coral identification

5/28/2018 Coral Identification

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Photographic Identification Guide to Some Common MarineInvertebrates of Bocas Del Toro, Panama

R. COLLIN1, M. C. DAZ2,3, J. NORENBURG3, R. M. ROCHA4, J. A. SNCHEZ5, A. SCHULZE6,M. SCHWARTZ3, AND A. VALDS7

1Smithsonian Tropical Research Institute, Apartado Postal 0843-03092, Balboa, Ancon, Republic of Panama.2Museo Marino de Margarita, Boulevard El Paseo, Boca del Rio, Peninsula de Macanao, Nueva Esparta, Venezuela.

3Smithsonian Institution, National Museum of Natural History, Invertebrate Zoology,Washington, DC 20560-0163, USA.

4Universidade Federal do Paran, Departamento de Zoologia, CP 19020, 81.531-980, Curitiba, Paran, Brazil.5Departamento de Ciencias Biolgicas, Universidad de los Andes, Carrera 1E No 18A 10, Bogot, Colombia.

6Smithsonian Marine Station, 701 Seaway Drive, Fort Pierce, FL 34949, USA.7Natural History Museum of Los Angeles County, 900 Exposition Boulevard, Los Angeles, California 90007, USA.

This identification guide is the result of intensive sampling of shallow-water habitats in Bocas del Toroduring 2003 and 2004. The guide is designed to aid in identification of a selection of common macroscopicmarine invertebrates in the field and includes 95 species of sponges, 43 corals, 35 gorgonians, 16 nem-

erteans, 12 sipunculeans, 19 opisthobranchs, 23 echinoderms, and 32 tunicates. Species are included hereon the basis on local abundance and the availability of adequate photographs. Taxonomic coverage ofsome groups such as tunicates and sponges is greater than 70% of species reported from the area, whilecoverage for some other groups is significantly less and many microscopic phyla are not included. Sincethis guide does not include microscopic structures such as spicule morphology in sponges and gorgon-ians, or internal soft anatomy which is often necessary for accurate identification of marine invertebrates,certain identification of many species will require subsequent detailed examination in the laboratory. Weexpect that the photographs and descriptions provided here will significantly increase the ease withwhich preliminary field identifications can be made.

Plakortis angulospiculatus (Carter, 1882)IdentificationThick encrusting (1-5 cm thick). Brown togreenish-gray, or yellowish externally, lighter brown to taninternally. Smooth surface, but it may have papillae or slits.Oscules (


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Plakinastrella onkodes Ulizka, 1929IdentificationThick encrusting to massive-lobate (up to 15cm high). Brown to gray-black externally, tan internally. Somespecimens show darker spots. Oscules with a membrane (1-2cm wide). Smooth, but slightly rough surface to the touch.Compressible and dense.DistributionRare, found on reefs open habitats (>10 mdeep). Belize, Colombia, Panama, West Indies.NotesContracts when touched. Scale = 1 cm. Photo by M. C.Daz.

Aiolochroia crassaHyatt, 1875IdentificationMassive to lobate. Bright yellow, brown, orpurple externally, yellow internally. Surface has knob-shapedconules (3-4 mm high, and up to 1 cm apart). Dense like cheese.

Oscules with membranes (1-2 cm wide) on top of lobes.DistributionOpen reef and seagrass (3-30 m deep). Car-ibbean, Bermuda, and Brazil.NotesOut of the water the specimens turn dark purple toblack. Scale = 5 cm. Photo by M. C. Daz.

Aplysina cauliformisCarter, 1882IdentificationRamose, with erect or repent branches (0.5-3cm wide and 20-60 cm long). Brownish-pink to purple exter-nally, tan internally. Microconulose surface (0.1-0.2 mm high,

10 cm highand longer fistulose projections. Further study is required toevaluate this species. Scale = 2 cm. Photo by M. C. D az.

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Aplysina fulva (Pallas, 1776)IdentificationRamose, with erect branches mostly (up to 2cm wide, and 20-60 cm long). Bright yellow to ochre externally,and bright yellow internally. Surface conulose (0.5 mm high, 1mm wide). Fiber network with meshes of 1 mm2 in mean area.DistributionOpen reefs, 2-15 m deep. Caribbean, Bermuda,Brazil.NotesHard to distinguish from A. cauliformis. Oscules tendto be spread all around the branches. Turn black when out ofthe water. Scale = 4 cm. Photo by M. C. Daz.

Aplysina lacunosa (Lamarck, 1815)IdentificationHollow cylinders (up to 1 m high). Surfacewith deep grooves (0.5-1 cm deep), and finely conulose (0.5mm high and 0.5-1 m apart). Yellow, green, ochre, or reddish-

brown, externally, tan-yellowhish internally. Oscules withmembrane on top of of the tube (2-8 cm in diameter). Com-pressible but tough.DistributionDeeper parts of reefs (> 5 m deep). Caribbean,Brazil.NotesIn Bocas the species occurs shallower that in other Car-ibbean localities reported. Scale = 5 cm. Photo by M. C. Daz.

Verongula rigida (Esper, 1794)IdentificationMassive-lobate, with membrane-bearing os-cula (up to 3 cm wide). Yellow, to reddish-brown externally,and bright yellow internally. Surface with ridges (up to 5 mm

high), that run straight, or sinuously, forming angular to hon-eycomb patterns.DistributionCommon on open reef habitats more than 3 mdeep. Caribbean, Florida, Brazil.NotesThe sponge turns black when taken out of the water.Scale = 10 cm. Photo by M. C. Daz.

Verongula reiswigi (Alcolado, 1984)IdentificationTubes almost as wide as tall (10-15 cm high).Green with yellow, and bluish spots externally, yellow inter-nally. Surface with ridges (2-4 mm high) that run parallel, orsinuously. Soft in consistency. Turns black when taken out of

the water.DistributionOpen reef, rare. Cuba, Panama, Belize.NotesScale = 10 cm. Photo by M. C. Daz.

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Spongia tubulifera Hyatt, 1877IdentificationMassive sponge with oscular tubes (5 mmwide, 5-10 mm high). Brown to black in color externally, taninternally. Conulose surface, some tubercule-like projections(few mm high, 2-3 mm wide). Compressible.DistributionCommon to rare on mangrove roots. Wide Car-ibbean, Florida, Mexico, North and South Carolina.NotesThis species is similar to Spongia pertusa but is easilydifferentiated by its oscular tubes and tubercule like promi-nences found on the surface. Scale = 2 cm. Photo by M. C. D az.

Spongia pertusa Hyatt, 1877IdentificationMassive-amorphous to globular. Black exter-nally and tan internally. Surface smooth to the eye, but micro-conulose under the microscope (conules 0.2 mm high, 1 mm

apart). Membrane-bearing oscula (0.5-1 cm) dispersed irregu-larly over the sponge body. Compressible, easy to cut.Distribution Common on mangrove roots. Caribbean,Florida, Brazil.NotesScale = 2 cm. Photo by K. Rtzler.

Hyrtios proteus(Duchassaing & Michelotti, 1864)IdentificationMassive-amorphous to globular. Black exter-nally, tan internally. Surface with conules 2-3 mm high, 1-4 mmapart. Membrane-bearing oscules (1-5 mm wide) scattered or

on mound-like elevations. Compressible, tough to tear. Over-grown by other organisms.DistributionCommon on mangrove, seagrass, and shallowreefs (0.5-5 m deep). Caribbean, Florida, Gulf of Mexico.NotesSimilar toSpongia species but tougher. Scale = 10 cm.Photo by M. C. Daz.

Ircinia campana (Lamarck, 1816)IdentificationVase shaped. Reddish brown externally, taninternally. Oscules (1-5 mm wide) on the inner side. Surfaceconulose (1-5 mm high, 2-9 m apart). Compressible in consis-tency, tough to cut.

DistributionRare on mangroves, and reefs (5-15 m deep).Wide Caribbean, Florida, Gulf of Mexico, North Carolina.NotesAll Ircinia spp. have a characteristic foul odor. Scale= 8 cm. Photo by M. C. Daz.



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Ircinia felix ((Duchassaing & Michelotti, 1864))IdentificationMassive-amorphous, globular, encrusting, fla-bellate or ramose. Reddish-brown to grey externally and taninternally. Conulose surface (1-2 mm high, 2-3 mm apart).Membrane-bearing oscules (1-8 mm wide), with white or darkrims, scattered. Compressible but extremely tough to be cut.DistributionCommon on mangroves, and shallow reefs.Caribbean, Bermuda, Florida, Gulf of Mexico, Brazil, NorthCarolina.NotesScale = 12 cm. Photo by M. C. Daz.

Ircinia strobilina(Lamarck, 1816)IdentificationMassive-globular with large sharp conules (upto 5 mm high) regularly spaced (up to 13 mm apart). Mem-brane-bearing oscules (2-15 mm wide) usually grouped onto a

depression on top of the sponge. Dark gray to black externally,tan internally. Tough very hard to cut.DistributionCommon on shallow reefs and seagrass beds.Caribbean, Bermuda, Florida, Gulf of Mexico, Brazil.NotesScale = 15 cm. Photo by M. C. Daz.

Dysidea etheria De Laub., 1936IdentificationEncrusting, to massive amorphous, or ramose.Grayish, bright blue externally, light blue to tan internally.Conulose surface (comules 1mm high, 2-3 mm apart). Mem-

brane-bearing oscules scattered (1-5 mm wide). Soft and easilytorn.DistributionCommon on mangrove roots. Caribbean, Gulfof Mexico, Bermuda.NotesScale = 2 mm. Photo by M. C. Daz.

Halisarca caerulea Vacelet & Donadey, 1989IdentificationThin encrusting sponge (1-2 mm in thickness),with a bright intense distinct cobalt blue, externally and inter-nally. Smooth, and slippery surface, with regularly dispersedoscula (2-3 mm in diameter). A conspicuous star-shaped canal

system surrounds each oscula.DistributionOn dead coral in reef environments (2-15 mdeep). Guadeloupe, Martinique, Belize, Panama.NotesNo spicular skeleton. Scale = 1 cm. Photo by S. Duranand M. Becerro.

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?Halisarca sp.IdentificationThin encrusting (1-2 mm thick), smooth sur-face and leathery in consistency. Color tan externally and in-ternally. Oscules not visible.DistributionCommon on mangrove roots of internal la-goons and canals. Seem to overgrow many organisms.NotesA histological study of choanocyte chambers morphol-ogy will clarify its assignation of this aspicular to the familyHalisarcidae. Scale = 3 cm. Photo by M. C. D az.

Chelonaplysilla erecta (Row, 1911)IdentificationThinly encrusting (1-10 mm thick), darkbrown, to black in color. Surface with low conules (1 mm high,few mm apart), and oscules bearing a collar-like membrane

(1-4 m wide). Very soft in consistency.DistributionRare to common, on mangroves roots. Panama,Colombia, Venezuela, Curaao, Puerto Rico, Mediterraneanand Red Sea.NotesConspecificity of amphi-Atlantic populations must beevaluated. Scale = 2 cm. Photo by M. C. Daz.

Haliclona (Rhizoniera.) curacaoensis(van Soest,1980)IdentificationThick crust with or without oscular mounds(1-4 cm thick, 2-4 cm high). Gray to bluish-purple externally,

lighter color internally. Oscula 0.5-1 cm wide. Smooth, stronglypunctuate surface, almost hispid looking. Soft, sticky to thetouch.DistributionCommon on mangrove roots, and corals. Car-ibbean, Florida, South Carolina.NotesScale = 1.5 cm. Photo by K. Rtzler.

Haliclona (Reniera) implexiformis(Hechtel, 1965)IdentificationMounds or cushions (2-4 cm thick), pinkish toviolet externally, lighter internally. Smooth, punctutate sur-face, sometimes with small tubercules (1-2 mm high, 1 mmwide). Compressible, but soft. Oscules scattered (5-10 mm

wide).DistributionCaribbean, Bermuda.NotesScale = 4 cm. Photo by M. C. Daz.



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Haliclona (Reniera) manglarisAlcolado, 1984IdentificationThinly encrusting to small mounds (


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Haliclona (S.) twincayensisde Weerdt et al., 1991IdentificationThin erect branches (2-12 mm wide, 5-10 cmlong). Oscula inconspicuous, 1mm wide along branches.Smooth surface. Compressible but fragile in consistency. Whit-ish gray to purplish externally, tan internally.DistributionRare on mangroves roots and peat. Caribbean,Florida.NotesDelicate appearance. Scale = 4 cm. Photo by M. C.Daz.

Haliclona (S.) piscaderaensisvan Soest, 1980IdentificationThick to thin encrusting (1-5 mm thick). Oscu-les (2-4 mm wide), volcano shaped, with transparent mem-branes. Whitish to yellowish or light purple in color. Soft and

fragile, almost crunchy to the touch. C-shaped sigmas abun-dant.DistributionIn Bocas, common on mangroves roots, while inother localities it is reported from cryptic reef habitats andseagrass beds as well. Colombia, Curaao, Panama, Venezuela.NotesScale = 4 cm. Photo by M. C. Daz.

Haliclona (S.) vermeulenide Weerdt, 2000IdentificationThick encrusting with oscular chimneys, hol-low fistules, digitate projections, and lobes (1.5 cm high, 1-5mm wide). Oscules (1-2 mm wide) at end of chimneys or

spread on projections. Blue internally and externally.DistributionRare on mangrove roots. Caribbean, NorthCarolina, Bermuda.NotesBlue specimens of H tubifera and H. caerulea can beconfused with H. vermeuleni. The sigmas in the later allow itsdistinction. Scale = 5 cm. Photo by M. C. Daz.

Haliclona n. sp. 1IdentificationThin (1-2 mm thick) crusts on the rubble (up to100 cm2). Dark brown-red to purple externally, tan internally.Smooth surface. Oscules (1-2 mm wide), with transparentmembranes and short radiating canals. Soft, easy to peel from

substrate.DistributionReefs on rubble, commonly overgrowing otherspecies. Bocas del Toro, Panama.NotesThis species is distinct from the other two other darkpurple H. melana, and H. luciencis, by its thin habit, and itsoscular morphology. Scale = 4 cm. Photo by M. C. D az.



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Chalinula molitba de Laubenfels., 1949IdentificationClusters of hollow tubes, ramose solidbranches (5-20 mm thickness, and up to 15 cm high), or cush-ions (1-3 cm thick). Oscula on side of branches or on top ofhollow tubes (2-5 mm wide). Bright pink to brownish exter-nally, lighter to tan internally. Soft and limp in consistency.Surface microhispid.DistributionOn mangrove habitats, and under coral rubble.Caribbean, Florida, North Carolina, Georgia, Canary Islands.NotesScale = 10 cm. Photo by M. C. Daz.

Amphimedon compressaDuchassaing & Michelotti,1864IdentificationRamose to flabelliform. Branches cylindricalor slightly flattened (>2 cm in diameter). Oscules (3-4 mm

wide) along branches rims. Surface smooth, except on the rimswhere it might be tuberculate or ridged. Tough but compress-ible in consistency.DistributionCommon on shallow reefs, rare on mangroveroots. Caribbean wide.NotesScale = 10 cm. Photo by M. C. Daz.

Amphimedon erina de Laubenfels, 1936IdentificationMassive lobate to ramose. Color dark greenexternally, lighter internally. Surface smooth with oscularchimneys (0.5-1 cm in diameter). The species is compressible

but crumbly in consistency.DistributionCommon on shallow reefs, seagrass beds, andmangroves. Caribbean.NotesHard to distinguish from A viridis. A. erina is darker,tougher, has much less sponging, and larger spicule dimen-sions. Scale = 2.5 cm. Photo by M. C. D az.

Amphimedon viridis Duchassaing & Michelotti,1864Identificationmassive to repent branches (1-3 cm in diam-eter). Volcano-shaped Oscules (2-5 mm). Light green externallyand internally. Soft and compressible in consistency.

DistributionRare species, found on shallow reefs and sea-grass beds. Caribbean, Carolina del Norte, Bermuda, IndianOcean, West central Pacific.NotesEasily distinguished fromA. erinawhen observed sideby side. However the true specific nature of these species mustbe proved genetically. Scale = 1.5 cm. Photo by M. C. Daz.

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Niphates erecta Duchassaing & Michelotti, 1864IdentificationRamose to massive-encrusting. Branches 1-2cm wide. Light grayish, pink, or purple, externally, lighter in-ternally. Surface from smooth to extremely spiny, with or with-out zooanthids. Oscules (2-7 mm in diameter). Spongy buttough in consistency.DistributionAt Bocas common both in the reef and in themangroves. Common Caribbean wide.NotesMangrove specimens are lighter in color and with amore punctuated surface. Photo by M. C. Daz.

Niphates caycedoci Zea & van Soest, 1986IdentificationThick crusts (2-6 cm in thickness), with com-pound oscules (3-6 mm in diameter) on top of low mounds.Grayish-blue externally, lighter to tan internally. Surface punc-

tuated similar toNiphates erecta, with or without white zooan-thids (Parazoanthus sp). Hard-compressible in consistency.DistributionColombia, and Bocas del Toro, Panama.NotesOriginally described as aXestospongiaspecies. Scale =5 cm. Photo by M. C. Daz.

Aka coralliphagum(Rutzler, 1971)IdentificationYellow tubes bearing oscula (1-6 cm high,0.9-3 cm wide) coming out of dead coral, with or without tissuecovered by inhalant papilla. Excavating sponges, bright yellow

sometimes with reddish tinges externally, and lighter yellowinternally Surface microhispid, and sinous. High quantities ofmucus released when broken.DistributionOn coral reefs, usually under 5 m in depth. Car-ibbean wide.NotesScale = 2 cm. Photo by S. Nichols.

Oceanapia nodosa (George & Wilson, 1919)IdentificationThin to thick crusts (0.5-3 cm) with a largenumber of fistules and oscular tubes (5 mm in diameter, 3-5 cmlong) departing from it. Tubular walls paper thin, semitrans-parent. White, or tan externally and internally.

DistributionMangrove roots. Caribbean, Gulf Coast, andNorth Carolina.NotesScale = 9 cm. Photo by M. C. Daz.



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Oceanapia peltata (Schmidt, 1870)IdentificationMassive globular buried under the sand withprojecting cylindrical fistules that have smooth ends, or pa-goda-shaped projections (2-4 cm wide, 1 mm thick). Dirty-white to cream in color.DistributionIn Bocas del Toro the species is on seagrass beds(1-3 m deep). The species is reported from 50-100 m deep.Colombia, Florida, Cuba, and Bocas del Toro, Panama.NotesWater goes in though fistules, and is expelled throughthe buried mass. Scale = 2 cm. Photo by M. C. Daz.

? Xestospongia n. sp. 1IdentificationThin encrusting (.2-4 mm thick,


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Xestospongia rosariensisZea & Rutzler, 1983IdentificationCylindrical tubes (4-78 cm high, 2-13 cm wide)emerge from basal mass. Dark reddish-brown externally, taninternally. Hard and dense. Smooth to the touch, with rugoseand uneven parts, sometimes covered by zooanthids. Osculeson the inner wall of tubes (0.6-3.4 mm wide).DistributionOn coral outcrops, and reef environments (2-30m deep). Nuestra Seora del Rosario Archipelago, Colombia,Bocas del Toro, Panama.NotesHighly variable in shape. It harbors social shrimp intheir canal system. Scale = 8 cm. Photo by M. C. Daz.

Xestospongia subtriangularis(Duchassaing, 1850)IdentificationRamose, branching species similar in growthpattern to the hard coral Acropora cervicornis. Branches 1-2 cmin diameter, and more than 20 cm high. Hard and fragile in

consistency. Smooth surface, with oscules (2-5 mm) regularlydistributed.DistributionOn reef, seagrass beds, and sandflats habitats(>3 m deep). Caribbean wide.NotesLarge patches (>2 m in diameter) may be found inBocas (>4 m deep). Scale = 10 cm. Photo by M. C. D az.

Xestospongia carbonaria(Lamark, 1814)IdentificationMassive, lobate to repent branches with fis-tules that break off easily. Black externally and internally.Smooth surface with scattered membrane bearing oscules (3-5

mm in diameter), located on top of volcano-shaped elevations.Brittle to pulpy in consistency.DistributionVery common between coral rubble, in shallowreefs, seagrass beds, and mangroves. Caribbean wide, and Pa-cific ocean.NotesScale = 4 cm. Photo by M. C. Daz.

Calyx podatypa (de Laubenfels, 1934)IdentificationRamose to lobate repent masses, mostly hol-low, with tubular deformed projections. Round oscules (1-5mm in diameter). Brown-yellowish to greenish externally andtan internally. Firm but fragile and brittle in consistency.

DistributionCommon between coral rubble in shallow reefs,seagrass beds, and between sponges on mangrove roots. Co-lombia, Puerto Rico, Belize.NotesScale 4 cm. Photo by M. C. Daz.



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Callyspongia vaginalis Duchassaing & Michelotti,1864IdentificationCylindrical, to funnel shaped tubes (5-30 cm

high, 1-10 cm in diameter, 1-10 mm thick). Gray in color, withgolden, pink or greenish tinges. Surface smooth or with thornlike conules (up to 10 mm high, 3-10 mm apart). Compressibleand elastic.DistributionCommon on reefs.Caribbean, Bermuda, Brazil.NotesScale = 6 cm. Photo by M. C. Daz.

Agelas dispar(Duchassaing & Michelotti, 1864)IdentificationMassive, roundish, occasionally lobate (up to30 cm wide). A. dispar has been reported in two distinct colorforms: bright orange, and reddish to walnut-brown externally,

lighter orange or tan internally. The surface is smooth. Thereare three intergrading kinds of oscules: (1) meandering invagi-nations, 1-3 mm wide, up to 5 cm long, (2) circular oscules, 2-7mm in diameter, (3) smaller, circular to elongate, 1-2 mm wide,flush.DistributionCoral reefs, usually below 10 m in depth. Car-ibbean wide.NotesScale = 4 cm. Photo by S. Duran and M. Becerro.

Agelas clathrodes(Schmidt, 1870)IdentificationMassive, flabellate, rising from a narrow base(1.5 to 10 cm thick). Bright red-orange externally, lighter inter-nally. The margin is rounded, or indented. Compressible, re-

silient. The surface is rough to the touch to verrucose, withabundant membrane-bearing oscula (2-5 mm diameter).DistributionCoral reefs, usually below 10 m in depth. Car-ibbean wide.NotesScale = 5 cm. Photo by S. Duran and M. Becerro.

Agelas conifera(Schmidt, 1870)IdentificationClusters or single tubes (up to 0.5 m long and10-20 cm in diameter). Light to purplish brown externally, yel-low to tan internally. The surface is smooth, with meanderinggroves occasionally. Oscules on the inner walls of the tubes few

millimeters in diameter.DistributionCoral reefs, usually below 10 m in depth. Car-ibbean wide.NotesScale = 5 cm. Photo by S. Duran and M. Becerro.

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Lissodendoryx issodictyalis (Carter, 1882)IdentificationAmorphous to lobate. Yellow, green or blueexternally, tan internally. Conulose and rugose surface withoscules on top of lobes with dermal canals. Compressible.DistributionMangroves roots, among seagrass blades, orHalimeda. North Carolina, Caribbean, Pacific coast of Mexico,Mediterranean and Indian ocean.NotesScale = 4 cm. Photo by M. C. Daz.

Lissodendoryx colombiensis Zea & van Soest, 1986IdentificationMassive amorphous (10-30 cm thick). Yellowto orange externally, and internally. Surface smooth to slightlyrugose. Large oscules with membranes (0.5-3 cm in diameter),

and smaller ones (1-3 mm). Compressible, easy to break apart.DistributionReefs, and mangrove roots. Colombia, Panama,Belize.NotesScale = 8 cm. Photo by M. C. Daz.

Monanchora arbuscula(Duchassaing & Michelotti,1864)IdentificationEncrusting, massive (0.2-4 cm) or ramose (50-80 cm high). Dark red externally and internally. Surface has a

transparent-whitish membrane, with radial canals that con-verge in oscula (0.3-2 cm in diameter).DistributionCommon species in shallow reefs. In cryptichabitats it grows as thin crust. Caribbean wide.NotesM. barbadensis, andM ungiferaare junior synonyms ofthis species. Scale= 8 cm. Ramose form (scale = 8 cm) and thickencrusting form (Scale = 2 cm) shown. Photo by M. C. D az.

Tedania ignis (Duchassaing & Michelotti, 1864)IdentificationMassive amorphous to lobate, with smooth, totuberculate surface. Bright red or orange red. Oscules (1-2 cmwide) on top of lobes. Soft, compressible, easily torn.DistributionShallow reefs, mangroves, and seagrass beds.

Very common in the Caribbean.NotesTedania ignis (Duchassaing & Michelotti, 1864) is wellknown as the Fire sponge. A lighter orange chimera be-tweenTedania ignis and a Mycale (Paresperella) sp. is found onBocas del Toro mangroves. Scale = 4 cm. Photo by M. C. Daz.



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Iotrochota birotulata(Higgin, 1877)IdentificationSprawling ramose branches, with spiky sur-face (up to 60 cm long, 1-5 cm wide). Black with green patchesinternally and externally. Tough, compressible in consistency.Membrane bearing oscula 1-3 mm in diameter, on side ofbranches.DistributionReef, mangrove and seagrass environments.Caribbean wide, Florida, and apparently on the Indopacific.NotesMany specimens with yellow zoanthids. Scale = 4 cm.Photo by M. C. Daz.

Desmapsamma anchorata (Carter, 1882)IdentificationUpright, somewhat ramose masses with oscu-les (1-5 mm in diameter) on elevations or sprawling clumps ofvolcano-shaped oscular tubes. Variably pale purplish pink to

salmon colored. Consistency compressible, rather soft andslimy.DistributionShallow reef habitats and lagoons. Caribbeanwide, and tropical Atlantic.NotesScale = 2 cm. Photo by M. C. Daz.

Biemna caribaea Pullitzer-Finalli, 1986IdentificationEncrusting (3-6 mm) to branching ramosesponge. Light soft yellow to orange externally and internally.Very soft to the touch, porous surface. Oscules dispersed, with

slightly elevated transparent membranes (1-4 mm wide). Com-pressible easy to break.DistributionExclusively found on mangrove roots. Colom-bia, Belize, Panama, Florida, Puerto Rico, Bonaire.NotesScale= 1.5 cm. Photo by M. C. Daz.

Neofibularia notilangere(Duchassaing &Michelotti, 1864)IdentificationThick encrusting (0.4-3 cm), or massive tolarge vases (up to 80 cm wide and high). Brown-red in colorexternally, tan internally. Surface varies from smooth and po-

rous, to corrugated and microhispid, somewhat velvety. Oscu-les dispersed (3-6 mm wide). Firm but very fragile.DistributionOn reef environments, usually under 5 m deep.Caribbean wide.NotesA very toxic species. Do not touch it with the bare skin!In Bocas it overgrows other reef species aggressively. Scale = 4cm. Photo by M. C. Daz.

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Mycale laevis (Carter, 1882)IdentificationThick cushions (5 cm) sometimes withbranches (1-10 cm wide, up to 50 cm tall). Orange-yellow ex-ternally, lighter internally. Rough surface with oscula withwhite strands on membranes (up to 4 cm wide). Compressible.DistributionIn reefs throughout the Caribbean encrustingthe undersides of corals. Occasionally in mangroves where itcan grow to record size.NotesWhite-albinospecimen shown. Scale = 10 cm. Photoby M. C. Daz.

Mycale laxissima(Duchassaing & Michelotti, 1864)IdentificationTubular to globular, solitary or in clusters,thin-walled (1-2 cm), up to 50 cm tall. Large pseudoscule withtransparent membrane (3-6 cm wide). Dark wine red to black.

The surface is spiny. Tough but compressible. Releases stickymucus released when squeezed.DistributionReefs, mangrove peat banks, occasionally onroots.NotesAn association with two algae (Ostreobiiumcf. constric-tum Lucas a Chlorophyta, andAcrochetum spongicolumWeber-van Bosse, Rhodophyta) living within the sponging fibers ofM.laxissimawas found among Belizean specimens. Scale = 4 cm.Photo by M. C. Daz.

Mycale microsigmatosaArndt, 1927IdentificationEncrusting (0.2-5 cm thick), soft and fragile.Color variable, from reddish orange to gray. Distinctive brightorange specks scattered throughout the surface.

DistributionVery common species, ecrusting mangroveroots, also found on pipes or piles. Bahamas, Belize, Bonaire,Cuba, Curaao, Margarita, Florida, Jamaica.NotesScale = 2 cm. Photo by M. C. Daz.

Mycale magniraphidipheravan Soest, 1984IdentificationEncrusting, up to 5 mm thick, very soft andfragile. Raised dermal canals converge to oscula with transpar-ent membranes (1-3 mm in diameter). Bluish, pinkish orcreamy yellowish in shaded zones.

DistributionRare, encrusting mangrove roots. North Caro-lina, Curaao, Belize, Panama.NotesTends to colonize the tip of young mangrove roots.Scale = 5 cm. Photo by M. C. Daz.



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Mycale carmigropilaHadju & Rtzler, 1998IdentificationThin-encrusting (2-3 mm thick). Color cobaltblue, light green, or cream-yellowish. Dermal canals visible,converging to the oscula in a star-like pattern. Surface smooth,and slimy. Some specimens have a tangential ectosomal reticu-lation, that can be peeled-off. Soft and fragile.DistributionRare, on mangrove roots or intermingled withthe algae Halimeda. Belize, Panama.NotesScale = 5 cm. Photo by M. C. Daz.

Mycale citrina Hajdu & Rtzler, 1998IdentificationThin-encrusting (3-6 mm in thick). Lemon yel-low to orange. Numerous pronounced dermal channels con-verge towards collared-transparent oscula (1-3 mm wide).

Very soft and fragile, releases copias amounts of mucus uponhandling.DistributionCommon on mangrove overhangs and, peatbanks protected from direct sunlight. Belize, Panama, and Ven-ezuela.NotesScale = 2 cm. Photo by M. C. Daz.

Mycale (Paresperella) sp.IdentificationMassive crusts (1-3 cm thick) with irregularlyshaped branches or lobes (3-10 cm high, 1-3 cm thick). Brightred-orangish externally, lighter internally. Smooth and leath-

ery surface. Oscules (1-1.5 cm) in diameter, with transparentmembranes that display white strands. Compressible and soft.DistributionOnly known from Bocas del Toro, Panama.NotesSimilar appearance with Tedania ignis. Sometimes yel-low zooanthids (Parazoanthussp) infest the sponge surface.Thespecies is being described by Daz. Scale = 4 cm. Photo by M.C. Daz.

Clathria (Thalysias) venosa (Alcolado, 1984)IdentificationThin crust (1-2 mm in thickness). Gray tocream externally and internally. Oscules with transparentmembranes (3-4 mm in diameter), from which thin canals (1mm) depart radially. Smooth and slippery surface.

DistributionCommon to rare on mangrove roots. Cuba, Be-lize, Panama.NotesScale = 1 cm. Photo by K. Smith.

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Clathria (T.) microchelaDiscriptionThin encrusting (1-2 mm thick) with conspicuousvein-pattern of the canal system and oscules witn membranes(1-2 mm wide). Grayish blue color throughout. Consistencysoft, slimy to touch.DistributionRare, on mangrove roots and peat banks.Curaao, Bonaire, Belize, Panama.NotesScale = 1 cm. Photo by Kate Smith.

Clathria (Thalysias) shoenus (de Laubenfels, 1936)IdentificationThinly encrusting (2-4 mm in thickness) to lo-bate, ramose, palmate or flabellate, with thin branches reaching10-15 cm in height. Very characteristically colored externally

orange to red with yellowish tinges. Very smooth, somewhatslippery surface. Soft and compressible in consistency.DistributionCuraao, Bonaire, Puerto Rico, Jamaica, Florida,Belize, Panama.NotesHighly variable in shape and color. Scale = 4 cm. Photoby M. C. Daz.

Clathria echinata (Alcolado, 1984)IdentificationClusters or single vase-like tubes (5-15 cmhigh). Bright red to orange externally, and internally. Veryspiky surface. Compressible but resilient to the touch.

DistributionIn Bocas del Toro on deeper edges of reefs (14-18 m deep) covered by mud. Elsewhere found on reefs under10 m deep. Cuba, Panama, Belize.NotesScale = 1.5 cm. Photo by M. C. D az.

Ectyoplasia feroxDescriptionMassive, encrusting, to lobate (2-10 cm thick).Brown-yellowish to orange externally, lighter internally. Sur-face smooth or punctuated, sometimes rugose. Oscules withlight membranes (0.2-1 cm in diameter), sometimes on chim-ney-like projections (1-2 cm high). Dense and compressible.

DistributionRare on seagrass beds, common on reefs (>4 mdeep). Caribbean wide.NotesScale = 2 cm. Photo by S. Nichols.



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Dragmacidon reticulata (Ridley & Dendy, 1886)IdentificationMassive-amorphous, lobate, or mound-shape.Bright red externally and internally. Short conules (0.5 mmhigh) evenly dirtributed, or tall conules (1-2 mm high) irregu-larly distributed. Oscules abundant (3-6 mm in diameter), witha thin membrane. Slimy when cut.DistributionReefs (0.5-70 m deep), and occasionally on man-grove roots. Caribbean wide. Very similar species occur in theSouth and Eastern Pacific.NotesMany specimens with yellow zoanthids. Scale = 4 cm.Photo by M. C. Daz.

Scopalina ruetzleri (Wiedenmeyer, 1977)IdentificationThin to thick encrusting (0.5-2 cm thick).Bright orange to yellowish orange, externally and internally.The surface is conulose. The consistency is very soft and limp.

DistributionIt is common on mangrove roots, and occasion-ally on peat banks, and on shallow reefs habitats. Caribbeanwide.NotesScale = 2 cm. Photo by K. Rtzler.

Svenzea zeaiIdentificationMassive lobate, to ramose (4-10 cm tic). Red-dish brown externally, tan internally. Chimney-like oscule 1-2cm wide. Smooth, punctuate surface. Soft, compressible.

DistributionOn reefs (>10 m deep). Colombia, Panama, Be-lize, Bahamas, Jamaica, Curacao.NotesSometimes with brown zoanthids. Scale= 2 cm. Photoby M. C. Daz.

Halichondria lutea Alcolado, 1984IdentificationMassive encrusting body usually burrowingin the sand from which sharp and corrugated projections arise.(Up to 2 cm high and 0.5 cm wide). Orange to yellow exter-nally, slightly lighter internally. Compressible but fragile.

DistributionGrowing on deeper areas of the reef over sandyand/or muddy bottoms, and is usually found covered by sedi-ments. Cuba, Venezuela, Panama.NotesScale = 1 cm. Photo by M. C. Daz.

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Halichondria magniconulosaHechtel, 1965IdentificationMassive-amorphous to lobate, and fleshy. Thesurface varies from smooth, wrinkled, to having fistules-likeprojections (0.5 cm wide, and 0.5-1 cm long). It can be confusedwith Lissodendoryx (yellow form) or Biemna spp. but is easilydistinguished in the field by touch. This species consistency iscompressible and a clear detachable skin is present.DistributionCommon on mangrove roots, on the bottom ofmangrove creeks, and growing on peat banks. Caribbean wide.NotesScale = 2 cm. Photo by M. C. Daz.

Halichondria melanadocia de Laubenfels, 1936IdentificationMassive-amorphous to ramose, black to darkgreen externally, black with yellow tinges internally. Surfacevaries from smooth, to tuberculate to conulose. Oscules raised

above the body (3-10 mm wide). Compressible to the touch.Smooth surface, with detachable skin.DistributionShallow coastal environments, mangroves andseagrass beds. Caribbean wide. Photo by M. C. Daz.NotesHighly variable in shape. Scale = 3 cm. Photo by M. C.Daz.

Cinachyrella alloclada (Uliczka, 1929)IdentificationGlobular sponge up to 10 cm wide, with blindconcave depressions (porocalices), 3-15 mm wide; oscules (1-5mm wide) sometimes visible on the top of the sponge. Orange

to yellow externally, lighter internally.DistributionFlorida, Bahamas North Carolina, Venezuela.NotesScale = 1 cm. Photo by K. Rtzler.

Cinachyrella apion (Uliczka, 1929)IdentificationSpherical to sub-spherical (up to 10 cm in di-ameter), yellow to gray externally, lighter internally. Surfacestrongly hispid or furry. Porocalices abundant (up to 3 mmwide). Oscules rare, 2-3 mm wide. Soft and compressible.

DistributionOn mangrove roots and peat (>0.3 m deep).North and South Carolina to Bermuda, southwestern Florida,Bahamas, Virgin Islands, Belize, Panama.NotesScale = 2 cm. Photo by K. Rtzler.



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Geodia papyracea Hechtel, 1965IdentificationMassive (10-20 cm in diameter). Cream orlight gray to dark brown externally (the color is from the cya-nobacteria), tan internally. Consistency is pulpy and easilycrumbled. Surface rough, and it may be wrinkled. Oscules (2-5mm wide) aggregated.DistributionRare. Found on mangrove roots and mangrovepeat banks. Belize, Jamaica, Panama.NotesSick mushy specimens due to extreme growth ofcyanobacteria reported from Belize. Scale = 3 cm. Photo by M.C. Daz.

Erylus formosus Sollas, 1886IdentificationMassive amorphous to lobate. Color black topurplish gray externally, tan internally. Very smooth skin thatwrinkles when lifted out of the water. Consistency compress-

ible and dense, easily torn.DistributionRare species, exclusive of reef habitats, under 5m deep. Bahamas, Belize, Venezuela.NotesA sister species E. gofflieri (Wiedenmayer, 1977) has asurface pierced by holes. Scale = 3 cm. Photo by M. C. Daz.

Placospongia intermedia Sollas, 1888IdentificationThick crust to branching. Brown to tan exter-nally, lighter internally. Surface armored with cortical platesand a pattern of grooves wi the inhalant surface. Hard andtough.DistributionRare, shallow reef and seagrass beds habitats.Jamaica, Bahamas, Belize, Panama.NotesScale = 1.5 cm. Photo by S. Duran and M. Becerro.

Spirastrella coccinea Schmidt, 1868IdentificationThin encrusting (1-5 mm) bright red sponge.Internally the color grades from red to brown or orange.Smooth surface, leathery to the touch. Small oscules (0.5-2 mmin diameter) often on small mounds, with star shaped trans-

parent canals departing from the oscula.DistributionRare species in between coral rubble, usuallycryptic (1-15 m deep). Caribbean wide.NotesVermillion bright red color allows clear distinctionwith other Spirastrella species. Scale = 2 cm. Photo by M. C.Daz.

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Spirastrella hartmani Boury-Esnault et al., 1999IdentificationThick encrusting (up to 4 cm thick). Dull red-dish to brown externally, lighter color internally. Smooth sur-face, leathery to the touch. Compressible in consistency.DistributionCommon between and under coral rubble, inshallow reefs and seagrass environments (1-10 m deep). Car-ibbean.NotesThis species represents what was referred in the litera-ture asS.cunctatrixor S cf. mollisfrom Panama and elsewherein the Caribbean. S. cunctatrix is very similar, but is a northAtlantic species with distinct genetic and skeletal identities.Scale = 1.5 cm. Photo by M. C. D az.

Spirastrella mollis Verill, 1907IdentificationEncrusting (3-5 mm thick), with meanderingdermal canals that depart from large collared-oscula (0.5-2 cm).Milky-orange, yellowish to brownish red externally, lighter to

yellowish internally. Consistency soft, surface smooth.DistributionRare to common encrusting red mangroveroots, peat banks, and oyster shells.NotesScale = 5 cm. Photo by M. C. Daz.

Terpios manglaris Rtzler y Smith, 1993IdentificationThin encrusting (


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Suberites auriantacaDescriptionMassive lobate (4-10 cm thick) to ramose. Colorvariable, from red and orenage to yellow-green externally, or-ange-yellow internally. Smooth, highly contractile. Oscules0.3-1 cm wide. Dense, and compressible.DistributionCommon, on mangrove roots. Tropical Atlan-tic, tropical Pacific, Antilles.NotesScale = 2 cm. Photo by M. C. D az.

Tethya aff. seychellensisIdentificationPurplish-red spheres, in clusters or solitary(2-5 cm wide). Reproductive buds (1-2 mm in diameter) on topof hair-like projections common. Verrucose surface and vol-

cano shaped oscules with transparent membranes (2-5 mm indiameter). Internal color orange-red.DistributionRare; found on mangrove roots or between sea-grass blades. Venezuela, Panama.NotesThis species was identified by Dr. M. Sara as T. sey-chellensis(Cipriani et al. 1994) a species from the Indian Ocean.Its conspecificity with the Caribbean species is highly dubious.Scale = 2 cm. Photo by M. C. Daz.

Tethya actinea de Laubenfels, 1950IdentificationGlobular, up to about 7 cm in diameter. Em-erald to drab green, occasionally orange externally, lighter toorange internally. Tough, somewhat compressible. Verrucose

surface. Volcano shaped oscules with transparent membranes(< 5 mm wide). Some specimens are covered with thin pro-cesses, and occasionally with buds.DistributionCommon in mangrove and sea grass beds.NotesScale = 1 cm. Photo by K. Rtzler.

Spheciospongia vesparium (Lamarck, 1815)IdentificationMassive amorphous to cake shaped. Black ex-ternally, and internally. Surface with round low elevations.Large oscules (8-15 mm wide) and small oscules (1-2 mm wide)aggregated. Compressible but dense in consistency.

DistributionRare species, found on soft bottoms on reefsand seagrass habitats. North Carolina, Florida, Caribbeanwide.NotesScale = 9 cm. Photo by S. Duran and M. Becerro.

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Cliona caribbaea Carter 1882 (= C. langae Pang,1973)IdentificationThin encrusting (2 mm thick) continuously

covering the substratum. Brown to gray in color. Oscula (2-3mm wide) with a cream colored rim. Papillae may be distin-guished on small specimens or growing on rims.DistributionMostly deeper than 6 m, sometimes in shallowrubble. Jamaica, Belize, Colombia, Panama.NotesSponge excavates 0.7-1.3 cm into the coral skeleton .Occasionally colonized by yellow zoanthids. Scale = 2 cm.Photo by S. Duran and M. Becerro.

Cliona delitrix Pang, 1973IdentificationEncrusting with round to oval shaped papillae(2-5 mm wide, 1-2 mm high) excavates several cm (up to 10 cm)into the coral rubble. Orange reddish in color. Surface smooth,

and velvety on papillae. Oscules with volcano-shaped mem-branes (1-3 cm in diameter, and 0.5 1 cm high).DistributionVery common species on shallow to deeperreefs (> 4 m deep). Caribbean wide.NotesUsually covered by white zoanthids. Scale = 6 cm.

Cliona tenuis Zea & Weil, 2003IdentificationTransparent brown, very thin tissue on coralrubble (up to several m. in diameter). Smooth surface withsmall and inconspicuous oscules (0.4-1.4 mm in diameter).

Color light to dark brown with yellowish, reddish or greenishtinges.DistributionCommon on shallow, wave exposed reef habi-tats at low (1-6 m deep) or mid depths (15-20 m), especially onAcropora palmatadead colonies.NotesSponge excavates up to 2 cm into the coral skeleton.Scale = 1 cm. Photo by K. Rtzler.

Cliona varians (Duchassaing & Michelotti, 1864)IdentificationThin to thick encrusting (0.2-5 cm in thick-ness), or massive lobate. Smooth, velvety surface with oscules(0.2-3 cm in diameter) bearing cream colored membranes thatare either flushed to the surface or elevated few mm from it.

Firm and rubbery.DistributionCommon species on reef and seagrass environ-ments. Wide depth range (2-30 m). Large specimens on areasexposed to high currents. Caribbean wide.NotesScale = 6 cm. Photo by M. C. Daz.



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Chondrilla nucula Schmidt, 1862IdentificationThin to thick encrusting (0.2-4 cm) to massiveamorphous. The surface is smooth, shiny, with oscules regu-larly distributed (0.2-1 cm wide). Dark brown to walnut brownor beige, externally, and tan internally. The consistency is soft,elastic, and tough.DistributionThick on mangroves, and thin on coral reefs(5-20 m deep). Caribbean wide.NotesAsterose spicules present. Scale = 2 cm. Photo by S.Duran and M. Becerro.

Chondrosia collectrix Schmidt, 1862IdentificationThick encrusting (1-5 cm) to massive amor-phous. Black to dark brown or tan externally on parts unex-posed to light, tan internally. Tough, firm, and cartilaginous.

Surface smooth, and slimy. Oscules 0.2-1 cm wide.DistributionOccasionally found on mangrove roots andpeat banks. Common on reefs and lagoons. Caribbean wide.NotesVery similar in appearance toC. nucula, butC. collectrixlacks spicules, is darker in color, and much tougher, and car-tilagenous in consistency. Scale = 5 cm Photo by S. Duran andM. Becerro.

PHYLUM CNIDARIAMillepora alcicornisLinnaeus, 1758IdentificationMultiple branches in a single plane with smallpores from which the tiny polyps protrude. Tan or mustardwith white tips and edges.DistributionCommon throughout the Caribbean, in reefsand seagrass beds and occasionally on mangrove roots. Verycommon in shallow protected areas in Bocas del Toro wherethere can be solid beds of this species.NotesPainful stings that can develop into a painful rash orwelts.

Millepora complanataLinnaeus, 1758IdentificationColor and texture similar to A. alcicornis, butcolonies for thin, upright blades or plates that are somewhat

branched.DistributionCommon throughout the Caribbean in shallowreef habitats with surge or more flow that A. alcicornishabitats.NotesPainful stings that can develop into a painful rash orwelts.

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Millepora striataLinnaeus, 1758IdentificationTan or mustard with white edges. This speciesforms short blades that often split to form small boxes.DistributionRare throughout the Caribbean.NotesPainful stings.

Stylaster roseus Pallas, 1766IdentificationSmall pink or lavender branched colonies. Of-ten branches in only an single plane to make fan-shaped colo-nies.

DistributionCommon but inconspicuous on reefs through-out the Caribbean.

Acropora cervicornis(Lamarck, 1816)IdentificationColonies of cylindrical branches that branch inthree dimensions, often forming a dense tangle. Yellow-brownwith tips of branches often white. Corallites form obvious

bumps on branchesDistributionIntermediate depths on reefs in low energy ar-eas.NotesThis species has suffered recent server mortality inmany parts of the Caribbean. There are still healthy popula-tions in Bocas del Toro.

Acropora palmata (Lamarck, 1816)IdentificationCharacteristics flattened branches give thisspecies its common name (Elkhorn coral). Yellow-brown withwhite edges of branches.DistributionThroughout the Caribbean in shallow areas of

high wave action, especially reef crests.NotesThis species has suffered recent server mortality inmany parts of the Caribbean. There are still healthy popula-tions in Bocas del Toro.



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Madracis decactisLyman, 1859IdentificationPrimarily encrusting colonies with raised fin-gers or lobes. Small raised corallites. Corallites have 10 primarysepta.DistributionCommon throughout the Caribbean and South-ern Florida.NotesMay be difficult to distinguish from other Madracisspecies in the field and is know to hybridize with M. pharensis.

Madracis miriabilis(Duchassaing & Michelotti,1861)IdentificationColonies are clumps of densely packed thinfingers with rounded, blunt tips.

DistributionCommon throughout the Caribbean in deepclear water.NotesCommon in the deeper reefs in Bocas del Toro.

Favia fragum(Esper, 1788)IdentificationSmall, hemispherical colonies with large cor-allites. Edges or corallites do not protrude. Yellow-brown.DistributionCommon in shallow (


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Diploria clivosa (Ellis & Solander, 1786)IdentificationA domed or encrusting brain coral, often withprotruding knobs. Ridges rise sharply and are not grooved.Valleys are broad. Green, brown or yellow-brown.DistributionCommon throughout the Caribbean.

Diploria strigosa (Dana, 1846)IdentificationA domed or plate-like brain coral. Ridges arerounded and are not grooved. Valleys are broad and long.Green, brown or yellow-brown.

DistributionCommon throughout the Caribbean.

Colpophyllia natans (Houttuyn, 1772)IdentificationThese brain corals can be encrusting or formdomes or rounded plates. The ridges expand distinctly mid-way to the groove. A thin groove runs along the ridgetops.

Brown, green or tan.DistributionCommon throughout the Caribbean on reeftops.NotesPolyps feed nocturnally.

Montastraea cavernosa(Linnaeus, 1766)IdentificationColonies massive. Often form huge mounds orboulders. Corallites are closely spaced and calices are distrib-uted evenly. More septa than the other Montastraea species.Green, brown, yellow, pink or gray.

DistributionCommon throughout the Caribbean to a depthof 70 m.NotesPolyps feed nocturnally.



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Montastraea annularis(Ellis & Solander, 1786)IdentificationColonies form long, thick columns. Polypscover the tops of the columns. Close-packed, raised corallites,Calices distributed evenly. Golden tan or greenish.DistributionCommon throughout the Caribbean.NotesSpawns after the full moon in August and Septemberin Bocas del Toro.

Montastraea faveolata(Ellis & Solander, 1786)IdentificationMassive mounds, generally smooth withbumps and ridges. Calices distributed evenly each with 24septa. Grey, green or brown.

DistributionCommon throughout the Caribbean.NotesSpawns after the full moon in August and Septemberin Bocas del Toro.

Montastraea franksi(Gregory, 1895)IdentificationBumpy or uneven massive plates or crusts.Calices distributed unevenly each with 24 septa. Grey, green orbrown.

DistributionCommon throughout the Caribbean.NotesSpawns after the full moon in August and Septemberin Bocas del Toro.

Solenastrea bournoni (Milne-Edwards & Haime,1849)IdentificationColonies form large mounds or domes oftenwith irregular bumps. Corallite rims protrude with extramuralbudding. Cream to tan.DistributionCan be common in Florida but is generally un-common throughout the Caribbean. Generally shallow reefs.

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Manicina areolata(Linnaeus, 1758)IdentificationSmall (2 cm with 24 septa can be widely spaced or closelypacked. Often cream with brown calices.DistributionThroughout the Caribbean.NotesThis species appears to blush as the polyps retractwhen disturbed.



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Mussa angulosa (Pallas, 1766)IdentificationColonies of large fleshy polyps with corallitediameter 4-7 cm. Septa with large prominent teeth. Polypsclose-packed with rough texture. Grey with overtones of blue,green or pink.DistributionThroughout the Caribbean.NotesPolyps feed at night.

Scolymia cubensis (Milne Edwards & Haime, 1849)IdentificationLarge (3-10 cm), solitary, fleshy polyps. Ir-regular attenuate or triangular septal teeth. Grey, brown greenor blue-green.

DistributionOccasional throughout the Caribbean on deepreefs and shaded walls.NotesVery similar to Scolymia wellsi in the field.

Scolymia wellsi (Zlatarski, 1982)IdentificationLarge (1-5 cm), solitary, fleshy polyps. Irregu-lar attenuate or triangular septal teeth. Grey, brown green orblue-green.

DistributionOccasional throughout the Caribbean on deepreefs and shaded walls.NotesVery similar to S. cubensis but smaller and spikier.

Isophyllia sinuosa (Ellis & Solander, 1786)IdentificationSmall domes with convoluted very fleshyridges and narrow, convoluted valleys. discontinuous trabecu-lar columellae. Color variable from yellow to green, brown orgrey.

DistributionThroughout the Caribbean in a variety of reefhabitats.NotesPolyps feed at night.

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Isophyllastrea rigida(Dana, 1848)IdentificationSmall hemispherical domes with fleshy ridgesand irregular, closed, polygonal valleys each with one or twopolyps. Ridges dark with pale valleys.DistributionThroughout the Caribbean in a variety of reefhabitats.NotesPolyps feed at night.

Mycetophyllia lamarckianaMilne Edwadrs &Haime, 1848IdentificationFlat plates with scalloped edges. Ridges out-line the plates and extend towards the coloniescenters. Green,

gray or brown, ridges often contrast with the rest of the colony.DistributionThroughout the Caribbean, but never very com-mon. Often in shaded areas and on walls.NotesPolyps feed at night.

Mycetophyllia aliciae Wells, 1973IdentificationFlat or convex plates with ridges along theboarders. Prominent large raised corallites in the valleys dis-tinguish this species from the previous species. Corallites and

ridges are often paler than the valleys. Green, brown, or gray.DistributionThroughout the Caribbean, but not common.NotesPolyps feed at night.

Meandrina meandrites(Linnaeus, 1758)IdentificationColonies usually form flattened plates orhemispherical heads. Ridges of distinct widely separated septawith a thin line where the sept fuse. Tan, yellow, or brown.DistributionCommon throughout the Caribbean in a variety

of habitats, often in sandy or rubble habitats.



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Agaricia agaricites(Linnaeus, 1758)IdentificationColonies take a variety of forms from encrust-ing to thick plates or upright blades. Reticulate ridges are veryprominent and form short clearly defined valleys.DistributionThroughout the Caribbean.

Agaricia humilis (Verill, 1901)IdentificationColonies form small circular encrustations.Corallites in pits form a reticulated pattern and do not formlong ridges or valleys. Brown or yellow-brown.

DistributionThroughout the Caribbean.

Agaricia tenuifolia Dana, 1848IdentificationColonies form clumps of upright blades withcorallites on both sides. Ridges and valleys arranged in wavy,parallel lines. Brown, gray, yellowish or greenish.

DistributionCommon along the Caribbean continentalcoast. Does not occur in Florida or the Bahamas. Very commonin Bocas de Toro on shallow reefs.

Agaricia fragilisDana 1860IdentificationColonies form plates or bowls with concentricridges with long, continuous valleys. Polyps occur only on thetop side of the colony. Corallites 1.9-2.5 mm with 17-36 septa.Brown, purplish, tan, or greenish.

DistributionThroughout the Caribbean and south to Brazil.

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Agaricia lamarckiMilne Edwards & Haime 1851IdentificationThick, one-sided plates that often make spiralsor whorls. Long ridges and valleys form concentric ridges.Corallites 3-4.5 mm with 20-30 septa. White star-like polyps.Usually various shades of brown.DistributionCommon throughout the Caribbean.

Leptoseris cucullata (Ellis & Solander, 1786)IdentificationColonies form thin plates or saucers with cor-allite septa running towards the colony margin. Corallites 3-4.6mm in diameter with 15-25 thin, smooth septa. Ridges slope

gently proximally and steeply marginally. Tan, brown or gray.DistributionThroughout the Caribbean.

Siderastrea siderea (Ellis & Solander, 1786)IdentificationColonies grow as domes or rounded heads.Small, round, pitted corallites have 40-50 septa. Usually gray tobrown or golden brown.DistributionCommon throughout the Caribbean on pro-tected shallow reefs or deeper reefs.

Porites porites (Pallas, 1766)IdentificationThick branched colonies. The stubby branchesare covered with corallites on the distal tips and usually forma dead matrix more basally. Embedded corallites are evenlydistributed with 12 septa each.

DistributionCommon throughout the Caribbean. Very com-mon in shallow water in Bocas del Toro.



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Porites astreoides Lamarck, 1816IdentificationColonies form mounds, or encrusting colonies.The small corallites (1.2-1.4 cm) are evenly distributed andhave 12 septa.DistributionCommon throughout the Caribbean and ex-tends south to Brazil.

Antipathes caribbeanaOpresko, 1996IdentificationBranching occurs to all sides and is almost di-chotomous. Branches often curve downward. Living coloniesare brownish in color with translucent tentacles and can reach

2 m in height.DistributionVertical wall faces on reef edges in areas ofstrong currents, 30-100 m depth. Colombia to the Bahamas.Notes This species has been commercially important.

Antipathes gracilisGray, 1860IdentificationColonies are profusely branched like a net orfan in a single plane. Living polyps are red or orange. Spinesare less than 0.1 mm.

DistributionDeep reefs at 20-100 m in Gulf of Mexico, Car-ibbean and Colombia.NotesThis species is difficult to distinguish fromA.atlanticaGray except on the basis of the color of the living polyps. Thisspecies has been commercially important.

Stichopathes lutkeni Brook, 1889IdentificationColonies consist of a single long, unbranched,coiled stalk, up to 80 cm in length. Colonies are reddish brownwith translucent white tentacles. Polyps occur in a single close-packed series.

DistributionThis species is found at depths greater than20 m throughout the Caribbean.

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Plumapathes pennacea (Pallas, 1766)IdentificationBranches extend from the holdfast. Pinnatebranchlets occur on both sides of the secondary branches andthe simple pinnules are arranged in two rows. Living coloniesgrayish or orange-brown.DistributionThis species occurs from Brazil north to the Ba-hamas.NotesThis species is commercially important.

Carijoa riisei (Duchassaing & Michelotti, 1860)IdentificationColonies are bushy clusters of branched, redstalks covered with large white polyps. Stalks have 8 groovesand the polyps are paired or in groups of three. Stalks are often

overgrown with other organisms.DistributionThroughout the Caribbean, Bahamas andSouthern Florida.NotesOften common on docks and other man-made sub-strates.

Briareum asbestinum (Pallas, 1766)IdentificationColonies of erect fingers extend from a com-mon encrusting, stolonal mat. Coenenchyme usually pink orpurplish with large brownish or greenish polyps. Apertures

are open.DistributionThroughout the Caribbean.

Briareum polyanthes Duchassaing & Michelotti,1860IdentificationColonies are encrusting and form soft, meat-ball-like lobes. Coenenchyme usually purplish, tan, or gray.The apertures are open.

DistributionCaribbean.NotesUsually encrusting gorgonian corals.



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Erythropodium caribaeorum (Duchassaing &Michelotti, 1860)IdentificationColonies are encrusting mats of polyps that

appear as a smooth tan carpet when the polyps are retracted.Polyps are pale and have fine tan tentacles.DistributionInhabit a variety of reef environments through-out the Caribbean.

Plexaura kkenthali Moser, 1921IdentificationBushy colonies are lavender to pale gray withprominent lateral branching. Calyces present as an slightlyraised, inconspicuous lip around the pore. The branches are

brittle.DistributionCaribbean.

Plexaura kuna Lasker et al., 1996IdentificationSlimy branches short and profusely ramified.Calyces never raised or rough to touch and lower calycular lipabsent. Apertures round or oval, sometimes gaping withslightly raised rims on terminal branches.

DistributionCaribbean.

Plexaura flexuosa (Lamouroux, 1821)IdentificationColonies broad, and branch in a single planewith dense dichotomous branches. Branches are rigid andthere is a small rim around the pinhole aperture when polyps

are retracted. Tan, brown, or purplish.DistributionThroughout the Caribbean on patch reefs.

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Eunicea (Eunicea) mammosa Lamouroux, 1816IdentificationColonies branch in a single plane from thebase with thick branches. Swollen tubular calyces not longerthan branch diameter. Calyces with a slightly upturned lower

lip. Light yellowish brown.DistributionCommon in the Northwest Caribbean and un-common throughout the rest of the Caribbean.

Eunicea (Eunicea) succinea (Pallas, 1766)IdentificationBranching is candelabral, three-dimensionalwith thin branches. Calyces hemispherical with upturnedlower lip. Colonies medium to light brown.

DistributionCaribbean, Southern Florida and the Bahamas.

Eunicea (Eunicea) laxispicaIdentificationBranches thin with usually single branches ris-ing from the base. Elongate, tubular or conical calyces longerthan the branch diameter. Lower lip alone may be slightlyupturned, but never with a conspicuous sharp upper lip.


Pseudoplexaurasp.IdentificationRetracted polyps leave round pores withoutraised rims. Colonies characterized by dichotomous branching.Pale beige to yellow.DistributionCaribbean.



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Eunicea (Euniceopsis) fusca Duchassaing &Michelotti, 1860IdentificationColonies usually small and rather bushy with

thin terminal branches. The low round bulging calyces aresmall and irregular in appearance and have a round centralaperture.DistributionThroughout the Caribbean, Southern Floridaand the Bahamas.

Eunicea (Euniceopsis) laciniata Duchassaing &Michelotti, 1860IdentificationThe cylindrical branches are the thickestbranches in the genus and ends are bulbous. Apertures with

eight surrounding lobules and larger projecting lower lip tip.Colonies are medium brown.DistributionCaribbean.

Eunicea (Euniceopsis) tourneforti Milne Edwards &Haime, 1857IdentificationColonies branch in a single plane andbranches have elliptical cross-section. Diameter of branch-ends

same or smaller than branch. Calyces with conspicuous up-turned lower lip that is not hemispherical. Apertures may begaping. Colonies dark brown.DistributionCaribbean.

Eunicea (Euniceopsis) asperula Milne Edwards &Haime, 1857Identification Colonies bushy with thick ascendingbranches, never broad or flattened. Calyces with upturnedlower lip usually giving a coarse texture. Surface of the colony

is black.DistributionCaribbean.

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Eunicea (Euniceopsis) knighti Bayer, 1961IdentificationBranches are flexible and slimy. Unlike otherEunicea species which have prominent extended calyces, E.knightihas pores with raised edges. Bulb or knob at some or allof the branch tips, and sometimes on the branches or branchaxils. Colonies are reddish brown and the tentacles are darkerthan polyp body.DistributionCaribbean.

Eunicea (Euniceopsis) calyculata (Ellis & Solander,1786)IdentificationTall Colonies of thick ascending branches. Ap-ertures with ridges on the inner lip may appear sealed or gap-

ing. Calyces flat or mound-like. Color variable from light todark.DistributionCaribbean.

Eunicea (Euniceopsis) pallida Garcia-Parrado &Alcolado, 1997IdentificationBushy colonies are small, with few ramifica-tions. Branches are brittle. Colonies nearly white. Apertures

clearly observable.DistributionCaribbean.

Muriceopsis flavida (Lamarck, 1815)IdentificationColonies tall with thin branches. Branchinguniformly pinnate and pinnules are short and pinnate. Calycesat most slightly raised with a weak shelf-like calycular lip.DistributionFound throughout the reef. Caribbean.



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Muriceopsis bayeriSanchez, 2001IdentificationSmall (


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Muricea atlanticaKkenthal, 1919IdentificationRobust branches, elliptical in cross sectionwith large sclerites visible on the surface. Calyces prominent,rough and spiny. Branching is open. Colonies white to gray.DistributionCaribbean.

Muricea laxa Verrill, 1864IdentificationBranches thin and delicate and cylindrical incross section. Hard, rough, prominent calyces with spike on thelower lip. Usually yellow-green, white or orange.


Muricea elongataLamouroux, 1821IdentificationColonies bushy and elongate branches are ro-bust, flattened, and elliptical in cross section. Calyces promi-nent, rough and spiny; color usually yellow-green, white or

orange, more yellow/golden than M. laxa.DistributionCaribbean.

Muricea pinnata Bayer, 1961IdentificationColonies pinnate or plumose. Calyces promi-nent, rough, and spiny:. Branches not slimy. Lower calycularlip always present at least as a weak shelf and apertures areround or oval.

DistributionCaribbean. Uncommon.



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Pseudopterogorgia acerosa (Pallas, 1766)IdentificationColonies with multiple stems and large colo-nies similar in form to P. americanabut they are not slimy andare coarse when touched. Flat branches in single plane thatremain separated when dry. Polyps regularly placed in rowsalong the branch edge.DistributionCaribbean.

Pseudopterogorgia americana (Gmelin, 1791)IdentificationBranches extremely slimy and full of mucuswhen alive. Colonies tall with long, regularly branching pin-nules and the branchlets mat together when the colonies dry.


Gorgonia flabellum Linnaeus, 1758IdentificationColonies with robust branches and tightlyanastomosing mesh. Branches flattened at an opposite angle tothe fans surface. Yellow, purple or gray.

DistributionThroughout the Caribbean, Southern Floridaand the Bahamas.

Gorgonia mariae Bayer, 1961IdentificationColonies grow as small yellowish or bluishfans. Branches are pinnate and branch in a single plane. Sec-ondary branches often, but dont always, reticulate.DistributionOccasional throughout the Caribbean, but not

Florida.

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Pterogorgia citrina (Esper, 1792)IdentificationSmall (


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PHYLUM NEMERTEABaseodiscus delineatus (Delle Chiaje, 1825)IdentificationHeteronemertean with creamy to white back-

ground and broken red lines. Up to 30 cm long.DistributionEurope, Caribbean, Pacific North America,Southern Florida; cryptic in cracks and crevices, and underrocks.

Baseodiscus sp.IdentificationRobust, brown heteronemertean up to 50 cmlong.DistributionCaribbean; cryptic and found among Porites sp.and within larger sponges.

Micrura chlorapardalisSchwartz & Norenburg,2005IdentificationGreen to yellow mottled heteronemertean

with blunted posterior and a caudal cirrus. Up to 2 cm long.DistributionBelize and Panama, cryptic within coral rubbleor its epibiota.

Micrura ignea Schwartz & Norenburg, 2005IdentificationFiery orange-red heteronemertean withblunted posterior and caudal cirrus. Up to 2.5 cm long.

DistributionBelize and Panama; within sponge and tunicateencrusted mangrove roots and filamentous algal mats.

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Micrura rubramaculosaSchwartz & Norenburg,2005IdentificationRed mottled heteronemertean with blunted

posterior and a caudal cirrus. Up to 2 cm long.DistributionBelize and Panama, cryptic within coral rubbleor its epibiota.NotesThis heteronemertean has a modified direct-developing larva.

Micrurasp. 1IdentificationCherry-red heteronemertean with white-capped anterior and a caudal cirrus. Up to 4 cm long.DistributionBelize and Panama, cryptic within coral rubble

or its epibiota.NotesThis heteronemertean has a direct-developing larva.

Micrurasp. 2IdentificationOlive to green to yellow-green heterone-mertean, occasionally with a faint brown lattice pattern on thedorsal surface. Up to 4 cm long.

DistributionBelize and Panama, cryptic within coral rubbleor its epibiota.

Micrurasp. 3IdentificationHeteronemertean with yellow dorsal andwhite to light-yellow ventral surfaces; anterior with white tipand posterior with caudal cirrus. Up to 2 cm long.DistributionBelize and Panama, cryptic within coral rubble

or its epibiota.



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Micrurasp. 4IdentificationBright orange heteronemertean with whitestripe down the dorsum, with a caudal cirrus. Up to 3 cm long.DistributionBelize and Panama, cryptic within coral rubbleor its epibiota.

Micrurasp. 5IdentificationPink worm with white and orange tippedhead and a caudal cirrus. Up to 2 cm long.DistributionBelize and Panama, cryptic within coral rubble

or its epibiota.

Notospermussp.IdentificationLarger brown heteronemertean with distinc-tive white V marking on cephalic lobe and complete whitelongitudinal banding. Up to 10 cm long.

DistributionBelize and Panama, cryptic within coral rubbleor its epibiota.

Monostiliferasp.IdentificationHard to miss colorful yet threadlike hoplone-mertean; black to deep purple with orange and yellow solidlines and blue iridescent dashed line down the center of thedorsum, and four irregular rows of tiny red eyes. Up to 30 cm

long.DistributionPanama and Puerto Rico, cryptic within coralrubble or its epibiota.

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Tetrastemma herthae (Correa, 1963)IdentificationCreamy to white monostiliferan hoplone-mertean with paired purple-red dots along the median of thedorsal surface enclosed by lines and more mottling. Up to 2 cmlong.DistributionPanama and Brazil; cryptic in coral rubble or itsepibiota.

Carcinonemertesspp.IdentificationOrange to pinkish monostiliferan hoplone-merteans with exceedingly short proboscis, stylet immediatelybehind brain, usually with pair eyes, juveniles may have two

pairs. Inset shows recently settled juvenile encapsulated andalready feeding on crab egg. Adults 520 mm long.DistributionPanama and worldwide; adults on crab egg-mass, often in parchment-like tubes in gill chambers andamong pleopods; juveniles usually on developing crab eggs.

Cratenemertidae spp.IdentificationYellowish-orange to brownish monostiliferanhoplonemerteans, stout-bodied, with dorsal mid-cephalicridge, four irregular rows of well-developed dark eyes, some-

times with poorly developed secondary furrows associatedwith the cephalic cerebral organ furrows; often capable of eel-like swimming when irritated. Up to 10 cm long.DistributionPanama and worldwide; cryptic in coral rubbleor its epibiota.

Reptantia spp.IdentificationYellowish-orange polystiliferan hoplone-merteans, stout-bodied, with dorsal mid-cephalic ridge, fourrows of well-developed dark eyes, and well-developed second-ary furrows associated with the cephalic cerebral organ fur-

rows; often capable of eel-like swimming when irritated. Up to6 cm long.DistributionPanama and worldwide; cryptic in coral rubbleor its epibiota.



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PHYLUM SIPUNCULAGolfingia elongata (Keferstein, 1862)IdentificationSmooth and slender body, up to 30 mm long,

with short introvert and up to 36 digitiform tentacles. 8-10rows of hooks on introvert.DistributionWidespread in Atlantic and Pacific from arcticto tropical waters; uncommon; intertidal to 590 m in rock crev-ices (also reported from mangrove root mats and mud).NotesThe geographic range, range of climatic zones and va-riety of habitats may suggest that this is actually a speciescomplex. Population genetic studies are desirable but may bedifficult due to low abundance of individuals. Scale = 5 mm.

Phascolion (Isomya) gerardi Rice, 1993IdentificationWith retracted introvert, specimens are almostspherical. Trunk up to 30 mm long, covered with abundant andprominent papillae. Introvert up to 3X as long as trunk. Distalend of introvert forms bulbous expansion, bearing scatteredhooks and 9-24 tentacles.DistributionBahamas, Belize, Mexico; subtidal in crevices ofcoral rubble; uncommon.NotesOne of the few Phascolionspecies that does not inhabitshells of gastropods, scaphopods or foraminiferans (Photo byMary E. Rice). Scale = 5 mm.

Themiste alutacea (Grbe & Oersted, 1858)IdentificationThe genus is characterized by branched ten-tacles. The species is distinguished from congeners by dark

scattered hooks on the introvert and pigment spots on the ten-tacles. Trunk length up to 25 mm, but usually smaller.DistributionWarm and temperate waters in the Western At-lantic and Caribbean; intertidal to 30 m; locally abundant increvices of soft rock, coral rubble or oyster beds.NotesScale = 5 mm.

Aspidosiphon elegans (Chamisso & Eysenhardt,1821)IdentificationThe genus is characterized by the presence of

a dorsal anal shield which is round and notably dark in thisspecies, without grooves. Body wall musculature not in bands.Posterior end sometimes forms buds.DistributionTropical Western Pacific and Indian Oceans,Hawaii, Western Atlantic and Caribbean; shallow water; bur-rowing in coral rubble or soft rock; common.NotesThe only sipunculan with documented asexual repro-duction (Photo by Mary E. Rice). Scale = 2 mm.

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Aspidosiphon (Paraspidosiphon) fischeriten Broeke,1925IdentificationIn this subgenus the longitudinal body wall

musculature is organized in bands. In A. fischerithe bands arerather indistinct and anastomosing. It has a round anal shieldwith indistinct borders. Trunk up to 16 mm long.DistributionWidespread in the Caribbean and tropical East-ern Pacific; subtidal in coral rubble (also reported from man-grove root mats); very common in Bocas del Toro.NotesAlthough the species of this subgenus in Bocas delToro are relatively easily distinguished, it may in some cases benecessary to study hook morphology by compound light mi-croscopy. Scale = 5 mm.

Aspidosiphon (Paraspidosiphon) laevis deQuatrefages, 1865IdentificationRelatively large (often 4-5 cm) with up to 35distinct longitudinal muscle bands that are usually easily vis-

ible through the body wall. Solid anal shield with 10-15 longi-tudinal grooves. Usually with a strongly developed pagoda-shaped, grooved caudal shield. Shape of body quite variabledepending on state of contraction.DistributionPantropical in shallow-water; burrowing incoral rubble (but also reported from mangrove root mats inBelize); fairly common.NotesScale = 10 mm.

Aspidosiphon (Paraspidosiphon) parvulus Gerould,1913IdentificationAnal shield with indistinct edges, surroundedby large, spine-like papillae. Trunk length up to 20 mm.

DistributionWestern Atlantic and Caribbean; subtidal; bur-rowing in coral rubble (but also reported from mangrove rootmats in Belize); very common in Bocas del Toro.NotesScale = 5 mm.

Aspidosiphon (Paraspidosiphon) steenstrupii(Diesing, 1859)IdentificationAnal and caudal shields distinct; caudal shieldwith irregular grooves; numerous papillae on anterior and pos-terior regions of trunk. Longitudinal muscle bands usually vis-

ible through body wall. Shape of body quite variable depend-ing on state of contraction. Trunk length up to 40 mm.DistributionWestern Pacific and Western Indian Ocean;Caribbean and eastern Atlantic; subtidal; burrowing in coralrubble; common.NotesScale = 5 mm.



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Lithacrosiphon cristatus (Sluiter, 1902)IdentificationEasily identifiable by cone-shaped anal shield,often overgrown with coralline or other algae. Longitudinalmusculature in bands, usually visible through body wall.Trunk length up to about 20 mm.DistributionWestern Pacific, Caribbean and Western Atlan-tic; subtidal; burrowing in coral rubble; very common in Bocasdel Toro.NotesScale = 5 mm.

Antillesoma antillarum(Grbe & Oersted, 1858)IdentificationRelatively large species (max. reported trunklength 80 mm, but generally 30-40 mm); trunk covered withlarge, dark papillae, especially around the anterior end; short

introvert with up to 200 long, digitiform tentacles usually withpurple or green pigment.DistributionCosmopolitan in tropical and subtropical wa-ters; intertidal and shallow subtidal in crevices of coral rubbleor soft rock; very common in Bocas del Toro.NotesScale = 10 mm.

Phascolosoma nigrescens (Keferstein, 1865)IdentificationTrunk covered with dark, dome-shaped papil-lae. Trunk length usually between 20 and 40 mm. Introvertlonger than trunk; with dark pigment bands and over 100 rowsof hooks on introvert. About 20 short tentacles.DistributionCircumtropical; intertidal and shallow subtidal;in crevices of coral rubble or soft rock; very common.NotesAlthough the two Phascolosoma species in Bocas areeasily distinguished by gross morphology, it is usually neces-sary to study the morphology of the introvert hooks with lightmicroscopy in order to identify Phascolosoma species. Scale =5 mm.

Phascolosoma perlucens (Baird, 1868)IdentificationTrunk often thin-walled with the longitudinalmuscle bands visible through body-wall. Anterior trunk regionwith conical, reddish, posteriorly directed papillae. Dark pig-ment bands on introvert. Trunk length usually up to 35 mm,

rarely larger.DistributionCircumtropical but patchy; burrowing in coralrubble; common in Bocas del Toro.NotesScale = 10 mm.

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PHYLUM MOLLUSCA, ORDER OPISHTOBRANCHIAAtys macandrewiE. A. Smith, 1872IdentificationShell external, translucent, fragile, elongate,

with a series of spiral striations more visible near anterior andposterior ends. Body elongate, with a short cephalic shield pos-teriorly divided and two short parapodia covering anterior endof shell. Color variable, whitish with black pigment of cephalicshield and parapodia, viscera brownish. Up to 8 mm long.DistributionWidespread in the tropical Atlantic, fromAzores to Cape Verde on the eastern cost and from the south-ern Caribbean to Brazil on the western cost; intertidal to 50 mdepth; uncommon.NotesLocally abundant in Bocas del Toro underneath man-grove roots.

Haminoea antillarum(dOrbigny, 1841)IdentificationShell external, translucent, fragile, oval,smooth, with no visible sculpture. Body elongate, with a shortcephalic shield and two short parapodia covering anterior endof shell. Color variable, dark brown with black and white spotsall over body, viscera brownish. Up to 20 mm long.DistributionWestern Atlantic, from Florida to northern Bra-zil; intertidal; very common.

Bursatella leachii de Blainville, 1817IdentificationShell absent, body oval to elongate, inflated.Dorsum covered by numerous long and ramified papillae.

Parapodia completely fused together. Color pale brown withnumerous black spots and blotches; some specimens with dis-tinctive pale bright blue patches.DistributionCircumptropical, in the western Atlantic fromFlorida to Brazil; locally abundant with seasonal populationexplosions.NotesSeveral subspecies have been described for differentgeographic areas, but there no data on possible genetic diver-gences between populations.

Oxynoe antillarumMrch, 1863IdentificationBody very elongate, with a long posterior endof foot resembling a tail. Shell external, fragile, covered byparapodia in living animals. Parapodia covered by conical pa-pillae. Rhinophores long. Color variable, generally greenishwith brown, purple, and black spots. Tail and rhinophoresoften covered by brownish bands. Bright blue spots are oftenpresent near edge of parapodia. Up to 20 mm long.DistributionWidespread in the western Atlantic from Ber-muda to southern Brazil; common; intertidal to 10 m depth.NotesFeeds on Caulerpa. This species displays a violent de-fensive behaviors including secretion of a dense whitish sub-stance and autotomization of the tail.



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Elysia crispata Mrch, 1863IdentificationBody elongate, up to 150 mm long, with ex-tremely convoluted parapodia resembling a lettuce. Rhino-phores wide and short. Color very variable, from greenishwhite to bright blue; some specimens have patches of brightyellow, green or blue on parapodia. Laterals of body generallygreen with large, oval yellow spots.DistributionWestern Atlantic, from Florida to the southernCaribbean; very common; intertidal to 15 m depth.NotesThe most common opisthobranch in Bocas del Toroand the Caribbean region. It was recently transferred to thegenus Elysia, after Tridachia was found to be paraphyletic.

Elysia flava A. E. Verrill, 1901IdentificationBody elongate, with narrow parapodia bear-ing a series of small papillae. Rhinophores short. Color yellow-ish, with opaque white spots and upper edge of parapodia

with an opaque white line. Viscera dark brown visible throughskin. Size up to 20 mm.DistributionAmphiatlantic, Mediterranean, Bermuda andsouthern Caribbean; uncommon; intertidal.NotesRecently recorded from the Mediterranean, it was con-sidered an endemic to the tropical western Atlantic.

Elysia cf. papillosa A. E. Verrill, 1901IdentificationBody elongate, wide, completely covered withconical papillae. Parapodia tightly pressed against each otherleaving only two open spaces. Rhinophores elongate. Color

dark green, lighter spots; rhinophores brownish. Size up to30 mm.DistributionWestern Atlantic, from Bermuda to the Car-ibbean; common; subtidal.NotesThe correct name for this species is still an open ques-tion and more anatomical work is needed.

Elysia tuca Marcus & Marcus, 1967IdentificationBody very elongate, with narrow parapodiatightly pressed against each other. Body covered with smallpapillae. Rhinophores elongate. Color dark green, lighter spotsand opaque white bands on head and border of parapodia;

rhinophores with brownish apical regions. Size up to 20 mm.DistributionWestern Atlantic, from Florida and Bahamas toBrazil; very common.NotesFeeds onHalimeda.

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Berthelina quadridens Mrch, 1863IdentificationBody oval, inflated, smooth, with no tuberclesor papillae. Rhinophores short, situated on anterior end ofbody. Color uniform bright red. Viscera visible as a dark patch.Shell internal, not visible. Up to 25 mm long.DistributionWestern Atlantic; uncommon; intertidal to 50 mdepth.NotesThere are several undistinguishable species using ex-ternal characters distributed throughout the tropics. At somepoint all were synonymized with Berthellina citrina (Rppell &Leuckart, 1828). A revisionary work in the progress and evi-dence indicates that the western Atlantic populations consti-tute a distinct species.

Pleurobranchus evelinae Thompson, 1977IdentificationBody oval, flattened. Dorsum covered withsmall, irregular tubercles tightly packed together. Color red-dish brown with some white spots. Rhinophores short, situ-

ated on a notch of anterior end of body. Up to 20 mm long.DistributionWestern Atlantic, from the Caribbean to Brazil;subtidal; uncommon.NotesThis species could be a synonym ofPleurobranchus at-lanticusAbbott, 1949, but lacks conical dorsal papillae.

Hexabranchus morsomusMarcus & Marcus, 1962IdentificationBody oval, large, up to 100 mm long. Colorreddish, with a series of irregular whitish and yellowishparches on dorsum. Mantle margin normally curled up over

dorsum covering bright bluish-white areas. Gill composed ofseveral multipinnate leaves.DistributionEndemic to the Caribbean, locally common; in-tertidal to 35 m depth.NotesColor blends in with substrate; defensive behaviorconsists of suddenly unfolding the mantle margin displayingbrightly colored areas, followed by swimming away by vigor-ous contractions of body and mantle margin.

Cadlina rumia Er. Marcus, 1955IdentificationBody oval, flattened, covered by numeroussmall tubercles. Color translucent white, with a few yellowspots (mantle glands). Rhinophores and gill yellowish brown.Viscera visible through skin. Size up to 15 mm.

DistributionWestern Atlantic, from Florida to Brazil; veryuncommon.NotesThe only species ofCadlina from the tropical westernAtlantic.



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Chromodoris kempfi Ev. Marcus, 1971IdentificationBody elongate, narrow. Color bright bluishwith a thick yellow line around mantle margin, a series of largeblack and white spots and a central white line. Rhinophoresand brachial leaves blue with black rachises. Size up to 20 mm.DistributionWestern Atlantic, from Florida to Brazil; un-common, subtidal to 40 m depth.NotesThis species could belong to the genus Mexichromis.Additional anatomical work is necessary to determine its validtaxonomic placement.

Aphelodoris antillensisBergh, 1878IdentificationBody oval to elongate, color translucent clear,covered with opaque white and dark brown spots. The viscerashows through in the central region as a pale orange or pinkish

area. Around the mantle edge there are dark brown lines ar-ranged at right angles to the edge. In some specimens there isa yellow border. They are yellowish, white-tipped, with a fewspots of brown, and are able to retract into a raised sheath. Thefive thickened gills are also yellowish, becoming white at thetips.DistributionEndemic to the Caribbean. Very common.NotesThis is one of the most common Caribbean dorids.

Paradoris mulciberEv. Marcus, 1971IdentificationBody oval, elevated, with a series of large,conical tubercles. Gill composed of several large multipinnateleaves. Color dark brown with some black spots. Apices of

branchial leaves orange. Size up to 50 mm long.DistributionWestern Atlantic from the southern Caribbeanto Brazil; this is the first record from Panama; uncommon;subtidal to 20 m depth.NotesThis is the only species ofParadoris from the westernAtlantic.

Dendrodoris krebsii (Mrch, 1863)IdentificationBody oval to elongate, lacking tubercles.Mantle margin with radial striations. Color extremely variable,from whitish with brown and black spots to black with lighterpatches. Greenish and grayish forms are common; juveniles

and some adults red. Rinophores and gill generally same coloras rest of body.DistributionWestern Atlantic, from Georgia to southernBrazil; very common; intertidal to 25 m depth.NotesEastern Pacific records belong to a different species.

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Doto cf. caramella Er. Marcus, 1959IdentificationBody elongate and narrow, up to 8 mm long.Rhinophoral sheaths elevated, with an irregular edge. Com-plex cerata arranged on a single row on body sides, composedof large, rounded tubercles. Oral tentacles short; rhinophoreslong, smooth. Color dark orange with numerous opaque whitespots.DistributionWestern Atlantic, from the southern Caribbeanto Brazil.NotesAnatomical studies are necessary to confirm the iden-tity of this species. The genus Doto is in need of urgent taxo-nomic work.

Lomanotus vermiformis Eliot, 1908IdentificationBody very elongate and narrow, up to 40 mmlong. Rhinophoral sheaths elevated, with a series of papillae onupper edge. Numerous cerata arranged on a single row on

body sides. Oral tentacles elongate. Color dark brown withnumerous opaque white flecks or broken lines all over body.Cerata translucent, almost transparent, with opaque whitespots.DistributionCircumtropical, in the western Atlantic onlyknown from Florida; this is the first record from the Caribbeancoast of Panama; uncommon; subtidal.NotesVery cryptic on its hydroid prey.

Dondice occidentalis Engel, 1925IdentificationBody very elongate, with numerous longcerata arranged in a series of arches. Rhinophores, oral ten-tacles, and foot corners very elongate. Rhinophores with a sev-

eral rings on apical half. Color very variable, generally brown-ish with a central bluish white band running from head toposterior end of body. Some specimens have white pigment onrhinophores and cerata and yellow on head as well as addi-tional blue bands. Size up to 30 mm.DistributionWestern Atlantic, from North Carolina tosouthern Brazil; common; intertidal to 30 m depth.NotesFeeds on a variety of cnidarians. In Bocas del Toro iscommon on up-side-down jellyfish (Cassiopaea), upon whichthey feed and lay egg-masses.

PHYLUM ECHINODERMATANemaster rubiginosus (Pourtals, 1869)IdentificationThe 20-40 equal-lengthed arms are 10-37 cmlong. Each pinnule perpendicular to previous one. Usually or-ange with black markings. Ca

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