copyright © houghton mifflin company. all rights reserved. 12–1 chapter twelve personality
TRANSCRIPT
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Copyright © Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved. 12–1
Chapter Twelve
Personality
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Copyright © Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved. 12–2
Did You Know That…
• According to the originator of psychodynamic theory, Sigmund Freud, slips of the tongue may reveal hidden motives and wishes of which we are unaware?
• According to Carl Gustav Jung, another psychodynamic theorist, we inherit a shared unconscious mind containing images that can be traced to ancestral times?
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Copyright © Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved. 12–3
Did You Know That… (cont.)
• According to a leading personality theorist, extraverted people may require more stimulating activities than introverted people to maintain an optimal level of arousal?
• The “Big Five” is not the name of a new NCAA basketball conference but the label used to describe the leading trait theory of personality today?
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Did You Know That… (cont.)
• A leading humanistic theorist, Carl Rogers, believed that children should receive love and approval unconditionally from their parents regardless of their behavior at any particular point in time?
• According to a widely held view in the 19th century, you can learn about a person’s character and mental abilities by examining the pattern of bumps on the person’s head?
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Module 12.1
The Psychodynamic Perspective
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Copyright © Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved. 12–6
Module 12.1 Preview Questions
• What is personality?• What three levels of consciousness did Freud
believe comprise the human mind?• What are the structures of personality in
Freud’s theory?• What are psychological defense
mechanisms?
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Module 12.1 Preview Questions (cont.)
• What are the five states of psychosexual development in Freud’s theory?
• What are some of the major contributions of other psychodynamic theorists?
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What Is “Personality”?
• The relatively stable set of psychological characteristics and behavior patterns that account for our individuality and consistency over time.
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Sigmund Freud’s Psychoanalytic Theory
• Freud’s meeting with Jean Martin Charcot.
• Importance of instincts:– Sexual instinct– Aggressive instinct
• Instincts must be balanced with social acceptability.
• Importance of early childhood experiences.
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Figure 12.1: Levels of Consciousness
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Psychoanalytic Theory: Structure of Personality
• Id– Unconscious drives and instincts– Follows the pleasure principle, instant gratification
• Ego– Follows the reality principle– Balancing id’s demands with social approval
• Superego– Moral guardian, conscience– May impose self-punishment, guilt, shame
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Psychoanalytic Theory: Defense Mechanisms
• Repression• Denial• Reaction formation• Rationalization• Projection• Sublimation• Regression• Displacement
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Psychoanalytic Theory: Personality Development
• Psychosexual stages of development– Characterized by changes in libido, shifting
location of erogenous zones.– Activities pleasurable because essential to
survival.
• Conflicts emerge during each psychosexual stage.– Conflicts can lead to development of fixations.
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Psychosexual Stages of Development
• Oral Stage: birth to 12-18 months old– Erogenous zone is the mouth.– Pleasure through sucking, mouthing, chewing.
• Anal Stage: 18-36 months– Erogenous zone is the anal cavity.– Sexual pleasure through the ability to control
elimination.– Conflict arises from issue of toilet training.– Anal-retentive vs. anal-expulsive personality
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Psychosexual Stages of Development (cont.)
• Phallic Stage: ages 3-6– Erogenous zone is the phallic region.– Core conflict is the Oedipus complex.– Freud’s followers called female version of conflict
the Electra complex.– Boys develop castration anxiety.– Girls experience penis envy.
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Psychosexual Stages of Development (cont.)
• Latent Stage: ages 6-12– Sexual impulses remain dormant.
• Genital Stage: puberty to adulthood– Attraction to opposite gender.– Sexual energies expressed through sexual
intercourse, marriage, child bearing.
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Other Psychodynamic Approaches
• Beyond Sigmund Freud: neo-Freudians• Less emphasis on sex and aggression• Greater emphasis on social relationships,
ego, concept of self
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Carl Jung’s Analytical Psychology
• Also believed in role of unconscious conflicts on behavior.
• Greater emphasis on present experiences.• Personal unconscious consists of repressed
memories and impulses.• Collective unconscious contains archetypes.
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Alfred Adler’s Individual Psychology
• Emphasis on unique potential of each individual.
• Conscious experience plays important role in personality.– Role of the creative self.
• Inferiority complex and the drive for superiority
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Karen Horney
• Critic of Freud’s view of female development.
• Emphasized role of social and cultural forces.
• Importance of parent-child relationships.– Basic anxiety– Basic hostility
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Evaluating the Psychodynamic Perspective
• Contributions– Detailed and comprehensive theory of personality– Awareness of unconscious drives, impulses
• Criticisms– Overimportance of sexual and aggressive drives– Too little emphasis on social relationships– Lack of evidence and questions of validity– Untestable hypotheses, unscientific
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Module 12.2
The Trait Perspective
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Module 12.2 Preview Questions
• What are the three types of traits in Allport’s trait model?
• What was Cattell’s view on the organization of traits?
• What three traits are represented in Eysenck’s model of personality?
• What is the “Big Five” trait model of personality?
• What role do genes play in personality?
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Trait Perspective
• Personality consists of relatively enduring personal characteristics called traits.
• Trait theorists focus on:– How people differ in traits.– How traits can be measured. – How traits are organized.
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Gordon Allport
• Personality traits are physical entities embedded in the brain.– Inherited but influenced by experience
• Hierarchy of traits– Cardinal traits– Central traits– Secondary traits
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Raymond Cattell
• Surface Traits: Characteristics of personality inferred from observations of behavior.
• Source Traits: More general traits of personality.
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Figure 12.2: Cattell’s 16PF
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Hans Eysenck
• Described personality using three major traits:– Introversion-extraversion– Neuroticism– Psychoticism
• Biological differences responsible for individual variations in personality traits.
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Figure 12.3: Eysenck’s Personality Types
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Five Factor Model (FFM)
• “Big Five” personality factors:– Neuroticism– Extraversion– Openness– Agreeableness– Conscientiousness
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Genetic Basis of Traits
• Heredity plays important role in shaping personality.
• Focus is on the interactions of biology and environment.
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Evaluating the Trait Perspective
• Contributions– Has intuitive appeal.– Led to development of personality tests.
• Drawbacks– Labels rather than explain behavior. – Behavior may not be so stable across time and
situations as assumed by trait theorists.
• Emerging view is that behavior involves an interaction between traits and situational factors.
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Module 12.3
The Social-Cognitive Perspective
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Module 12.3 Preview Questions
• What are expectancies and subjective values?
• What is reciprocal determinism?• What are situation and person variables?
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Traditional Behavioral View
• Personality is shaped by environmental influences.– Personality consists of the sum total of an
individual’s learned behavior.
• All behavior is learned on the basis of classical and operant conditioning.
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Social-Cognitive Theory
• Adopts a broader view of learning• To explain behavior, must take into account:
– Cognitive aspects of behavior such as expectancies.
– Social aspects of behavior such as imitation.
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Julian Rotter
• Explaining, predicting behavior depends on knowing individual’s:– Reinforcement history– Expectancies– Subjective values– Locus of control
• External versus internal
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Figure 12.4: Bandura’s Model of Reciprocal Determinism
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Albert Bandura
• Emphasized role of observational learning.• Two types of expectancies:
– Outcome expectations– Efficacy expectations
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Walter Mischel
• Situational variables• Person variables
– Expectancies– Subjective values– Competencies– Encoding strategies– Self-regulatory systems and plans
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Evaluating the Social-Cognitive Perspective
• Contributions– Improved understanding of relationship between
behavior and environmental factors.– Broadening of learning theory to include cognitive
influences.
• Criticisms– Fails to include unconscious influences, heredity.– Little focus on subjective experience.
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Module 12.4
The Humanistic Perspective
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Module 12.4 Preview Questions
• What is self-theory?• How do collectivistic and individualistic
cultures view the concept of self?
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Carl Rogers
• Inner drive to strive toward self-actualization.
• Personality expressed through the conscious experience of directing self towards fulfilling our unique potential.
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Roger’s Self-Theory
• Self as center of the human experience• Development of self-esteem
– Unconditional positive regard– Conditional positive regard
• Self-esteem and self-ideals• Development of client-centered therapy
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Abraham Maslow
• The innate drive toward self-actualization shapes our personality.
• Drive motivates us to develop our unique potentials as human beings.
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Culture and Self-Identity
• Collectivistic Cultures: Emphasis on people’s social roles and obligations.– Value group goals over individual goals.– Emphasis on communal values.
• Individualistic Cultures: Emphasis on individual identity and personal accomplishments.– Idealize independence and self-sufficiency
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Evaluating the Humanistic Perspective
• Contributions– Profound impact on society.– Focused attention on need to understand
subjective or conscious experience of individuals.– Influence of client-centered therapy.– Helped restore concept of self to psychology.
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Evaluating the Humanistic Perspective
• Criticisms– Difficult to scientifically study conscious
experience.– Possible negative consequences from emphasis
on self-fulfillment.– Does drive for self-actualization really exist?
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Module 12.5
Personality Tests
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Module 12.5 Preview Questions
• What are self-report personality inventories?• What are projective tests of personality?
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Measuring Personality
• Historical Attempts– Examination of facial
features– Phrenology
• Modern Strategies– Self-report personality
inventories– Projective tests
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Self-Report Personality Inventories
• Objective tests– Limited response options.– Construction based on research.
• Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory (MMPI)– Constructed to help diagnose mental disorders.– Raw scores converted into standard scores.
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Figure 12.5: Sample MMPI-2 Profiles
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Evaluation of Self-Report Personality Tests
• Criticisms– Susceptible to potential response biases.
• Benefits– Relatively inexpensive to administer and score.– People may be more willing to disclose personal
information.– May be used in prediction of behavior.
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Projective Tests
• Unstructured or ambiguous stimuli to be interpreted.
• Assumption that people “project” needs, drives, motives through their responses.
• Responses must be interpreted.
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Figure 12.6: Rorschach Inkblot
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Figure 12.7: TAT Drawing
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Evaluation of Projective Tests
• Drawbacks– Scoring of responses based on subjective
impressions.– Problem of stimulus pull.– Questions about overall validity and utility.
• Contributions– Tests can yield valuable information about
personality unobtainable through self-report tests or interviews.
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Figure 12.8: Validity Coefficients of Psychological and Medical Tests
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Figure 12.8: Validity Coefficients of Psychological and Medical Tests (cont.)
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Module 12.6
Application: Building Self-Esteem
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Module 12.6 Preview Question
• What are some ways of building self-esteem?
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Building Self-Esteem
• Acquire competencies
• Set realistic, achievable goals
• Enhance self-efficacy expectations
• Create a sense of meaningfulness in your life
• Challenge perfectionistic expectations
• Challenge need for constant approval