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CORPORATE SOCIAL RESPONSIBILITY AS AN (UN)ENABLER OF
FINANCIAL PERFOMANCE – THE CASE OF THE CHEMICALS IN-
DUSTRY
Tânia Sofia Soares de Freitas
Dissertation
Master in International Business
Supervised by Manuela Castro e Silva
2019
ii
Acknowledgements
The past year has represented the greatest challenge for both my professional and
academic life. For this, I would like to highly appreciate and thank the precious help, pa-
tience and kindness from Professor Manuela Castro e Silva during this process.
To my parents, Cidália and José, and my brother, Fábio, whom have always been my
rock, thank you for lovingly encouraging me through each step and for understanding my
absences. Additionally, an enormous acknowledgement to my precious cousins, Alexan-
drine, João and Henrique, to my aunts Conceição and Luísa and uncle José for believing in
me when I did not.
A huge thank you to my friends for their unconditional love and support, particu-
larly to Estela, Luís and Tânia, who are my partners in life adventures.
Finally, to my coworkers, thank you for all the patience and support during the
hardest times we have faced together.
This dissertation is dedicated to the loving memory of my grandparents, which will
always be my guardian angels.
iii
Abstract
Chemicals industry benefits are not as well-known as the health and environmental
issues its misuse may provoke. This industry has been trying to change this factor, even
creating a program to prevent potential problems caused by it, improve security and to help
expand the communication with stakeholders named Responsible Care. Such measures are
part of Corporate Social Responsibility.
Corporate Social Responsibility has emerged to respond to the increasing stake-
holder pressure for more than just profit maximization. Two of the main benefits from
Corporate Social Responsibility have an economic dimension: costs savings and revenue
increase from higher sales and market share. Hence, literature has studied widely the rela-
tionship between Corporate Social Responsibility and Corporate Financial Performance to
comprehend to which extent one affects the other and the results found were mixed. Fur-
thermore, the country of origin affects this linkage, as shown on previous studies.
As there is a lack of research between these concepts in the chemicals industry, this
investigation aims to fill that gap, using a regression-type model for the top 50 chemicals’
firms in the timespan 2009-2017. CSR data is the independent variable, CFP the dependent
one with Debt to equity ratio and Firm size (total assets) as control variables.
The analysis conducted a geographic comparison and the results obtained reveal a
negative linkage between CSR and CFP on this industry for the whole sample – a 1 unit
increase on CSR leads to a 0,05 unit diminution on CFP for the whole sample – with Eu-
ropean enterprises following this negative trend, contrastingly with African, American and
Asian, whereas CSR and CFP are positively linked.
Key words: Corporate Social Responsibility; Corporate Financial Performance; Chemicals
Industry; Country of Origin Effect
iv
Resumo
Os benefícios da indústria dos químicos não são tão conhecidos com os problemas
de saúde e ambientais que o seu uso inapropriado pode causar. Esta indústria está a tentar
mudar este fator, criando um programa denominado “Responsible Care” para prevenir poten-
ciais problemas causados por esta, melhorar a segurança e auxiliar na expansão da comuni-
cação com os seus stakeholders.
A noção de Responsabilidade Social nas Empresas surgiu como resposta à crescen-
te pressão dos stakeholders para não existir só a maximização do lucro. Duas das suas maio-
res vantagens têm uma dimensão económica: poupança de custos e aumento das receitas
proveniente de maiores vendas e quota de mercado. Desta forma, a literatura estudou
amplamente a relação entre Responsabilidade Social nas Empresas e os seus resultados
financeiros para entender como uma impacta a outra e os resultados obtidos foram mistos.
Para além disto, o efeito país de origem afeta esta relação, como demonstrado por estudos
anteriores.
Existe uma falta de investigação na relação destes conceitos na indústria dos quími-
cos, a qual esta pesquisa pretende colmatar, utilizando um modelo de regressão economé-
trica para as 50 maiores empresas de químicos durante o período temporal 2009-2017. A
Responsabilidade Social é a variável independente, a Performance financeira é a dependente,
tendo o tamanho da empresa e o seu rácio dívida/capitais próprios como variáveis de con-
trolo.
Efetuou-se uma comparação geográfica e os resultados revelaram uma relação
negativa entre a Responsabilidade Social e a Performance financeira para esta indústria – o
aumento de 1 unidade no índice de Responsabilidade Social leva à redução de 0,05 na Per-
formance financeira – tendo as empresas europeias seguido esta tendência, ao contrário das
africanas, americanas e asiáticas, onde existe uma relação positiva.
Palavras-chave: Responsabilidade Social nas Empresas; Performance financeira das
empresas; Indústria dos Químicos; Efeito país de origem
v
Index
Acknowledgements ........................................................................................................................... ii
Abstract .............................................................................................................................................. iii
Resumo ............................................................................................................................................... iv
List of Abbreviations ....................................................................................................................... vi
Figures’ Index ................................................................................................................................... vii
Tables’ Index ................................................................................................................................... viii
Introduction ....................................................................................................................................... 1
1. Literature Review ....................................................................................................................... 3
1.1. Corporate Social Responsibility .................................................................................. 3
1.2. The relationship between CSR and CFP ................................................................... 8
1.3. Country-of-origin effect on CSR .............................................................................. 10
2. Methodology ............................................................................................................................ 13
3. Model development ................................................................................................................ 18
Conclusion ........................................................................................................................................ 21
References ......................................................................................................................................... 23
Webpages List .................................................................................................................................. 29
Attachments...................................................................................................................................... 31
vi
List of Abbreviations
CED: Committee for Economic Development
CFP: Corporate Financial Performance
CSP: Corporate Social Performance
CSR: Corporate Social Responsibility
EC: European Commission
ESG: Environmental, Social & Governance
GRI: Global Reporting Initiative
MNEs: Multinational Enterprises
ROA: Return on Assets
ROE: Return on Equity
UN: United Nations
VIF: Variance Inflation Factors
vii
Figures’ Index
Figure 1 – Society’s expectations over business responsibility...................................................5
Figure 2 – Relationship between International Management & CSR strategies and their
outcomes for CSR……………………………………………………………...…………8
viii
Tables’ Index
Table 1 – Studies Findings’ description.......................................................................................12
Table 2 – Studied Variables’ description......................................................................................15
Table 3 – Sample summarized by geographical area, number and %.....................................15
Table 4 – Sample descriptive statistics......................................................................................17
Table 5 – Variables’ correlation.....................................................................................................18
Table 6 – Variance Inflation Factors............................................................................................18
Table 7 – Total Sample descriptive statistics for ROA.............................................................18
Table 8 – Descriptive statistics for each continent....................................................................19
Table A1 – Global Top 50 chemical companies.........................................................................29
Table A2 – Final sample division by country of origin and continent....................................30
1
Introduction
In the recent years, firms’ Strategic Management has been transforming – stakeholder
demands’ do not comprise merely profit maximization (Fortanier, Kolk, & Pinske, 2011).
Such event prompts Corporate Social Responsibility (CSR) into the agenda. According to
the European Commission (2018a), CSR corresponds to organisations’ concern for their
effect on society – it can be conducted by obeying to the law or taking into consideration
not only environmental questions, but also social, ethical and human rights related on their
daily business. This matter’s growing relevance has led many firms listed on the Fortune
500 list employing full-time staff to undertake their CSR activities, impacting business, an-
nually, in millions of dollars (Robinson & Wood, 2018).
Scholars have been studying CSR since the 1960s and several definitions of this con-
cept have emerged (Carroll, 2016). The same author on 1979, built a triangular-shaped
framework to encompass CSR dimensions: economic, legal, ethical and philanthropic. Cor-
porate Financial Performance is linked to the economic dimension of CSR, which meas-
urement is performed via financial statements’ examination (Knight & Bertoneche, 2001).
Firms and country-level aspects play a significant role on financial performance, as Salah
pointed out (2018).
Apart from previous requirements, stakeholder also entail accountability and transpar-
ency on this matter (Paun, 2018). Such prospects are bounded by geographic environment
(Einwiller, Ruppel, & Schnauber, 2016). CSR Reporting fulfils these requests and has al-
ready several global standards, such as the Global Reporting Initiative (GRI), the Global
Compact by the United Nations (UN), upon others (Fortanier, Kolk, & Pinske, 2011). Ad-
ditionally, the last one provides a context for CSR analysis, identifying 3 main areas – Envi-
ronment, Social and Governance – and the subsequent issues which currently exist on each
(UN Global Compact, 2018a, 2018b, 2018c).
Chemicals are crucial elements on our daily lives; however, the improper use may cause
health and environmental problems (European Commission, 2018b). The chemicals indus-
try is estimated to employ around 20 million people (International Labour Organization,
2018). Besides this, the global chemical turnover was around 3,475 billion euros in 2017
(European Chemical Industry Council, 2018a). This summarizes the strategic relevance of
this industry for the national economies growth (International Labour Organization, 2018).
In order to prevent potential problems caused by this industry, improve security and to
help expand the communication with stakeholders, the initiative Responsible Care was born
2
(European Chemical Industry Council, 2018b).
Weber (2008) identified five major areas of CSR’s business benefits: positive effects on
company image and reputation; employee motivation, retention, and recruitment; costs
savings; revenue increases from higher sales and market share; and a decrease on CSR-
related risk. Two of these benefits are related to Corporate Financial Performance (CFP),
proofing the intimate relation between the concepts of CSR and CFP.
Therefore, it is important to find whether level of firms’ CSR commitment affects the
financial performance. On the manufacturing industry, Chen, Feldmann & Tang (2015)
analysed GRI reports from 75 sample companies, divided into five groups: automotive,
metals products industry, forest and paper, chemical and health care industry – CSR was
measured by indicators according to the GRI guidelines (Human Rights, Labor, Society &
Product responsibility categories) and financial performance was calculated return on equi-
ty, sales growth and cashflow/sales ratio. As pointed out by Acutt, Medina-Ross, &
O'Riordan (2004), the increasing complexity on global economy and social, environmental
and economic inequities are leading the chemicals industry to exhibit their commitment
and accountability towards CSR. They remarked the absence of CSR on the sector, verified
also on their context – Mexican and South African countries – conducting a series of semi-
structured interviews with individuals which belong to a large spectrum (from chemicals
corporations until national governments). Given this field’ lack of research for the chemi-
cals industry, this study aims to fill in that gap and understand to which extent CSR some-
how affects the financial performance on this case. Institutions, political decision-making,
state regulation influence on corporations acting in a socially responsible manner (Camp-
bell, 2006). Given the case when social actors are involved in the regulations’ conception,
he declares their responsiveness to it increases. Lock & Seele (2015) conducted a study
which included the chemicals industry and concluded there is difference on CSR reporting
according to the country of origin – for instance, German companies tend to report more
on social agenda, instead of the environmental one, whilst Swiss ones are the opposites.
These goals lead to the following research question: Does CSR affects financial per-
formance on the chemicals industry? Does this effect change geographically? In
order to answer this question, a quantitative approach will take place via econometrics (re-
gression-type) model. The sample used is the top 50 chemicals companies in the world and
the time frame is 9 years (2009-2017).
3
1. Literature Review
The aim for this chapter is to summarize the existent research on CSR and CSP field
studies, thus, giving an overview on the matter and providing the background for this in-
vestigation. This chapter is subdivided in three subchapters: Corporate Social Responsibility;
The relationship between CSR and CFP and lastly, The country-of-origin effect on CSR. First one
aims to summarize the literature existent on Corporate Social Responsibility and how is
measured enterprises’ commitment to it. The second subchapter will provide the synopsis
on the 3 main perspectives, present in literature, regarding the relationship between CSR
and CFP: positive, negative and null. Finally, the third subchapter summarizes how
home/host countries and respective values, institutional organizations and public policies
affect CSR, and, consequently, CFP.
1.1. Corporate Social Responsibility
From a macroeconomic point of view, corporations have grown their wealth – out of
100 biggest economic entities, 69 are companies (Global Justice Now, 2016) – becoming
even more powerful actors. Therefore, there is an increased attention on how firms act
towards society – if their voice is used in a socially responsible form.
The idea flourished on major businessmen minds and presented itself on numerous
forms in American economic circle around 1920 (Frederick, 2006). This time frame, period
prior to the 1950s, was named by Carroll (2008) as philanthropic one – firms’ social contri-
butions were mainly through donations. CSR concept has gained several definitions over
the years and Bhaduri & Selarka (2016) identified 6 phases to its development: the first and
second one are dated between 1950-60s, when the idea was brought into academic spot-
light; in 1970s there was a fast evolution; during the 1980s stakeholder theory and business
ethics were linked to CSR; in the 1990s firms involved CSR activities on their business;
lastly, from 2000s onwards, scholars concentrated on the effect of CSR in business strategy.
Frederick (2006) acknowledged the three predominant ideas during the 1950s: firms’
managers shall operate as public trustworthy figures; philanthropy was recognized as an
exhibit of firms’ supporting noble causes; lastly, enterprises shall counterweight competi-
tors’ allegations and corporate resources. Carroll (2008) described this decade as more the-
oretical than practical and pointed out Bowen’s major contributions to the academic field.
4
Bowen (1953) defined CSR as an obligation of businessmen to according society’ stand-
ards. Carroll & Shabana (2010) considered this perception as a decade ahead of its time.
In the following decade, McGuire (1963) extended this point of view to firms’ not hav-
ing only legal and economic duties, but also other responsibilities towards society. Accord-
ing to Frederick (1960), society’s (human and economic) resources should not be used for
self or firms’ interest, but for major social causes. Davis (1960) set the definition on mana-
gerial context – when business executives’ behaviour goes outside the corporation interest
(economic or technical), they are acting in a socially responsible way. Walton (1967) argued
that the intimate strings between the firm and society shall be taken into consideration by
top management whilst they are pursuing their objectives. Both authors disagreed on the
return these actions might have – Davis (1960) suggested they might pay off on the long
run; on the other hand, Walton (1967) stated there might be no measurable economic re-
turn from them. During this time, CSR was nourished by extrinsic and socially conscious
drivers (Carroll & Shabana, 2010).
Carroll (1979) followed this trend, whilst building the pyramid which compiles CSR’s
four dimensions – economic, legal, ethical and philanthropic – and companies were ex-
pected to fulfill them. Economic responsibility embodies the business requirement to pro-
vide profit. Legal responsibility is linked to companies obeying to laws and regulations.
Ethical responsibility is to act beyond legal requisitions. Philanthropic responsibility is to
engage voluntarily on social activities, such as charitable donations, for instance. Commit-
tee for Economic Development (CED) (1971) revealed public was increasing concern over
environmental problems (air and water pollution) and that enterprises were not providing
enough attention to societal problems. Besides, CED (1971) pointed out society had wid-
ened their expectations over business’ responsibilities, which might be represented graph-
ically in three concentric circles (Figure 1).
5
Figure 1. Society’s expectations over business responsibility, built upon CED (1971)
The inner circle represents the effective accomplishment of the economic purpose
(employment, products and economy’s positive development); the intermediate circle refers
to the economic function fulfillment’, keeping in mind changeable social values and priori-
ties, such as environmental preservation, both candidates and employees’ fair treatment,
health care for them and rigorous disclosure of information for costumers; lastly, the outer
circle encompasses emergent public concerns related to poverty and urban disfigurement,
for example, and the belief where business has access to the resources which will help solv-
ing them. On the 1970s, concepts such as corporate social responsibility, responsiveness
and performance grew into the center of debate (Carroll & Shabana, 2010).
Davis (1973) gathered the main arguments on favour and against CSR. Concerning
points on favour of CSR: the first lays on long-run self-interest – both social goods and
programs will outcome in bigger profit for the business. Regarding avoidance of govern-
ment regulation – when the businessman accomplishes both private and public goods,
there is no need for new laws, thus, he retains power and a flexible decision making. Sever-
al organizations were ineffective whilst attempting to solve social problems, hence, it was
decided to give business a try and it has the resources (talent management; innovative
mindset and increasingly productive capitals) to provide solutions to social problems and
they may be dealt with a profitable outcome – problems can become profits. For instance,
chemical firms’ waste turned into profit on some specific scenarios. Lastly, in an economic
point of view, this type of question should be handled prior to any negative consequence –
prevention is better than curing. Falck & Heblich (2007) affirmed CSR was a path for both
societies and firms to thrive. On other perspective, Smith (2003) claims CSR benefits cor-
porations through (in)direct economic efficiencies. Additionally, CSR might help enhancing
Outer circle
Interme-diate circle
Inner circle
6
firms’/product reputation, when it pursues a differentiation strategy (McWilliams & Siegel,
2011).
In contrast, there are also ideas against CSR. Firstly, it is defended that economic crite-
ria are the only valid ones to quantify a firm’ success and, whose sole goal is profit maximi-
zation. Business is forced into social activities, which present costs and, subsequently, ousts
minor firms from the industry. This is reported to have occurred on the chemicals industry.
Other arguments presented are lack of accountability and lack of broad support will cause
business to face an unreceptive context whilst attempting to increase social involvement,
potentially causing side-effects and failing the assignment. Nowadays, reputational risk also
displays as a threat, when there is an abuse from companies, even if it is a remote place
(Smith, 2003). Moreover, CSR can present as a risk to shareholders, when there is a special
attention to environment, leading to an increase of production costs, causing the firms to
be in disadvantage regarding its competitors (Nguyen & Nguyen, 2015).
Nobel prize winner Friedman (1970) looked at CSR through a distinct angle – firms’
only social responsibility is to use its resources to obtain more profit (known as the stock-
holder theory). Schwarzt & Saiia (2012) argue that this definition ought to be regarded
from an ethical point of view, considering that shareholders have moral rights. They have
identified the ethical obligations firms shall not breach – core values (responsibility, trust-
worthiness), utilitarianism (acting towards the common good, despite the fact it might not
be the best for the firm), Kantianism (respect others), moral rights and justice. Jones (1980)
defended companies had duty with other society groups, apart from stockholders (compa-
ny owners). Such groups are identified as stakeholders – costumers, suppliers, employees,
media, government, global competitors, amongst others (Freeman, 1984). Tuzzolino &
Armandi (1981) built theoretical framework to evaluate organizational social responsibility.
When a firm fulfils physiological and safety desires, it is addressing its stockholders; whilst
accomplishes the affiliative demand, it is responding to its peers; whenever the enterprise
achieves self-actualization, it contents all the claimers. They argued this type of analysis
might assist on organizational governance.
According to Bhaduri & Selarka (2016), the 1980s were associated to business ethics,
thought who developed from moral philosophy presented in the previous decade (Carroll,
2015). Epstein (1989) defined business ethics as the rules which delimited the correct way
to act for firms’ executives, being influenced by societal values, institutional’ policies and
moral significance. He considered CSR offers guideline for managers’ actions and attempts
7
to assess business’ social performance and has brought the concept of corporate social
responsiveness onto the spotlight, which shed a light on handling strategically societal val-
ues as business is structuring policymaking processes.
Carroll (2008) remarks that during 1990s there were no major contributions to the con-
struction of CSR as a concept, instead there was a growth on the literature field of com-
plementary themes, such as: stakeholder theory, business ethics, sustainability, corporate
citizenship and corporate social performance (CSP). Wood (1991) conceptualized CSP as a
firms’ composition of social responsibility’s prepositions, social responsiveness’ techniques
and societal correlated policies/programs and its respective observable results. He also
articulated three principles for social responsibilities – institutional, organizational and indi-
vidual levels – determining CSP as a wider notion than CSR.
Nowadays, CSR is vital concept for corporations, impacts costumers on their buying
choice and other stakeholders (Moravcikova, Stefanikova & Rypakova, 2015). CSR activi-
ties promote values and opportunities to society and organizations (Verboven, 2011).
Therefore, it is important to communicate them properly. CSR Reporting helps on this
matter.
As Verboven (2011) declared, public is aware of the less positive situations the chemi-
cals industry may create, but not of the benefits. Hence, it is essential to the industry to
build a sustainable corporate image and reputation. This is verified on the growth of CSR
reporting for this industry, according to KPMG (2017) it was around 8% between 2015
and 2017. Nevertheless, one of the main difficulties currently existent is how to measure
the level of companies’ CSR commitment. Several external elements influence how multi-
national enterprises engage with CSR: industry sensitivity, local institutional constrains
(laws, regulations, national business system) and/or the gap between home and host coun-
try – which will affect the decision and relationships (Orudzheva & Gaffney, 2018). The
same authors defended CSR initiatives shall take into consideration the part of global hier-
archies between developed and developing world, hence it influences the effectiveness of
Multinational Enterprises (MNEs) competitive advantage from the developing group, re-
ducing the existent inequality between the developed and developing world. Whilst analys-
ing CSR policies of 37 MNEs, Bondy & Starkey (2014) discovered that global strategies, as
well as integrated internationalization strategies do not unravel both local and global CSR
topics – the issues identified by headquarters are prioritized and local ones are disregarded.
The image below summarizes their study findings:
8
Figure 2. Relationship between International Management & CSR strategies and their outcomes for CSR,
built upon Bondy & Starkey (2014)
1.2. The relationship between CSR and CFP
Currently, socially responsible behaviour is seen as a manner to increase competitive
advantage (López, Garcia & Rodriguez, 2007). Thus, it is essential to verify whether this
also translates into a better financial performance. Existent literature has found different
results regarding the correlation between CSR and CFP. Besides, Griffin & Mahon (1997)
suggest that research shall be done in one industry specific context to boost outcomes’
internal corroboration.
CFP embodies business performance when economic/financial goals are achieved and
is operationalized by accounting and market measures (Venkatraman & Ramanujam, 1986;
Orlitzky, 2008). Orlitzky (2008) gathered the casual (benefic) mechanics which associate
CSR and CFP on literature: enhancing organizational reputation; improving internal re-
sources and skills; increasing rivals’ costs; attracting a more productive workforce; boosting
sales revenues and reducing business risk and also concluded that organizational size does
not influence their relationship.
Solutions for global-local CSR issues
•Universal
•Culturally specific
•Culturally tailored
•Culturaly blended
CSR internationalization strategies
•Global
•Local (multidomestic)
•Integrated (transnational): Effiency-response
•Integrated (transnational): Interpenetration
Pressures on choice of CSR internationalization
strategy
•Expectations for Stakeholder Management
•CSR Issues
•Organization’s International Strategy
9
Positive association between CSR and CFP
Firstly, it will be analysed which are the scholars whom have a found a positive relation
on these two concepts. Preston & O’Bannon (1997) supported this idea on their study
about social and financial performance on major United States enterprises. 10 years before
these findings, Bruyn (1987) pointed that taking into consideration the social factor on
investment decision making rises the chances for economic return. Waddock & Graves
(1997) reached the same conclusion analysing 469 companies from the Standard & Poor’s
500 list and connected this with slack resources and good management theory, using Kind-
er Lydenberg Domini (KLD) rating system for CSR. Orlitzky, Schmidt & Rynes (2003) led
a 52 studies meta-analysis which concluded how CSR is positively associated with CFP –
bidirectional and coexistent, CSR is more interrelated to CFP’s accounting-based measures
than market based-measures, reputation is a relevant intermediary for this interaction and
that a firm might establish an equally beneficial relation with stakeholders. Bird, Hall,
Momentè & Reggiani (2007) explored how the market reacts to CSR activities and revealed
there was a valuation of proactive employee-related endeavours, when environment and
diversity requisites were achieved at a minimum level.
Negative association between CSR and CFP
Mittal, Sinha & Singh (2008) have found a negative relationship between CSR and CFP
on their study for the Indian context – reduced evidence that companies with ethics' code
would generate greater market/economic value added than the remaining ones.
Crisóstomo, Freire & Vasconcellos (2011) discovered a negative linkage between CSR and
firm value for the Brazilian scenario. Looking through the United States framework, Fish-
er-Vanden & Thorburn (2011) discovered a negative response from the market, when
firms adhere as members to Environmental Protection Agency Climate Leaders, voluntary
program aiming greenhouse gas reduction.
Null association between CSR and CFP
The research conducted by Auperlee, Carroll & Hatfield (1985) created an own meas-
ure for CSR, based on the CSR pyramid presented by Caroll on 1979 (legal, economic, eth-
10
ical and philanthropic dimensions) and it found no correlation between profitability and
social responsibility. Ullman (1985) claimed no trend can be discovered whilst studying the
association between these concepts. He justifies this by a deficiency on theory, inadequate
definition of the key words and lack of empirical data available.
1.3. Country-of-origin effect on CSR
Culture concept is commonly used for nations and organizations and it has six dimen-
sions: power distance; uncertainty avoidance; individualism versus collectivism; masculinity
(assertive) versus femininity (caring); long term versus short term orientation; and lastly,
indulgence versus restrain. Countries’ classification under these criteria are relative, hence
they are obtained in comparison to others (Hofstede, 2011). These dimensions might also
be applied to firms’ stakeholders – consumers, shareholders and employees – as a manner
to explain their behavior. Apart from this, consumer propensity to punish firms’ when do
act responsible are related to the Hofstede framework (Williams & Zinkin, 2008).
Ding, Ferreira & Wongchoti (2019) defend that CSR’s broaden scenario may be justi-
fied by enterprise headquarters’ home culture. Matten & Moon (2008) argue that historical
and well-established institutions are the reason for differences on CSR on several countries
(European and United States). Given that, the authors compiled the motives for CSR sys-
tem discrepancies – political/financial/education/labour & cultural systems, nature of the
firm, organization of market procedures and, lastly, coordination and control arrangements.
Cultural background and business ethics culture possess strategic relevance – the forward-
looking values’ management obtains increased relevance on a global economy – it shall
prevent cultural misunderstandings and breach mutual values (Palazzo, 2002). The author
enhanced the importance of acknowledging intercultural dissimilarities and respective con-
sequences on the journey for trustworthy economic partnership, while simultaneously con-
sidering own’s cultural background and other cultures’ values. Bondy & Starkey (2014)
findings showed that despite MNEs recognized the relevance of local host country cul-
tures, none used this whilst architecting their CSR policy – the firms adapted the general
one to the local culture.
Existent research focuses mainly on developed economies, as stated by Orudzheva &
Gaffney, (2018), providing less consideration to what firms from developing countries per-
form outside their country. On differences between German and United States multina-
11
tionals enterprises (MNEs), Einwiller, Ruppel & Schnauber (2016) discovered the ones
who follow global reporting standards have higher similarities on their reports. Internation-
al institutions which create such standards promote events, provoking a growth on the
interaction among adherent enterprise. For firms aiming to enhance their CSR commit-
ment, joining global guidelines will provide them easier access to knowledge on CSR im-
plementation, management and reporting. Additionally, it assists on discovering ways to
handle countries (home/host) and international demands (Fortanier, Kolk, & Pinske,
2011). There is also some evidence of country-of-origin effects – German MNEs’ reports
focus more on environmental matters; US ones emphasizes on society. As contrasting to
local firms, MNEs are subject to pressure both in home and host countries. Apart from
this, their image shall be pictured as socially responsible agents whom pony up sustainable
development. with the aim of gain license to operate in foreign markets. Lastly, high stages
of corporate social performance will lead MNEs to rise their reputation/legitimacy in their
operational areas and, thus, increase their revenues and financial performance level
(Aguilera-Caracuel, Guerrero-Villegas, Vidal-Salazar & Delgado-Márquez, 2015). Compar-
ing MNEs origin from developed and developing world, the latter face greater challenges
whilst using CSR as a manner to increment their competitive advantage, whenever
measures exceed legal compliance, particularly when host country forms part of a distinct
(higher/lower) hierarchical group from their own country of origin. Furthermore, from a
strategic point of view, MNEs rooted on developing countries would struggle to institute
CSR initiatives which strength its positioning, rather than just copycat industry’s best prac-
tices (Orudzheva & Gaffney, 2018).
Lyon, Delmas, Maxwell, Bansal, Chiroleu-Assouline, Crifo, Durand, Gond, King, Le-
nox, Toffel, Vogel. & Wijen (2018) defend that CSR assessment shall include the degree to
which companies sustain (or oppose) public policies that contribute to sustainability. Vogel
(2005) declares there were few firms which took any position on political initiatives, be-
cause they were apprehensive it may increase government regulatory requirements. Apart
from this, he recommends enterprises shall reevaluate their relationship to government, if
they want to commit truly to acting responsibly. In order to help this endeavor, Lyon et al
(2018) suggest three paths – transparence on corporate political activity, align the latter
with public statements and CSR efforts, and, become an advocate for public policies which
will empower the private sector to better chase sustainability efforts and commitments
(without acquire competitive disadvantage).
12
The effects from country of origin related to CSR and its respective dimensions also
play a role on CFP as well, particularly, the contextual factors. National labor market and
financial system provide the framework which will bound firms’ resources and capabilities
(Bobillo, López-Iturriaga & Tejerina-Gaite, 2010).
13
2. Methodology
The main goal for this dissertation is to determine how Corporate Social Responsibility
and country of origin affect Corporate Financial Performance on the chemicals’ industry.
Several studies have documented the relationship between Corporate Social Responsi-
bility and Corporate Financial Performance. Galant & Cadez (2017) have compiled the
previously used measurements for both CSR and CFP amid the existent literature. Regard-
ing CSR, the frequent methodologies are: reputation indices (SC KLD 400 social index,
Fortune magazine reputation index, Dow Jones Sustainability Index and Vigeo Index) de-
veloped by rating agencies based on several criteria – economic, environmental, social,
governance and ethics, among others; content analyses on the firms’ communication; ques-
tionnaire-based surveys; and one-dimensional measures (philanthropy, for instance). Con-
cerning CFP, research found it is assessed via accounting-based – Return on Assets (ROA),
Return on Equity (ROE), Return on capital employed, Return on Sales, Net (operating)
income and/or market-value indicators (stock returns and company’ market value, for ex-
ample). A list of different studies and its main results may be found underneath:
Table 1
Studies Findings’ description
Author(s) Research' goal Methodology Sample Results
Auperlee, Carroll
& Hatfield (1985)
Evaluate CSR-
profitability associa-
tion
Forced-choice in-
strument survey
Companies with their
chief executive
officers listed in
Forbes 1981 Annual
Directory
Inexistent relationship
between profitability and
CSR
Ullman (1985) Determine the link
between, social
disclosure, social
performance, and
economic perfor-
mance
Conceptual frame-
work
Prior studies on the
matter for US Corpo-
rations
Inexistent relationship
among the 3 concepts
Preston &
O'Bannon (1997)
Analyze the relation-
ship between CSR
and CFP
Statistical analysis 67 large United States'
corporations
Positive CSR-CFP rela-
tionship
14
Author(s) Research' goal Methodology Sample Results
Waddock &
Graves (1997)
Examine the rela-
tionship between
CSP and CFP
Regression-type
model
Kinder, Lydenberg,
Domini & Co rated
companies
Positive CSP-CFP rela-
tionship
Orlitzky,
Schmidt &
Rynes (2003)
Provide a rigorous
framework for CSP-
CFP knowledge area
Studies' meta-
analysis
Prior CSR-CSP 52
studies
Positive CSP-CFP rela-
tionship
Bird, Hall,
Momentè &
Reggiani (2007)
Which types of
CSR activities are
(not) rewarded by
improved
market perfor-
mance?
Regression-type
model
S&P500 index Valuation of proactive
employee-related endeav-
ors, when environment
and diversity requisites
were achieved at a mini-
mum level.
Mittal, Sinha &
Singh (2008)
Linkage between
good financial per-
formance measure
and
corporate responsi-
bility's indicators
(level of CSR disclo-
sure, for instance) in
the Indian context
Regression-type
model
50 companies from
the S&P CNX Nifty
(India)
Reduced evidence that
companies with ethics'
code would generate
greater market/economic
value added than the
remaining ones.
Crisóstomo,
Freire &
Vasconcellos
(2011)
Assess CSR-CFP's
(market-value) link-
age in the Brazilian
scenario
Regression-type
model
Listed Brazilian firms' Negative CSR impact on
firms' value
Fisher-Vanden &
Thorburn (2011)
Market's response to
firms' joining volun-
tary environmental
programs
Event study Corporations adherent
to specific environ-
mental programs &
Ceres principles
Decrease in market value,
when companies' an-
nounce joining Climate
Leaders
Kalish (2015) Look into CSR's
influence on finan-
cial performance in
German and Ameri-
can context
Regression-type
model
US and German firms'
listed in the Reputa-
tion Institute’s Global
RepTrak 100
Different CSR impacts on
financial performance,
depending upon country
15
Author(s) Research' goal Methodology Sample Results
Maqbool &
Zameer (2018)
Investigate CSR-
CFP relationship in
the Indian context
Panel regression
model
28 Indian commercial
banks listed in Bom-
bay stock exchange
Positive CSR-CFP rela-
tionship
Own elaboration
Kalish (2015) investigated this relationship across German and United States firms
listed in the Reputation Institute’s Global RepTrak 100 for a 3 years’ spectrum (2011, 2012
and 2013) and compared the data results obtained for each country. Drawing upon his
study, this dissertation aims to understand the linkage between CSR and CFP for chemicals
industry on several regions and conclude on possible differences/similarities among them.
The empirical part of this research will include a predominantly quantitative approach to
study the association between CSR and CFP on the chemicals industry.
An econometric (regression-type) analysis will be performed and the sample are the top
fifty chemical enterprises according to Chemical & Engineering News (2018), specified in
table 3 and will be studied during a 9 years’ (2009-2017) time frame (T=9). However, due
to missing data for variables described below, the list was shortened to 29 firms (N=29). In
order to analyze the influence of country of origin effect, the sample was divided into re-
gions, related to their home continent: Africa, America, Asia and Europe, whose detailed
description is on table 4. Hence, the observations are 261 (N*T) for a balanced panel data,
since there is available information for all years, computed into Eviews 10 (x64).
CSR data, the independent variable, was obtained via Thomson Reuters Environmental
(resources use, emissions and Innovation), Social (Workforce, Human Rights, Community
and Product Responsibility & Governance (Management, Shareholders and CSR Strategy)
(ESG) Score, which has available data since 2002 to some enterprises – the score result
from a weighted evaluation of all 178 indicators – 34% for Environmental Pillar, 35,5% for
Social and 30,5% for Governance. The information is obtained based on public reported
figures by the firms themselves (Thomson Reuters, 2019).
In relation to the dependent variable, CFP – the measurement unit used was ROA,
which is a profitability indicator (Corporate Finance Institution, 2019a) and this choice was
based upon Kalish’ methodology (2015). For the control variables: Firm size (total assets)
and debt to equity ratio - which is calculated via dividing Total Debt over Shareholders
16
equity’ (Corporate Finance Institution, 2019b) and provides information regarding risk –
were chosen, drawing upon Maqbool & Zameer (2018).
Table 2
Studied Variables’ description
Variable Description Source
Corporate Social Responsibil-
ity (0-100 scale)
ESG Score
Thomson Reuters Datastream
ROA (%) Net income/Assets
Debt to equity ratio Total Debt/Shareholder’s Equity
Firm size (€) Total Assets
Own elaboration
The final sample was summarized by geographic area on table 3, so there is a clear
number of firms belonging to each continent.
Table 3
Sample summarized by geographical area, number and %
Geographic
area
Number of firms (%)
Africa 1 (3%)
America 6 (21%)
Asia 12 (41%)
Europe 10 (35%)
Total 29 (100%)
Own elaboration
Furthermore, the equation formulated for the regression-type econometric model is as
follows in order to test the possible relationship between CFP and CSR. symbolizes the
disturbance, represents the independent term and, lastly, are regression
coefficients.
Model Equation:
The data extracted corresponds to the end of each fiscal year and will be applied to all
distinct geographic area, as well as to the total sample to answer the following hypothesis.
17
There is a subjacent hypothesis (H0) which determines there is no relationship between the
studied variables.
H1: CSR has a positive impact on financial performance.
H2: CSR impact on financial performance changes geographically.
18
3. Model development
On this chapter, model results will be displayed, as well as the process. Table 4 summa-
rizes the descriptive statistics for the whole sample. Before drawing any conclusions, there
are several essential tests to carry out.
Frequently on statistical/econometric work, the disturbance is considered as normally
distributed, which might lead to incorrect conclusions (Jarque, 2011), hence, in order to
evaluate this, the test drafted by Jarque & Bera (1980) shall be used. The value which
should exist to accept the normal residual regression hypothesis shall be between 5 and 10,
however, a greater value was obtained (43.49523), therefore, the hypothesis for normal
residual regression is rejected for this model.
Table 4
Sample descriptive statistics
Descriptive Statistics ROA CSR ASSETS DEBT_EQUITY
Mean 5.532294 63.51313 33421332 0.778506
Median 5.101710 68.15272 14702698 0.600000
Maximum 18.96018 90.30202 3.14E+08 3.390000
Minimum -8.344030 12.84683 1708829. 0.010000
Std. Dev. 3.795751 16.44797 54621306 0.600727
Skewness 0.512515 -1.105617 3.369756 1.548677
Kurtosis 4.366032 3.873711 14.51876 5.896852
Jarque-Bera (residuals) 43.49523
P-value test 0.000000 0.000000 0.000000 0.000000
Sum 1443.929 16576.93 8.72E+09 203.1900
Sum Sq. Dev. 3746.009 70339.26 7.76E+17 93.82692
Observations 261 261 261 261
Own computation
Furthermore, it is crucial to verify collinearity’s presence among the variables, which
occurs if the correlation percentage exceeds 85% - in the given context this amount was
never surpassed (Table 5), collinearity is non-existent. In order to complement these out-
comes, it is relevant to determine whether the variables are multicollinear via the Variance
Inflation Factors (VIF) examination – as the results present on table 6 are all below 10,
multicollinearity won’t represent an obstacle.
19
Table 5
Variables’ correlation
CSR DEBT_EQUITY ROA ASSETS
CSR 1.000000 -0.212492 -0.107282 0.249936
DEBT_EQUITY -0.212492 1.000000 -0.438856 -0.247449
ROA -0.107282 -0.438856 1.000000 0.141748
ASSETS 0.249936 -0.247449 0.141748 1.000000
Own computation
Table 6
Variance Inflation Factors
VIF
CSR 1.094861
DEBT_EQUITY 1.093418
ASSETS 1.113613
Own computation
Apart from the previous tests, there is also another one – p-value analysis to determine
whether the results achieved are statistically relevant or not – it might at 1% or 5.%. This
value shall be near 0 in order to have results’ significance. On table underneath are repre-
sented the results for the model (total sample), when the model is computed.
Table 7
Total Sample descriptive statistics for ROA
Variables Results
10.96439
-0.052429
5.77E-09
-2.948093
R-squared 0.240908
Adjusted R-squared 0.232047
Own computation
The results displayed on table 4 are only statistically relevant for a significance of 1%,
because p-value= 0.000000 and CSR has negative impact on CFP (ROA) on this case, as
20
verified by the coefficient, β1, displayed on table 7, which expresses the relation between
the dependent and independent variable – one additional unit on CSR leads to a 0,05 unit
reduction on CFP. The results for β0 represents the average value CFP takes when all the
other variables are 0, β2 translates the positive impact from firm size on the financial per-
formance and β3 represents the negative impact from debt to equity ratio on CFP. The R-
squared value (Table 7) shows that in this scenario 24% ROA variation is justified by the
CSR and the respective control variables (total assets and debt-to-equity ratio).
Otherwise from the total sample, Africa (for 5% level of significance, because the
p-value exceeds 1%), America and Asia results’ reveal a positive influence from CSR on
CFP (for a 1% significance level). European continent follows the trend from the total
sample, as shown on table 8.
Asia’s growth on Gross Domestic Product plays an important role for the chemicals
industry, whilst Brexit’s consequences – economic, political and legal – and elections on
central European countries (Pricewaterhouse Coopers, 2017) may justify the results ob-
tained. Even though there have been several droughts on South Africa and the country
might introduce a carbon tax (KPMG, 2017), the South African company still has a small,
but positive outcome – an increase of 1 unit on CSR score will lead to an approximate
0,006 unit improvement on the firms’ ROA.
Table 8
Descriptive statistics for each continent
Variables Africa America Asia Europe
22.89648 10.95349 12.43991 8.254806
0.006125 0.023201 0.067867 -0.020019
-5.17E-7 -8.30E-10 -1.40E-9 3.01E-08
-17.43148 -2.757487 -3.652106 -4.546819
R-squared 0.852604 0.377248 0.390684 0.148835
Adjusted R-squared 0.764166 0.339883 0.373108 0.119143
P-value 0.016070 0.000026 0.000000 0.002991
Own computation
Inoue & Lee (2011) conducted a study in which it was analyzed several CSR dimen-
sions relationship with profitability, which produced mixed outcomes for each dimension
and varied across the tourism-related industries. The justification was that CSR initiatives
change across time and also stakeholders perceptions, which might be applied for the ESG
score, particularly for the Governance pillar.
21
Conclusion
Literature has found mixed results regarding the relationship between Corporate Social
Responsibility and Corporate Financial Performance.
Currently, there is still a lack of research on the chemicals industry regarding Corporate
Social Responsibility, Corporate Financial Performance and how their linkage changes geo-
graphically. Hence, this study used a quantitative approach via econometrics (regression-
type) model with the top 50 chemicals companies in the world as sample and for period
between 2009-2017. The sample was reduced to 29 companies, due to missing data for
some firms in the analysis’ time frame, which represents an anaysis restriction, because the
results would be more robust if the existent sample increased.
Firstly, there was an overview to the subject, followed by methodology explanation and
model development. Several tests took place to understand the relationship between the
variables, which revealed they are not multicollinear and the residuals are not normally dis-
tributed, rejecting the null hypothesis. After computing the model, the results established
CSR plays a negative effect on CFP for the whole sample – a 1 unit variation on CSR leads
to a 0,05 unit decrease on CFP – and on the European sub-sample, at a 1% level of signifi-
cance, but the amount reduction is smaller (0,02), whilst for Africa (at a 5% level of signifi-
cance), America and Asia the opposite occurs. On a macro level, this might represent the
effects produced by the Brexit on Europe and Asia’s Gross Domestic Product growth over
the recent years. On the literature point of view, mixed results may be justified due to the
following reasons: measurement difficulties, weak theoretical groundwork for CSP concep-
tualization, neglecting relevant variables’ on model construction and the unclear causality’
direction (Gallant & Cadez, 2017). Chen, Feldmann & Tang (2015) conducted a study
comparing different manufacturing industries, which revealed no major differences among
CSR practices.
As further steps, there shall be a deeper analysis for a larger sample computing more
factors for the CFP, such as market-value indicators (stock returns and company’ market
value, for example) in order to complement the accounting-based analysis used. ROE was
not used in the model, because the results were not statistically relevant at any level of sig-
nificance. Since the available information was based on data disclosed by the firms, there is
always subjective inherent and missing figures. In order to solve this matter, Gallant &
Cadez (2017) suggest a standardization in CSR reporting and mandatory data disclosure. In
22
order to easy the process for data extraction and analysis, listed firms shall publish their key
results on relative terms (percentage results); including the CSR information, not only men-
tion the indicatives on their reports.
Both Corporate Social Responsibility and country of origin have been present on litera-
ture as influencing factors for firms’ financial performance; however, there have been few
which explored this for the chemicals industry. Thus, this study aims to assist this gap and
provide more insight on the matter and provide a basis for future research.
23
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31
Attachments
Table A1
Global Top 50 chemical companies
BASF PRAXAIR
DOWDUPONT YARA
SINOPEC LANXESS
SABIC BAYER
INEOS DSM
FORMOSA PLASTICS ASAHI KASEI
EXXONMOBIL EASTMAN CHEMICAL
LYONDELLBASELL INDUSTRIES ARKEMA
MITSUBISHI CHEMICAL SYNGENTA
LG CHEM CHEVRON PHILLIPS CHEMICAL
AIR LIQUIDE BOREALIS
RELIANCE INDUSTRIES INDORAMA
DUPONT SK INNOVATION
LINDE HUNTSMAN CORP.
TORAY INDUSTRIES AIR PRODUCTS & CHEMICALS
AKZONOBEL ECOLAB
EVONIK INDUSTRIES WESTLAKE CHEMICAL
COVESTRO WANHUA CHEMICAL
BRASKEM SASOL
PPG INDUSTRIES MOSAIC
SUMITOMO CHEMICAL PTT GLOBAL CHEMICAL
LOTTE CHEMICAL TOSOH
SHIN-ETSU CHEMICAL DIC
SOLVAY HANWHA CHEMICAL
MITSUI CHEMICALS CLARIANT
Own elaboration
32
Table A2
Final sample division by country of origin and continent
Company Name Country of Origin Continent
BASF Germany Europe
SINOPEC China Asia
SABIC Saudi Arabia Asia
FORMOSA PLASTICS Taiwan Asia
EXXONMOBIL United States of America
(USA) America
MITSUBISHI CHEMICAL Japan Asia
LG CHEM South Korea Asia
AIR LIQUIDE France Europe
LINDE AG Germany Europe
TORAY INDUSTRIES Japan Asia
AKZONOBEL Netherlands Europe
PPG INDUSTRIES United States of America
(USA) America
SUMITOMO CHEMICAL Japan Asia
SHIN-ETSU CHEMICAL Japan Asia
MITSUI CHEMICALS Japan Asia
YARA Norway Europe
LANXESS AG Germany Europe
BAYER AG Germany Europe
DSM Netherlands Europe
ASAHI KASEI Japan Asia
EASTMAN CHEMICAL United States of America
(USA) America
ARKEMA France Europe
SK INNOVATION South Korea Asia
HUNTSMAN CORP. United States of America
(USA) America
ECOLAB United States of America
(USA) America
WESTLAKE CHEMICAL United States of America
(USA) America
SASOL South Africa Africa
TOSOH Japan Asia
CLARIANT Switzerland Europe
Own elaboration