correlation between adolescent self

8/8/2019 Correlation Between Adolescent Self

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CORRELATION BETWEEN ADOLESCENT SELF-ESTEEM, RELIGIOSITY, AND PERCEIVED FAMILY SUPPORT

ROCHELLE L. JAMES

DEPARTMENT OF PSYCHOLOGY

LOYOLA UNIVERSITY NEW ORLEANS

Sponsored by: MUKUL BHALLA ([email protected])

ABSTRACT

The purpose of this study was to determine the intercorrelations that religiosity, perceived family

support and self-esteem have in adolescents. Using convenience sampling, the participants were

recruited from three high schools and one church youth group in Louisiana. There were 94 participants

including 32 males and 62 females and ranging in age from 14 to 18. The participants filled out a

demographic questionnaire and three surveys: the Rosenberg Self-Esteem Scale, a Religiosity Scale, and

the Perceived Social Support Family Scale. No significant correlation was found between religiosity and

self-esteem. However, perceived family support and self-esteem were significantly positively correlated,

as were perceived family support and religiosity. Male adolescents had higher self-esteem, but lower

religiosity, than female adolescents. Implications of this study were discussed.

INTRODUCTION

Self-esteem, a person s positive or negative evaluation of him- or herself, has been recognized as a

predictor of social problems in the recent research of psychological and social development (Donahue &

Benson, 1995; Mecca, Smelser, &Vasconcellos, 1989; Mruk, 1995). Past research studies have found

direct links between low self-esteem and substance abuse, unprotected sex, criminal behaviors,

particular personality disorders, depression, and suicide. Self-esteem can be used to predict possible

occurrences of depression (Mruk, 1995; Nunley, 1996). In view of the fact that the link between self-

esteem and depression/suicide could have fatal consequences, this research study wished to further

investigate self-esteem. Researchers who study suicide assert that when the protective shield of self-


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esteem is low, depression is more likely to sneak in (Mruk, 1995). Extreme cases of low self-esteem can

be deadly because depressed adolescents are especially prone to considering the option of suicide and

following through with it (Mruk, 1995; Nunley, 1996). Some research that estimates that up to 5% of

adolescents experience the symptoms of depression and severe depression occurs in one in fifty school

children (Nunley, 1996). Currently suicide is the third leading cause of death in adolescents between

the ages of 15-24, four times what it was twenty-five years ago (Donahue & Benson, 1995; Nunley,

1996).

Because of the high correlation between low self-esteem and depression and the resulting risk of suicide

among today s adolescents, more research needs to be done on self-esteem and other factors that

might correlate to it. Because social identity and social context have been linked to self-esteem, the

current study considered the relationship religiosity and family support have with self-esteem (Mecca et

al., 1989; Mruk, 1995).

Past research on the relationship between religiosity and self-esteem has come up with a variety of

results. Some research studies, such as that of Bahr and Martin who tested high-school students,

indicate that only a very slight relationship exists between religiosity and self-esteem (Hyde, 1990).

Donahue and Benson (1995) reviewed recent religiosity research literature such as The Troubled

Journey report, which based the conclusions of its correlational study on a nationally representative

sample of 34,129 participants. The Profiles of Student Life: Attitudes and Behaviors survey was given to

students in public schools in 32 states to assess such variables as their family support, internal

motivation, stress, self-esteem, prosocialbehaviors, and risky behaviors. The religiosity of the students

was evaluated by a three-question survey that asked how many hours per week they spent at religious

services/groups, what was the frequency of their attendance, and how important religion was in their


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lives. The researchers concluded that religiosity had a negative correlation with drug abuse, premarital

sex, suicide ideation, suicide attempts, and criminal behavior but it had only a very small positive

correlation (.08) with self-esteem. It seems surprising that a stronger correlation between religiosity and

self-esteem was not found since other research has reported conclusions that a negative correlation

exists between self-esteem and drug abuse, unprotected sex, depression, suicide, and criminal

behaviors (Mruk, 1995; Nunley, 1996), which are the same behaviors that have a negative correlation

with religiosity according to Donahue and Benson. It seems logical to conclude that since both religiosity

and self-esteem are related to the same behaviors there would be a relationship between religiosity and

self-esteem. Therefore, the current study proposed to study the correlation between religiosity and self-

esteem.

Still other studies indicate a significant relationship between religiosity and self-esteem. In a book by

Hyde (1990) the conclusions of the following research studies were cited. The juniors in high school that

participated in the research study of Moore and Stoner presented data that demonstrated that self-

esteem and religiosity are considerably connected for males but not for females. Habib found that the

more religious students in Cairo universities also had higher self-esteem compared to the less religious

students. A meaningful correlation also existed between self-esteem and Jewish identity in a study by

Tabachnik. Because of the inconsistency of these conclusions, this research study attempts to provide

more data and results to better evaluate the accuracy of past conclusions.

There exists a great deal of research that concludes that family support is also a major influence on self-

esteem. One study analyzed group data of the family structure, function, and support of 913 mothers

and their 1-year-old children and the Rosenberg Self-Esteem Scale scores of the children at 24 years of

age. They concluded that children have higher self-esteem when their parents are loving, supportive,


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and deeply involved in their lives (Yabiku, Axinn, and Thornton, 1999). In a web article expressing the

need for concern about low self-esteem and depression in adolescence, Nunley (1996) reported that

children with high self-esteem typically have parents who are receptive to new ideas, promote their

children to create their own views and ideas, and provide their children with the support they need to

explore their views and ideas. Self-esteem has been found to have a direct correlation with the quality

and strength of parent-child relationships. Children from families with poor communication methods or

dysfunctional families tend to have low self-esteem and trouble founding their own identity (Nunley,

1996). Niolon (1999), in reviewing research on the effects of being in a dysfunctional family on children,

stated that because dysfunctional families have elevated amounts of stress and conflict children in these

families demonstrate low self-esteem and are at a particular risk of suffering from depression.

A study done in Australia on the correlation between children s perspective of family cohesion and their

self-esteem involved 467 fifth and sixth graders from six private schools. The Coppersmith Self-Esteem

Inventory and the Piers-Harris Children s Self-Concept Scale were used to measure the children s self-

esteem. The researchers designed and used a Child and Family Questionnaire to evaluate the children s

happiness in the family and perception of family conflict. The Family Cohesion Index was also designed

and used to determine the children s perception of family closeness, which could be used to infer family

support. This study found that the amount of perceived family conflict and self-esteem were negatively

correlated. The children who felt that their families were unsupportive had the lowest self-esteem

(Copper, Holman, & Braithwaite, 1983). This study did not investigate this relationship in adolescents

who are especially at risk for the social problems connected to low self-esteem (Mruk, 1995; Nunley,

1996). The current study seeks to research the correlation of family support and self-esteem in

adolescents.


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In a recent study, Mandara and Murrey (2000) measured family functioning using the Family

Environment Scale (FES), which includes a Moral-Religious subscale and other subscales such as

Cohesion and Conflict, which are associated with family support. The participants of this study were

fifteen-year old African American high school students (N=116) from Southern California. It was found

that family functioning 90% of the time predicted self-esteem, which was measured by the Multi-

Dimensional Self-Esteem Inventory (MDSEI). This study supports the theory that the quality of family

functioning/support is directly related to the children s self-esteem.

Even though one s self forms according to experiences and relationships with family, school, work, etc, it

is really a person s perception of these experiences and relationships that have a greater impact on

one s self-esteem (Mecca et al., 1989). Although most of this research clearly stated that family support

is directly related to self-esteem, many of these studies were not done on perceived family support. The

study done by Mandara and Murrey that examined perceived family support had a major limitation: all

the participants were fifteen-year-old African Americans (Mandara&Murrey, 2000). This research study

investigates perceived family support in a multiracial, multiethnic population.

Research on self-esteem s correlation to religiosity and to family support has produced some important

findings but still leaves some conclusions open to more research. This study endeavored to provide

more data and information to clarify and modify preexisting conclusions. The purpose of this study was

to determine the correlation religiosity and perceived family support have with self-esteem in

adolescents. It was hypothesized that if an individual s level of religiosity was high then his or her self-

esteem would also be higher than those individuals with low levels of religiosity. It was also

hypothesized that if an individual s level of perceived family support was high then his or her self-

esteem would also be higher than those individuals with low levels of perceived family support.


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METHOD

PARTICIPANTS

There were 94 participants, including 32 males and 62 females. The participants were adolescent high

school students ranging from age 14-18. The sample consisted of 2 fourteen-year-olds, 9 fifteen-year-

olds, 32 sixteen-year-olds, 32 seventeen-year-olds, and 19 eighteen-year-olds. The participants

represented all racial/ethnic groups. Convenience sampling was used. The participants were recruited

from one private high school, two public high schools, and one non-denominational church youth group

in Louisiana. Some participants volunteered to be in the study. Others received extra credit in the class

in which the study was conducted. Because participants were minors and the study was conducted in

the schools and a church, written parental consent and written principal consent was obtained prior to

participation in the research study.

MATERIALS

Previous to conducting the study, the principals and youth group leader signed approval letters allowing

data to be collected from their students and youth group members. Before participating in the study,

students were given a letter and a consent form for their parents. Both parents and students signed the

consent form. On the day of the actual study, the consent forms were collected. Then the researcher

handed out a packet of surveys to each participant. The packet included a demographic questionnaire

that asked for the participant s age and gender, the Rosenberg Self-Esteem Scale (Appendix A), an

investigator designed Religiosity Scale (Appendix B), and the Perceived Social Support Family Scale

(Appendix C) which were used to measure the participants levels of self-esteem, religiosity, and

perceived family support, respectively.


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PROCEDURE

This study was a non-experimental correlational study that looked at the relationship between self-

esteem, religiosity, and perceived family support. Self-esteem in this study was defined according to

Rosenberg as a positive or negative attitude toward a particular object, namely, the self (Mruk, 1995).

Self-esteem was operationalized as the score from 10 to 40 on Rosenberg s Self-Esteem Scale with 40

signifying the highest self-esteem score (University of Maryland, 2000). Religiosity was defined as an

individual s level of religious beliefs, religious activity, and religious service attendance. Religiosity was

operationalized as the score from 5 to 30 on the Religiosity Scale with 30 signifying the highest level of

religiosity. Perceived family support was defined as the extent to which an individual believes that

his/her needs for support, information, and feedback are fulfilled by his/her family. Perceived family

support was operationalized as the score from 0 to 20 on the Perceived Social Support Family Scale with

20 signifying the highest level of perceived family support (Procidano& Heller, 1983).

Participants were tested in their high school classrooms or their youth group classroom. All of the

participants were tested in classroom-like settings in order to control for any differences resulting from

varied environments. The study took place at times convenient for the teachers or youth group leaders

on weekdays and weekends between 7:00 am and 9:00 pm during Spring 2001. The primary

investigators obtained written approval from the principals of the high schools and from the teachers

whose students were the participants. The investigators also obtained written consent from the high

school counselors and the youth pastor to inform the participants that they might contact these

counselors if they feel they need to after participating in this study. The investigators requested the

teachers/youth leader to announce to their classes/youth group that a project that wished to research

the relationship between religiosity, family support, and self-esteem needed volunteers to participate in


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a study. Consent forms and information sheets providing details about the study were distributed to

participants for them and their parents to read and sign.

At the scheduled test time and before the tests were given, these forms were collected. Once consent

had been obtained, the participants were handed a testing packet. They were asked to not put their

names anywhere on the packet or the papers inside. The papers and packets were assigned code

numbers. The participants were asked to provide information about their age and gender, and fill out 3

surveys: the Rosenberg Self-Esteem Scale, a Religiosity Scale, and the Perceived Social Support Family

Scale (Appendixes A-C). The surveys were administered in this same order to all participants so as to

control for a possible carry over effect. Participants were allowed as much time as they needed to

complete the surveys. Once all the participants were finished, the investigator debriefed them. The

investigator reminded the participants that if for any reason they felt a need to talk about any feelings,

which may have surfaced during their participation in this study, they could talk to their school

counselor or youth pastor whose contact information was written on a paper that was handed out to

them. The investigator also answered any questions they had and thanked them for participating in the

study.

RESULTS

The means and standard deviations of the variables: age, religiosity, self-esteem, and perceived family

support are presented in Table 1. The Pearson correlations between each pair of variables are also

displayed in Table 1. The first hypothesis, which predicted that religiosity and self-esteem would be

positively related, was not supported by the correlation analysis. However, the correlation analysis did

support the second hypothesis that perceived family support and self-esteem would have a positive

correlation. This correlation (r(92) = .360, p = .000) was found to be statistically significant. It was also


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found that perceived family support and religiosity had a statistically significant correlation, (r(91) =

.265, p = .010), indicating that these two variables have a strong positive relationship.

An independent samples t-test was performed comparing the means of males and the means of females

for religiosity, self-esteem, and family support. The variation between males religiosity mean (21.31)

and females religiosity mean (24.69) was found to be statistically significant, (t(91) = -2.796, p = .006).

This signified that generally females have higher levels of religiosity than do males. The difference

between males self-esteem mean (33.22) and females self-esteem mean (31.26) was found to be close

to being statistically significant, (t(92) = 1.865, p = .065), revealing that males typically have more self-

esteem than females. The discrepancy between males perceived family support mean (13.66) and

females perceived family support mean (13.90) was found to be nonsignificant, (t(92) = -0.205, p =

.838). Overall, there is no difference between males and females levels of perceived family support.

A regression analysis was done to find out how much variability in self-esteem scores could be

accounted for by sex and perceived family support and if the amount of explained variability would

significantly increase when including religiosity as one of the predictors. The regression analysis for sex

and perceived family support predicting self-esteem provided an R2 = .182 indicating that that 18.2% of

self-esteem variability was explained by those two variables. The regression analysis that included

religiosity as one of the predictors gave an R2 = .188 and a F change(1,89) = .406 indicating that

religiosity does not explain a significant amount of variability not already accounted for by sex and

perceived family support.

TABLE 1


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Means, Standard Deviations, and Intercorrelations for Four Variables

Variable M SD SES Relig PSS-Fa Age

SES 31.93 4.89

Relig 23.53 5.73 .124

PSS-Fa 13.82 5.51 .360** .265*

Age 16.61 .99 -.053 .016 -.055

Note. * p< .05. **p < .01. SES = Rosenberg Self-Esteem Scale; Relig = Religiosity Scale;

PSS-Fa = Perceived Social Support Family Scale.

DISCUSSION

No significant correlation was found between religiosity and self-esteem thus the first hypothesis was

not supported. These results were unlike those of The Troubled Journey report in which the correlation

between religiousness and self-esteem was significant yet very small. One reason for the difference in

correlation significance in these two studies was that The Trouble Journey study s sample size was much

larger than the one in the present study (Donahue & Benson, 1995). There is reason to believe that in

actuality there may be a statistically significant correlation between religiosity and self-esteem, but it

would be too small to consider practically significant.


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A possible explanation for this lack of correlation between religiosity and self-esteem might be that

adolescents do not perceive their religion or spiritual beliefs to be an important part of their self-

identity. Consequently, their views on religiosity and self-esteem do not influence each other. Another

possibility is that adolescents with equal levels of religiosity may have different particular religious or

spiritual beliefs that affect their self-esteem. Therefore, an adolescent s level of religiosity alone is not

enough to predict their self-esteem.

The second hypothesis was supported by the significant positive correlation between perceived family

support and self-esteem. These results are consistent with those of previous studies such as the one

done by Copper, Holman, & Braithwaite (1983) that concluded that fifth and sixth grade children s self-

esteem was positively related to perceived family cohesion/support. The current study provides support

for extending these conclusions about elementary school children to adolescents. The current research

is also consistent with Mandara and Murrey s (2000) study on the relationship between family

functioning and self-esteem of fifteen-year-old African Americans. The current study s results suggest

that the conclusions about the fifteen-year-old African American students should be extended to all

ages and all races of adolescents.

There are several possible explanations for this relationship between perceived family support and self-

esteem in adolescents. Because most adolescents must spend time daily in their family environment it is

one of the most fundamental and central environments in their lives. One explanation might be that

high family support provides adolescents with a sense of stability and security, which is very important

during a time that can be very turbulent for some individuals. This sense of stability and security allows

them to have a positive self-perception. Another possible explanation is that because of adolescents


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egocentric nature and tendency to internalize everything around them, those adolescents who do not

perceive much support from their families interpret this to mean that they do not deserve this support

because of their faults. There is also the possibility that optimistic adolescents perceive both their family

support and their self-esteem positively and likewise pessimistic adolescents perceive both their family

support and their self-esteem negatively.

In addition to these findings, it was also found that male adolescents had higher self-esteem than their

female counterparts. American society puts more pressure on females than on males to be perfect,

especially in their much-focused on physical appearance. This might be an explanation for the unequal

levels of self-esteem between the sexes. However, female adolescents had higher levels of religiosity

than the males. Further research needs to be done to find out the explanation for this finding.

A strength of this research study that is important to point out is that the sample used in the study

included members of all major races/ethnicities and various religions. However, the fact that all of the

adolescents were from Louisiana might have been a limitation in generalizing these conclusions to all

adolescents in the United States. It was assumed that these variables would not be extremely different

from one part of the country to another. The sample was not representative enough to generalize these

conclusions to adolescents around the world. Another possible limitation is that study s sample

consisted of only 94 participants. These conclusions would be more generalizable if the sample size were

larger.

For further research, it is suggested that the sample be larger and include adolescents from various

locations across the country so as to be more nationally representative. Perceived peer support,

academic achievement, perceived physical security, socioeconomic status, and maturity are other


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possible variables to correlate with adolescent self-esteem in future research. It would also be

suggested that future research investigate the reasons behind the correlations of these variables and

self-esteem.

This research study adds to the body of knowledge on the predictors of adolescent self-esteem. An

individual adolescent s level of self-esteem can be predicted if their sex and level of perceived family

support is known. This is a correlational study and could not have been done as an experiment.

However, if the explanation for the significant correlation between perceived family support and self-

esteem happened to be that perceived family support influences self-esteem in some way, then

increasing the amount of family support an adolescent receives and perceives will increase their self-

esteem. If this is true then parents should be encouraged to provide their children with a large amount

of support in order to raise their children s self-esteems and lessen the likelihood that their children will

fall prey to the antisocial behaviors associated with low self-esteem. Being able to predict which

adolescents are at risk of having low self-esteem can also help school counselors, teachers, and others

to be better able to anticipate and take preventive action against the possible problems that

adolescents with low self-esteem are likely to have.

REFERENCES

Cooper, J.E., Holman, J. & Braithwaite, V. A. (1983). Self-esteem and family cohesion: The child s

perspective. Journal of Marriage and the Family, 45, 153-159.

Donahue, M. J., & Benson, P. L. (1995).Religion and the Well-Being of Adolescents. Journal of Social

Issues, 51, 145-160.


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Hyde, K. E. (1990). Religion in Childhood & Adolescence. Birmingham, AL: Religious Education Press, Inc.

Gladding, S. T. (1977). Psychological Anomie and Religious Identity in Two Adolescent Populations.

Psychological Reports, 41, 419-429.

Gladding, S. T., Lewis, E. L., & Adkins, L. (1981). Religious Beliefs and Positive Mental Health: The GLA

Scale and Counseling. Counseling and Values, 25, 206-215.

Mandara, J. &Murrey, C. B. (2000).Effects of Parental Marital Status, Income, and Family Functioning on

African American Adolescent Self-Esteem. Journal of Family Psychology, 14, 475-490.

Mecca, A. M., Smelser, N. J., &Vasconcellos, J. (Eds.). (1989). The Social Importance of Self-Esteem.

Berkeley: University of California Press.

Murk, C. (1995). Self-Esteem: Research, Theory, and Practice. New York: Springer Publishing Company.

Niolon, R. (1999). Dysfunctional Families. Retrieved February 15, 2001, from the World Wide Web:

http://www.psychpage.com/family/library/dsyfunparents.html

Nunley, K. F. (1996). The Relationship of Self-Esteem and Depression in Adolescence. Retrieved February

8, 2001, from the World Wide Web: http://www.drnunley.com/depressi.htm

Procidano, M. E., & Heller, K. (1983). Measures of Perceived Social Support From Friends and From

Family: Three Validation Studies. American Journal of Community Psychology, 11, 1-24.


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University of Maryland, Department of Sociology. (2000). The Rosenberg Self-Esteem Scale. Retrieved

February 7, 2001, from the World Wide Web: http://www.bsos.umd.edu/socy/rosenberg.htm

Yabiku, S. T, Axinn, W. G., & Thornton, A. (1999).Family Integration and Children s Self-Esteem.The

American Journal of Sociology, 104, 1494.

APPENDIX A

Rosenberg s Self-Esteem Scale

Circle whether you Strongly Agree, Agree, Disagree, or Strongly Disagree with each of these statements.

Please answer all questions.

1. I feel that I m a person of worth at least on an equal plane with others.

Strongly Disagree Disagree Agree Strongly Agree

1 2 3 4

2. On the whole, I am satisfied with myself.


1 2 3 4


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7. All in all, I am inclined to feel that I am a failure.


4 3 2 1

8. I am able to do things as well as most other people.


1 2 3 4

9. I feel that I do not have much to be proud of.


4 3 2 1

10. I take a positive attitude toward myself.


1 2 3 4


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APPENDIX B

Religiosity Scale

Circle which answer best fits your religious beliefs and behavior. Please answer all questions.

11. I go to religious service(s) once a ...

never day week month 6 months year

1 2 3 4 5 6

12. I would consider myself religious.

Strongly Slightly Slightly Strongly

Disagree DisagreeDisagree Agree AgreeAgree

1 2 3 4 5 6

13. I believe in a higher power.

Strongly Slightly Slightly Strongly


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Yes No Don t K now

17. I get good ideas about how to do things or make things from my family.

Yes No Don t Know

18. Most other people are closer to their family than I am.

Yes No Don t Know

19. When I confide in the members of my family who are closest to me, I get the idea that it makes them

uncomfortable.

Yes No Don t Know

20. My family enjoys hearing about what I think.

Yes No Don t Know

21. Members of my family share many of my interests.

Yes No Don t Know


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22. Certain members of my family come to me when they have problems or need advice.

Yes No Don t Know

23. I rely on my family for emotional support.

Yes No Don t Know

24. There is a member of my family I could go to if I were just feeling down, without feeling funny about

it later.

Yes No Don t Know

25. My family and I are very open about what we think about things.

Yes No Don t Know

26. My family is sensitive to my personal needs.

Yes No Don t Know

27. Members of my family come to me for emotional support.

Yes No Don t Know


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28. Members of my family are good at helping me solve problems.

Yes No Don t Know

29. I have a deep sharing relationship with a number of members of my family.

Yes No Don t Know

30. Members of my family get good ideas about how to do things or make things from me.

Yes No Don t Know

31. When I confide in members of my family, it makes me uncomfortable.

Yes No Don t Know

32. Members of my family seek me out for companionship.

Yes No Don t Know

33. I think that my family feels that I m good at helping them solve problems.

Yes No Don t Know


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34. I don t have a relationship with a member of my family that is as close as other people s

relationships with family members.

Yes No Don t Know

35. I wish my family were much different.

Yes No Don t Know

correlation between adolescent self

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