from the bottom can no longer be absorbed by an Fe-57 atom at the top that can only see it as red.


Linear Actuator Measurements In order to measure the different gravitational escape/surface velocities between the top and bottom of the tower, Pound and Rebka installed the bot-tom Fe-57 crystals on linear actuators to produce direct Doppler effects in the emitted and absorbed photons to counteract the transverse Doppler effects of their different gravitational velocities. A simple measurement with an accelerometer reveals the true value of the motion producing the shift. Both crystals are found to be decelerating upward with the force of gravity but with less gravitational force, the crystal at the top of the tower has decelerated to a slower Ves than the bottom crystal. In order to make the transverse blue shifted Fe-57 atoms at the top of the tower absorb the photons from un-shifted green atoms at the bottom, it is necessary to put the bottom emitter on a very slow linear actuator that can move upward at the precise velocity of V = 1. As the actuator speeds up to this velocity, it direct Doppler blue shifts the photons by the same amount as the receiver’s transverse blue-shift. When the actuator blue shifted photons are absorbed by the blue shifted receiver they are measured as green due to the observer’s faster clock. The slower Ves and faster clock at the top of the tower cause the top Fe-57 crystal to emit blue photons even though the top observer sees them as green. To measure the blue photons moving from the top emitter to the bottom receiver, the linear actuator is set to move downward at V = 1. The blue trans-verse shifted photons from the top emitter are measured as green by the direct Doppler red shift of the bottom receiver moving downward at V = 1. Inthefirstcase,directDopplerblueshiftedphotonsaremeasuredasgreenby a transverse blue shifted receiver and in the second case, transverse blue shifted photons are measured as green by a direct Doppler red shifted receiver. Both of these shifts are produced by the measured velocity of the linear actua-tor. The direct Doppler effects are caused by the actuator’s relative velocity of V = 1 and the transverse Doppler effects are caused by the absolute differences in escape/surface velocity between the top and bottom of the tower. Transverse shifts are absolute and have the same value in all directions. They are always a red shifts for emitted photons and blue shifts for absorbed photons. Transverse Doppler effects change with each momentum increase or decrease in an atom’s absolute motion. Only atoms at absolute zero momen-tum rest emit and absorb photons with no intrinsic Doppler shifts. Even these photons can have slight measurable direct shifts from the atom’s recoil.

See the back cover of this book for an illustration of these shift measurements.


Pound-Rebka Theories ThePound-Rebkaexperimentisasimpleandelegantdefinitivescientificmeasurement of the relationship between the momentum produced by the ac-celeration of gravity and the inertial momentum of photons. The experiment clearly separates the relative and equivalent motion pro-posedbybothNewton’sandEinstein’sgravitationalforcefieldtheoriesfromthe calculated momentum of photons and the measured velocity of gravity. The only theories that have been credibly used to explain the Pound-Rebka results are the various interpretations of General Relativity. These ideas use the metaphysical equivalence principle to assume that inertial velocity and gravi-tational velocities are in opposite directions and that the actual directions of gravitational force and motion point down even though everyone has always felt and measured the force of gravity pushing them up. Transverse Doppler effects are absolute and have the same value in all directions. They are always a red shifts for emitted photons and blue shifts for absorbed photons. Transverse Doppler effects changes with each momentum increase or decrease in an atom’s absolute motion. Direct Doppler effects are different for each photon’s direction. Only atoms at absolute zero momentum rest emit and absorb photons with no intrinsic Doppler shifts. Even these pho-tons can have slight measurable directs shift from the atom’s recoil. One interpretation of General Relativity assumes that the photons acquire theirshiftsastheytravelthroughagravitationalcontinuumfield.Sometheo-rists even claim that actual wavelengths change while others say that the pho-tons“fall”inthegravitationalfieldandtheshiftiscausedbychangesintheirrelative velocity. Another interpretation makes the claim that the weaker gravi-tationalfieldpotentialatthetopofthetowermakesitsclockrunfasterthanthe clock at the bottom. None of these metaphysical assumptions are needed to explain the Pound-Rebka values. The results of the experiment transformed gravity is from a general metaphysical pulling theory to a local physical prin-ciple of gravitational push. General Relativity theorists have proposed different and contradictory theories for the Pound-Rebka shifts that all calculate the same results using different parameters. Even though only one of these alternative descriptions could possibly be correct, some theorists declare them all to be “equivalent” andthusfeeljustifiedtousetheminterchangeably.Theactualmechanicalmo-tion and force of gravity measured by accelerometers do not require any of the relativity theorists’ metaphysical assumptions to explain the shifts.

How the Measurements Were MadeThe experiment uses accelerometers and linear actuators to clearly demon-strate that the gravitational motion and force of matter is in the opposite di-


rection from the force and motion in General Relativity’s imaginary gravita-tional field theories. Motion and force are measured to be equal and opposite to the equivalent unmeasured force and motion assumed by the equivalence principle. Inertial force produces relative acceleration and deceleration and gravitational force produces absolute acceleration of mass and absolute de-celeration of time.

The Basic Measured Values of the Pound-Rebka ExperimentEarth radius at bottom of tower ----------------------------- RB = 6,371,000 mEarth radius at top of tower ----------------------------------- RT = 6,371,022.5 mGravity at bottom of tower ---------------------- gB = esVB

2/2RB = 9.807 m/s2 Gravity at top of tower --------------------------- gT = esVT

2/2RT = 9.8069308 m/s2 Acceleration of gravity at Bohr radius------------------ gao = 8.018 x 10-17 m/s2

Escape/surface velocity at Bohr radius --------- esVao = GV = 9.2116 x 10-14 m/sEscape/surface velocity at bottom of tower--- esVB=√2gRB = 11,178.5864 m/s Escape/surface velocity at top of the tower --- esVT=√2gRT = 11,178.5667 m/sDifference in esV (esVB - esVT) between top and bottom-----------------.0197 m/sTransverse Doppler shift of esVdifferenceλ=√1-v

2/c2 ------------2.5 x 10-15 mPhoton transit time between emitter and receiver 22.5 m/c ----.00000007.5 secVelocity increase of receiver during photon transit V = gd/c --.000000736 m/sDirect Doppler shift of transit velocity = gd/c2 -------------------- 2.5 x 10-15λTransverse Doppler shift of esVBλ=√1-v

2/c2---------1.0000000006959484λTransverse Doppler shift of esVTλ=√1-v

2/c2---------1.0000000006959459λDifference in transverse shift between top and bottom- .0000000000000025Clock time interval at top of tower TT ------------------- 1.0000000000000000 sClock time interval a bottom of tower TB --------------- 1.0000000000000025 sDeceleration of gravity during photon travel time------V = 1 = .000000736 m/s

The mechanical details of Pound-Rebka are quite simple. Fe-57 crystals were used as high-energy gamma photon emitters and receivers. They were placed at the top and bottom of Harvard’s Jefferson Tower to emit and absorb photons of a single and very precise momentum and wavelength. As these photons moved back and forth between the top and bottom of the tower, they were carefully measured. It was found that photons received at the top were measured as red shifted and those received at the bottom were measured as blue shifted. These red and blue shifts were extremely small but precisely mea-sured with the Mossbauer effect to be equal. EversincethePound-Rebkaexperimentwasfirstperformedin1959,noone has ever disputed the extreme accuracy of the results. However, a num-ber of gravitational theorists have tried to use their own various preferred pet theoriesofgravitytoexplainthemeasurementsintermsofgravitationalfields,potential energies and other unmeasured metaphysical entities like aethers, or a spacetime continuum.


As soon as the results of the experiment were in, many theorists claimed that it had proven both Einstein’s equivalence principle and the general theory of relativity. The problem was that there were two opposing camps within gen-eral relativity proponents and both calculated the same measured values for the shifts but offered different equations and two completely different metaphysi-cal mechanisms to explain them. One camp imagined that higher gravitational potentials at the top of the tower caused recorded clock intervals to decrease causing a measured red shift in the photons. The Fe-57 atom’s faster clock caused un-shifted green photons from the bottom to be measured as taking a longer time to be absorbed and thus saw them as red. Gravity does not shift photon momentum and wave-length but changes the conditions under which they are measured. A transverse shifted clock emits red photons and absorbs green photons as blue. Upward gravitational velocity Ves at the top of the tower is less than the Ves at the bot-tom. The clock at the top has less transverse mass and runs faster from the conservation of angular momentum. The faster top clock emits blue-shifted photons with greater energy and shorter wavelengths and absorbs green pho-tons as red shifted . WhileGeneralRelativity’scalculationsfor theseshiftswereverifiedbythePound-Rebkaexperimenttofifteenordersofmagnitude,theactualdirec-tion of the measured force and motion of gravity was completely ignored when they tried to explain the physical dynamics of the measured parameters. They imagined and believed that gravity and inertia were equivalent but the experi-ment measured transverse gravitational shifts to be equal to inertial Doppler shifts and no opposite equivalence was found. Other relativity theorists also ignored gravity measurements and claimed that as photons move through the varying potentials of their imagined gravi-tationalfield,theyeithergainedorlostmomentumandenergytoEarth’sfieldand thus changed theirwavelengthswhile inflight.Mostbelieved that thiseffect was accomplished without any change in the photon’s velocity at c. A few theorists even believe that photons slow down or speed up as they passthroughtheirownpeculiargravitationalfield.MostbelievephotonsfallinEarth’sgravitationalfieldexactlylikeanyothermaterialbodies.Allofthesetheorists make calculations with their ideas that match Pound-Rebka values. Some theorists believe in the Lorentz transformation of a photon’s momentum and some don’t. Most believe in the time dilation of clocks but some don’t. Many general relativists even believe that all photons throughout the uni-verse are constantly being red-shifted as they pass through expanding and curving gravitational spacetime potentials. Cosmologists use this assumption of a curving and expanding gravitational medium to explain the red-shifted Hubble photons from distant galaxies as peculiar non-motion induced Doppler effects in which photon momentum and energy are not conserved.


Hard core cosmologists. who believe in the eternal 1/1836 e/p ratio, imag-inetheassumptionofcurvingandexpandingspacejustifiedtheirmetaphysicalbelief that the 2.7 K Cosmic Blackbody Radiation can cool even though this idea violates the laws of thermodynamics. They believe that these photons were emitted when their blackbody distribution curve had a temperature of about 3000 K. They believe that CBR photons had a thousand times more momentum and their wavelengths were a thousand times shorter than they are todaybutthattheirnumbershavenotchangedsignificantly.Relativitytheo-rists believe that more than 99% of the photon momentum and energy ever produced by the cosmos has simply disappeared down their imagined cosmic rat hole of an expanding spacetime continuum. Relativistic cosmologists imagine the enormous amount of momentum and energy lost from this cooling process was not transferred to the rest of the cosmos and was thus not conserved. They imagined that it just disappeared into their imagined expanding spacetime continuum as if it never existed. This idea for a massless expanding dimension of space is in complete violation of the conservation laws for momentum and energy/mass. It is opposite the Doppler effect because these shifts in momentum and energy do not involve any change in the relative velocity between photon and observer. One major problem with relativity theorists is that they go off in theoretical tangents and arethenunabletomakeuptheirminds.Theyseemsatisfiedthatsincealloftheir different ideas are equivalent they must somehow all be correct. Either gravity shifts a photon’s direction andmomentum in flight or itdoes not. Quantum electrodynamics has long established that Doppler shifts only occur at the emission and absorption of photons yet there is a substantial group of relativists who believe photons can be Doppler shifted as they travel throughexpandingspacetimefieldsoragravitationalspacetimecontinuum.

Einstein Believed in Gravitational Waves Einsteinimaginedtheuniversetobefilledwithgravitonparticles/wavesthat caused the gravitational interactions of matter. Some theorists believe that gravitons can interact with photons to change their momentum and energy. Others believe that gravitons only effect the momentum of matter and not pho-tons. There is no direct evidence for either of these metaphysical assumptions. All experiments clearly show that all photon shifts originate at either emission or absorption and not in the medium in between, be it aether, glass or empty space.

The Location of Gravitational Force and Motion Either the force and motion of gravity originates inside of atoms as mea-sured or it exists as imagined and calculated varying potentials far outside the physical boundaries of atoms. It cannot be both ways. Either photons are Dop-pler shifted by moving atoms or they are non-Doppler shifted as they move


throughastationarycontinuumfield.Again,itcannotbebothways.Relativ-ists have to make up their minds. The principle of equivalence must be a great philosophical paradox to the logical and common sense minds of children who can’t sense equivalence and are not yet able to comprehend its paradoxical nature. Since infancy, children have constantly felt the force of gravity pushing them upward. No sensual being would conclude anything else be it elephant, or microbe. Certainly the subconscious mind that controls a child’s sense of balance would never be fooled into believing in equivalent force. How do you maintain your balance against an equivalent unmeasured force? Einstein however, was able to completely ignore his own sense of bal-ance, at least on a conscious level, and fool himself into imagining and then believing that gravity pointed down. By using clever mathematics, he was able to fool other theoretical physicists into believing that the force of an atom’s gravity of pointed down toward Earth’s center from deep in the cosmos. He completely ignored the experimental physicists who were only able to mea-sure gravity as an outward push from within Earth and who could measure no gravitational force beyond its surface. Imagining an undetectable universal gravitational attraction caused by curving space seems to present no problems for the typical general relativity theorist. It is a standard opinion among relativists. Because the parameters can be calculated in opposite ways, they are believed to be equivalent and rela-tive and just represent different aspects of a single gravitational continuum. What this double speak means is that because gravity can be calculated in the two opposite directions of up gravity and down gravity, the calculations are “equivalent” and thus both are thought to be intrinsically true. Up Gravity versus Down Gravity Einstein used Galileo’s measurements and calculations for up gravity to fantasize about Newton’s equivalent unmeasured down gravity. Einstein was able to fool his conscious mind into believing that down gravity was true. However, he was never able to convince his subconscious mind that down gravity was real because it kept compensating for and reacting to up grav-ity in order to maintain Einstein’s balance while he drew equations on the blackboard. Just because the calculations for up gravity and down gravity are equivalent, does not mean they can both be true. Everyone believes in up grav-ity because they can feel it and see it happening all around them. If they didn’t believeandreacttoittheywouldfallflatontheirfaces.Toallbuttheoreticalphysicists, the four-dimensional nature of down gravity always remains an elusive idea that cannot quite be contemplated by a three-dimensional mind. Even all theoretical physicists rely completely on up gravity when they get out of bed in the morning.


To believe that up gravity is true, you merely need to observe and measure bodies of matter undergoing the very slow mechanical process of the gravita-tional expansion of mass, space, and time. By contrast, if you want to imagine and then believe in down gravity you must open a whole can of wormholes and metaphysical assumptions. With down gravity, an atom’s gravity does not extend from just from its center to its surface, as in up gravity. In down gravity each atom has an eternal unbroken connection with every other atom in the universe. It might be easy for gullible theoretical physicists to believe in and calculate down gravity interactions but none have ever come up with a reason-able explanation of how it all really works. They say the ultimate “truth” is buried deep in their four-dimensional mathematics and cannot be visualized with an ordinary three-dimensional mind. The experimental truth of up gravity is far easier to visualize than the virtual truth of down gravity’s n-dimensional math. While Einstein’s calcula-tions may perfectly match measurements, his equations contain non-physical parameterslikewavesinpotentialfieldsthatonlyexistinthepredictionsofhismetaphysical ideas. Einstein was a fool to think he could take the up gravity measurements of experimental physicists and then turn them upside down and inside out to create a down gravity theory that is perfectly equivalent with up gravity values. Certainly his counter-intuitive, mathematical theory of down gravity works beautifully, but why would he bother. The real mystery here is why he chose to abandon the up gravity his body and subconscious mind had intimately experienced his whole life?

Gravitational Expansion is a Principle and Not a TheoryThe principle of gravitational measurement calculates the values of its param-eters and needs no theory to explain it. Gravitational expansion is simply what we feel gravity to be and the measurement of what gravity does. You only need a theory of gravity to explain an opposite downward gravitational force field like Newtonian’s universal gravitation or Einstein’s general relativity. General Relativity adds a fourth dimension to an imagined three-dimensional reality and the gravitational expansion of mass, space, and time adds a third dimen-sional of space to a measured two-dimensional reality. The gravitational expansion of mass, space and time is not an assumption but a conclusion. It is just calculations based on physical measurements of F = ma*d. Force equals mass times a combination of absolute acceleration and de-celeration. This is not a theory of gravity, but rather just the substantive values of the physical measurements of mass, space, time and gravity. Falling bodies do not change their state of motion until they are hit by Earth’s upwardly decelerating surface. Photons do not change the state of their motionormomentumuntiltheyarereflectedorabsorbedbyatoms.Thegravi-


tational expansion of Earth is measured to be a simple local mechanical pro-cess of constant upward force producing upward momentum.

Gravity is Child’s Play While Einstein’s theory of equivalent gravitational force can only be fully understoodthroughhiscomplexandinfinitemathematicalequations,thegrav-itational expansion of mass, space and time is a simple, local, and mechani-cal process that can be explained to and completely understood by the small-estchild.Askachildtorepeatedlyjumpoffachair,watchthefloorrushingup, feel it strike them and then continue pushing them upwards. The simple upward force and motion of gravity will quickly become apparent to a child because he or she have both felt it and seen it happening their whole lives. The gravity that children feel is easily measured, calculated, explained and visualized. By contrast, no child or even Einstein himself could completely understand and visualize the workings and mechanics of an opposite senseless andunmeasureduniversalmulti-dimensionalspacetimecontinuumfield. Equivalent Momentum as a CauseEinstein imagined that physical momentum continually flows out from the equivalent momentum of the gravitational field and into falling bodies to in-crease their downward velocity. WhenGalileofirstmadeexperimentalmeasurementsofgravity,hemayeven have understood the true upward force and motion of gravity. Certainly, his dropping of different weights from the top of the Tower of Pisa would indi-cate upward gravitational motion of Earth’s surface. Then just a year after Galileo died, Newton was born and began inventing equations and calculations to turn Galileo’s measurements upside down. Many years later, Einstein imagined his version of the equivalence principle and in-vented equations to turn Newton’s gravity inside out and backwards with his calculationsofacurvinggravitationalcontinuumfieldthatalteredthescien-tificmethod’smeasurementprinciplebyreversingthetemporaldirectionforcause and effect. Einstein offered no mechanism of how the physical effect of momentum could just appear from apparently empty space without an initial physical cause other than an undetectable equivalent force caused by curving spacetime.

The Nature of Photon Momentum The only aspect of the photon measured in the Pound-Rebka experiment is its momentum p = mc+/-v relative to the observer. All theories of the photon use momentum as its primary parameter of measurement, as do all theories of mat-ter consider momentum as the primary parameter in which measurements of the motion of mass are made.


This explanation of Pound-Rebka is not meant in any way to be a new the-ory of photons. The photon model used in this description is strictly a generic photon made up from simple photon measurements of momentum, wave-length, velocity, and energy. Regardless of what your theory of the photon might be, you must use these same measured values of momentum to quan-tify your version of the photon. A photon’s wavelength, energy, and frequency are determined from measurements of its momentum. It makes no difference whether you believe the photon to be a massless wave of “pure energy” or a particle of mass with the kinetic energy of its motions. Whether or not the pho-ton has mass is irrelevant to this experiment. Any body’s rest mass is a calcu-lated quantity that is only implied through the measurement of its momentum. Momentum is a relative quantity and we can never measure a photon’s exact mass or energy because we cannot separate the Doppler effects of its absolute momentum of mc from its relative momentum of mv. The sole measurement made in the Pound-Rebka experiment is the rela-tionship between the relative momentum of photons and the changing absolute gravitational momentum of Earth’s escape/surface velocity Ves. Photon ener-gies and wavelengths can be calculated from these momentum values but they are secondary photon parameters and not part of this experiment that only measures momentum. The Doppler shifts of photons measured here are the separate values of relative momentum and gravitational momentum. The photon model used in this experiment is simply a moving point of momentum p = mc. All photon theories begin with this measured point of mo-mentum. How or why these points move or what kind of medium they move through has no bearing on how we measure a photon’s momentum. In my illustration of the experiment, I show the photons as masslengths of cosmic string with wave-like motion. While these illustrations may represent some aspects of truth, it is change in momentum and not changes in the energy and wavelengths of photons that is used to explain the Pound-Rebka results.

Measuring Relative Motion in Space Travel If we could travel in a photon powered rocket at one-third the speed of light, the photons emitted and absorbed by atoms in the direction of our mo-tion would have twice the momentum and half the wavelengths of the photons absorbed and emitted against the direction of the rocket’s motion. However, within your space capsule, these photons would be measured to have the same momentum p = 1 and wavelengths l = 1 as they had when the capsule was at rest on Earth’s surface. Even though the photons emitted and absorbed within the capsule are highly red and blue shifted with both trans-verse and direct Doppler shifts, these shifts cancel each other and cannot be detected with measurements inside the capsule. Photons emitted and absorbed within the capsule are measured to have an un-shifted wavelength of l = 1.


If we could travel much faster to very near the speed of light, we would measure the forward facing2.7˚KCBRmicrowavephotons tohave averyhigh temperature with the momentum of X-ray photons and gamma photons. Bycontrast,thebackwardfacing2.7˚KCBRphotonswouldhavethemomen-tum of radio wave photons and a temperature of very near to absolute zero. All calculations of a photon’s mass, wavelength, energy and frequency are based on the measurement of its momentum. Only at absolute photon rest (lo-cated at a velocity of about 375 km/s in the direction of Aquarius) would we be able to measure a photon’s true non-Doppler shifted momentum, wavelength, and frequency. At such a point within zero momentum frame of photon rest, all of the CBR photons from all directions would have the same blackbody distributioncurveandthesameoveralltemperatureof2.726˚K.

Transverse Doppler Shifts in Momentum and Time All randomly moving bodies such a clocks, bullets and photons possess a single absolute momentum mv vector relative to zero momentum photon rest. As a body’s momentum is increased from zero at photon rest, it accumulates kinetic energy e = mv2/2 and mass m = 2e/v2. As each body’s individual mo-mentum is increased from zero at rest, its energy/mass constantly increases withvelocitye/m=E/M/√1-v2/c2 in direct proportion to momentum. A body’s energy/mass increases and decreases with each acceleration and deceleration of its absolute momentum vector. At any position within photon rest, an atom’s mass is at its minimum value of one m = 1, its momentum is zero p = mv = 0 and its photon clock has the maximum rate of one t = l/c = 1 and emits a l = 1 photon. Any accelerated motion away from this position of zero momen-tum rest requires kinetic energy and increases the atom’s Energy/Mass with added momentum but does not change its angular momentum. As a result, the increased mass slows the atom’s clock interval to t = 1+ and it emits a l = 1+ photon. As a body’s absolute velocity vector is increased, its mass increases m =M/√1-v2/c2 to greater than one m = >1 and the rate of its photon clock slows tointervalsoft=T/√1-v2/c2.

The Equivalence Principle is Revealed as a False Reality Theoretical physicists claim the equivalence principle has been measured to be correct many times and to a precision of many orders of magnitude. However,alloftheseconfirmationshavebeenwithnullresults.Anexampleof such an experiment would be to place a very accurate accelerometer on a falling body within a vacuum. When it is determined that the accelerometer registers zero change in downward motion, the claim is made that the equiva-lence principle had been proven to the limits of the accelerometer’s accuracy. The Pound-Rebka experiment has long been claimed to be a proof of the


equivalenceprinciplebuthereagaintheverificationisintheformofnullre-sults. The failure of the experiment to detect a downward force and motion of gravity are seen as experimental proofs of equivalence. The equivalence prin-ciple basically says that “gravity cannot be directly measured”. Whenever an experimenter fails in an attempt to measure gravitational momentum, general relativists declare it as a “proof” of Einstein’s equivalence principle.

Principle of the Gravitational Expansion of Mass, Space, and Time When we measure and calculate the physical mechanics of gravitational motion and force with Newtonian accelerometers and cesium clocks, we logi-cally and philosophically arrive at the gravitational expansion of mass, space and time. Gravitational expansion is a physical principle of measurement and not a metaphysical theory of gravity because it makes no assumptions other than the accuracy of accelerometers and F = ma*d. Force is equal to mass times an un-known combination of deceleration and acceleration. This is the only equation necessary to explain the physical mechanics of the principle of gravitational expansion. Any “theory” of gravity must present metaphysical assumptions to explain why the physical measurements of upward gravitational force and mo-mentum are false. Einstein’s attempt at falsifying experimental measurement was his theory of equivalence. Gravitational expansion of mass, space, and time is a principle of mea-surement. Its how we feel the force of gravity with our bodies and what gravity does and looks like when we measure it with accelerometers and clocks. Sky-divers in free-fall feel motionless as they watch Earth rush up to meet them. This is a simple common sense observation that employs all their senses. Sky-divers have no sensory input that would lead them to believe they were being accelerated towards Earth. They can easily feel the air pushing them upward as Earth’s surface rushes toward them with increasing velocity. For skydivers to invent a “theory” of gravity to counter the upward prin-cipleofgravitybasedontheirownsensoryobservations,theymustfirstpsy-chologically overcome their sensual feelings of watching a rising Earth. To defeat these feelings, skydivers must try to imagine they are somehow be-ing unfeelingly pulled toward a stationary Earth by an otherwise undetectable forcefield.Todothis,theycanimaginedifferentideaslikegravitons,aethers,dimensions,continuumfieldsandspacetime.Theycanuseoneoracombina-tion of these intangible mathematical ideas to create a mechanism for gravity thatwillinvalidatetheworkingsofgravitytheyseeandfeelastheyfloataboveEarth on a rising column of air.


Gravity Comes from the Inside of Atoms and Not the OutsideThe motion and force of gravity come completely from within the interior of the atom’s mass, space, and time and not from the other atoms in the universe at large. The upward force of gravity extends only to the outer surface of each pho-ton, atom, moon, planet, star, and other solid bodies of matter.

While the rates of clocks are a measure of transverse shifts, it is changes in momentum and not changes in time that is the true physical parameter of the transverse shift. Time is just an imaginary parameter to quantify momentum p = ms/t and like the idea of space has no separate physical existence. Space and time are just the imaginary handles for the measurement of mass. Photon momentum p = mc and angular momentum mlc/2πarethetwoseparateconfigurationsofmass, space and time. Protons and electrons are measured as individual bodies of circlon shaped mass.Eachprojectsacirclonshapedchargechain“field”outintothesurround-ing space that pulls them together, or pushes them apart. All of their interactions are transfers of momentum. Momentum and energy are not separate things. Mo-mentum is the primary entity and energy is the secondary interaction between force and momentum. Whereas momentum is absolute, eternal, and conserved, energy is relative and momentary. Total energy is conserved but the conservation law for energy is secondary to the conservation of momentum. Moving bodies with identical conserved momentum can have greatly different values of con-served kinetic energy. The cannonball has far more energy than the cannon but their momenta is the same. A single force measured as energy e = mv2 is divided into two equal momenta mv = mv that produce two unequal energies e = mv2/2 + e = mv2/2. Momentum is the constant motion of mass and energy is the measure of any change in momentum. Energy provides the force to create momentum and change in momentum produces the force necessary to create energy. Energy is the relative, positive or negative measure of a body’s change in momentum. Energy is absorbed when a body is accelerated and energy is produced when a body is decelerated. The gravitational expansion of mass, space, and time might be called a “dy-namicdimension”butitisnotinanywayafield,anaether,aspacetimecontinuumor anything else that would give substance to space. There is no theory required for the gravitational expansion because gravity is just a physical measurement and physical principles of measurement are the opposite of theories. There is no question as to what gravity does experimentally. Gravitational theorists try to believeinafieldthatcannotbemeasured.Relativitytheoristsallclaimthattheequivalent force and momentum of gravity point down yet the physical results of Pound-Rebka and all other accelerometer and atomic clock measurements show conclusively that gravitational force and motion point up, not down.


The Harvard Fantasy of Equivalent and Relative Motion Harvard physicists often tout Pound-Rebka as an actual measurement of the hidden gravitational potential produced by the curvature of gravitational space Ann time that is calculated and predicted by general relativity’s equiva-lence principle. However, the use of actuators to produce direct Doppler shifts to cancel the transverse shifts of gravitational motion proves quite conclu-sively that there can be neither a gravitational potential field nor a curvedgravitational spacetime continuum. No gravitational potential is required for the measured direct shifts and if such a “potential” were actually to exist, it would change the measured values. The only space that curves is not the four-dimensional external spacetime continuum space surrounding atoms but rather the three-dimensional internal gravitationalspacedefining theshapeand intrinsic inertialexpansionofat-oms. The gravitational expansion of mass, space and time is the true measure of gravitational force and motion and it extends only to the three-dimensional outer surface of each atom. No measurement has ever been made of an oc-cult gravitational attraction or pull between atoms resulting from some all-pervasivegravitationalpotentialfieldor fromacurvatureof spacetime.Allsuch fanciful ideas may be psychologically and emotionally pleasing fantasies forHarvardtheoreticalphysicistsbuttheyaredefinitelynotphilosophicallypleasing for Harvard’s experimental physicists. In reality, these ideas are noth-ing more than the purest of metaphysical speculation. The simple true nature of the cause and effect of gravity revealed by the Pound-Rebka experiment is that Earth’s surface falls up with a constant upward velocity that is accelerat-ing in space and decelerating in time.

The Common Sense Principle of Cause and Effect The basic physical components of atoms and photons are mass, space, time and gravity. Their measurable physical parameters are force, accel-eration, momentum, wavelength, and energy. These are calculated for each event with scientific method’s common sense principle of cause and effect. The most important principle of physical measurement is the temporal direction of cause and effect. The direction in time of Newtonian force and motion runs counter to the temporal direction of cause and effect in Einstein’s equivalence principle. The Pound-Rebka experiment establishes that change in momentum is both the cause and effect of force. Momentum’s direction in time is always measured from cause to effect. In the equivalence principle, the directions in time for cause and effect are turned upside down. Einstein’s equivalent gravi-tational force becomes the cause and downward equivalent gravitational mo-tion becomes its effect. The Pound-Rebka experiment does not detect or mea-sure either equivalent force or change in downward momentum.


Active force changes timeless momentum into energy. Change in momen-tum is the cause and effect of force and energy is divided between the two changed momenta. This is a simple cause and effect temporal principle of measurement and not a theory. A metaphysical theory would say that force can also be a cause when it constantly appears from within a continuum to make the momentum of falling bodies into an effect.

Einstein’s Reversal of the Cause and Effect of TimeIn the Philosophy of Temporal Cause and Effect, a force can never be a cause of changing momentum because force is an effect of two changes in momen-tum. The One-dimensional momentum of one moving body is always the cause of force that produces the energy that becomes the change in momenta of two bodies. Each of these moving bodies is the potential cause of the energy of a new force that will produce two momenta. It is this timing of the principle of cause and effect that is the model for the gravitational expansion of mass, space, and time. The upward momentum mVes of Earth’s surface is the cause of the force that produces the energy of a waterfall.

Momentum > Force > Energy > 2 MomentaThis the measured direction of time in the motions and interactions of all pho-tons, atoms, and gravitational force and momentum.

In his general relativity theory, Einstein imagined reversing the direction of time for the principle of cause and effect in the interaction between gravi-tational force and momentum. He imagined that momentum appeared without measured force from the space surround each stationary falling body and then accumulated in it at an increasing rate until it combined with the momentum of a stationary Earth to produce the force and energy of impact. Einstein’s ac-count of gravitational dynamics is purely imaginary because no experimental measurement has ever validated Einstein’s reverse timing for the cause and effect of gravitational force and momentum. This transformation in direction from cause > effect to effect > cause is nothing short of trying reverse time itself. Momentum > force > energy > is the physically measured direction of time for cause and effect. In Einstein’s backwards and upside down idea of energy > force > momentum, energy from his massless spacetime continuum causes equivalent force that produces mo-mentumasaneffect.Thisideacreatescontrarynon-experimentaldefinitionsof the concepts and calculations of momentum, force, and energy. Einstein was able to imagine and calculate his reversal of physical time but he was never was able tofind any experimental evidenceof gravitational energy comingout of space. All measurements show gravitational force and energy to be the result of changes in momentum at Earth’s surface.


Momentum and Force are the Measurable Parameters of Reality Momentum and force are measurable dynamic entities. They are indi-vidual quantities of mass, space, time, and gravity. Momentum and force are the primary parameters of existence and energy/mass = c2 is the subject and substance of all measurement. Energy is the interaction between force and momentum and does not exist independently of momentum. Force and energy are always relative to momentum and absolute momentum is relative to Zero Momentum Photon Rest. All photons move at c relative to ZMPR. It is mea-sured to be the only possible stationary frame. All other frames move relative to ZMPR and are subject to the direct Doppler shifts and Lorentz transforma-tions caused by inertial motion. Even though the ZMPP is just an imaginary voidofspace,itsabsolutelocationcanbeaccuratelymeasuredbyfindingapointofrest-cforthephotonsofthe2.726˚KCosmicBlackbodyRadiation.This point has been measured to move relative to Earth at about 375 km/s in the general direction of Aquarius. AnotherwaytofindZMPRwouldbetoputanatomicclockinaspaceprobe and then decelerate in different directions until the clock reached its fastest possible rate. At this point in the void, any acceleration would cause the energy/mass of the clock to increase and slow its rate. This increased momen-tum would also cause the direct and transverse Doppler effects in absorbed and emitted photons.

Theoretical Physicists Ridicule the Philosophy of Common Sense The principle of common sense measurement was been virtually ignored by Einstein and the group of people who put together the standard model theories of physics and the Big Bang. In fact, in the academic world of Harvard theo-retical physics, the idea that deep physics problems might have common sense solutions is often treated with great derision. They can only imagine physics to be a deep and magical paradoxical mystery that can only be understood in terms of metaphysical assumptions and abstract mathematical equations. Only a mental midget with an insufficient imagination or a Harvard experi-mental physicist would attempt to explain natural phenomena just in terms of their physical measurements.

In the case of Harvard’s Pound-Rebka experiment, the experimental phys-icists made the measurements of gravitational and photon momentum and then the theoretical physicists invented several different calculations to describe what was happening. Since these different counter-intuitive calculations were “equivalent” with one another, the theorists decided that they were all correct even though they contradicted the standard common sense values that the ex-perimental physicists had measured.


A prime example of this kind of thinking is Einstein’s famous statement, “Imagination is more important that knowledge”. Here he clearly shows his preference for using magical thinking and metaphysical ideas to try and con-tradict his knowledge of experimental facts. Just one example of this was his adoption of the equivalence principle so that he could imagine that the direc-tion of gravitational force pointed downward in contrast to all experimental measurements. Einstein didn’t even try to sense or measure gravity, which he couldhaveeasilydonewithoutanyscientificinstruments.Allhehadtodowasto sit in a chair and consciously feel the force of gravity pushing him upward with his sense of touch. Instead, Einstein ignored his own common sense expe-rience and then went on to fool himself and other theorists into believing in his complex and paradoxical notion that gravity extended to the farthest reaches of the universe instead of just to the nerve endings in the seat of his pants. Ever since Einstein was able to get away with ignoring common sense experimental principles and construct theories based of metaphysical assump-tions, this method of theorizing has become the dogma of Harvard’s theoreti-cal physicists. They begin by imagining a metaphysical principle that cannot be established by experiment. They then begin constructing their theories by arranging and compromising common sense experimental facts in such a way that they are compatible with their imagined underlying metaphysics. A suc-cessful theory is one in which a large numbers of experimental facts can be arranged around a basic metaphysical principle without internal contradiction. A theory becomes suspect when contradictory conclusions or new data require the adoption of new metaphysical principles to make the old theory work. This has happened to the attraction theories of gravity that were forced by experimental measurements to imagine and adopt new metaphysical assump-tions like Dark Matter and Dark Energy existing within an imagined spacetime continuum laced with vast but separate quantities of “energy” and “mass”. In conclusion, when the Pound-Rebka results are taken at face value, there are no experimental, philosophical or logical reasons to believe that the gravi-tational pulling theories of Newton or Einstein have any validity in our own personal sensory reality. The only reason that anyone would believe in any such fanciful ideas would be the purely emotional and psychological desire to feel secure in their perception of an eternally unchanging and unmoving world.


Pure Energy is the Irresistible Imaginary Fantasy of TheoristsStandard model physicists, Big Bang theorists, and virtually all crackpot theo-retical physicists all use Einstein’s upside down and backwards idea of “pure energy” as both the primary component of reality and the prime mover in physical dynamics. In Special Relativity, pure energy is represented by the massless photon e = mc2 and in General Relativity pure energy takes the form of the momentum of falling bodies and the equivalent unmeasured force that accelerates them. Dissident aether theorists that dispute Einstein also usually adopt his idea of pure massless energy and then try to adapt the concept to their own peculiar spacetime aether medium. Experimental physicists always measure energy and mass as a single unit of momentum, energy/mass = c2 and then conceptually separate energy from mass with their calculations.

The Big Bang people all want to believe the universe began as a singulari-ty containing only pure energy and no momentum. Nuclear physicists all seem to believe that pure massless energy can be transformed into pure energy-less particles of matter and then converted back into massless energy photons. In experimental physics, pure massless energy has never been measured and there seems to be no way that it could be detected even if it did exist. Energy/mass = c2 is always detected as a unit, be it in atoms or photons. Energy is always a measurement of momentum but momentum is never a measurement of energy. Einstein’s imaginary idea of pure massless energy was the opposite of Newton’s measured parameters of force and momentum. Newton never ac-knowledged the concept of energy as a primary component in the measurement of force and momentum. Energy is always measured as the unequal effect of a force in the equal division to two momenta. Energy is the measurement of a force producing two or more momenta. The cannon and the cannonball have exactly equal quantities of momentum but greatly differing amounts of energy.


Gravity Cannon Experiment Test of General Relativity The Gravity Cannon Experiment will provide the ultimate falsification or veri-fication of the theory of General Relativity or the principle of the Gravitational Expansion of Mass, Space, and Time.

The gravity cannon experiment is a very simple mechanical measurement that can provide decisive confirmation or falsification of the various gravity theories. In particular, a short video of its actual gravitational dynamics would provide the ultimate and dramatic test of Einstein’s equivalence principle of force and motion. The unambiguous result would be easily understood by everyone from cosmology theorists to the smallest child who can run and jump.

Space Aliens and Gravity To fully understand the principle of the gravitational expansion of mass, space, and time, it is necessary to first present a little science fiction tale. This is a story about the initial discovery of gravitational force and momentum by a group of scientists far more advanced than beginners like Galileo, Newton and Einstein. As our story begins, a group of space alien people are traveling through the cosmos in the star ship Titanic. They are light years away from their home planetwhentheyfinallyreachoursolarsystemanddiscoverplanetEarth.Theyhave been on the journey for many generations and for one reason or another have lost all knowledge from their former civilization. They are technically advanced and have a wide array of sophisticated observing and measuring devices. Being far removed from any large bodies of matter for thousands of years, there is no reason for any of them to consider the unfelt and unmeasured gravitationalfields.Theyhavealwayshadthe“artificial”gravitycausedbythetitanicspinninglikeariflebullet.Thelivingquartersarelocatedaroundthe outside of the ship’s hull where they have normal Earth “gravitational” ac-celeration.Theastronautsfeelthefloorpushingthemtowardtheship’scenterwith centripetal force. When they move to the center they are weightless. They completely understand the mechanics of the centrifugal and centripetal forces that produce the upward push of gravity they feel in the living quarters. Theartificialgravitysavestheirbodiesfromthedamagingeffectsofbeingweightless for long periods of time. The space travelers understand this con-stant centripetal acceleration very well and are able to increase or decrease it by changing the rate of rotation with centrifugal force. They are also familiar with the momentary linear acceleration and deceleration produced by the ship’s engines. It is just that they do not associate measurements of accelerations and decelerations with the occult activity of gravitational attraction. They never considered the existence of gravitation because they never had the opportunity to observe it.


At long last, the Titanic approaches a star surrounded by a group of planets. After decelerating their spacecraft to the inertial frame of the star, the space aliens decide to stop and explore one of the inner planets that has oceans and continents. They were looking for a new planet to call home and this looked to be a likely candidate. As they maneuvered their spaceship around the planet, they unexpectedly noticed that its surface seemed to rush towards them when they were not mea-suring any acceleration toward it. After a number of speed adjustments and calculations they determined that they could set their ship at a velocity vector that was both away from the planet and at right angles to it and that exactly balanced the motion of the planet’s surface toward them. These maneuvers put them in a circular orbit around the planet. Eventually, they guided the ship to a stationary point above the rotating planet’s equator (geosynchronous orbit). They didn’t quite understand the actual dynamics of this orbit, but since the Titanic seemed to be secure as it revolved with the planet, they decided to send a smaller exploratory craft down to the planet’s surface where they could observe this strange new world from close up. As they moved down toward the planet’s surface, they had to keep accelerating the craft upward in order to eventually make a soft landing. Once they arrived on the surface, they were able to measure that it was accelerating upward at 10 m/s2justliketheflooroftheirspinningspaceship.Oncetheexplorersgotoutof the craft and started walking around, they found the upward acceleration of the ground felt exactly like the inward centripetal force of their rotating quarters back on the Titanic. After thinking about this strange phenomenon for some time, they concluded that the matter within the planet must be slowly expanding. This idea would also explain how the Titanic was able to maintain its orbit around the planet. It was simply moving away from the planet at the same speed that the planet’s surface was moving toward it. While the idea of an expanding planet seemed rather strange and unexpected, it was certainly what they had measured with their accelerometers and almost no one was going to claim that the accelerometers were wrong. No one was able to come up with an alternative explanation. Then an old man with fuzzy white hair suggested the somewhat incom-prehensible theory that there was some kind of a virtual attraction between the people and the planet that constantly pulled them together. This idea seemed completely out of the question to the majority of the observers because such an unmeasured effect would be completely unlike the effects of magnetic and electrical attractions that they were all accustomed to calculating and measur-ing. The concept of an unbounded gravitational attraction between individual atoms also seemed to be completely unreasonable because the simpler and more intuitive local measurement of expanding gravitational momentum was so readily at hand.


These were practical people who were used to the everyday measuring offorceandaccelerationinastraightforwardway.Theideaofaninfiniteandinalterable attraction between all bodies of matter and photons seemed prepos-terous and such an unlikely and counter-intuitive concept could simply not be accepted by most of them. They concluded that if the matter within the planet was slowly expanding, then the matter contained within the Titanic and even their physical bodies were also expending at an, imperceptible rate. To test their new principle of gravita-tional expansion they placed sensitive accelerometers at both the Titanic’s bow and stern. They discovered that the two ends of the Titanic were accelerating and moving away from each other at a small but measurable velocity. The old man with the white hair claimed their experiment proved nothing since his mass attraction theory would produce identical results. The technicians got together and designed an experiment in which gravita-tional expansion and gravitational attraction would yield different results. They fashioned a large glass sphere with a hollow shaft through its center. They then machinedasolidGoldballthatwouldlooselyfitwithintheshaft.Anumberofaccelerometers were attached to the sphere’s surface and another one was put at the center of Gold ball. They then placed the ball at rest in the hole at the outer surface of the sphere and then recorded video of the apparatus as the ball began to move down the shaft towards the center of the glass sphere.

Gravity CannonThe Gravity Cannon TestThe gravity cannon is a definitive experimen-tal test that can easily differentiate between the four possible general theories of gravity. This test is so simple and basic that once it has been performed, the results can be put on You Tube to make it possible for the true nature of gravity to be understood by ev-eryone. Even the small child will be able to clearly see and understand just how gravity really works.

The old man predicted the ball would be attracted toward the center of mass and accelerate to a maximum velocity at the center and then decelerate to a stop at the opposite end of the hole. He claimed this back and forth motion would repeat endlessly barring any friction between the ball and the sphere. The rest of the group predicted gravitational expansion would leave the ball motionless while the surface of the sphere moved away from it in all directions. As they watched, the ball appeared to decelerate to stop at the center. When they checked the accelerometers they found that all points on the sphere’s sur-


face continued to accelerate away from its center while the ball registered no acceleration at all. They concluded that gravitation attraction could not exist because, like Einstein, they were unable to devise any experiment that could detect it. In conclusion, no rational space alien who carefully measured gravity would ever conclude that it is some kind of occult and non-local attraction between atoms when it can be easily measured that the mass, space, and time of all atoms are slowing expanding at a constant rate that is synchronous throughout the Living Cosmos.

The Gravity Cannon Test for the Law of Gravity The gravity cannon is a very simple mechanical device for measuring the direction of gravitational force. It can be used in the confirmation or falsification of the various gravity theories. In particular, a short video of its actual gravitational motion would provide an ultimate and dramatic test of Einstein’s equivalence principle for force and momentum. The unambiguous result would be easily understood by everyone from cosmology theorists to the smallest child who can run and jump. The gravity cannon is a very simple mechanical device with only two “mov-ing” parts. It is simply a glass sphere with a barrel running through its center and a gold cannonball moving in the barrel. The measurement is made by a video camera recording the motion of the ball relative to the barrel. The result of the experiment will absolutely determine what actually moves. Is it the cannon or the cannonball? Although it would have to be performed in the weightlessness of an Earth orbit, this experiment could otherwise be executed very easily and inexpensively. It would be able to decisively differentiate between the four possible theories of gravitational force and motion that exist among gravitational theorists. The experiment would also provides the means to verify and calibrate earthbound measurements and calculations of both the Newtonian force constant G and the gravitational velocity constant GV.

Four Gravity TheoriesThere are four basic gravity theories. These include the two pulling medium theories of an homogeneous aether and an infinite particle aether. The other two are the internal and external pushing particle theories. These four ideas each use different complementary equations to explain the many measurements that have been made of gravitational force and motion. Depending on their various assumptions, the calculations made by all these


theories can be made to account for most gravity measurements but not the Gravity Cannon measurements. The Gravity Cannon Experiment is an actual miniature version of the Hole-Through-Earth thought experiment that has been proposed by Galileo many other gravitational theorists. The beauty of this measurement is that it would produce a different value for each of the four gravitational theories. Currently, experimental physicists measure gravitational force with acceler-ometers and gravitational momentum with atomic clocks. These measurements were combined in the Pound-Rebka experiment to determine that Einstein’s equivalence principle was completely compatible with the measured values but completely unnecessary to explain the actual dynamics of gravity. The Gravity Cannon combines the force and motion of gravity into a single measurement that represents either force or motion. The results will determine whether the test measures gravitational force causing motion or if instead it actually measures gravitational momentum causing force.

Two Pulling Gravity Aether TheoriesAethers and fields are defined as any description or condition of space that is not an eternal dimensionless void. Fields are local conditions of aether or spacetime that extend between and connect atoms. They can either be local between atoms or they can extend to infinity as gravity. The homogeneous aether theories explain gravity as a single, universal, solid or liquid all pervasive aether continuum. Curvatures, ripples, and waves within this universal substance cause bodies of matter to move toward one another.Intheinfiniteparticleaethertheories,gravityisexplainedbyapoten-tiallyinfinitenumberofgravitationalparticles,waves,orfieldsthatareusuallycalled gravitons. These calculated wave-particle dualities are generated at the centerofeachbodyofmassandthenspreadoutinalldirectionstoinfinityatthe speed of light. General Relativity is a homogeneous aether theory that has been math-ematically crafted into several interpretations. Its equations usually calculate a four-dimensional spacetime continuum that connects all matter and interacts with an apparent but otherwise undetectable force that causes gravitational force and motion. The presence of a body of mass causes the continuum to curve and produce motion in the body. GeneralRelativityissometimesclassedasaninfiniteparticleaethertheorybecause in some versions the force of gravity is spread from atom to atom across the universe by great numbers of tiny wave-particle dualities called gravitons. These wavelike particles move through the continuum at the speed of light and


are calculated to cause portions of the spacetime to curve in such a way as to cause the appearance of gravitational motion between bodies of matter.

Two Pushing Particle Gravity TheoriesPushing particle theories are divided into the external downward pushing aether particle theories and the internal upward push of the gravitational expansion of mass, space, and time with the pushing particles being electrons and protons. The external pushing gravity theories explain gravity by assuming that large bodies of matter like Earth are constantly being pushed inward toward their centers by great numbers of tiny undetectable particles impinging on them from all direc-tions of space. The internal pushing particle principle explains gravity as the measured outward force caused by expanding protons and electrons pushing on one another from within Earth’s interior. External pushing gravity theorists claim the observed downward motion of falling bodies is produced by the absorption of tiny undetectable extremely high speed particles that are assumed to exist uniformly distributed throughout all of space. Some of these theories predict particle speeds many orders of magnitude greater than the speed of light. When these particles strike matter, they give it a slight push. These omnidirectional particles push the surfaces of large bodies towards their centers. Such theories predict that the Gold ball would be pushed back and forth from one side of the glass sphere to the other similar to the pre-dictions of pulling gravity aether theories. An externalpushinggravitytheorywasfirstproposedbyNicolasFatioin1690. Later, similar theories were proposed by Le Sage and others. Rene Des-cartes had a pushing gravity theory in which numerous tiny whirlpools within the aether pushed on matter. While external pushing gravity theories have never gained much credibility among the physics establishment, they have a wide following among alternative gravitational theorists. These theories have no explanation for the equivalence principle and generally ignore the concept altogether. In the internal pushing particle principle of gravitational expansion, the par-ticles that do the pushing are the well established protons and electrons within atoms. This explanation of gravity is a principle of measurement and not a theory because the outward force and momentum of gravity is easily measured with accelerometers and clocks and there is no reason to assume that there anything more to gravity than what we measure. The motion of the gravity cannonball can easily indicate the truth between the internal and external pushing and pulling particle explanations of gravity.


In the internal pushing particle principle of gravitational expansion of atoms, the Gold ball would move from the surface of the sphere to its center where it would gradually slow to a stop. All of the pushing forces are contained at the surface of the glass sphere and there is zero force exerted between the cannon and cannonball. The centers of both the cannon and cannonball remain at inertial rest. All that really moves is the outer surface of each body.Three Possible Gravity MeasurementsThe force of gravity can only be measured as a downward pull, a downward push or an upward push. Almost all theoretical physicists imagine it to be a downward pull and a few believe it to be a downward push but only experimental physicists know it to be a measured upward push.

There can be only three possible outcomes to the gravity cannon experiment. This test will decide the absolute physical truth between whether gravity points down with equivalent force motion as Einstein imagined and calculated or whether the force of gravity points up as he always felt and measured.

The first possibility is that the Gold ball will accelerate down at a decreasing rate and then decelerate to a stop at the center of the cannon. This outcome would match all other measurements of gravitational force and motion made at Earth’s surface. This result would not require a “theory” for a gravitational mechanism because the physical measurements are the mechanism. Gravity is nothing more than our measurements of the gravitational expansion of mass, space, and time. The second possibility would be that the Gold ball will accelerate down at a decreasing rate until it reaches the center at maximum velocity and then decel-erates to a stop at the other end of the barrel. This process then repeats itself as perpetual changing motion as the ball moves back and forth from one end of the barrel to the other. This result would require energy to be continuously transferred back and forth between cannon and ball as the gravitational momentum of the ball constantly changed. This result is predicted by Newton’s and Einstein’s theories ofdownwardpullingfields.Theyuseequationsandcalculationstoexplainthemechanism for the continuous unmeasured transfer of energy to and from the ball. A third possibility is predicted by pushing particle aether theorists. This resultwouldbesimilartothepullingfieldtheoriesbutwouldbedifferentdueto the completely different proposed gravitational mechanism. In this proposal, there is no energy transfer between the ball and the cannon. The ball’s changing energy is produced by unseen impinging particles from the cosmos. Momentum is conserved between the particles and the ball and not between the cannon and ball.


Conclusion If the ball moves back and forth like all theoretical theorists have predicted, thenthepullingfield,curvingspace,andaetherparticletheoristswillhavetofightitouttoseewhoisrightbasedonsubtledifferencesbetweenpredictedand measured values. However, if the ball moves to the center and stops, then no mechanistic theory is need to explain the transfer of energy since no energy is transferred. The theoretical physicists will all be wrong and only the experi-mental physicists will be correct. The ball does not actually move and remains at rest while the outer surfaces of both ball and cannon move away from their inertial centers. There is no absolute momentum between the inertial centers of ball and cannon.

Orbiting Chains

The inner slack chain is revolving at orbital velocity and theouter tight chain is revolving at greater than orbital velocity.

The Orbiting Chain Thought Experiment Todemonstrate theactualdynamicsanorbitaroundEarth,wewillfirstdescribe an experiment that was available even in Galileo’s time. A powerful


cannonisfiredoverthesurfaceoftheEarthandthepathofthecannonballisrecorded.Thecannonisthenfiredagainfromthepointwherethecannonballstruck. This process continues until the cannonball has traveled all the way around Earth. In each shot, the cannonball traveled in a straight inertial line until it was struck by the upwardly moving Earth. However, any photos of the cannonball’s path would show it to have followed an apparent parabolic curve. In this digital orbit of the Earth, the cannonball always travels in a straight in-ertial line but at the same time its path always seems to curve downward. This apparent non-inertial curvature of the Earth’s internal space results from the expanding dimensions of mass, space, and time. The orbiting chain is another possible model for creating an orbit around the expanding Earth. The chain is wrapped around the Earth and then spun at a high velocity. As the chain goes faster and faster, it tightens up and goes into an Earthorbitdefinedbyitslength.Thefasterthechainisspunbeyonditsorbitalvelocity, the tighter it becomes due to its increasing centripetal force. To better understand how orbits work around gravitationally expanding bodies of matter, we can cause the chain to slow until its centripetal accelera-tion becomes less than the acceleration of gravity. The individual links slacken and lose their tension with one another. However, the slack chain as a whole still maintains its overall orbit while each loosely connected link maintains its own individual orbit without physically touching other links. The dynamics of this orbiting chain satellite are the same whether we use the mechanics of gravitationalexpansionorthegravitationalfieldtheoryofNewtonorthecurvedspacetime of Einstein. Gravitational Expansion of Mass, Space, and TimeAbsolute gravitational momentum and force is not a theory of gravity. It is just the measurement of gravity that reveals why we have always felt the upward push of Earth’s surface. Chicken Little, Newton, and Einstein were all wrong. The sky is not falling down. Earth is falling up! The principle of gravitational expansion reveals gravity totally in terms of its physical measurements with no metaphysical assumptions such as aethers, fields,actionsatadistance,orunseenimpingingparticlesfromspace.Expand-ing mass, space, and time show that our measurements of gravitational force are real and that the acceleration of gravity produces true upward motion. Gravity is merely the outward force produced by the gradual and constant dimensional expansion of mass, space, and time. A falling body does not accelerate down-ward because no such change in motion can be measured. Like the Gold ball in the gravity cannon, falling bodies do not change their state of motion while the surface of Earth moves upward with measured acceleration and velocity. Gravity and inertia are not just equivalent. They are exactly equal because they are the same thing.


Gravity Cannonball MotionThe external pushing particles theories predict that the ball will be pushed from one side of the sphere to the other by

countless particles from outer space. This is a general effect and no prediction can be made for the speed of the cycles.

It is Einstein’s idea that the cannonball will have the same back and forth motion as above but his

equivalence principle requires exact accelerations and velocities based only on the mass of the system. Any

deviation from these predicted accelerated and deceler-ated speeds would favor the pushing gravity theories.

Arrows indicate measured outward force and motion at the surface of the sphere.

Arrows indicate predicted particles from space impacting the ball and being

partially absorbed by the sphere.

Gravity Cannon Experiment If gravity is not the infinite pulling and curving of spacetime throughout the universe then maybe gravity’s quantum nature is just the purely local mechanical event of one atom pushing against another. The principle of the gravitational expansion of mass, space, and time measures outward acceleration at the surface of the glass sphere, but no acceleration of the ball toward the centers of mass can be measured. Without physical acceleration, the ball will appear to move toward the center of the sphere with decreasing deceleration but will not have the inertial motion necessary to move past the mass center. Einstein’s idea of equivalent gravity predicts the opposite outcome for the Gravity Cannon experiment. Newton, Einstein, and all other gravitational pulling theorists make the complex prediction that the cannonball will accelerate toward the center of the sphere at a decreasing rate. It will reach maximum velocity at center and then is predicted to decelerate to a stop at the end of the barrel. This starts a new cycle where the ball acceler-ates back to the center and then decelerates to the other end of the barrel.


Successful Performance of the Gravity Cannon Experiment Could Save Billions of Dollars for World Governments and unit the people with a new principle of physics that they can all understand. The gravity cannon test will provide decisive experimental and mathematical calculationsofgravity.Theexperimentalresultswillprovidedefinitiveproofforeither the theory of General Relativity or the gravitational expansion of Mass, Space, and Time. Other previous precise experimental measurements of gravity such as GPS clock rates and the Pound-Rebka shifts all yield the same predicted results for both gravitational expansion and general relativity. The beauty of the Gravity Cannon Experiment is that a different result is predicted by the different theories of gravitational force and motion. The Gravity Cannon Experiment could be a worldwide media event. Everyone would be able to watch it live on TV or their cellphones. It would be a dramatic event that could unit the people of the world with the common knowledge of how their planet actually works. Everyone would remember wheretheywerewhentheyfirstlearnedthatEarth falls up! No world religion would be opposed to the event because everyone would be watching the hand of their god revealing truth on a miniature world in space and then feel the same hand of God lifting them up here on Earth. It would change all people’s minds and increase knowledge and understanding of their reality without caus-inganyconflictsintheirscaredbeliefs. Even small children would be able to understand exactly how gravity works. They have been feeling and interacting with gravity their whole lives butnowfor thefirst time, theywill realize theupwardpush from thefloorthat they always felt is real. They could only feel the “pull” of gravity when they climb a rope. It could easily create a renewed interest in science among theworld’syouth.Theywouldallseeanimportantscientificexperimentbe-ingperformedandrealizetheycouldunderstandscientificprinciples,suchasgravity, at their deepest level without any complex equations. They would be eager to learn more about the experimental principles of physics and cosmol-ogy. Once and for all, we will be able to know with certainty whether gravity points up or down and whether it is an upward push or a downward pull. Both General Relativity and gravitational expansion explain gravity as a curvature in the geometry of space and time. In general relativity, it is the cosmic space and time surrounding a body of mass that appears to curve and in gravitational expansion it is the local space and time within each body of mass that is actually measured to curve.


C 2011 by James Carter

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One Electron Volt

Fission of One Atom of Uranium-235One Billion Electron Volts

One Erg One Foot-Pound

One Calorie

One BTUOne Watt-Hour

One Horse Power-HourOne Cubic Foot of Natural Gas

One Kilowatt-HourOne Gallon of Gasoline

One Ton of TNTOne Ton of Coal

One Gram Matter/Antimatter Annihilation

Daily Output of the SunYearly Output of

the Sun

Yearly Output of the Milky Way

Output of the SunSince Formation

All Electricity Since Tesla

One Penny @ 10¢/kw/hr

AC Power LinePhoton

AM Radio PhotonTelevision Photon

Titanic at 1/2C

Earth at 1/2C

Electron/Positron Annihilation

Proton/Antiproton Annihilation

Red Photon

Violet Photon

Yearly Output of the Universe

Total Energy of UniverseSince Creation

Fission of One Kg of Uranium-235

A Bumble Bee at 1/2C

Titanic Fall to the Bottom

A Human Moving @ 1/2C

Annual U.S. ElectricalPower Production

Annual U.S. Energy Consumption

Daily Receipt by Earth of Solar Energy

2.7° Cosmic Blackbody Radiation photonsl Infrared Photon

l Ultraviolet Photon

l X-ray Photon Hydrogen-2/Helium-3 Fusion

One Kilogram ofMatter/Antimatter

Super Cosmic Rays

A Human’s Kinetic Energy Relative to the 2.7˚CBR

First Atomic Bomb in New Mexico

1908 Tunguska Event

Gamma Ray BurstMay 8, 1997

Gamma Ray BurstDec 14, 1997

Earth’s Motion Relativeto the 2.7˚CBR .002C

Ionization Energy of Hydrogen Atom

2 Joules is the amount ofenergy of a one kilogram massmoving at 2 meters per second.

E = MV2

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One Ton of Hydrogen

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neutrons at the beginning ofthe Living Universe

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JOULES OF THE LIVING UNIVERSE

l 2.7˚ CRB Photon

l Gamma Ray Photon

Yellow PhotonGreen PhotonBlue Photon

Orange Photon

E=MC2

l=1,000,000 km

www.Living-Universe.com

Joules of the Living Universe This diagram shows the quantity of energy measured in Joules for everything from the extremely week photons from AC transmission lines to the total energy of the Big Bang and the creation of the universe.

This diagram shows the energy transfer of a number of familiar events over the whole energy spectrum. Some of the least energetic photons that we commonly measure are those produced by 60 cycle alternating current power lines. At 18,000 km their wavelengths are almost three times greater than the Earth’s diameter and 10,000 times more energetic are AM radio photons, which have wavelengths of just less than one kilometer. Television photons have wavelengths of a few meters and 2.7˚ CBR photons are most intense at a wavelength of about one-millimeter. Several thousand times smaller are the many differently colored photons of the visible spectrum. Another million times smaller and more energetic are the photons produced when an electron and positron join and transform into photons.


Up to this point on the scale, all individual energy units had been photons. The energy of the next item, hydrogen fusion, is released not as photons but as the kinetic energy of the Helium and Hydrogen nuclei and neutrons speeding away from one an-other.AfewtimesmoreenergyisproducedinthefissionofanatomofUranium-235. Photons are produced in these events, but the majority of the energy is contained in rapidly moving neutrons and nuclei. The two photons produced in proton-antiproton annihilation each have energies of just under one billion electron volts. The next few items on the scale are the units of energy used in science and com-merce. The ergistheenergyofagramofmassmovingatavelocityof√2centimetersper second. A foot poundistheenergyofonepoundmovingat√2feetpersecond.Acalorie is the amount of energy required to raise the temperature of one gram of water one degree Celsius. At about 50 Joules, the most energetic cosmic rays to be measured are probably photons with wavelengths of about 10-25 meters and masses of about 10-15 kilograms. They are part of a background photon spectrum that originated when the matter of the universe was created. The photons at the upper end of this creation spectrum are ex-tremely rare but they have almost unlimited energies with masses approaching that of the universe itself. The masses and wavelengths of selected photons from this spectrum are shown at random points on the spiral. One British thermal unit raises the temperature of a pound of water by one degree. A watt-hour is a standard unit of electricity. A horsepower is a unit of work. Natural gas, gasoline, TNT, coal, and hydrogen are common fuels used to produce energy. The kinetic energy of a human being’s motion relative to the CBR photon rest is similar to the energies of the Titanic’s fall to the bottom of the ocean, the first atomic bomb exploded in New Mexico or a bumblebee flyingathalfthespeedoflight. The photon energy produced by the annihilation of one gram of matter with one gram of antimatter is similar to the energy produced by the fission of 1000 grams of Uranium-235 The mysterious explosion that occurred in 1908 near the Tunguska River in Siberia could well have been caused by a photon from the creation photon spectrum hitting the atmosphere. The kinetic energy of a human being moving at half the speed of light is only a few times less than the annual electricity production of the United States. The Earth’s daily receipt of energy from the sun is about 10 times greater than all the electricity generated since Tesla both invented and discovered three-phase alternating current and about 30 times less than the kinetic energy of the Titanic moving at half the speed of light. The kinetic energy inherent in the earth’s motion relative to CBR photon rest is equal to the sun’s total energy output for about 100 years. If the earth were moving at half the speed of light its kinetic energy would be equal to the sun’s output for about 10,000,000 years. On May 8th 1997 a gamma ray burst was detected far off in the universe that released as much energy in a few seconds as the sun has produced since its formation. On December 14th of that year a much larger burst was detected that produced more energy than the entire Milky Way galaxy puts out in 10,000 years and even larger bursts have been measured since.


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Clock Intervals1.000000000000000000 at Earth’s center

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Pound-Rebka ExperimentThe Pound-Rebka experiment can

be used to disprove Einstein’s foolish idea of the equivalence of gravitational force and motion.

This drawing depicts the actual val-ues for photon momentum and wave-length measured by the Pound-Rebka experiment. Observers at the bottom and top of the tower observe the photons from green light bulbs located at the tower’s top and bottom. The bottom green light photons are shifted to blue by an upward moving linear actuator. These blue pho-tons are transverse red shifted back to green by the top observer’s faster clock. This transverse shift transforms the top green light photons to blue in all direc-tions. Top observers sees these photons as green due to the faster top clock. Blue photons from the top are Doppler red shifted to green by the bottom observ-er’s downward actuator velocity. These direct Doppler shifts and Lorentz trans-verse shifts are actually shifts in photon momentum caused by the inertial mo-tion of the actuators and Earth’s slower escape/surface velocity at the top of the tower. Due to the Mossbauer effect, the observers are only capable of seeing green photons. When the linear actua-tors are turned off, the top and bottom observers would not be able to see any photons. These are the indisputable measure-ments of the experiment and everyone believes them to be true. Where the dis-putes arise are in the strikingly different ideas that theoretical physicists have to explain the physical mechanisms under-lying these momentum measurements by Harvard’s experimental physicists. Einstein imagined these shifts to be caused by equivalent force and motion and not by actual mea-sured changes in momentum.

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