Copyright by

Susan Blinderman Carter

1980

THE PIANO MUSIC OF SAMUEL BARBER

t)y

SUSAN BLINDERMAN CARTER, B.M., M.M.

A DISSERTATION

IN

FINE ARTS

Submitted to the Graduate Faculty of Texas Tech University in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for

the Degree of

DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY

Approved

May, I9b0

i

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

Professors Thomas Redcay and Paul Cutter, members

of my dissertation committee, have given most generous­

ly of their time, patience and helpful advice. For this

I should like to express my sincere appreciation. A

debt of gratitude is also due my dear friend, June

Garner -- typist and co-laborer, without whose help and

encouragement this project would scarcely have been

possible.

I would also like to thank Karl Micholson, a rep­

resentative of G. Schirmer, Inc. for granting permission

to reproduce short musical examples from Barber's piano

music. Dates of publication are included in the bib­

liography. The author is also indebted to G. Schirmer,

Inc. for kind permission to use general biographical

information contained in Nathan Broder's book Samuel

Barber (195^).

11

CONTENTS

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS ii

PREFACE iv

CHAPTER

I. THE MAN 1

II. ELEMENTS OF SAMUEL BARBER'S IVIUSICAL STYLE .. 25

III. EXCURSIONS 32

First Movement 33 Second Movement 38 Third Movement ^0 Fourth Movement ^5

IV. PIANO SONATA 50

First Movement 55 Second Movement 67 Third Movement 75

Fourth Movement 8^

V. NOCTURNE 101

VI. PIANO CONCERTO 108

First Movement 113 Second Movement 122 Third Movement 128

VII. BALLADE 139

VIII. CONCLUDING STATEMENT 1^7

APPENDIX 155

A. LECTURE RECITAL I56

B. DISCOGRAPHY 183

BIBLIOGRAPHY 18^

111

PREFACE

The study of Samuel Barber's piano music grew out

of a need for a performance guide to significant twen­

tieth-century American piano repertoire. The five piano

compositions of Samuel Barber do indeed constitute a

major contribution to contemporary American keyboard

works.

This project is three-fold in nature: l) to pro­

vide a current biography of the composer, 2) to furnish

stylistic analyses of the piano music, and 3) to include

comments concerning interpretive and technical perfor­

mance problems.

As part of this study, a Lecture Recital was pre­

sented and included a performance of the Piano Sonata.

Consequently, the discussion of the Sonata (Chapter IV)

includes a more detailed discussion of performance

problems.

The performer has much to gain by studying Barber's

piano music. In addition to becoming more involved with

the contemporary American musical culture, he can expand

his understanding of contemporary musical style in gen­

eral, thereby improving his total musicianship.

iv

According to Aaron Copland, seventy-five percent of

performers now before the public have lost all contact

with contemporary music -- a situation which must be

overcome if the creative arts are to remain a vital part

of our society. The most effective means of conquering

the apathy towards contemporary music is by hearing and

performing new music that is accessible. Samuel Barber's

piano music provides an excellent source of accessible

twentieth-century music. It is the author's sincere

hope that this study will inspire teachers and perfor­

mers to fulfill the need for a wider exposure of con­

temporary American music.

Aaron Copland, Copland on Music (New York: W. W Nortor. and Co., I962) , p. 53.

v

CHAPTER I

THE MAN

To begin with, I was not meant to be an athelet I was meant to be a composer, and will be, I'm sure... Don't ask me to try to forget this... and go and play foot-ball. -- Please

Sometimes I've been worrying about this so much that it makes me madl (not very) Csic] .1

The eight-year old boy who left this note on his

mother's dressing table was indeed meant to be a compos­

er. While his parents did not encourage their son to

develop his musical talent, amd would have preferred

that he participate in the activities of a "normal"

American boy, Samuel Barber soon proved that he could

succeed in his pursuit of a musical career. While only

in his twenties. Barber established a secure position in

the forefront of American composers. His many awards for

composition are eloquent testimony to his achievements:

the Beams Prize from Columbia University (1928), the

Prix de Rome (1935). a New York Music Critics Circle

Award (19^7) and two Pulitzer Prizes (1958 and I963)•

In addition, Barber has received many honors for

Nathan Broder, Samuel Barber (New York: G. Schirmer, Inc., 195^). p. 9-

1

his overall contribution to American music, including

membership in the Academy of Arts and Letters (1935).

appointment as a consultant at the American Academy of

Rome (19^8) and the award of an honorary Doctorate from

Harvard University (1959).

Barber was bom on March 9, I910, in West Chester,

Pennsylvania, a small town near Philadelphia. Samuel's

father, a prominent community leader, was a physician and

president of the local school board. Barber's musical

influence, however, stemmed from his mother's side of the

family. His aunt, Louise Homer, was a famous contralto

who performed several leading roles at the New York Met­

ropolitan Opera. Her husband, Sidney Homer, also a musi­

cian, composed many songs which number among the more im­

portant contributions to American music in the early 2

years of this century.

Young Samuel begaji his musical education at the age

of six with piano lessons. His mother, however, persuad­

ed him to study the cello. Samuel determined to resume

his piano lessons and after a year, his wish was fulfil­

led: for six years, he studied with West Chester's lead­

ing piano teacher, William Hatten Green, former pupil of

Theodore Leschetizky. 2 H. C. Thorpe discusses this subject in "The Songs

of Sidney Homer," The Musical Quarterly. XVII (I931), ^7-52.

Barber's desire to compose music also appeared at an

early age. When once asked how he happened to becom-e a

composer, he replied, "I began writing music at seven and

I just never stopped."-^ His first composition, Sadness,

was a twenty-three measure piano piece. Barber soon be­

came more ambitious, and by the age of ten, he had writ­

ten an opera on a libretto by the Barbers' Irish cook,

Annie Noble. The Rose Tree featured Samuel as the hero

and his younger sister, Sarah, as the heroine. In addi­

tion, a Gypsy chorus was included. Unfortunately, Annie

ran out of ideas, and only one act was completed. (The

world would have to wait until 1957 for Barber to compose

his next opera, Vanessa.)

Although West Chester was a small town, the group of

literary figures surrounding the novelist, Joseph Herge-

sheimer, provided some cultural stimulation for Samuel. A

fairly accomplished pianist, Samuel was active in communi­

ty functions, playing for club meetings and organizing an

orchestra to entertain at social events and local dances.

At fourteen, Samuel became an organist at the West­

minster Presbyterian Church in West Chester, earning one

hundred dollars per month. Barber's career as a church

organist was short-lived, however. Like another famous

organist, his playing displeased the authorities: "While

^ Eric Salzman, "Samuel Barber," Hi Fi/Stereo Review. October I966, p. 79-

Bach was reprimanded for confusing the congregation at

Arnstadt by playing 'many curious variations' during the

chorale, Barber lost his job in West Chester mainly be­

cause he refused to play fermatas when none were indicated

in the hymns and responses."

During this same year (192^), Barber performed for

Harold Randolph, director of the Peabody Conservatory in

Baltimore. Quite impressed with Samuel's performance,

Randolph advised him to discontinue his public school ed­

ucation and to devote all his time to the piano and com­

position. Not surprisingly, his father rejected that

advice, finding instead an effective compromise; the

West Chester school board, headed by Dr. Barber, passed

a special rule permitting student composers to take Fri­

day off to attend the Philadelphia Orchestra concerts.

This special ruling, probably unique in the history of

American education, allowed Samuel to attend these Friday

concerts as well as study privately at the newly organ­

ized Curtis Institute of Music.

The Curtis Institute of Music was the creation of

Mary Louise Curtis Bok, daughter of the publisher Cyrus

H. K. Curtis and wife of the chief editor, Edward W. Bok.

(After Bok's death, she became the wife of the violinist,

Efrem Zimbalist.) In 192^, Mrs. Bok established the music

Broder, Samuel Barber, p. 12.

school with an endowment of $500,000. The original Curtis

faculty included Josef Hofmann, Carl Flesch, Marcella

Sembrich and Leopold Stokowski. In 1927. Mrs. Bok added

$12 million to the endowment fund and abolished all tui­

tion fees. Barber enrolled at the Institute when it opened,

and remained associated with the school as a student

and teaching assistant for the next nine years.

After Barber graduated from high school in 1926, he

became a fulltime student at Curtis. During his first

year, he majored in piano, studying with George Boyle and

later Isabelle Vengerova, a Leschetizky student and for­

mer professor at the Petrograd Conservatory. In his sec­

ond year, Barber added composition as a second major area,

studying under Rosario Scalero, a violinist and composer

from Italy and former pupil of Eusebius Mandycewski, a

close friend of Johannes Brahms. During his third year.

Barber was allowed to study voice, becoming the first

student at Curtis (with an enrollment of 350" students) to

major in three areas. Barber's voice teacher was Emilio

de Gogorza, baritone and husband of 2mma Eames. Other

studies included conducting classes under Fritz Reiner

and several foreign language courses.

At the age of eighteen, Barber was one of Curtis's

most promising students. During his sophomore year, Sca-

" lero asked Barber to befriend a talented new student from

Italy. Although Barber spoke no Italian, both he and the

new student, Gian-Carlo Menotti, were able to communicate

through their common knowledge of French. Barber con­

descendingly offered to help the new student, and thus

began their enduring friendship.

Although composition was to become his principal

area of emphasis, vocal studies were also important, in­

fluencing his lyrical approach to composition as well as

the composition of many vocal works, including art songs,

choral works and opera. Barber even considered pursuing

a vocal career, presenting lieder recitals on NBC radio

as well as recording Dover Beach for voice and string

quartet.-'

After a brief flirtation with vocal performance.

Barber returned to composition. Scalero's teaching was

based on the rigorous Germanic tradition of strict coun­

terpoint and form, combined with characteristically Ital­

ian flexibility.

The first two years of Scalero's composition courses

were based on the study of counterpoint, beginning with

two-voiced composition and progressing to eight parts.

After strict counterpoint was mastered, students were

allowed to compose canons and fugues, variations, art

songs, and piano pieces in the smaller forms. Next came

larger works, based on the principles of sonata form.

• Barber's recording of Dover Beach with the Curtis String Quartet, RCA Victor 8998, has become a valuable collector's item.

7

While performers received the most attention during

the early years at Curtis, the composition students did

present an annual concert. Barber's contributions inclu­

ded Serenade for String Quartet in 1930, and Dover Beach

and two unpublished Intermezzi for piano in 1932.

The year I928 was a landmark in Barber's career: he

won the Beams Prize, a $1,200 award sponsored by Colum­

bia University. (The violin sonata which won the contest,

however, remains unpublished.) With the prize money.

Barber traveled to Europe. Writing to his parents, the

eighteen-year old revealed the impact of his first trip

abroad:

Our whole life is so unreal and so drenched by fantasy that I move around unthinking - un­consciously absorbing, but never collecting or arranging my reactions.^

Exploring new places and cultures has remained a

strong influence on Barber's romantic spirit throughout

his life.

After traveling in France, he went to Gresseney St.

Jean in the Italian Alps, visiting the Scalero family.

From there, he went to Venice and on to Vienna. While

there, he met George Antheil, who had just caused quite

a stir in Europe with his composition, Ballet-Mecanique.

Antheil's praise for Barber's compositions made a lasting

° Broder, Samuel Barber, p. 18.

8

impression on the young composer, who has occasionally

felt a lack of encouragement from his colleagues in

America.'

During this first eventful trip to Europe, Barber

also met another famous musician, Eusebius Mandycewski.

While Barber had not yet achieved much recognition in

America, his experiences in Europe were bolstering his

spirit with new feelings of confidence.

Barber returned to Europe in the summers of 1929 and

1930r both times visiting Italy with Menotti. He spent

most of his time with the Menotti family at Cadegliano, a

village on the Italian side of Lake Lugano. While in

Italy, Barber also made several trips to Gresseney to see

Scalero.

Returning to Philadelphia in 1930, Barber received

his first, and rather strange, commission. Edward Bok com­

missioned a set of pieces for a huge, pink marble carillon

at the Mountain Lakes bird sanctuary in Florida. The re­

sult, which remains unpublished and which Barber prefers

to ignore, was a suite, performed by a carilloner imported

from Belgium.

The following year, 1931i Barber produced more im­

portant compositions, including the Overture to the School

for Scandal, and Dover Beach, and in 1932, the Sonata for

Cello and Piano. Although Barber copied out the orches-

^ Ibid., p. 19.

9

tral parts for the Overture and worked diligently to have

it performed at Curtis, it was not until 1933, when Bar­

ber was once again in Italy, that the Overture finally had

its premiere. While Barber was not especially encouraged

as a composer at Curtis, he was hired by the Institute as

a piano instructor for the two year period 1931 to 1933'«

Barber left Curtis after the spring of 1933 (receiv­

ing his Bachelor of Music degree at the 193^ commencement

exercises). Although he had always aspired to devote his

life to composition, economic conditions prevented this

luxury. His father had lost a great deal of money after

the stock market crash in 1929, and Barber was compelled

to earn a living by singing professionally and teaching.

Many years would pass before Barber achieved the rare

position for an American composer: to support himself

solely from the money earned by his compositions, royal­

ties and commissions.

Returning to Europe in the summer of 1933, Barber

once again spent a great deal of time in Cadegliano. In­

spired by the view of Lake Lugano, he composed Music for a

Scene from Shellev.

While in Italy, he learned of the recent performance

of the Overture to the School for Scandal by Alexander

Smallens and the Philadelphia Orchestra. This was the

first performance of Barber's music by a major orchestra.

Feeling confident from this exciting news, Barber and

10

Menotti decided to visit Arturo Toscanini at his home on

an island in Lake Maggiore. In a letter to his parents

dated August 11, 1933, Barber described the visit:

We got out of our boat and trembled up the foot­path to the house, not having the slightest idea whether they would receive us or not, for we had not written or phoned that we were com­ing. We asked if Mme. Toscanini was at home, saying we were friends of Max Smith; then a long nerve-racking wait, while the servant seemed to be hunting in the garden for her and our hearts sank; and then he returned saying, 'Madame Toscanini is too busy to see you now, but the Maestro is coming to receive you.' My heart still beats faster at the thoughtl Soon he appeared, coming up the path with Zirato, the manager of the Philharmonic, and greeted us. He was the nicest thing you could imagine, took us around to a terrace with a heavenly view, and there we sat and talked... Then... we had tea and talked some more, and left in a daze of en­thusiasm for him and his house.8

This important meeting would later prove to be a signi­

ficant influence on Barber's career.

After spending the summer of 1933 in Italy, Barber

and Menotti went to Vienna. Fortified with another

$1,200 Beams Prize for the Overture to the School for

Scandal. Barber was able to afford singing and conducting

lessons. With the help of Karl Geiringer, Barber made his

conducting debut in Vienna on January 4, 193^. Included

on the concert were works by Corelli, Vivaldi, Haydn,

Sibelius and Menotti. Subsequently, Barber has directed

many concerts throughout Europe. It was not until 1951,

Broder, Samuel Barber, pp. 2k-25.

11

however, that Barber made his conducting debut in the

United States with a performance of his Second Symphony by

the Boston Symphony Orchestra.

With the clouds of war mounting in Europe, Vienna was

unsafe, and Barber returned to the United States in 193^-

Spending the summer at the estate of Mrs. Bok, near Rock-

port, Maine, Barber wrote the song Bessie Bobtail and also

presented a voice recital in the nearby town of Cambden.

The next October, Barber presented some of his com­

positions to Carl Engle, president of the music publish­

ing company, G. Schirmer, Inc. Following the hearing,

Schirmer became Barber's sole publisher, and has remained

so ever since. This important connection opened doors for

the aspiring young composer. Carl Engle introduced Bar­

ber to Werner Janssen, conductor of the New York Philhar­

monic. Janssen not only conducted the Music for a Scene

from Shelley on March 23, 1935» but also arranged an all-

Barber radio program the same year. The broadcast inclu­

ded the song. The Daisies, the Cello Sonata. Dover Beach

and the Serenade for String Quartet. Carl Engle introduc­

ed the broadcast with the following remarks:

...I have a feeling that I am taking no undue chances in declaring that the occasion of this broadcast might easily turn out to have been --well -- an event of considerable musical impor­tance .

There is nothing more calamitous for youth than to be tagged with prophecies of future greatness. I am not going to indulge in any­thing like the resounding flourish with which

12

Robert Schumann so justly hailed the publica­tion of Chopin's Opus 2, or -- some years later -- acclaimed the advent of young Johannes Brahms... I should merely like to say ... that it affords me great satisfaction to have the privilege of prefacing with a few remarks the first broadcast ... of a whole program of musical compositions by Mr. Samuel Barber.9

Barber's recognition continued to grow, and in the

spring of 1935, he received another important award: a

$1,500 Pulitzer Traveling Scholarship for study abroad.

In the same year, Barber won the Prix de Rome with the

Cello Sonata and the Music for a Scene from Shelley. The

prize included a stipend of 2,500 and optional free hous­

ing in Rome. In late August, 1935, Barber settled at

the Academy in Rome. There he finished his First Sym­

phony and composed six songs to texts by James Joyce.

Through mutual friends, he was introduced to the con­

ductor of the Augusteo Orchestra in Rome, Bernardino Mo-

linari. Molinari was particularly impressed with Bar­

ber's Symphony and included it on a concert the following

season (December 13, 1936). At this time. Barber received

another prestigious honor: he was awarded the Pulitzer

Scholarship once again, becoming the first person to re­

ceive this award twice.

In May, 1936, Barber met Menotti at Lake Lugano,

where they began a leisurely journey to Salzburg. The

^ Broder, Samuel Barber, pp. 27-28.

13

picturesque setting inspired Barber to compose the chorus

Let Down the Bars. 0 Death, the song I Hear an Army and

the String Quartet.

Returning to Rome in November, Barber was honored by

two important performances: Molinari conducted the First

Symphony and the Pro-Arte String Quartet performed the

String Quartet. Barber's music was also being performed

in America, including concerts in New York and Cleveland

of the Symphony, conducted by Rodzinski, and an all-Barber

program at Curtis, in March, 1937, which included the Ser­

enade . the String Quartet. Dover Beach, the Cello Sonata,

and a group of songs.

Barber resumed his travels after a brief return to

Rome. Following a short visit to London, where he per­

formed the Cello Sonata with Salmond at Wigmore Hall, Bar­

ber went to Salzburg, where he was honored by a perfor­

mance of the Symphony, conducted by Rodzinski, at the Fes­

tival in July. There, an event of great importance to

Barber's career occurred. Toscanini, the chief conductor

of the Festival, was looking for a new work by an American

composer. The NBC Symphony Orchestra had recently been

organized for Toscanini, and he wanted to include an Amer­

ican composition on the coming season. Following Rodzin­

ski ' s suggestion that he consider a work by Barber, Tos­

canini examined Barber's newly composed Essay for Orches­

tra and the now. famous orchestral .arrangement of Adagio

1^

from the String Quartet. Hearing no reply from Toscanini,

Barber was insulted and refused to go with Menotti the

following summer to visit the Maestro. Toscanini surmised

the reason for Barber's absence and sent a message back to

Barber, via Menotti, that he was in fact planning to pro­

gram both works. He had not asked to see the scores again,

until a day before the first rehearsal, because he had al­

ready memorized them. Toscanini's premiere of the Adagio

and the First Essay for Orchestra, on November 5, 1938,

firmly launched the career of Samuel Barber.

Early in 1939, Barber was in Switzerland, working on

his latest commission, the Concerto for Violin and Orches­

tra, a work which would reveal a new stylistic direction.

At this time, however, the work was progressing slowly,

and Barber hoped that a move to Paris might rejuvenate his

creativity. Shortly after the move, however, all Ameri­

cans were advised to leave, and Germany invaded Poland as

Barber sailed for home in the fall of 1939.

The music from the next period of Barber's life shows

a new maturity, influenced by world events, as well as

by his father's death. The Violin Concerto. reflecting

this maturity, was finally finished after his return to

America in 1939- Unfortunately, the proteg^ who commis­

sioned the work declared the Finale unplayable. As a re­

sult, Barber had to return half the fee, and the violinist

had to relinquish the right to premiere the work. The

15

Concerto was finally premiered in 1941, by Albert Spalding

and the Philadelphia Orchestra, under the direction of

Eugene Orraajidy, becoming an important contribution to

twentieth-century violin repertoire.

Barber returned to Curtis from 1939 to 19^2, teaching

orchestration ajid conducting a madrigal group. During

this time, he composed the Second Essay for Orchestra for

Bruno Walter and the New York Philharmonic Orchestra, pre­

miered in New York on April l6, 1942.

In 1943, Barber was inducted into the United States

Army, and after a brief period of time in Special Ser­

vices, was transferred to the Air Force. He was encour­

aged to continue composing, and in 1943, the Army Air Force

Band performed his Commando March. While stationed at the

Fort Worth Army Airfield, Barber was commissioned by the

Army Air Force to compose a symphony, an unprecedented act

in the history of the American military. He was permitted

to work at home, but was required to make reguQar progress

reports to an officer at West Point. This officer sugges­

ted that since the Air Force was so technically advanced,

the symphony should also be modern. Barber compromised by

adding an electronic tone generator to simulate the sound

of an aviator's radio beam. The machine never did work

properly, however, and Barber's attempt at "modernity" was

stifled at a rehearsal when the conductor. Serge Kousse-

16

vitsky, shouted, "Throw the damn thing out."^^ The Sym­

phony Dedicated to the Army Air Forces, was performed,

without a synthesizer, by Koussevitsky and the Boston Sym­

phony Orchestra on March 3, 1944.

After Barber's discharge from the army in September,

1945, he returned to Capricorn, a home he had purchased

with Menotti in 1943, near Mt. Kisco, New York. Most of

Barber's works from 1945 until the sale of the home in

1974, were composed here. Barber's early years in Mt.

Kisco were prolific, including such compositions as the

Cello Concerto (winner of the 1947 New York Critics Circle

Prize); the ballet Cave of the Heart, later retitled Me­

dea, commissioned for Martha Graham; Knoxville: Summer

of 1915. for soprano and orchestra, commissioned for and

premiered by Eleanor Steber with Koussevitsky and the

Boston Symphony in 1948; the Piano Sonata, commissioned

for the twenty-fifth anniversary of the League of Compos­

ers and premiered by Vladimir Horowitz in 1950; Melo­

dies Passagres. a song cycle based on poems by Rainer

Maria Rilke and premiered by Pierre Bernac and Francis

Poulenc at Town Hall in 1952; Hermit Songs, based on

medieval Irish texts, commissioned by the Coolidge Foun­

dation ajid premiered by Leontyne Price; and the Pravers

of Kierkegaard for soprano, chorus and orchestra, pre-

10 Salzman, "Samuel Barber," p. 84.

17

miered by Charles Munch and the Boston Symphony with Leon­

tyne Price in 1954.

Although Barber worked diligently at Capricorn, he

also resumed his travels after the war. A Guggenheim

grant permitted him to go to Europe in 1945. He also re­

turned to the American Academy in Rome in 1948 and 1949,

but this time as composer-in-residence. Touring Europe

in 1950, Barber conducted concerts of his works in Den­

mark, Germany and Italy. He also received an offer to

record some of his recent works for the London Gramaphone

Corporation, an opportunity which had not been afforded

him by the American recording companies. The London re­

cordings, which Barber conducted, included the Cello Con­

certo . orchestral excerpts from Medea, and the Second Sym­

phony.

Wanting freedom to devote his time to composition.

Barber declined several offers for importajit university

positions and avoided becoming an active member of compo­

sers' committees and organizations. In 1951, however, he

was elected a vice-president of the International Music

Council of UNESCO. In 1952, active in the American Soci­

ety of Composers, Authors and Publishers, he was instru­

mental in winning a larger share of ASCAP's income for

composers of serious music.

The mid 1950s proved to be an important period in

Barber's career. Ever since his early operatic venture.

18

The Rose Tree. Barber had been interested in writing for

the theatre. Having discussed probable libretti with

Thornton Wilder, Stephen Spender and Dylan Thomas, as well

as having received proposed operatic commissions from both

the Metropolitaji Opera and the Koussevitsky Foundation, he

continued to search for a satisfactory libretto. He even­

tually discovered the right librettist in his friend, Men­

otti. In 1956, Menotti wrote the text for Vanessa, and

Barber composed the music the following year. The Metro­

politan Opera produced Vajiessa in 1958, with a cast that

included Eleajior Steber and Giorgio Tozzi. Vanessa was

also produced at the Salzburg Festival and earned the Pu­

litzer Prize in 1958. The success of Vanessa was largely

responsible for Barber's award of an honorary doctorate

from Harvard University in 1959•

Barber and Menotti soon collaborated on a second ven­

ture, the one-act opera, A Hand of Bridge. in 1959* This

short, biting work was performed in 1959, at Menotti's

Festival of Two Worlds in Spoleto, and in I96O in New

York.

The early 1960s were also productive years for Barber.

Toccata Festiva. commissioned for the new organ at the .

Philadelphia Academy of Music in i960, was premiered by

Paul Calloway with Eugene Ormandy and the Philadelphia

Orchestra on September 30, i960 and later recorded by E.

19

Power Biggs. Die Natali. a set of choral preludes for

Christmas, was premiered by Charles Munch and the Boston

Symphony Orchestra on December 22, i960.

In 1962, Barber visited the Soviet Union as part of

a cultural exchange mission. After discovering that his

music was widely known and often performed in Russia, he

protested in a meeting with Kruschev the policy of the

Russian government not to pay royalties to Western compo­

sers. As a result. Barber is one of the few Western com­

posers who now receives royalty payments from the U.S.S.R.

In honor of their one hundredth anniversay in I96I,

G. Schirmer commissioned Barber to write a piano concerto.

John Browning premiered the work on September 24, I962,

with Eric Leinsdorf and the Boston Symphony Orchestra dur­

ing the opening week festivities at Lincoln Center. In

1963, the concerto earned Barber a second Pulitzer Prize.

Another significant commission for Barber resulted in An­

dromache 's Farewell, premiered by Thomas Schippers and the

New York Philharmonic, on April 4, I963, with soprano solo­

ist, Martina Arroya.

Perhaps Barber's most prestigious commission was from

the Metropolitan Opera for the opening of its new Lincoln

Center House in I966. Antony and Cleopatra, based on

Shakespeare's play, was designed and directed by Franco

11 John Briggs, "Samuel Barber," International Mus-

cian, December I96I, p. 23.

20

Zeffirelli. Conducted by Thomas Schippers, the original

version of the opera was premiered on September l6, I966,

featuring Leontyne Price, Justino Diaz and Jess Thomas.

A revised version of the opera was first performed at the

Juilliard American Opera Center on February 6, 1975,

staged by Gian-Carlo Menotti and conducted by James Conlon.

Barber's last work of the 1960s was Despite and Still

(1969). A cycle of five songs, the work derives its title

from the last poem, "Despite and Still," by Robert

Graves. The work was composed for and premiered by Leon­

tyne Price at Carnegie Hall in I969.

The Lovers, an extensive work for baritone solo, chor­

us and orchestra, was the first composition of the 1970s.

Prem.iered on September 22, 1971, in Philadelphia, under

the direction of Eugene Ormandy, the performance featured

Ton Krause as soloist. In 1974, Barber composed a set of

Three Songs for Dietrich Fischer-Dieskau, commissioned by

the Chamber Music Society of Lincoln Center. On April 30,

1974, these songs were first performed at Alice Tully Hall

by Fischer-Dieskau with Charles Wadsworth at the piano.

Barber's most recent piano composition was a piece

commissioned for the Fifth Van Cliburn International Quad-

riennial Piano Competition. The Ballade, Op. 46, was

composed in 1977'

After a relatively inactive period, which was coinci­

dental with his move from Mt. Kisco to Manhattan, Barber

21

returned to composition with a renewed fervor. His most

recent composition is the Third Essay for Orchestra, com­

missioned by the Merlin Foundation. The work was pre­

miered by the New York Philharmonic on September l4, 1978,

under the Philharmonic's new music director, Zubin Mehta.

An oboe concertino was to be premiered in January, 1979,

by Harold Gomberg and the New York Philharmonic. The pre­

miere has been postponed, however, because illness has pre­

vented Mr. Barber from completing it. When asked in a

recent interview in the New York Times if he had any plans

for future compositions, Mr. Barber replied, "I want to

write some more string quartets. I don't think that I

write that well for strings, but I do want to do a very 12 private piece for quartet." He also would like to have

the revised version of Antony and Cleopatra recorded, as

well as The Lovers, which has as yet not been recorded.

Celebrating his seventieth birthday on March 9. 1980,

Barber remains active and optimistic about future plans.

He continues to be one of America's most esteemed.and

often performed composers.

Personality

After interviewing Barber in I966, Eric Salzman

^^ Donal Henehan, "A Talk With Samuel Barber," New Ynrk Times. Jan. 28, 1979, sec. D, p. 24.

22

wrote:

Like his music. Barber is quiet, urbane, some­what old-fashioned in his easy elegance, charm, and unpretentious sophistication. One senses that the profound mood is melancholy; he is introspective and often withdrawn. Yet he is an affable, intelligent man who speaks several lan­guages and is at home among cultured, artistic people on more than one continent. The incred­ibly strong, handsome features of his youth have softened over the years, but he retains the ro­mantic good looks of an old-time movie star still capable of playing a heartthrob role.^3

When he is not composing. Barber is fond of taking

long walks or reading books in several different languages.

He is bored by card games, and, in fact, is not fond of

games of any sort. Broder reveals the following anecdote

concerning Barber's gambling habits;

Once, when he and Menotti were stranded in Italy with insufficient money to return to the United States, Menotti took him to a gambling casino amd persuaded him to risk his few re­maining dollars on roulette. Barber forgot to take his winnings off the table, and, since the same number kept coming up, won $600. He has never gambled since.^^

Barber's rather conservative tastes and cosmopolitan

nature are reflected in his music, which is often described

as, "avowedly Romantic, quiet, elegant, and wholehearted-

^^ Salzman, "Samuel Barber," p. 78.

Broder, Samuel Barber, p. 45.

23

ly traditionalist." ^ Barber works slowly: only forty-

six works have been composed since his first published

work in 1927. He is often silent and melancholy while

searching for the right themes, but once the satisfactory

themes are found, his mood is once again affable.

Barber's craftsmanship is seen not only in the music

itself, but also in the perfection of the actual manu­

script. His copyist, Arnold Amstein, has compared the 16 manuscript of a Barber score to an engraving. One of

his editors at Schirmer, Hans W. Heinsheimer, described a

Barber manuscript as a model of perfection:

It is not only checked meticulously for errors, for wrong or missing rests, for a hemidemisemi-quaver that has a hemi too much or a demi too little -- it is also written very clearly in an interesting, original, yet very legible hand and it is completely ready for the copyist and the printer. It is the first, and at the same time, the final and definitive draft of the music. ''

Samuel Barber is often withdrawn and rather cold with

strangers, but occasionally a sense of humor springs to

the surface. When once asked why he didn't pursue a ca­

reer as a professional singer, he replied, "In order to be

^^ Salzman, "Samuel Barber," p. 78.

David Ewen, Composers Since 1900 (New York: The H. W. Wilson, Co., I969), p. 32.

^'^ Ibid.

24

a great singer one must be either very intelligent or very

stupid. It seemed to me I was neither. "•'•

The personality of the man and his music are one. Mr.

Broder has eloquently described this parallel:

His work as a whole is like a living organism with a clearly stamped individuality, enriching Itself as It grows. And this organism mirrors the qualities of the man - his dedication to art, the elegance and refinement of his taste, his unswerving adherence to the highest stan­dards, his constant search for new means of creating beauty, a search guided by a sense of discrimination and a power of self-criticism that prevent him from being stampeded into adopting novel techniques merely because they are novel and widely used.19

The legend of Samuel Barber has been a different

sort of story for an American composer. While most twen­

tieth-century American composers have struggled against

indifference and neglect, success discovered Barber early

in life and has followed him throughout his career, with

very few exceptions.

18 Bamey Childs and Elliot Schwartz, eds., Contem­

porary Composers on Contemporary Music (New York: H^lt Rinehart and Winston, 1967), p. i66. '

19 ^ Broder, Samuel Barber, pp. 59-6O

CHAPTER II

ELEMENTS OF SAIVIUEL BARBER'S MUSICAL STYLE

One of the most fascinating characteristics of Amer­

ican music of the 1930s is its extreme diversity. Impres­

sionism, jazz, neo-classicism, expressionism and serial-

ism influenced various American composers. Because of the

wide variety of styles, music historians found it conven­

ient to associate composers with specific movements and

to label them accordingly. While often over-simplified

and not always effective, such labels can provide a gener­

al frame of reference in which to view the works of cer­

tain composers. Samuel Barber is most often associated

with the neo-Romantic movement. Although Barber's early

works fall quite conveniently into this category, his more

technically complex later works extend beyond the realm

of neo-Romanticism.

Neo-Romanticism emerged in the 1930s and 1940s as a

reaction to the political and economic upheavals that oc­

curred in the first decades of the twentieth century. Anx­

ious to satisfy the hunger for a retiorn to the romantic

attitudes of the nineteenth century, neo-Romantic compo­

sers returned to a style characterized by broad lyricism

25

26

and dramatic expression. While traditional formal struc­

tures of the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries were pre­

served, neo-Romantic composers drew upon a contemporary

technical vocabulary. In contrast to many twentieth cen­

tury tendencies (such as futurism, serialism and atonality)

that can be viewed as reactions to past traditions, neo-

Romanticism embraced the aesthetics from the previous cen-

tury, revitalized through the use of contemporary harmonic

and rhythmic elements.

An important American composer, Virgil Thomson, be­

came a spokesman for the neo-Romantic movement. Remain­

ing aloof to the movements concerned with the abandonment

or destruction of tonality, Thomson gives the following

explanation of neo-Romanticism:

The new romanticism strives neither to unify mass audiences nor to impress the specialists of intellectual objectivity. Its guiding mo­tive is the wish to express sincere personal sentiments with a majcimum of directness and of spontaneity. It tends consequently to avoid impersonal oratory; and it is wary about the conventionalistic tendencies bound up with con­sistent and obligatory dissonance.^

Thus, conservatism and traditionalism are important

elements of neo-Romanticism. While neo-Romanticism may

seem outmoded and insignificant to the young musicians of

today, Samuel Barber's music revitalizes the conservative

Joseph Machlis, Introduction to Contemporary Music (New York: W. W. Norton & Co., Inc., I96I), p. 539-

27

aspects of neo-Romanticism, becoming an original contri­

bution to the twentieth century.

In contrast to Barber's basically neo-Romantic style,

a departure from the neo-Romantic aesthetic is observed

in two rather experimental works. The Capricorn Concerto

(1944) for flute, oboe, trumpet and strings is a venture

in neo-Classicism, reflecting a strong Stravinsky influ­

ence. The piano composition Excursions (1944), is Bar­

ber's sole experiment in a nationalistic vein, drawing

upon such "Americana" influences as blues and boogie-

woogie.

The use of traditional forms remains constant in Bar­

ber's works. Although modifications of sonata form appear

in the First Symphony and Piano Concerto. Barber remains

faithful to the structural concepts of eighteenth and

nineteenth century models. Composing for various vocal

and instrumental genres, Barber's use of traditional forms

remains consistent.

Within the framework of these traditional forms.

Barber exhibits one of his most characteristic elements

of style: a classical economy of means. Barber most often

narrowly limits the number of motivic ideas in a composi­

tion. Through this limitation, he creates extreme unity

in his music. Contrast and variety, achieved as a result

of motivic transformation and development, are expressed

within tightly unified structures. Like Bartok, he occa-

28

sionally bases an entire movement on a germ, as in the

Piano Sonata and Medea.

Related to Barber's traditional formal designs is his

consistent adherence to principles of tonality. Although

the music composed after 1939 displays a more dissonant

and chromatic harmonic style, all of his works are based

on well-defined tonal centers. Major and minor scales are

the most common harmonic foundation, but other modes, par­

ticularly Phrygian, and synthetic scales are occasionally

used. Even when Barber experiments with serialism, as in

the third movement of the Piano Sonata or the Nocturne.

tonal centers remain the basic organizing force.

Barber's early works (before 1939) exhibit a basi­

cally tertian harmonic vocabulary. The later works, how­

ever, employ secundal and quartal harmonies, polychords,

as well as an abundant use of tritones. The Second Sym­

phony (1944) and the Piano Sonata (1949) reflect the un­

rest of the period, through extreme use of dissonance, but

tonality (as expressed through traditional forms) is still

preserved.

Although conservatism, as seen in his approach to

form and tonality, is an important element of Barber's

style, lyricism is the most arresting of all Barber's

qualities. A rare quality in contemporary American music,

lyricism has given Barber's music its individual style.

It is not surprising that lyricism is the dominant

29

characteristic of Barber's music; he is one of the few

composers of this century who is himself a singer. More­

over, his understanding of the human voice, both as a per­

former and composer, has inevitably led to a style domin­

ated by melody. David Ewen describes Barber's lyricism

as follows:

Of Barber's many admirable qualities -- his fine sense of musical design; the economy of his means; the inexorable logic of his think­ing -- the most significant perhaps is his high­ly developed lyricism. He has the gift of writ­ing sustained melodies that flow easily and have a high degree of expressiveness.2

In the earliest works. Barber's melodies are eloquent,

long-breathed and marked by graceful curves. Examples

include the Adagio for strings (1936), Knoxville; Summer

of 1915. for soprano and orchestra (1936), and the first

Essay for Orchestra (1937).

While tertian, diatonic chordal outlines are the

basis for his early melodic style. Barber's later melodic

style is more chromatic, though still very much rooted in

tonality. In addition. Barber's later melodic style tends

to avoid chordal outlines, focusing instead on particular

intervals, especially fourths, seconds and sevenths.

The beneficial results from Scaler's emphasis on

^ David Ewen, The World of Twentieth-Century Music (Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey: Prentice-Hall, Inc., 1968), p. 15.

30

counterpoint are apparent throughout Barber's works. The

contrapuntal texture of his music adds much interest and

vitality, preventing any sense of static quality in his

compositions. Barber's masterful control of contrapun­

tal devices is seen not only as a general stylistic ele­

ment, but also as a specific organization principle for

entire movements built on polyphonic structures: the

Passacaglia from the First Symphony (1936), the polytonal

fugue in the Second Essay (1942) and the fugue in the

Piano Sonata (I949). Related to Barber's use of poly­

phonic forms is his frequent use of ostinato figures, used

most effectively in the Second Symphony (1942), the Cello

Concerto (1945), Medea (1946) and the Piano Concerto

(1962).

Barber's rhythmic style ranges from smooth, flowing

patterns to the most powerful, often complex, driving fig­

ures. The vocal music is carefully suited to the rhythm

of the text, often marked by necessary changes of meter.

The instrumental music, particularly in the later works,

usually avoids obvious or regular patterns: hemiolas,

syncopations, cross rhythms and irregular groupings are

frequent.

Just as Johann Sebastian Bach was a conservative com­

poser, deeply rooted in existing and traditional proce­

dures, so is Samuel Barber a conservative composer, deeply

rooted in traditional formal, tonal procedures. During a

31

period when many composers have felt a need to reject the

past, Samuel Barber has been able to re-examine past tra­

ditions and to create an individual style by re-interpre­

ting the past in a modern language. Recognized by leading

conductors such as Toscanini, Koussevitsky and Szell, as

well as virtuoso performers such as Horowitz, Eleanor

Steber and Leontyne Price , Barber's music has been widely

acknowledged. Assimilation of twentieth-century technical

idioms into a style marked by classical control, as well

as romantic expression, has made the music of Samuel Bar­

ber a valuable contribution to the twentieth-century reper­

toire .

CHAPTER III

EXCURSIONS

Barber's first published work for solo piano is Ex­

cursions. Opus 20, written in 1944 and premiered by Vlad­

imir Horowitz in 1945. Included in the score of this set

of four pieces, the composer writes:

These are "Excursions" in small classical forms into regional American idioms. Their rhythmic characteristics, as well as their source in folk material and their scoring, reminiscent of local instruments, are easily recognized.^

Each piece is a stylized setting of a popular Ameri­

can folk idiom. The opening piece is a boogie-woogie;

the second, a blues piece; the third, a set of variations

on a cowboy song; the last, a barn dance. Harry Dexter

describes this work in an article that appeared in 1949:

While they cannot be placed among Barber's major works, nor among the finest of modern works for the piano, they have many points of originality and charm, and often show a delightful freshness of outlook on the possibilities of piano tech­nique . 2

^ Samuel Barber, Excursions (New York: G. Schirmer, Inc., 19^5), p. 2.

^ Harry Dexter, "Samuel Barber and His Music," Musi­cal Opinion, LXII (April. 1949), 344.

32

33

First Movement: Un poco allegro

Excursions opens with a stylized boogie-woogie. Ac­

cording to the Harvard Dictionary, boogie-woogie is defin­

ed as:

Originally a special type of piano blues, first heard in Chicago in the early 1920's. It was revived about 1935, becoming very popular for a number of years. This type.of playing is char­acterized by an ostinato bass figure, usually sharply rhythmic, against which the right hand rhapsodizes freely, the sections usually com­prising twelve measures and the treatment often being contrapuntal (sometimes in only two widely spaced parts), with repeated tones, broken-oc­tave tremolos, and short figures reiterated in great rhythmic variety (riff technique).3

Barber expresses an imaginative use of boogie-woogie

techniques through a subtle and sophisticated style. The

overall form of the movement is a five-part rondo: A'BA''

CA''' Coda.

The essential characteristic of boogie-woogie is the

bass ostinato. In this piece, the repeated bass figure is

the following:

Example 1: ostinato

^ ^

senza pedale

^ Willi Apel, ed.. Harvard Dictionary of Music (Cam­bridge, Massachusetts: The Belknap Press of Harvard University Press, 19^^). P. 101.

3^

In the A sections, the ostinato is in the tonic key

of C minor; in the B section, it is in the subdominant

key of F minor; and in the C section, it is in the dom­

inant key of G minor.

In addition to the ostinato, the A section presents

an important melodic motive, a figure comprised of three

repeated tones followed by a broken chord (Example 2).

The broken chord is expanded from a tonic triad to a sev­

enth chord:

Example 2: first theme

The melody is defined not only by its harmonic implica­

tions, but by its important rhythmic inflection as well, a

syncopated pattern commonly used in blues and jazz.

Like many structures based on an ostinato, this piece

could be viewed as a series of free variations. Although

the phrases vary in length, each section is unified by the

ostinato and by fragments derived from the opening theme.

Barber's sophisticated treatment of the boogie-woogie

form is revealed in the harmonic and rhythmic elements.

4

Although the basic meter is , with eight even eighth-

notes in the accompanying left hand ostinato, several irreg­

ular meter changes do occur: measures 9, 10, and 11 are

35 5 3 4

in 2i, 2' ^^ U Q'ters, respectively; and measure 21 is m 7

g meter. In addition to changing meters, several complex

rhythmic patterns occur: quarter-note triplets in the

right hand against even eighth-notes in the left hand

(measures 11, 25, 56, and 57, the entire closing section,

92 through 106) , and quintuplet broken chords in the tran­

sition section (measure 53)•

Textural contrasts define each section. The A' and

A'' sections contain basically two-voiced textures, while

the B and C sections add full chords in the right hand.

The final A section (A''') presents a sharp textural con­

trast to the other sections of the rondo, as the full

chords of the ri^t hand remain consistently broad, no

longer using the rapid sixteenth-note patterns.

Example 3- A'''

Although the harmonic relationships between each sec

tion are quite traditional (A=I, B=IV, C=V) , Barber uses

some novel harmonic procedures within the sections, e.g.,

the contrast of major and minor harmonies. While the

36

tonality of the A section is C minor. Barber often uses

El] (raised third) in the melody (measures 24 through 25;

54 through 57)- The technique of shifting modes is ex­

ploited in the closing section. Beginning in measure 98,

and continuing until the coda (measure 107), each measure

alternates between tonic major and tonic minor harmonies.

The coda, based on the motive from the introduction (mea­

sures 2 through 3), confirms the key of C minor by repeat­

ing the opening figure six times.

Another element of Barber's harmonic vocabulary in

this piece is the emphasis of the tri-tone, as in measures

29 through 32, when the melodic figure is centered on GP,

accompanied by the ostinato built on C. Another example

of emphasis of the tri-tone occurs in measures 44 through

46: the right-hand pattern is based on a B seventh chord,

while the left-hand pattern is based on F. These passages

also hint at bitonality.

The use of quartal harmonies is another frequent har­

monic device, appearing most often in transitional pas­

sages, as in measures 19 through 20 and measure 53. By

reserving this device for transitional passages. Barber

avoids traditional harmonic modulations.

A related idea is the rather sophisticated device of

disguising the formal seams. While the tonal centers of

the left-hand ostinato passages remain clear as they shift

to different levels, the tonal centers of the melodic

37

phrases do not coincide with the harmonic shifts. An

example can be found between the A'' and C sections.

While the left-hand ostinato moves to a G tonal center in

measure 66, the melodic phrase does not modulate until the

end of measure 67.

A careful analysis of this piece reveals many signi­

ficant aspects of Barber's style, foreshadowing changes

that become characteristic of his later works. While ob­

serving the basic formal and harmonic plan of the boogie-

woogie style. Barber achieves a rather urbane and sophis­

ticated form of expression through subtle rhythmic, har­

monic and formal devices.

Rhythmic control is the performer's primary concern.

As a unifying device, the ostinato should be consistently

steady. Otherwise, the syncopations will be ineffective.

Another rhythmic problem is presented by the passages

containing three notes against four, as in measures 11

through 12, 25 and 56 through 57. In addition, the final

A section is based entirely on the three against four

pattern. By feeling two pulses per measure, instead of

four, these rhythmic complexities become easier to articu­

late.

The tremolo chords in measures 44 and 50 present an­

other technical problem. Loose, free wrist rotation will

give the performer both rhythmic and dynamic control.

Fast finger articulation is a further requirement for

38

the performer. The rapid scale passage (measure 23) and

the trill-like figures (measures 84 through 89) merit spec­

ial attention.

Second Movement: In slow blues tempo

The second composition of the set is an elegant blues

piece. Divided into four sections, each one uses the basic

blues harmonic progression (I-I-IV-I-IV-IV-I-I-V-IV-I-I).

Once again Barber creates a stylized version of a popular

idiom, distinguished by subtle rhythmic and harmonic de­

vices. While the traditional blues forra is based on twelve

measure sections, Barber's subtle use of irregular

phrasing results in sections of thirteen measures, except

for the third section, which adheres to the traditional

twelve-bar pattern.

Although the melodic structure of each section varies,

the accompanying bass figure provides a means of unifica­

tion for the entire piece. The rhythmic pattern of the

accompaniment motive is a common blues figure:

Example 4: accompaniment motive

Wz^-^^Wnpi '^ijj

39

Another unifying device is the use of "blue" notes,

the name given to the lowered third and seventh degrees of

the scale. In this example, the blue notes are Bl>(Att) and

FH. Although Barber does not indicate a key signature, it

is obvious that the tonal center is G. By avoiding the F^

in the key signature, the lowered.seventh is established

as a constant pitch, while the use of the leading tone is

the exception.

An additional means of unification is the melodic

figure of a descending third. This motive is used to open

each of the four sections, although the context is changed

by rhythmic and textural variations.

Example 5- descending thirds

ill » >3 I [_3jj 1^'

While the overall form appears to be a sequence of

four sections, each based on a blues progression, a closer

examination reveals a more subtle structural design. The

first and third sections bear a strong relationship, re­

vealed by the use of similar melodic and harmonic patterns.

40

(Compare measures 7 through 8 and measures 34; 10 and 36).

A close relationship also exists between the second and

fourth sections. An even eighth-note motive is used in

both of these sections, providing a contrast to the more

consistently used triplet division of the beat. (Compare

measures 19 and 20 with measures 44 and 45.)

Technically, this movement presents the fewest prob­

lems. To avoid monotony, the performer should express

subtle color, dynamic and rhythmic nuances to create va­

riety between the repetitious sections. The greatest dy­

namic contrast should occur between the last two sections,

the third being the softest and most intimate while the

fourth is the fullest, with a slightly broader tempo being

appropriate.

Because a triplet division of the beat is established

as the norm, the performer should give special attention

to any deviations in the rhythmic patterns. Significant

changes include the even eighth-notes (i.e., measures 4,

9, 16) and dotted patterns (i.e., measures 7 and 9).

Third Movement: Allegretto

The third piece in this set, a theme and variations

form, is based on the cowboy song, "The Streets of Lare­

do." Although the theme and eight variations are not sep-

41

arately marked in the score, the regular phrasing of each

section (4+4) makes the divisions quite obvious.

The binary theme in G^ major consists of a four-mea­

sure antecedent and four-measure consequent phrase: 4(a)+

4(b). The harmonic progression is rather traditional,

following the same pattern as the original folk song, us­

ing only I, vi, ii and V chords. Mostly tertian struc­

tures appear, often colored by an added second.

While the melody, harmony and phrase structure are

completely traditional, the rhythmic structures are more

progressive, providing a great deal of interest and con­

trast. A subtle rhythmic device appears in the presenta­

tion of the theme aind recurs in all but the third and fifth

variations: the right hand is in septuplets, while the

left hand maintains even eighth-notes.

Example 6: theme

This subtle cross rhythm allows a more fluid and lyrical

expression of the theme.

Each variation maintains the phrasing of the theme

(4+4) , but binary structure is not used in variations

42

three, five- or seven. Instead, the a phrase is omitted,

and the b phrase is used twice.

While the melody is embellished, the variation tech­

nique applies largely to rhythmic and textural elements.

Variation I repeats the opening four measures of the theme,

a, but the consequent phrase, b, is intensified by a synco­

pated chordal figure in the right hand, accompanied by

quintuplet-eighths in the left hand. The second varia­

tion also begins like the theme, but in a higher octave.

The second phrase is like the b phrase of variation I, but

the syncopated right hand figure is replaced by a contin­

uous sixteenth-note pattern. As in most variation forms,

the theme gradually becomes more obscured, as is illus­

trated by the third variation: the left hand reiterates

the quintuplet figure, but the theme above it uses dotted

and triplet rhythms. The fourth variation recalls the tex­

ture of the theme in its opening phrase, but a new sonority

appears in the second phrase: the left hand presents the

melody in sixths, while the right hand presents a new six­

teenth-note accompaniment figure. The left hand maintains

control of the theme in variation five, accompanied by an

ostinato arpeggiated figure in the right hand. The theme

is absent in the second phrase of the variation, although

the harmonic progression is preserved. After a dynamic

climax, the variation ends very quietly on a widely spaced

tonic chord. The brief moment of repose is quickly in-

43

terrupted by the forte opening of the sixth variatian.

The theme is treated broadly, with block chords in both

hands. While this variation displays the richest sonor­

ity, rhythmic tension is avoided: both hands play the

exact same rhythms. Although the pattern is in septup­

lets, the homorhythmic element gives this variation a

sense of great power and stability.

Gradually returning to the original character, the

seventh variation is reminiscent of the opening, although

the second phrase is in a higher octave. Like many var­

iation movements, the last section (variation VIII or

coda) restates the theme, providing a means of balajice and

unity. The first phrase is a literal repetition of the

theme, while the last phrase is slightly modified. The

lower range and slower rhythmic pattern of the last two

measures provides a subdued concluding statement to end

the movement.

This movement poses the greatest number of technical

and rhythmic problems for the performer. While the theme

is easily identified as "The Streets of Laredo," rhythmic

complexities are apparent from the beginning of the piece.

V/ritten in duple meter, avoiding the original meter of the

tune (h), Barber further disguises the original rhythm by

setting the tune in a septuplet pattern, accompanied by

eight even eighth-notes. Thus, only the downbeats in each

hand coincide.

44

From this point of departure, the rhythmic complexi­

ties increase until variation IV. The first variation adds

quintuplet eighth-notes in the accompaniment. In addition,

the melody is embellished by clusters, grouped in two-note

slurs and syncopated patterns. A light thumb and loose

wrist will help the performer control both the slurs and

syncopations.

The second variation retains the combined septuplet

and quintuplet patterns. The clusters are also preserved,

but the syncopations are filled in with repeated notes.

Once again, a light thumb and loose wrist are essential.

The rhythmic problems of the third variation are the

most complex patterns of the piece. The quintuplet accom­

paniment is com.bined with the triplets and dotted figures

in the right hand. Additional technical problems include

rapid, repeated notes and cluster arpeggios. Execution of

the repeated notes requires changing finger patterns, while

the arpeggios require a very relaxed thumb and close hand

position.

The ostinato in the right hand of the fourth varia­

tion is marked by octave displacement. By beginning the

pattern with the thumb, the octave leap will be easier to

control.

Projecting the tenor melody in variation V is the

performer's main concern. The embellishments surrounding

the melody should be very soft and articulated as staccato

45

as possible. As in the previous variation, the right hand

ostinato should begin with the thumb. The eighth rest in

measure 48 is extremely significant, being the first si­

lence in the movement, and a slight broadening of the tem­

po would be appropriate.

The full texture of variation VI provides a welcome

contrast. Although the chords are forte, the pianist

should voice the soprano melody, with perhaps less tone in

the inner voices. The last two variations return to the

simplistic character of the opening. As the coda repeats

the theme, a reflective mood is created, with a slightly

slower tempo being effective.

Fourth Movement: Allegro molto

An exuberant and joyous barn dance, capturing the

spirit of a country fiddler, functions as a finale to the

entire composition. The structural plan is a "frame form,

in v\tiich a short opening and closing section surround a

lengthy middle section. The resulting formal design is

A (13 measures) B (43 measures) A' (l4 measures).

The tonal center is F major throughout. Tonic and

subdominant chords, with added tones frequently used, are

the foundation of the harmonic plan.

Two motives are presented in the first A section:

46

1) a figure consisting of alternating tonic and subdom­

inant chords, and 2) a figure based on a repeated six -

teenth-note pattern.

Example 7a: motive 1

^ E S

y <: \ •-zr

r^

I ^ ^ it

Example 7b: motive 2

These two motives are juxtaposed in each section, in a

lialog ae manner oi presentation. The first phrase begins

with motive 1 (measures 1 and 2) and is answered by motive

2 (measures 3 through 5). The second phrase repeats the

dialogue, although motive 1 is shorter and motive 2 is

extended.

Beginning in measure 10, a transition is heard.

Starting with a two-voiced texture, a tonic chord is used

for the entire phrase. The texture becomes thicker and a

GR is added to the harmony, building intensity for the

opening phrase of B.

47

The middle section (B) can be subdivided into four

parts: I = measures 14 through 23; II = measures 24

through 33; III = measures 34 through 40; IV = measures

4l through 48. An eight-measure phrase, beginning in mea­

sure 49, functions as a transition preparing for the re­

turn of A. In addition to the balance resulting from the

overall "frame form," the B section also exhibits formal

balamce: sections I and IV are almost identical. Further

unity is provided by the similar phrase structure of each

section, as motive 1 is consistently answered by motive 2.

Section I presents motive 1 in the left hand, accom­

panied by soft, staccato chords in the right hand. Motive

2 answers the first phrase, with the melody now appearing

in the upper voice. A one-measure transition in measure

23 uses the added second tonic chord, as was found in the

first transition (measures 12 and 13).

The louder dynamic level and fuller texture of sec­

tion II add an exhilarating element to the character. The

sforzando accents and use of major sevenths further en­

hance the sense of growing excitement. Building to a for­

tissimo level for the entry of the second motive, a climax

is achieved.

Section III sustains the exuberant character of the

previous phrase and the upper register is effectively used

to heighten the intensity. Motive 2 is now doubled in .-.

seconds, accompanied by sforzando syncopated chords in the

48

left hand. In measure 40, a transition to the fourth sec­

tion begins. Adding variety to the rather limited harmonic

elements, AP and Ei> seventh chords are used. Both the

descending registers and lower dynamic level of the tran­

sition are used to provide a release of tension.

In measure 4l, the fourth section begins, recalling

the opening phrases of B. The only change is the omission

of measure 17. A transition begins in measure 49, with

heavily accented tone clusters. Although the texture be-

com.es thinner and the dynamic level drops, a sense of in­

tensity is sustained as the tempo becomes faster.

Section A, slightly modified, returns in measure 57-

The diatonic tonic and subdominant chords are embellished

by appoggiaturas built on chromatic quartal harmonies. Be­

ginning in measure 59. however, a literal restatement of

A is heard. A tonic chord with an added sixth is used for

the closing section, beginning in measure 66. Decreasing

to a pianissimo level, the piece ends with an ascending

tonic ninth arpeggio.

The performance problems of the last movement are

relatively few. As a stylized dance form, the rhythms are

much simpler than the complex patterns found in the pre­

vious movements. Technically, the piece demands a loose

wrist and controlled articulation for the majny repeated

notes and chords. The performer should carefully plan the

dynamic climax found in the middle of the B section. Be-

49

cause the fortissimo level is sustained for a relatively

long time, the addition of a gradually more staccato ar­

ticulation could help the performer achieve not only more

variety, but also more intensity as the climax is ap­

proached.

As Barber's sole example of stylized folk idioms. Ex­

cursions occupies a unique position among his piano works.

While adherence to traditional forms is common in Barber's

music, the rather limited harmonic vocabulary is not com­

monly found in the piano music. The rhythmic complexities,

however, do foreshadow the more mature style of the other

compositions for piano. Excursions. as a group of styl­

ized movements seems to function as the stylized dance

suites of the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries. Avoid­

ing developmental procedures, like much music of the nine­

teenth century, and focusing instead on motivic variation

and transformation, this work is an excellent example of

neo-Romantic music.

CHAPTER IV

PIANO SONATA

Majny critics have described Samuel Barber's Sonata

for Piano. Op. 26, as one of the outstanding contributions

to the twentieth-century keyboard repertoire. Shortly

after the Sonata's premiere in 1950, Nathan Broder stated:

"(Jhe Sonata] represents Barber's final emancipation from

the neo-Romantic traits that dominated his early composi­

tions and is thus the culmination of a development that has

taken a decade to reach its goal." The dramatic change

in Barber's style is displayed in this particular composi­

tion by a more complex texture, dissonant harmony, rhy­

thmic innovations and his first use of twelve-tone serial­

ism. John Gillespie has written: "Barber's Piano Sonata,

Opus 26... may well be the prime American sonata written 2

in the last three decades or so." Broder continued his

praise of the Sonata in his biography of Barber by saying,

"... the work is emotionally profounder than many of Bar­

ber' s earlier pieces and technically farther advanced than

^ Nathan Broder, "Current Chronicle," The Musical Quarterly. XXXVI (195^0), 276.

^ John Gillespie, Five Centuries of Keyboard Music (Belmont: Wadsworth Publishing Co., Inc., 1965)i p. 415.

50

51

any of them. Its grand sweep, its largeness of utterance,

is reminiscent of Beethoven, and its intensity makes one

think of Bartok."- Perhaps the most unstinting praise is

found in an article by Hans Tischler:

It stands head and shoulders above any other sonata written by an American composer in the past thirty years, and is worthy of taking a place alongside the great works of its category by reason of its Beethovian concentration, ser­iousness and mastership. In its drama, too, and humour, in the tendency to develop motives rather than merely to repeat them, and in the propounding and solution of musical problems this sonata follows Beethoven's example.... The interesting and arresting thing about this work is the combination of thoughtfulness, masterly-economy, brilliance and naturalness, which eli­cits an appeal both immediate and lasting. The fusion of contemporary technique with that of the past three centuries — of twelve-note tech­nique , contemporary harmonic materials, sonata-form, passacaglia and fugue -- this thoroughly satisfying fusion stamps Barber's giano Sonata. Op. 26, as a classic of our times.^

The value of this sonata lies not only in its own in­

trinsic worth, which will be discussed in depth, but also

as a landmark in American piano music. Irving Berlin and

Richard Rodgers announced on September 23, 19^7. that

they had commissioned Samuel Barber to write a piano son­

ata. This commission was to honor the twenty-fifth anni--

^ Broder, Samuel Barber, p. 69.

^ Hans Tischler, "Barber's Piano Sonata Op. 26," Mnslc and Letters. XXXIII (1952), 352,35^.

52

versary of the League of Composers in 1950.^ Two years

later, the piece was completed and first performed by 6 Vladimir Horowitz in Havana, Cuba on December 9, 1949.

In preparation for the first New York public performance,

Horowitz played the Sonata on January 4, 1950, for an in­

vited audience in the Trustees Room of G. Schirmer, Inc.'

The first public performance in New York was given by

Horowitz at Carnegie Hall on January 23, 1950. Olin

Downes, critic for the New York Times, reviewed the pre­

miere:

If he played unevenly, Vladimir Horowitz never played more prodigiously than he did at his recital last night in Carnegie Hall to an immense and excited audience, and further marking the oc­casion by a premiere: the first performance in New York of Samuel Barber's Piano Sonata in Ei> minor. This Sonata, between the quality of the performance and the quality of the music, had also a prodigious success.

It makes on initial acquaintance a very strik­ing impression. Many pianists will now attempt its performance. Few can expect to approach the authority and imagination, the power and the del­icacy on occasion, as also the rather incredible virtuosity which went into its performance yes­terday evening. One would think indeed, that the Sonata had been conceived with Mr. Horowitz in mind , , .

^ "Sonata to Honor League," New York Times, Septem­ber 24, 1947, p. 20.

^ Broder, Samuel Barber, p. 102.

" Russell E. Friedewald, "A formal and Stylistic Ana­lysis of the Published Music of Samuel Barber," Diss. Iowa State University 1957, p. 133-

Olin Downes, "Horowitz Offers Barber's Sonata," New York Times. January 24, 1950, p. 27.

53

Horowitz repeated the Sonata on his next Carnegie Hall

recital (March 20, 1950). A capacity audience, including

150 persons onstage, filled Carnegie Hall for Horowitz's

second recital of the season.^ The Sonata was also in­

cluded in Horowitz's tour for the season of 1950.

Reviewing the Sonata in Musical America, Robert Sa-

bin states:

... Other American piano sonatas may be more profound, intellectually consistent, and durable than this one, but none is more appealing. Mr. Barber's music is an excellent challenge to the die-hards who are perpetually complaining that contemporary piano music is unidiomatic, emo­tionally dry, and inexpressive.^0

Barber's Sonata became the first American piano piece of

major importance to be performed by a leading piano vir­

tuoso: "Horowitz's programming of the Barber Sonata thus

means that American piano music has left the realm of the

esoteric and joined the arena of commercial public per­

formances like any other music, a tremendous forward step

11 for American composition."

^ "Capacity Throng Hears Horowitz," New York Times. March 21, 1950, p. 33.

Robert Sabin, "Samuel Barber Composes Effective Sonata," Musical America. February 1950, p. 332.

11 Isadore Freed, "American Composition Committee Re­

views," Music Clubs Magazine. December 1950, pp. 22-23.

54

The opening movement, in E* minor, is in traditional

sonata form. It is characterized by chromaticism, disso­

nance, vigorous rhythms, contrapuntal texture and exten­

sive development and transformation of a limited number of

motivic ideas. The second movement, in G major, is a

"light, elfin, sardonic scherzo, most of it lying in the

12 upper reaches of the piano." Although some critics feel

that the scherzo is too lightweight for its profound ;-.

neighboring movements, it provides the necessary emotion­

al release from the dramatic first movement. Broder has

described the third movement as "the most tragic of all of 13 Barber's slow movement." ^ In Arlton Luther's work on

twentieth-century American piano sonatas, the Adagio is

14

compared to the "dirge-like baroque lament." This move­

ment also displays Barber's first systematic use of twelve

tone writing. The finale is a brilliant fugue, in a jazz­

like idiom. "This fugue, a tour de force of construction,

is enormously difficult [to play^ ; it ends the work in a

blaze of brilliance."

^^ Broder, "Current Chronicle," p. 276.

^^ Broder, Samuel Barber, p. 70.

Arlton Dean Luther, "American Piano Sonatas of the Twentieth Century: Selective Analyses and Annotated Inr dex," Diss. Columbia University I968, p. 280.

^^ Broder, Samuel Barber, p. 72.

55

First Movement: Allegro_energico

The well-defined fonnal outline of the opening move­

ment reveals a traditional sonata form. Through textural,

tempo, and dynainic contrasts, the clearly marked sections

of the score result in the following conventional plan:

Exposition (1-50) First theme (1-8) Transition (9-22) Second theme group (23-31) Transition (32-34) Closing section (35-50)

Development (51-109) Recapitulation (110-148) Coda (149-167)

The tonal center is E* minor for the opening and

closing sections, although the chromatic harmonic and mel­

odic materials occasionally disguise the key center. Some

use of twelve-tone writing occurs, but not as a struc­

tured, systematic procedure. Although many harmonic ele­

ments are drawn from a twentieth-century vocabulary, the

fact that a clear tonal center exists (Ei minor) is char­

acteristic of Barber's traditional and conservative musical

idiom.

The opening theme contains an important motive which

becomes significant in the movement, both in its original

form and in several highly transformed presentations.

This opening figure (a), or germ, contains both the pro­

minent interval of a descending half-step as well as the

dotted rhythmic figure which occurs throughout the move-

ment.

Example 1: germ (a)

P^^' <^'^- :. f /

56

- ^ .

The firs^ theme , built almost entirely of ascending

and descending whole and half-steps in dotted rhythms, em­

ploys all twelve chromatic tones. Although highly chro­

matic, the E^ tonal center is preserved. The opening sec­

tion is a balanced 4+^ phrase and employs an important

oour.~ermielody in the lower register, often used in conjunc

tion with the opening theme:

Example 2: beginning of first theme

As the first theme builds to a climax in measure

tr.ree, the lower motive is transposed up a fourth. The

broadening of the rhythmic figure, from dotted notes to

even triplets in the fourth measure, gives a feeling of

repose before the consequent phrase begins.

In performance, the sixteenth notes need to be quite

57

short as they lead into the notes of longer duration,

which Barber often implies by marking the longer notes

with a tenuto. Although the change to triplets in measure

4 indicates a written-out ritard, additional broadening of

the triplet figure will help the listener psychologically

prepare for the beginning of the next phrase. The left

hand motive should also be clearly articulated, and by

voicing to the lower note of the octaves, a better con­

trast and variety of tone color can be achieved between

the right hand and left hand figures.

Measures 5 through 8 function as a consequent phrase

of the opening theme. The important addition of the so­

prano voice provides a new color and texture for the re­

petition of the theme. The germ (a) is now heard in an

augmented version above the lower two figures. Because of

the widely spaced writing, the lower voices could easily

cover the soprano line. The perfonner should take care

that the upper voice is projected, by playing the lower

voices at a softer dynamic level. After another climax

in the third measure of this phrase (measure 7), the final

cadence of the first theme presents a new character, which

Barber indicates by marking dolce and rallentando.

The transition to the second theme begins in

measure 9. The melody is transferred to the left hand and

is a free inversion of the opening theme. The inverted

melody also uses all twelve tones, with the second half of

58

the phrase resembling the first half, but transposed up a

fourth. The accompanying triplets in the right hand also

use twelve-tone patterns: a series of quartal harmonies,

with each root being a minor third apart in an ascending

sequence of four chords per measure.

The transition reaches a climaix in measure l6,

achieved by a fortissimo dynamic level in the extreme re­

gisters of the keyboard. The broader rhythm also contri­

butes to the dramatic character of the phrase.

Following the climaix, a new triplet motive is intro­

duced:

Example 3'- triplet motive

The intervalic expansion of this motive stretches from a

major sixth to a major seventh, ending on a minor ninth.

Because this figure occurs in a rapid tempo, the lower

notes should be articu3ated with a staccato thumb techni­

que. The bass line, derived from the first theme, an­

swers the triplet motive. The phrase is sequenced down a

fourth and ends on a B-natural pedal point, which is sus­

tained for eight measures. Above the pedal, the soprano

line presents another twelve-tone figure that becomes

significant in the closing section and coda.

Example '4-: twelve-tone f igure

59

! ,

I t 1 t i i • I

I ' ' ' ' - —

h

As in the opening phrase of the transition, this

t-.velve tone pattern functions as a melodic gesture, rather

*:han a strict serial device. In performance, the long

held pedal on 5 must be struck -.vith enough support to sus­

tain the tone, as it establishes the tonal center for the

second theme group.

The lyrical second theme, beginning in measure 23.

contrasts witn the aggressive firs', theme. Barber achieves

a tranquil a-m.ospnere, marked espressivo, by using a high­

er register and softer dynamic level. Pitches of longer

duration in the melody are accompanied by triplet arpeg­

gios in the lower voice. The flowing rhythm of the accom­

paniment further enhances the peaceful character of the

second them.e .

Example 5- second theme

60

The performer should carefully project the melody,

keeping the arpeggios quite soft. While the triplet rhythm

of the accompaniment should be played evenly, a slight

broadening of the sixteenth note in the melody would be

appropriate.

The interval of a fourth is emphasized in the second

theme, contrasting with the predominant half-steps of the

opening theme. The accompaniment, however, uses mostly

major thirds to form arpeggiated augmented triads.

Beginning in measure 25, the melody is heard in trip­

let quarter notes, followed in measure 27 by a diminution

of the same material. Under the diminution, the bass re­

peats the second theme in its original form, answered in the

soprano by a rhythmic and melodic transformation of the

theme. Built in fourths, the derived motive, B-'-, becomes

the basis for a section of the closing, development, and

coda.

Example 6: B

61

B , first heard in the soprano, is answered in

the bass, a fourth lower. A second question-answer presen­

tation of the motive leads to a repeat of the original

second theme. Because of a lack of chromaticism, in B ,

doublings in thirds and sixths in the right hand, as well

as the temporary C minor tonal center, a relaxed mood is

created.

A transition to the closing section begins in measure

32, the left hand pattern being a repetition of the material

in measure 31 • as it accompanies the light figuration of

the right hand. A free inversion of this material is heard

in the following measure. The third measure of the transi­

tion begins to build tension. The bass is a pedal point

on B; the tenor is an ascending chromatic scale; the

soprano is a descending four-note chromatic scale, followed

by an ascending chromatic scale; the alto, moving twice as

fast as the other voices, moves in contrary motion to the

soprano. The ascending line in the tenor is the most im-

portaint voice, and the performer should be sure that this

line is heard above the accompanying contrapuntal voices.

Arriving on a minor ninth (measure 35) "the closing

section begins. A new motive is presented in the bass, a

four-note repeated figure, and will be used again in the

development and coda.

62

Figure 7: repeated-note motive

The germ is now heard, in different registers, as well as

the twelve-tone motive from the end of the transition. The

second theme interrupts the rhythmic drive (measure 37) but

is overpowered by the repeated-note figure. A descending

sequential pattern, presented as a canon between the hands,

leads to the climax of the closing. The repeated-note fig­

ure is heard sforzando in the lower register of the key­

board, answered by the germ in the middle register. In

measure 43, the germ is replaced by the triplet figure.

The technical problems of this section arise from the ac­

curate articulation of the four-note figure. The first

note must always be heavily accented, requiring a loose,

but heavy wrist motion.

The end of the closing begins subito piano in measure

45. A momentary return of C minor and B is suddenly re­

placed by a return of the repeated-note figure and the germ.

A carefully written-out ritard in measure 50 gradually re­

duces the four-note figure to three notes, two notes, and

finally only one note. The performer should observe a

strict tempo, as the ritard is precisely notated in the

c 63

rhythmic augmentation of measure 50.

The first section of the development begins pianis­

simo and misterioso in measure 51. The first two measures

recall the opening of the exposition, modified by the use

of higher registers for the contrapuntal accompaniment.

Beginning in measure 53, a two-voiced canon is heard, based

on an extension of the germ. A third and fourth voice are

eventually added, all occurring above a B-natural pedal.

Extremely controlled playing is required as the phrase is

marked senza crescendo. A diminuendo in the upper voices

would probably help sustain the pedal point. (As the sound

of the pedal diminishes, so should the sound of the moving

voices.)

A crescendo and descent to A*' in the bass mark the

beginning of the climax. The canon in measure 60 displays

expert contrapuntal writing: each voice is doubled by its

mirror inversion.

Example 8: double canon (mirror inversion)

64

The end of the canon leads to the climax, beginning

in the highest register, using the second half of the first

theme. After a descending sequence, covering almost three

octaves, an espressivo entry of the first theme is heard in

the tenor in measure 66. A repetition of the espressivo

phrase occurs in measure 71, but it is now accompanied by

the repeated-note figure. Another canon,in an ascending

sequence, prepares for the second section of the develop­

ment .

The second section, un poco meno mosso. begins in C

minor (measure 75)• The repeated-note figure in the bass

accompanies B in the soprajio. The second phrase (mea -

sure 80), becoming more intense, presents the same material

in invertible counterpoint: the melody is in the bass and

the accompsiniment in the treble. As the tension mounts, B

is doubled in octaves (measures 84 and 85) • A stringendo

(measures 86 through 87) leads to the final section of the

development.

Establishing an ostinato in a two-measure introduc­

tion, the third section, functioning as a preparation for

the recapitulation, presents a complete transformation of

B in measure 93.

65

Example 9'• transformation of B"

This motive should be played with a very sharp articulation,

sim.ilar in color to a xylopr.one. Beginning in measure 98,

the phrase is repeated, presenting the motive an oc­

tave higher. The most dramatic climax of the movement

starts in measure 102. Beginning in soft octaves in the

bass, oscillating between E l> and l-P , a crescendo molto and

Iriving rhythmic pattern builds to a fortissimo cadence on

a tonic ^^ chord, with an added tritone (AH) and added sixth

The performer should carefully prepare for this crescendo,

savins the largest possible sound for the climactic cadence.

The recapitulation (measure 110) opens with a power­

ful, almost heroic, return of the first theme. Influenced

by the development, the texture is very dense. Extreme re­

gisters of the keyboard are used, allowing a maximum con­

trast of timbre between the theme and contrapuntal bass

line. The climax of this section is enhanced by the addi­

tion of a low 2b pedal point in the final two measures of

the phrase (measures II6 and 117)•

66

The transition is only sightly modified, measures 14

through 15 being omitted, and the new key center of Dn is

prepared exactly as the BH center was prepared in the expo­

sition. The second theme is unchanged from its first pre­

sentation, measures 129 through 140 being identical to

measures 123 through 134. The first three measures of the

closing section are omitted, as are measures 45 through 46.

The last measure of the closing (measure l48) is a compres­

sion of measures 49 and 50.

The coda (measures l49 through I67) begins in a tran­

quil character, much like the middle section of the devel­

opment, over an E* pedal that is maintained throughout the

entire section. In contrast to the development section,

however, the first section of the coda maintains the ex­

pressive lyrical character of the second theme. The even

eighth-notes at the end of the first section (measure 158)

avoid any hint of tension.

The second section of the coda (measure 159) uses

most of the motives previously heard in the movement. A

bass ostinato, an E* minor ninth and an ?^ major seventh,

is repeated in the first three phrases. The steady quarter

note rhythm of the ostinato is maintained until the final

three measures of the coda. 1

Above the ostinato,,the repeated-note figure and B

are heard. • The pattern is repeated in the following mea­

sure, but the repeated-note figure is omitted and the six-

67

teenth-note rhythm is broadened into triplet eighth notes.

The second phrase uses the expanding triplet figure,

repeated four times in descending registers and falling

dynamic levels. The third phrase is similar to the second,

except that the twelve-tone motive replaces the triplet

figure, alternating between a row beginning on BH and a row

beginning on F".

A slight change in the ostinato occurs in measure

l64: the E ^ minor ninth becomes DH diminished tenth.

Above this modified pattern, the germ returns and the in­

tensity begins to grow. The ostinato closes on a sustained

E* quintal harmony, and the final two measures of the first

theme return, leading to the concluding repetitions of the

germ. In the right hand, the germ reaffirms the dominant,

while the left hand germ reaffirms the tonic. A final pre­

sentation of the germ on a low E ^ ends the -movement with a

return to the powerful character of the opening.

Second Movement: Allegro vivace ^ leggero

The second movement, "a light, elfin, sardonic scher-

1 f>

zo,' releases the tension of the first movement. Char­acterized by its high range, diatonic harmony and repeti-

16 Broder, "Current Chronicle," p. 276.

68

tive structure, this movement is an extreme contrast to the

rest of the sonata. Written in G major, the scherzo struc­

ture is defined as:

A (1-30) G Major Transition (31-46) B (47-70) C Major Transition (71-80) A (31-102) :- Major C (103-113) Bb Major Transition (114-125) A (126-155) Ab Major->G Major Toda (156-165) G Major

The first theme begins with a repeated four-measure

phrase (a), constructed of a one-measure motive, repeated

three times and extended on the last repetition.

Example 10: first motive (a)

Allefifro vivace e legg^ero •• • ir,- r

V

^ ^

5ra*i p Irgu^'Tisshno

P » V » » ^ ^Zx^

Although the implied harmony is a tonic chord, it shifts

quality from major to minor in the melodic outline (B'l-A /

3b). The fourths that occur in the melody are contrasted

with the tritones in the accompaniment. Because most of

the chromatic tones occur on weak beats, a light character

is preserved, concluding with a G major descending arpeggio

in the fourth measure.

69

Following a softer repetition of the opening phrase,

a new motive (b) appears, outlining the root and third of a

G major triad. Shifting to a minor quality, the motive

ends on a lowered third (B^).

Example 11: second motive (b)

jJllriM I j ~ * i ^

The three-measure phrase is sequenced down a half step,

leading to a return of the first motive. The left hand

presents a broken chord accompaniment, emphasizing a pedal

tone on C, rising to a C** in the last measure.

The opening theme returns unchanged, but the repeated

phrase is an octave lower. A climax is achieved in mea­

sure 24, as the phrase is extended by repeating the third

measure in successively higher octaves. In measures 21

through 23, the tonic accents produce a triple division of

the measure, conflicting with the n meter of the opening.

A modified return of a begins in measure 26. En­

hanced by octave displacement and a lower register, the

phrase closes with a hemiola (implying « meter) ending on

B " pedal.

Example 12: modified a

M *A* '^-^

70

^

1 f V b f Example 13: reduction of Example 12

* t . ^m The dissonant whole and half steps in the right hand pro­

vide a new color and texture.

A transition using b begins in measure 31 above

the low Bb pedal. Presented as a canon, the left hand

enters a fifth lower and three beats after the right hand.

A bitonal effect is achieved as the right hand outlines F

major, F minor and E minor chords above the left hand Bb

major, Bb minor and A minor chords. The motive is com­

pressed in measure 38 as the right hand implies a Dff minor

chord. Block chords in the left hand add to the rising 4

climax, which occurs as a cross rhythm of g is achieved

(measures 4l through 42). The transition ends with a four-

measure phrase: a one-measure pattern, sequenced four

times, rising by fourths. The right hand uses ascending

71

minor seventh arpeggios, while the left hand answers with

descending major thirds.

The second section of the scherzo (B) begins as an

elegant, but humorous waltz in measure 47.

Example l4: opening of B section

The tonal center is C major, a subdominant relationship to

the tonic key. The changing meter of the accompanying

waltz bass, as well as the subtle contrasts of slurs and

staccatos, add to the humorous, character of this section.

The melody, in a very high register, is derived from the b

motive. The C pedal in the bass unifies the first nine-

measure phrase, although the harmonies change in each mea­

sure.

A modified repetition of the waltz melody begins in

measure 56, now above an F pedal. Bitonality occurs as the

melody outlines a C major chord above the F harmony of the

ace ompaniment.

A third presentation of the waltz begins in measure

65, but is compressed to only two measures. The high re­

gister, C pedal; and fuller dynamic level of the theme are

72

contrasted by the answering phrase in measure 67, much

softer, lower ranged and hovering above an F pedal. The

same question-answer structure is repeated in measure 69,

now compressed to only one measure.

A sudden forte C major chord begins the transition in

measure 71. The b motive is once again presented as a

canon, similar to the first transition, but the interval

between the entries is now a tritone, C major answered by

F8 major. A metrical change from jj to g, and a diminuendo

prepare for the return of the A section. The canonic en­

tries become gradually closer, moving from a half-note, to

a dotted quarter, and finally to an eighth-note apart.

The return of A (measure 81) is identical to the

opening presentation for the first two phrases. Beginning

with the third phrase (measure 95). a countermelody is

added in the left hand. A repetition of this phrase ca­

dences on G minor, the relative minor of B^ major, which is

the tonality established for the C section.

A new melody is presented at the opening of C (mea­

sure 103) •'

Example 15: opening of the C section

bi

^fPf'y^rffP

73

Characterized by octave displacement, this theme consists

of two phrases, each being 3+3. The melody is harmonized

for two measures by a dominant seventh arpeggio in the left

hand, resolving to a tonic Bb chord in the third measure.

Beginning in measure 109, the second phrase is derived from

the first phrase of C. The left hand, however, now has the

melody.

Example l6: left hand presentation of C

The left hand melody avoids the octave displacements of the 4

first phrase and modulates to B major.. Cross rhythms of g

in the right hand, against a g meter in the left, enliven

the en-tire phrase.

A transition begins in measure 114, much like the

first two transitions, presenting canonic treatment of the

b motive. Beginning in B major, a half-step higher than

the transition at measure 31» it consequently cadences a

half-step higher than before, on Ab instead of G.

The final return of A, (measure 126). begins in the

"wrong" key of A ^ , modified by a thicker texture as well.

The first fourteen measures of A preserve a new tonality,

but a sudden return to G major in measure l4o reconfirms

the tonic key. The last phrase of the A section (measures

74

151 through 155) is a minor third lower than its initial

presentation, so that it can resolve on G, rather than on L

B'' as in measure 31.

The coda (measures 156 through I65) begins like the

transitions, as a canon of the b motive between the hands.

The right hand outlines a G major ninth above the C5 ninth

in the left hand, all occurring above a low G pedal, which

must be supported by use of the sostenuto pedal. The dis­

tance between the canonic entries is compressed so that the

passage is now in contrary motion. Becoming increasingly

faster and softer, the arpeggiated figure vanishes at the

top of the keyboard, cadencing on a G major triad.

The performance problems of this piece are largely

concerned with the rhythmic interpretation. Strict obser­

vance of the double stemmed notes of the opening theme

should be maintained so that the g meter is established.

Beginning in measure 21, the performer must make a choice

in metrical interpretation. Since the double stems are no

longer present, a ^ interpretation might be preferable.

Another rhythmic problem occurs in measure 29- The

implied meter is p* ^^ suggested by the tonic accents of

the lower voice, although no change of meter appears in 3

the score. While the quarter notes hint at ^ meter, the

tonic accents in the left hand on EH , DH and ctj establish

^ meter.

The rhythm in measure 43 is also ambiguous. An

75 3 implied ^ meter would help to prepare the entrance of the

waltz, but a sudden shift of g (measure 43 to 46) to ^ in

measure 4? could be more effective.

At the final return of A (measure 126), still another

rhythmic ambiguity occurs. In measure 128, a } meter is

once again implied. The double stems, which so clearly de­

fined the rhythm of the opening phrase, are omitted, and

either a duple or triple division of the measure is pos­

sible. Because all six eighth notes are connected by a

single beam, however, ^ meter might be preferable.

Since this movement is so repetitive, the performer

should emphasize the dynamic and articulation changes. Al­

though the dynamic range is rather limited, all levels

should be proportionate. Legato and staccato touches need

to be quite distinct, particularly when heard simultaneous­

ly as in measure 4l. A light character should be maintained,

and v^ile dynamics and articulations should be strictly

observed, the music should never sound "fussy," always

remaining within the confines of good taste.

Third Movement: Adagio mesto

The sense of grief and tragedy expressed in the third

movement-, starkly contrasts the wit and sparkle of the pre­

vious movement. The somber mood is relentless, with any

76

hint of relief being avoided. The form is ABA', diagram­

med as follows:

Introduction (1-2) A (3-10) B (11-27) A' (28-33) Codetta (34-39)

Although several motives in the first movement em­

ployed all twelve chromatic tones, this movement is Bar­

ber's first experiment with systematic twelve-tone writing.

The row, however, is used only for accompaniment patterns

and a B minor mode is implied. By using the row only as

harmonic background. Barber departs radically from the se­

rial techniques of Schoenberg. Further departures from

strict twelve-tone writing include the use of a tonal cen­

ter, as well as the avoidance of dissonant intervals in the

row: minor sixths and perfect fourths and fifths are used

exclusively. Barber's approach to twelve-tone composition

seems to parallel the more romantic approach of Berg, as

opposed to the more classical approach of Webern.

The row is divided into two segments, the second seg­

ment functioning as a consequent phrase to the initial an­

tecedent phrase. The contour of both segments is similar:

the first presents two minor sixths and a perfect fifth,

while the second presents two minor sixths and a perfect

fourth. The row could also be analyzed as a series of

ascending and descending augmented triads.

77

xample 17: twelve-tone row

^ = = 1

^ . ^

-J-^

1

^ ^

' ^ ^ ^

- ^ -

1 I V-

7 « '

— J * * ^ «^ % -*

10 Ii I:L

-[-#—-

As an introduction, tne row first appears as a series

of dyads, with the minor sixths played by the left hand and

the fourth and fiitr. played ty tr.e right hand.

Example 18: introduction

>*.

•Jf«-3=^-:?:Er=^-

The rov; is next heard as an arpeggiated accompaniment

cattern, as the right hand presents the melody in measure

•xample 19= opening melody

.V

rm — m M « '-'--f#ii.v"i;

78

Beginning on a long-held B " , the melody slowly un­

folds in a fluid rhythm, contrasting with the steady eighth.

note accompaniment. The range is narrow and the melody is

characterized by a smooth contour, in mostly conjunct mo­

tion. Appoggiaturas of descending half steps, reminiscent

of a Baroque sigh, are emphasized. The melodic phrase

structure is additive, with each phrase cadencing on a des­

cending half step. The first phrase ends in measure 4 with

the Cb-Bb cadence; the second phrase ends in measure 5 on

a B-A^ cadence; the third phrase ends in measure 6, on a

A-Gff cadence.

A new row appears in the accompaniment in measure 5.

Barber's use of two rows in a single movement is another

departure from Schoenberg's principles. This row can be

analyzed as a series of three diminished seventh chords,

implied by the changes of pedal marked in the score.

Example 20: second twelve-tone row

Et=E- m

A closing section, repeating the first measure of the

melody above an AB octave pedal in the bass begins in mea­

sure 7- The motive introduced at the end of measure 7 is

also used to close the B section.

79

The texture of the closing section becomes thicker as

a result of the bass pedal. It is further modified by the

register of the melody: the tenor now has the melody

while the accompaniment is shifted to the soprano register.

The melody returns to the soprano in measure 9. but it is

lowered a step, as is the bass pedal. The closing triplet

motive is repeated three times and functions as a transi­

tion to the B section.

Example 21: closing motive

The B section returns to the dyadic treatment of the

row, as used in the introduction, and opens with the iden­

tical material heard in measure 1.

A derived motive appears in the alto in measure 12.

Example 22: derived motive

80

lfS'^i^«[;i.^'ip cresc.

'>-\\.. ' f ^ ^ ^ . ^ -

The following measure doubles the derived motive, and in

measure l4, the new motive appears in the bass, accompanied

in the right hand by the diminished seventh row, (Example

20).

Transposed up a half-step, the original row returns

in measure 15. A new melody above it bears a strong re­

semblance to the opening theme, although the note values

are shorter and the dynamic level is louder. The melody

is sequenced up a third in the following measure. Measure

17 is a diminution of measures 13 through 14, transposed Up

a half-step.

The next two measures (18 and 19) are a repetition of

measures 13 and 15, but the material is transposed up a

fourth in measure 18 and up a third in measure 19.

The climax of the movement begins in measure 20. The

transposition of the row up a fourth, as stated in measure

18, is used for this intensely dramatic section (measures

20 through 23). The dyads have become full triads, form-

81

ing the following harmonic sequence (measure 20): C ma­

jor - G#* minor - E minor - F augmented - D minor - FH ma­

jor. This harmonic progression is repeated intact in each

of the following four measures, except for the final chord

which changes to FR minor (measure 21), D? minor (measure

22) and FJ^ major minor seventh (measure 23). The last

change (FR ) effects a dominant' preparation for the re­

turn of the row at its original pitch of B natural.

The textural changes, wider range and fortissimo

dynamic level create a tragic character of immense inten­

sity, climaxing with the return of the original row in

measure 24. The melody in measures 20 and 22 is an em­

bellished version of the derived motive first heard in

measure 12, beginning on a C in measure 20 and an F in

measure 22. The opening melody of A returns in measures

21 and 23, appearing first in the low register beginning

on B, but transposed up a fifth and in an extremely high

register in measure 23. The quintuplet octave figures in

this section further add to the restless anguish. The

dense texture and extreme ranges between the hands are

combined with the rhythmic agitation to build a powerful

preparation for the return of the first row.

Beginning with a tripled pedal point on the three

lowest Bs of the keyboard, the row returns at the top of

the keyboard in its dyad form. Starting from the highest

register, the row sweeps to the bottom of the keyboard

82

through four repetitions. At the end of this suspenseful

phrase, the pedal point drops to J , functioning as a

leading tone preparation for the return of A.

Previously heard motives reappear in measures 26

through 27, serving as a preparation for A. The impor­

tant cadential figure of a descending half-step is heard

first, doubled in octaves, and harmonized by an A minor

chord. Acting as a disruptive element, the melody from

measure 15 appears in the upper range, combined with the

closing motive from measure 7 in the middle register.

Example 23: preparation for return of A

2 1 4

i h i* "! W V. 7 7 J ^ ^ ^ ^

The phrase is stated twice in measure 26, at a full

dynamic level. In the following measure, however, the

texture is thinner, the register is lower and the dynamic

level is growing softer. The cadential half step is also

83

lowered, and the melodic figure from B is transposed down

a fourth.

The subsiding energy level carefully prepares for

the more intimate character of the returning A section.

In the return of A, the melody is similar to its

first presentation, but an added free canonic voice in

the alto maintains a bit of the agitation that occurred in

the intense middle section. Although the intervals and

direction of the canonic voice are freely derived from the

soprano melody, the rhythmic patterns are quite similar.

The accompaniment returns unchanged until measure 32,

where it is slightly embellished.

The final six bars are a codetta, heard above a low

tonic pedal (B). The right hand accompanies a tenor mel­

ody with the dyad form of the row. A sequential treat­

ment of a motive derived from the first melody descends

by fourths, finally resting on B. The decreasing dynamic

level and dark registers create a most somber atmosphere

for the final B minor chord.

Because of the extremely slow tempo, technical prob­

lems are easier to solve. An exception is the climax of

the middle section with its rapid changes of register.

Interpretively, however, the music is quite demanding.

The long, flowing melodies of the opening section should

be perceived as vocal lines, avoiding any hint of the per­

cussive qualities of the piano.

84

The performer should listen carefully as the tone of

the long-held pitches disintegrates. Matching the dynamic

level of the dying tone with the beginning of the next

pitch will eliminate disruptive accents in the melodic

flow. Subtle rhythmic nuances should be expressed, es­

pecially for the descending half-step cadences, important

leaps in the basically conjunct line, and for the convinc­

ing execution of phrase endings.

The prolonged crescendo of the middle section re­

quires careful control, allowing the real climax to be de­

layed until measure 24. The release of intensity should

be just as gradual, creating the appropriate atmosphere

for the reprise of the opening material. The codetta

should also produce a gradual release of intensity until

the final chord is reached, and must therefore begin at a

full enough level to permit the final notes to be audible.

Fourth Movement: Fuga. Allegro con spirito

The final movement is a four-voiced fugue, unifying

the sonata by its return to E* minor. While traditional

sections of expositions and episodes are presented, the

overall form of the fugue is an arch design:

85

su

A (1-22) B (23-33) Transition (34-36) Development (37-50) Transition (51-54) C (55-63) Development (64-7?) 3 (•:'8-87) Transition (88-89) A (90-106) Coda (107-146)

The fugue is thoroughly contemporary and it may be:

... the most successful fugue of our generation for this reason, for, while such excellent fugues as those in Hindemith's 'Ludus tonalis' and in Bloch's Second String Quartet are con­temporary with respect to harmonic and melodic materials^ their overall formulation remains baroque.^

The rhythmic and melodic characteristics of the fugue

bject display a strong jazz influence: a series of

strong syncopations in a fast, sixteenth-note rhythmic

pattern and the emphasis on the broken ninth chord.

Example 24: fugue subject

^^ Tischler, p. 35^.

86

The unusually long subject can be divided into two

segments. Measure 1 is the first segment, a, an ascend­

ing and descending tonic ninth chord, with an added fourth

while measures 2 and 3 comprise the second segment, b,

a descending sequence of ninth chords, modulating to the L

dominant, B .

The countersubject, measures 4 through 6, is similar

to b in its sequential arrangement and obvious jazz in­

fluence. Also, the surprising ending of the countersub­

ject, a group of four ascending steps marked forte and

staccato, is derived from the first four notes of b.

Example 25: countersubject

r', r . r »N t* " -.—••-

i ^

/

The entire fugue is based on the subject and counter-

subject. The reshaping of these motives in new contexts

gives the fugue great unity and drama.

The A section opens with a complete four-voiced ex­

position. The subject is first stated in the alto voice

and is answered in the bass with a tonal answer, begin­

ning on the dominant (fib) and modulating to the tonic (E* )

87

18 in measure 6. Accompanying the bass entry, the alto

presents the countersubject beginning in measure 4. A

third entry of the subject appears in the soprano in the

tonic key. The increasing energy is achieved by the

doubled countersubject and more complex harmonies (mea­

sure 7). Intensity continues to grow in the fourth state­

ment , again a tonal answer beginning on the dominant in

the tenor voice. The countersubject is divided between

high and low registers in rapid alternation, requiring a

fast cross-hand technique.

Following the completion of the opening exposition,

the high level of intensity is immediately released in

the first episode. Built on the opening motive of the

countersubject, the episode begins as a canon. Starting

on an E'^ in the left hand, the imitative upper voice en­

ters a beat later, a tritone higher. The left hand, is

sequenced up a step, but the upper voice sequence inverts

the countersubject. A higher third voice is added, and

the pattern is now sequenced four times, descending a

third for each sequence. This passage, being so limited

in contour and lacking in dynamic contrasts, creates a

sense of expectation for the return of the more distinc­

tively shaped subject.

The subject entry in the bass voice is a "tonal" answer because the ascending fifth between a and b in the original statement is modified to a fourth m the tonal answer, to allow a tonic E- cadence in measure 6.

88

The expectation is fulfilled by a forte entrance of

the subject in F minor at the end of measure l6. Above

the subject, the countersubject is used in staccato thirds

A rearrangement of b obscures the original contour of the

subj ect.

The answer, in the dominant key of C minor, is heard

in the soprano, with a stretto entry in the alto following

a beat later. A bitonal cadence closes the section with

the upper voice ending on F minor while the lower voice

closes on Db . The cadence on u^ occurs on the staccato

closing motive of the countersubject, further emphasized

by the use of octave displacement (measure 22).

Example 26: final cadence of A

>-,-f - i • _—• ' w * '

P I ' B

A new section, B, begins in measure 23 with a series

of partial entries in the bass. The first half of the

subject is used for the three partial entries, which be­

gin in chromatically descending tones {D^, C, C^^). An

inversion of the countersubject begins in the alto, but

is soon combined with the original countersubject in the

soprano.

89

The tension created by these incomplete entries is

increased by a stretto presentation of the subject, be­

ginning in Ab minor in the soprano and imitated a beat

later on Fb in the bass. A complex presentation of the

countersubject follows the stretto (measure 27). All four

voices participate: the soprano preserves the original

shape of the countersubject while the other three voices

are inverted. In addition, the bass is augmented.

Example 27: countersubject in all four voices

The restless motion of the phrase is halted by a

return of the subject in Ab minor, but the rhythm of the

subject is modified by the use of interruptive sixteenth

rests. The countersubject continues in sixteenth notes in

the tenor, while the bass presents a double augmentation

of the countersubject.

90

Example 28: bass augmentation of countersubject

The descending broken chord motive of the subject

appears in the soprano, in its original rhythm, while the

left hand presents fragments of the countersubject in

rapidly changing registers. The entire pattern is then

sequenced down a step (measure 32).

The section climajces with the bass octave entry of

the subject in Bb minor in triple augmentation, cadencing

on a low A. Sustained in the lowest register, the low A

is followed by a descending passage in the highest regis­

ter, based again on the descending broken chord from the

first segment of the subject. Doubled at the fifteenth,

the descending arpeggios function as a transition to the

first development section.

The development begins quietly over a three-measure

F pedal, which finally drops to E in measure 4o, confirm­

ing the new mode of E Phrygian. The low E is maintained

throughout the entire section.

While a soft dynamic level is sustained for the open­

ing three measures of the development, rising sequential

91

presentations of b inevitably raise the level of inten­

sity.

Augmented entries of a begin in measure 40, accom­

panied by the tonic bass pedal and statements of b in the

soprano

Example 29s subject in augmentation (tenor)

The espressivo presentation of the subject is answered in

the soprano by an inverted version of a (measure 42) .

Tension is created by the subject in the tenor (mea­

sure 44), also inverted sind augmented, but it is now

doubled in octaves and marked marcato. In addition, the

subject is fragmented to only five notes and is sequenced

up a fifth. The tension climajces on a dissonant doubled

second (E-F) in measure 46, answered by chromatic frag­

ments of the countersubject.

Returning to E Phrygian, b is presented in bass oc­

taves in its original rhythm, accompanied by sustained

seventh chords in the soprano. A powerful climax is

reached in measure 50» as the hands exchange parts. The

92

low 2 pedal is reinforced and an E minor cadence is final­

ly achieved in measure 51. A descending five-note pattern

leads to a transition and a return of the countersubject

above a C pedal. After three measures, the transition

modulates to the bright key of 2 major.

The :niddle section (C) contrasts dramatically with

the previous material. A scherzando character, complete­

ly free of tension, is achieved by the playful melodic

presentation of the countersubject, accompanied by a

tonic major harmony {Z niajor) .

In the opening phrase, the accompaniment is an aug­

mentation and inversion of the countersubject.

Example 30: opening of Z

scht'rzando ma n frmvo

7 ±.

-^ .* n \

T ^

Although this phrase exhibits complex contrapuntal pro­

cedures, the scherzando character is never overpowered by

compositional techniques.

• Vhile this section begins quietly, energy is in­

creased as the melody begins on successively higher

pitches in each of the three phrases. In addition, the

texture becomes thicker. The first phrase consists of

93

two repeated segments, the second being extended by a

longer cadential figure. Beginning on the third scale de­

gree of E major, an occasional A8 in the melody implies a

Lydian mode. The second phrase, exactly like the extend­

ed repetition of the first phrase, is a third higher and

begins on the dominant (B). Further interest is provided

by a csinonic alto voice. The third phrase, again like the

extended first phrase, is the most energetic presentation

of the melody. A fourth higher than the second phrase, it

begins on the tonic note, E. The canonic voice is still

present in the alto, but it is now inverted.

The energy level is abruptly dropped by a subito ca­

dence to the deceptive chord, C major. The sudden change

of key marks the beginning of the second development sec­

tion. Canonic entries, over a C major pedal in the bass,

employ the opening motive of the subject. The imitative

alto line, after presenting an augmentation of the first

part of a, follows with fragments of the countersubject.

The staccatos, thin texture and soft dynamic level create

the giocoso character, in spite of the rapidly changing

harmonic outlines in the soprano.

The b motive of the subject is the foundation for the

next three phrases. The first phrase, in E Phrygian,

doubles the soprano melody in fourths (measure 66). Sus­

tained chords in the left hand provide a simple harmonic

background. The phrase is repeated, adding a mirror in-

94

version in the left hand.

The third phrase, marked espressivo in the tenor,

presents a four-note fragment of b. A new, darker color

in the melody is accompanied by an arabesque figure in the

right hand using motive a.

After cadencing on a C major chord (measure 71)f a

is heard in the lower voices in quadruple augmentation.

Stretto entries, two beats apart, create restless tension.

The right hand accompanies with rapid figuration derived

from a. In measure 75i the phrase of augmented stretto

entries is repeated, but the parts are now reversed, the

soprano presenting the stretto entries while the left hand

accompanies with the rapid figuration.

The material heard in B (measures 23 through 33) re­

turns in measure 78, with slight modifications. Tension

is much greater in this return, achieved by poignant oc­

tave doublings in the soprano. The climax of the section

begins with the B minor bass octave return of the subject

(measure 86). The motive is heard in quadruple augmenta­

tion in the bass, slightly broader than the triple aug­

mentation of the first presentation (measure 33). Rhyth­

mic complexities in the upper voice add to the rising in­

tensity as a sequence of rising quintuplet and triplet

patterns leads to the return of A with a climax on a

tripled B^ pedal in the lowest registers.

The dramatic return of A is introduced by the

95

countersubject. Thick chords in the upper register, es-

tablishing E'' minor, are derived from the first five notes

of the countersubject. Repeated an octave lower, the pat­

tern is then shortened to four notes, descending three

registers and ending again on the dominant Bb pedal.

Finally, the subject returns in a stretto presentation.

After the bass tonic entry, the answer, also beginning on

the tonic, is heard a beat later in the soprano. The

third entry, beginning on a raised fourth, is heard in the

alto, and the fourth entry begins on the sixth scale de­

gree (cb) in the tenor. The stretto entries are inter­

rupted by a dissonant pedal on cb and B* . Above this in­

tense bass pedal, a canon begins in the highest registers.

The b motive begins in the upper voice on an E ^ and is

imitated in the lower voice a beat later, an octave lower.

Repeated an octave lower, the canon is heard once again.

Beginning in measure 92, the cb pedal disappears, leaving L

only the dominant pedal (B^).

Continuing above the dominant pedal, the counter-

subject reappears (measure 95)- The tension is ever-

increasing as the countersubject is thickly doubled and

imitated by a bass canonic entry. The motive is com­

pressed and sequenced down chromatically in measure 96 . The

nine-measure dominant pedal is finally resolved to a tonic

E b . Although this climactic cadential harmony relieves

the tension created by the long-held dominant pedal, the

96

added AH and F sustain a restless atmosphere.

The intensity is maintained in the cadenza which un­

folds above the dissonant harmonic pedal. Beginning as a

descending chromatic figure, the cadenza gains momentum as

it falls from the top of the keyboard to a low EO cadence.

Following the rhythmically free cadenza, a rigid g

meter is introduced. The subject returns in a thick chor­

dal texture, using the a motive in stretto. Repeated in

an increasingly denser texture, the passage cadences on an

Eb added sixth chord.

The coda (measure 107) follows the • section. A

canon, beginning in the bass and imitated in the tenor,

uses the countersubject motive. Rising by fourths, the

canon becomes more intense and thicker in texture. As the

tempo and dynamics increase, the countersubject motive

bursts forth in octaves in the bass. Accompanied by ris-L

ing and falling Z^ blocked chords, followed by a diminished

third {Ai -' Z^ ), the right hand helps prepare for a re­

turn of the subject in bass octaves (measure 125)•

Example 31: return of subject

97

A bass ostinato, emphasizing the leading tone (Di)

and the tonic (Eb) in A meter, is used for the final sec­

tion of the coda. The subject returns in right hand oc­

taves in the unexpected key of E minor (measure 134) . The

even eighth note presentation of the subject greatly con­

trasts with the quintuplet ostinato. L

A canon, beginning on E' in bass octaves, is imitated

two octaves higher in the right hand (measure l40). The

lower voice changes direction and the subject is now

heard in contrary motion, climaxing on a Bb in the highest

register and an sb in the lowest register. The diminished

third, AT-C'^, punctuates the cadence. Following this in­

terruption, the descending motive of a is tripled in the

lowest registers, finally cadencing on a repeated tonic

chord.

A convincing performance of the fugue demands a vir-

tuosic technique. As in any polyphonic composition, in­

dependent finger control is necessary for properly voicing

the subject entries. In the opening exposition, the

countersubject should be softer and more legato than the

subject, except for the loud, staccato ascending four

notes that conclude the countersubject. Because of the

expanded hand position and complex texture in the soprano

entry (measures 7 through 9), special attention must be

given to the projection of the subject.

Although the first episode (measures 13 through l6)

98

rises in pitch and becomes thicker, the intensity level

should remain low. The temptation to prepare a climax at

the peak of the phrase (measure l4) needs to be avoided.

In the next entry of the subject, the displaced tones

in measures 18 and I9 obscure the b motive. The double-

stemmed appoggiatura figures need to be clearly articu­

lated to help expose the melody.

The series of partial entries at the beginning of B

create a sense of restlessness. The energy level can be

better focused if the successive sequential entries be­

come gradually more intense and more clearly articulated.

The completed entry that emerges from this restless ac­

tivity will provide a sense of relief as a logical con­

clusion to the previous phrase. A retenu at the end of

this section, beginning with the Bb minor octave subject,

will heighten the climax on the low A pedal in measure 34.

A slight delay on the A is appropriate, as well as on the

following F pedal beginning in measure 36.

The development section needs to begin very quietly,

gradually becoming espressivo for the augmented entries

and building to an intense marcato climax for the closing

phrase. A ritard at the end of the transition (measure

54) will help establish the new mode of E major as well

as help prepare for the scherzando section.

The middle section (C) can convey the scherzando

character through a light touch and steady tempo. A

99

brief, but sudden, pause at the ?nd of this section is

necessary to clear the sound so that the soft, deceptive

cadence in C major can be effective. Short staccatos and

very fast grace notes will make the giocoso character of

the second development more successful (measures 64 and

65).

Tenuto marks clearly outline b in measures 66 and 67 >

The tendency to crescendo in the upper register accompani­

ment should be avoided, so the melody can be projected.

Although the tenuto marks are omitted in measures 68 and

69, it would seem logical to continue projecting the me­

lody.

A slight ritard for the espressivo tenor entry in

measure 69 is desirable. Once again, the inner melody

should be clearly voiced. The augmented a motive (mea­

sures 72 through 77) should be expressively projected

above the figurational accompaniment figures.

The reprise of the B section should be interpreted as

before, although a much bigger climax is needed at the end

of the section to psychologically prepare the return of

the tonic key. A delay for the Bb pedal will give this

important tone more significance. The stretto return of

the subject (measure 90) should be slightly broadened so

that each entry can be clearly articulated. A return to

the original tempo coincides with the canonic entries in

the following measure.

100

Broadening of the bass octaves (measures 96 and 97)

IS necessary to prepare for the E' resolution. Beginning

in the slower tempo, the cadenza gains momentum driving

to the reiteration of the Eb in measure 99.

The return of the subject in 99 should begin in a

rather stately character, slowly enough so that a ritard

can be avoided as the texture becomes thicker. To allow

a gradual crescendo, the coda is more successful if it

begins softer than the indicated mezzoforte level. The

rising pitch and thicker texture will create a natural

crescendo. The performer should resist the temptation to

play too loudly so that a real crescendo can be possible

in measure II9. A dynamic swelling and subsiding in the

right hand accompaniment (measures 120 through 126) will

add a great deal of color to the repetitious bass line.

The final return of the subject (measure 134) should

dominate the heavy ostinato bass, and it is essential

that the duple rhythm be accurately maintained. The sfor­

zando chord in measure l44 needs to be forcefully inter­

ruptive , but the completion of the subject (measure 145)

should drive to the cadence.

CHAPTER V

NOCTURNE

The Nocturne, subtitled "Homage to John Field," was

published in 1959 and premiered the same year by John

Browning. This was the first work Barber published fol­

lowing the success of Vanessa, composed in 1957.

A romantic character piece for piano, the title "noc­

turne" was first used by the Irish pianist and composer,

John Field (1782-1837)i who published some twenty nocturnes

between 1815 and 1834. Field's nocturnes are in ternary

form, displaying embellished melodies above broken-chord

bass figuration. Beginning with Field, cantabile playing

and effective use of the pedal became important stylistic

elements of interpretation. While the mood is often melan­

choly, there seems to be little relationship to the eigh­

teenth-century notturno (night piece), a multimovement work

performed out of doors by a small ensemble, usually winds.

Chopin's nocturnes, although derived from Field's

examples, depart from the early models. Field's pieces

most often retain the same character throughout, but

^ F. E. Kirby, A Short History of Keyboard Music (New York: The Free Press), p. 282.

101

102

Chopin's nocturnes introduce a contrasting middle section,

' 2 often using new themes and a new key.

While Barber's Nocturne is an homage to Field, the

dedication appears to pay tribute to Field as the origi­

nator of the form, but is actually more influenced by

Chopin. The affinity with Chopin's models is revealed in

the climactic middle section, which will be discussed be­

low. Barber preserves the form and character of the nine­

teenth-century nocturne, but employs contemporary harmon­

ies and procedures.

The formal design of the piece is a ternary struc­

ture (ABA'). The opening A section continues until mea­

sure 19; the more contrapuntal B section follows from

measure 20 through the cadenza passage in measure 29; and

the final A section, with some variation," begins in measure

30, ending with a two-measure closing section in measure

45.

In the A sections, the texture is homophonic: a can­

tabile melodic line in the right hand is supported by a

broken chord accompaniment in the left hand. While the

melody is based upon a twelve-tone row, the accompaniment

is based on a well-defined tonal center. The opening sec­

tion begins in A* major and modulates to the dominant key

(EI^) , achieved by moving from tonic (Ab) to mediant (C)

and finally to the dominant (Eb). In the A' section, the

^ Ibid.

103

harmonic progression is adjusted so that the piece con­

cludes in the tonic key. The third relationships are pre­

served, but the direction is changed. In this section,

which also begins in A* major, the second key area is now

the submediant (F). rather than the mediant (C). By

changing to the submediant key, the final tonic (A ) can

be reached by moving up a third from F. The progression

is therefore similar to the movement from C to E ^ in the

first A section. These key relationships suggest a har­

monic plan similar to the principles of sonata form. The

A section could be compared to the exposition, by modula­

ting to a dominant key area, while the A' section could be

viewed as a recapitulation, by resolving the conflicting

key areas through a return to the tonic.

The B section is contrapuntal, and although only ten

measures in length, it could be considered a development

section, which departs from the nineteenth-century models

that avoid developmental procedures. The motives present­

ed in close stretto entries, are clearly derived from the

opening theme:

Example 1; first theme, (A section)

^ ^

con pedale sempre legato

104

Example 2: development of first theme (B section)

F J ^ ^

fe!

^S

te m MM ^ ^

cresc. poco a poco_

espr.

^ ^

P

In the opening five measures of the B section, eight en-

entries of the motive occur, beginning in the bass and al­

ternating thereafter with the soprano. The following

phrase consists of a one-measure figure in the soprano,

derived from measure 5f which is sequenced down a third

in the following measure. The third phrase, derived from

measure 4, also consists of a series of sequences. In

this phrase, however, the motive is condensed to only half-

measures. Doubled in octaves, the figure appears twice

in the soprano, followed by two sequences in the bass.

Barber's skill as a contrapuntalist is revealed by the use

of invertible counterpoint in this climactic phrase. The

accompaniment figure of the left hand is moved to the so­

prano voice in the second measure (measures 27 through 28). L

After arriving on the dominant pedal (E^), a cadenza

of rapid arpeggios in a descending pattern brings the sec­

tion to a close. Instead of reaffirming the dominant as

a preparation for the return of A, however, the section

105

closes on a G seventh chord, the dominant of the mediant

key.

The A section returns in the tonic key of AP major in

measure 30. The return is straight forward, although the

harmonic progressions, as discussed earlier, are modified.

Other minor changes include a more ornamented presentation

of the theme, the omission of measures 6 through 10, the

repetition of measure 3S, and a one-measure extension of

the closing idea.

The most significant aspect of the piece is Barber's

fusion of tonal ana serial procedures. Although tone rows

occur throughout the A sections, the tonal centers remain

well-defined. As in the Sonata, the synthesis of serial­

ism and tonality is a distinguishing characteristic of

Barber's style.

Each of the two rows contains sequential repetitions

of the initial four notes:

Example 3- row 1

r, ''f r

row 2

^ W

106

The repetitions in each row are a minor sixth apart, be­

ginning on the tones C, k\> and EH in both rows. While

the use of serialism implies equality of all twelve notes.

Barber denies an equal treatment of the notes by 1) using

intervals with strong roots, i.e., perfect fourths, and

2) repeating the same pitch at the beginning and ending of

the row. The use of two rows in a single composition also

departs from strict twelve-tone procedures.

In addition. Barber uses each row as a theme, giving

each presentation of the row a distinctive rhythmic pat­

tern. Thus, row and theme become synonomous. Although

the rows are used consistently in each A section, Barber

occasionally omits or changes some notes within the row,

a liberty that Schoenberg would not condone. Barber fur­

ther departs from strict serial techniques by omitting the

row in the B section. Although the B section uses derived

fragments from row one, the intervals vary in size. By

preserving the rhythmic patterns of the row (not the in­

tervals) , Barber confirms his attitude towards the func­

tion of the row as a theme, not merely as a principle for

organizing pitches.

In the Nocturne, Barber achieves a synthesis of tonal­

ity and serialism. In addition, he has successfully com­

bined his characteristic lyrical style with twelve-tone

writing. The very title and its dedication to John, Field,

107

reflect Barber's romantic approach to composition. As in

most successful artistic creations, this piece convincing­

ly balances the technical and formal concepts of classi­

cism with the expressive elements of romanticism.

The performer's main concern is to achieve an ex­

pressive pianistic style, employing the cantabile techni­

que required to play nineteenth^century nocturnes. The

lyrical cantabile line should be beautifully projected

above the quieter accompanying-figures. The middle section,

however, demands an articulate technique, necessary to

define close stretto entries, a technique required to

successfully perform any contrapuntal work. Rhythmic

flexibility is also part of the romantic style that this

piece demands, particularly in the ornamental return of the

the opening section. Complete independence of hands is

necessary to play such figures as in measure 31. where

the right hand has a group of fourteen equal notes against

an accompaniment pattern comprised of six equal notes.

Throughout the piece, subtle rhythmic nuances, not speci­

fically indicated in the score, should be expressed by

the performer. An understanding of phrase direction and

dynamic movement will help the performer make these subtle

rhythmic nuances convincing.

CHAPTER YI

PIANO CONCERTO

"Tremendous success. Ecstatic applause. A concerto that should find a universal welcome."

- The Christian Science Monitor

"The week's most distinguished premiere. A standing ovation in the most spontaneous acco­lade of the week."

- Time

On September 23, 1962, the Lincoln Center for the

Performing Arts opened in New York City. For the privi­

lege of attending this gala occasion, many people paid as

much as $250 a seat.

...'Everybody' was there, in white tie, from the enchanting First Lady of the United States [Jackie Kennedyl on down; Nelson Rockefeller, Govenor of New York State; Robert Wagner, Mayor of New York City; John D. Rockefeller, III, Chairman of the Lincoln Center Board, statesmen, politicians, diplomats, musical celebrities and the high society of New York and surrounding territory...!

The first concert, conducted by Leonard Bernstein, includ­

ed the "Gloria" from Beethoven's Missa Solemnis, the

first movement of Mahler's Eighth Symphony. Aaron

Everett Helm, "Lincoln Center Opening," Musical America, November I962, p. 18.

108

109

Copland's premiere of Connotations for Orchestra and

and Vaughan Williams' Serenade to Music.

On the second night of the week-long inaugural con­

certs, September 24, I962, the Pulitzer Prize winning

Piano Concerto by Samuel Barber was premiered. The con­

cert was performed by the first guest orchestra at Phil­

harmonic Hall: the Boston Symphony Orchestra conducted by

Erich Leinsdorf with John Browning as soloist.

The Concerto was highly acclaimed by critics and au­

diences alike . Harold Schoenberg, music critic for the New

York Times. made the following remarks after the world

premiere in New York:

It made a decided hit with the audience, and it may be that Mr. Barber has supplied a repertory piece... This is a real virtuoso concerto, with some staggeringly difficult writing. It also has a strong melodic profile , a lyric slow move­ment and a sense of confidence in the entire conception -- the confidence that comes only from an experienced composer engaged in a work that interests him.^

The Concerto became a popular work in the 1960s and

was performed about 150 times within a six-year period r

following its premiere.-^ Reviewing a performance on No­

vember 7 , 1963, by Joseph Krips and the New York Philhar-

harmonic, with John Browning once again as the soloist,

^ Ewen, Composers Since I9OO, p. 31-

^ David Ewen, Musicians Since I9OO (New York: H. W Wilson, 1978), p. 108.

110

Jay Harrison wrote in Musical America;

... In my view, it is the best piano concer­to ever written by an American, and its new­found fame -- it is only a year old -- is more than justified. To take things as they come to mind: it is first of all a real concerto that places the soloist on a pedestal and allows him to bake in the sunlight of his own virtuosity... But Barber has begun by turning his difficulties to a musical advantage, to make them serve the content of the work, not merely appear as so many excrescences stuck upon it. Every dazzling phrase, every wild-eyed scale, every contortion­ist figuration comes alive as part of the whole and is not an isolated show of pianistic fancy. Thus, not a measure of the number detracts from the concerto as an entity.

And then, also, it has tunes, which curl in and around the piece, embrace it, provide it with the added dimension of emotional richness. They are mostly romantic in flavor, which is nothing to be said against them, but whether they are pithy or languorous, they fit in per­fectly with the dash and splash that surrounds them. Barber's Piano Concerto, in sum, is a rare and treasurable work. Audiences everywhere should take pride in it.

As for Mr. Browning's performance, it was, to put it bluntly, sensational ...

During the I963 season, the Concerto was programmed

for over forty performances. Irving Kolodin, music critic

for the Saturday Review, expressed disappointment because

the Concerto didn't receive the New York Music Critics

Circle Award, but blamed the newspaper strike and lapse in

coverage of concerts in New York for making such an award

impracticable. In his praise of the work, Mr. Kolodin

Jay S. Harrison, "The New York Music Scene," Musi­cal America, December I963, pp. 178,243.

Ill

made the following remarks:

... It is no small accomplishment in these days of compositional fads and factions to strike an immediate and unmistakable balance between a securely aristocratic style and a strong emo­tional appeal ... Barber has evolved a tonal language that has artistic individuality as well as a meaningful vocabulary ... there are few other slow movements by Americans (when you have mentioned the Andante of the Gershwin Concerto in F, you have about exhausted the list) which succeed so eloquently in establishing a mood and making a whole experience of it ...CBrown-ing] plays it with confidence and affection ... This far it is his property to enjoy as well as extol, and he plainly does both with enthusiasm.5

The Cleveland Orchestra performed and recorded the

work in January, 1964, at Severance Hall, Cleveland with

John Browning as soloist, George Szell conductor. The

same musicians presented the Concerto in the spring tour

of 1965, performing in Russia, Scandanavian countries and

Western Europe.

The Concerto was one of several works commissioned

by G. Schirmer in celebration of the company's one hun­

dredth anniversary in I96I. Barber began work on the con­

certo in the spring of I962, completing the composition in

August of the same year. After hearing John Browning per­

form the Barber Piano Sonata, he was chosen by the compo­

ser to premiere the Concerto. Regarded as one of the

^ Irving Kolodin, "Music to My Ears: Barber Concer­to - Campara, di Stefano," Saturday Review. November 23, 1963. p. 33.

112

leading American pianists of today. Browning has been

uniquely identified with the Barber Concerto. which he has

publicly performed over 150 times. Browning has expressed

his opinion concerning the Concerto's challenge to the per­

former: "Each day, I find a new emphasis, a new meaning

in a phrase, a different solution for a knotty technical ..6 passage.

Rafael Kammerer reviewed the recording (Columbia ML

6038) in the American Record Guide. The following excerpt

from this article reflects the success that the composer

and performer have achieved with this composition:

... Aside from its being a brilliant virtuoso vehicle for the soloist, Samuel Barber's Concer­to is probably the finest work of its kind to have been written by an American composer since Mac Dowell. It has enough popular appeal, too, to rival the Tchaicovsky and Rachmaninoff Concer-ti. . .

John Browning's performance of the Barber Concerto is superbly virtuosic in the corner movements and he plays the central Canzona. which is the crowning glory of the work, with a true understanding of the cantabile style and with a depth of feeling and a beauty of tone that future performers will be hard put to match...7

^ Ewen, Musicians Since 1900. p. 108.

^ Rafael Kammerer, "Americans All," The American Record Guide. XXXI (I965). 392.

113

First Movement: Allegro appassionata

The first movement is cast in a traditional sonata-

form design. Unlike many concertos, however, there is no

orchestral exposition. Instead, the piano opens the work

with what appears to be an introduction. Because this

opening passage contains three important motives which are

used throughout the work, the "introduction" really func­

tions as the basis of the entire movement. Not only are

all three motives related, but typical of Barber's econom­

ic use of material, both the first and second themes are

also derived from the opening motives.

Exploding in a dramatic recitative, the first motive

(a) is presented in fortissimo octaves. Characteristic

of Barber, this opening phrase is broadly lyrical.

Example 1: first motive (a)

Beginning very softly, the second motive (b) greatly

contrasts with the first motive in its jagged, nervous

rhythm and emphasis on the tritones.

114

ixamiple 2: second m o t i v e (b)

Tesc.

I

^ j^ iitq 9 ; J ^ - ^ j ^ j ^

The third motive (c.) combines elements of the first

two motives: the first three notes bear a strong resem­

blance to a, while the tritones from b are also present,

r xample 3'- third motive (c.)

ff poco sostenuto

Returning to b, sforzando dissonant chords are added

as punctuation. A free cadenza, an arpeggio derived from

b, leads to a return of a above a dominant pedal. The

orchestra finally enters, providing the punctuating

chords, as the piano repeats b. A bravura arpeggio, with

sixteenth-note octaves in the piano, prepares for the main

theme in the orchestra, cadencing on an E minor chord.

Beginning in measure 20, the orchestra states the

115

main theme, in E minor, accompanied by a pattern derived

from the theme. John Robert Hanson compares motive a with

the main theme (l):

... one discovers that the notes representing the high points of the successive upward figures of 'a' (e., dt_, ci_, c_5, and b) are reflected in the low points of the successive downward fig­ures of '1' (d>, di, cl, cl, and b).8

Example 4: first theme

The piano finally states the first theme in a more

intimate, expressive character, transposed up a third to

GT minor. The orchestra takes over with the second phrase,

while the piano accompanies with chromatic doubled sixths.

Returning in the piano, the first theme is now in Cv

minor, and the orchestra joins the soloist in a develop­

mental treatment of the head motive of the first theme.

All three motives from the introduction are used in

the transition. As the piano drops out, the orchestra

John Robert Hanson, "Macroform in Selected Twen­tieth-Century Piano Concertos," Diss. University of Rochester I969, p. 18.

116

presents a in a very soft, expressive character. The mo­

tive becomes fragmented in one-measure stretto entries at

different pitch levels. Increasing in intensity, a dotted

figure, derived from motive b, appears in measure 70.

Climaxing with a subito, fortissimo presentation of mo­

tive c, the transition dissipates, preparing for the

second theme.

Like the first theme, the second theme is presented

in the orchestra. Also like the first theme, it is re­

lated to motive a by the ascending sixth and triplet fig­

ure.

Example 5' second theme

« espr: con moto

SB £\'

^

^ 2 Z

-&r

Beginning in G? minor, the oboe first states the

second theme, which is repeated in the strings. In the

exposition, the second theme belongs solely to the orches­

tra as the piano remains silent.

A transition to the development begins in measure

95. Once again, motives a, b, and £ are used for transi­

tion material.

Following a brief pause (measure 101) , the develop-

117

ment begins, based entirely on the opening three motives.

The orchestra states motive b as the piano answers with

fortissimo punctuating chords. Similar to measure 19, the

piano begins an octave arpeggio that leads to a florid

cadenza-like passage.

The piano finally has control as it presents a canon

using motive c.. The orchestra is quite subdued, merely

providing a chordal background for the soloist.

The following section returns to motive b, as imita­

tive entries are heard in both the piano and orchestra.

Figuration in the piano, a thirty-second-note pattern de­

rived from b, and a tremolo in the orchestra provide a

background for a return of motive a in the orchestra. The

orchestra repeats this motive twice, followed by a series

of stretto entries on motive a. The piano then interrupts

with motive b, as it was used in the first transition

(measure 70).

Imitative entries of motive c., in both the piano and

and orchestra, begin in measure l45. Inverted statements

of a in the orchestra bring this section to a quiet close.

Beginning very softly, the final section of the de­

velopment opens with a canon between the orchestra and

piano. Motive b is first heard in the piano, answered an

eighth-note later in the orchestra. Building in intensity,

the piano presents a thirty-second-note octave ostinato

derived from b, which is combined with fortissimo state-

118

ments of a in the orchestra (measure 179). A climax in

measure 186 ends the development as the cadenza begins.

Departing from the traditional classical concerto

form. Barber places the cadenza before, rather than after,

the recapitulation. A bravura passage of contrary motion

sixteenth-note chords ushers in the cadenza. Following a

pattern of converging chromatic chords, the head motive of

theme one is treated developmentally. It is first used

as a canon between the hands, the bass voice beginning a

sixteenth before the upper voice. Rapid register changes

and crossed voices closethis section of the cadenza.

The third section of the cadenza (measure I90) fur­

ther develops the head motive of the first theme, begin­

ning quietly and accompanied by a chromatically ascending

chordal pattern. A contrapuntal voice is added to the

chordal pattern, once again treating the head motive

canonically. In measure 19-5. the sixteenth-note presen­

tation of the head motive reappears as in measure 54 of

the exposition. Intensity increases as the sixteenth notes

are broadened into eighth-note octaves and finally into

quarter-note allargando chords. A rapid ascending scale,

a chromatic ten-note pattern beginning on C but omitting

the notes E and A, concludes the cadenza and cadences on

a tonic E minor chord in the upper register.

The orchestra begins the recapitulation with the first

theme in E minor. Similar to the exposition, the piano

119

states the repetition of the theme. Whereas this phrase

modulated from E minor to G'T minor in the exposition, in

the recapitulation, the modulation is from E minor to B 1

minor. The third repetition of the theme is shared by the

piano and orchestra and is now in the key of Eb minor.

The transition is much shorter, and the a motive is

now inverted. Motives h and c. are omitted and the char­

acter remains tranquil throughout the transition.

The piano finally is allowed to present the second L

theme (measure 24?), but the key center is now B' minor,

instead of the Gn center of the exposition. The orches­

tra is completely subordinate, merely providing soft, long-

held chords as a background to the piano's expressive pre­

sentation of the second theme. Finally returning to E

minor, the theme is given back to the orchestra, while the

piano provides a figurational accompaniment.

Similar to measure 95. the piano takes over with a

diminution of motive a in measure 263. A dotted figure

in the piano leads to an E minor cadence in measure 267.

As the piano sustains the E minor harmony, a transi­

tion to the coda begins with a C major entry of the sec­

ond theme in the horns. This theme is shared by the piano,

as it answers the orchestra.

The coda proper begins quietly with motive a in the

orchestra, accompanied by a high trill on E in the piano.

After three measures, the piano states an ascending

120

passage based on a sequential pattern emphasizing the tri­

tone. The orchestra accompanies with a tremolo, also

using the tritone (derived from motives b and c.) .

A tremendous crescendo leads to the return of E minor

and the first theme (measure 277), heard in diminution in

both the piano and orchestra.

Motive £, is used for the final drive to the cadence.

Beginning loudly in both the piano and orchestra, after

one measure, the piano takes over. The motive is doubled

in octaves, building intensity as it sweeps to the top of

the keyboard, cadencing on an 2 minor chord. The orches­

tra rejoins the piano, as it states the motive two more

times before the final crashing E minor chord.

As in the Piano Sonata. Barber uses the outlines of

sonata-form for the first movement of the Piano Concerto.

In the Concerto , however, Barber is even more economic in

his use of materials and more imaginative in his treat­

ment of the form.

The opening three motives, presented as an introduc­

tion, actually provide the motives for the entire move­

ment. They are used exclusively in the transitions be­

tween the first and second themes and in the development.

Not only are the motives closely related with each other,

but they are also closely related to the first and second

themes as well.

As Hanson observes, the key pattern in the ex-

121

position and recapitulation also merits attention:

In each case, the second statement of the main theme (measures 35 and 217) is in the key which the subordinate theme later enters, so there is key contrast within the main theme section as well as both unity and contrast between the two thematic sections.9

The opening movement is a synthesis of classical for­

mal control, romantic lyricism and expression, as well as

contemporary rhythmic and harmonic elements.

Like the Sonata, the Concerto demands a virtuosic

technique. Perhaps the most difficult problem for the per­

former is rhythmic stability and control. The primary

rhythmic problem is maintaining the meter through a steady

pulse and well-defined downbeat. In the introduction, the

second motive should be carefully pulsed, so that the first

sixteenth note is felt as a pick-up, not a downbeat. With

each recurrence of this motive, the pulse should be clear­

ly established, i.e., measures 114 through 128; and mea­

sures l60 through 174.

A related problem is the control of syncopations, as

in measure 56. The left hand should be extremely steady,

so that the syncopated right-hand figure can remain stable.

Many difficult technical passages in the movement can

be solved by carefully planned fingering: double sixths

^ Hanson, "Macroform," p. 17-

122

(measures 39 through 43; 221 through 225); rapid figura­

tion (measures 46 through 53; measures 228 through 234);

fast scalar passages (end of cadenza; measure 275);

double thirds (measure 193)•

In addition, rapid octave passages frequently appear:

measures 19, 105, 179, 197 and 281. A loose wrist will

help the performer control these passages, preventing the

arms and fingers from becoming too tense. A loose wrist

will also help the performer control rapidly repeated

chords (measure 177) and juxtaposed extreme registers

(measure 187)•

As in all of Barber's piano music, a well-developed

legato technique is needed to project the espressivo. can­

tabile melodies. While the first theme is legato in both

the exposition and recapitulation, the second theme should

be especially cantabile and expressive, as the piano has

to wait to present it until the recapitulation. In addi­

tion to legato control, the performer should exhibit ex­

pressive rhythmic flexibility, an obvious romantic quality,

in the lyrical passages.

Second Movement: "Canzone," Moderate

The lyrical second movement is monothematic, divided

into three sections. The resulting form is a three-part

123

, in Ctf mi nor, IS

strophic design: AA'A'' coda. 3

In a relaxed ^ meter, the main theme

first heard as a flute melody. Although the theme gradu­

ally unfolds during the next eight measures, the one-

measure motive that begins the theme is the basis for the

entire melody. (This motive will be referred to as I.)

Example 1: first theme (I)

Typical of Barber's classical economy, the accompani­

ment pattern for the theme is actually derived from the

melody.

Example 2: accompaniment p a t t e r n

Jp legato

Following the orchestral statement of the theme, the

piano states the opening two measures. In the third

measure, however, the piano introduces two new motives

heard simultaneously. Motive a, in the left hand, is re­

lated to motive a of the first movement.

'Xaraple 3: a ( s e c o n d movement)

Sxarr.ple 4; a ( f i r s t movement)

12^

^ 3

^ P^^g

ff -'

S i m i l a r l y , the r-econd m o t i v e , b , i s d e r i v e d from t h e

b m.otive of ^he firs '", movement.

Example 5'- t ( second movement)

fe' JG-*

t» • -

5;ri ^ M %\ f^\

* J

Example 6: b (first movement)

I >"D -Ls-H—1—7 n

125

The section closes with an authentic cadence, modulating

up a step to Dr minor.

The second section. A', again begins in the orchestra,

but the piano answers in the second measure of the phrase.

Moving .ac. .o cl^.inor. motives . and , reappear as In

the first section, as the motive in the piano is accom­

panied by b in the orchestra. This phrase, measures 18

through 21, is parallel to measures 12 through 15 in the

opening section.

A developmental style characterizes the following

phrase. A canon begins in the orchestra (measure 22),

answered two beats later in the piano. The canonic theme

is borrowed from measures 6 and 7* The piano finishes the

phrase with material from measures 8 and 9.

A transition begins in the orchestra in measure 26.

Treated imitatively, the motive used is derived from b,

as in measure 13-

A final repetition of A reverses the original pre­

sentation, as the theme is first heard in the piano. In

three-voiced texture, the theme is heard in the middle

register. Accompanied by rapid figuration above and ar­

peggios below, the theme, divided between the hands, is

expressively projected in this embellished variation.

The first eight measures of the section parallel the open­

ing eight measures of the movement as stated in the orches­

tra. The piano continues to provide a figurational accom-

126

paniment as the orchestra restates the theme in the sec­

ond phrase (measures 37 through 42, corresponding to mea­

sures 10 through 15). A two-measure extension of the

opening motive leads to the codetta.

Beginning in the orchestra, the codetta opens with

imitative entries of motive b. This material is similar

to the transition at the end of the second section (mea­

sures 26 and 27). The piano concludes the movement with

a final statement of the opening motive in the last mea­

sure .

The Canzone is representative of Barber's expressive

lyricism. The flowing melody, slow tempo, and emphasis

on repetition rather than development create the sense of

relaxation, a welcome relief from the intensity of the

opening movement.

Although the relaxed character is maintained, the

music is tightly organized. While only one theme is used,

it evolves from the opening measure. The entire movement

is related to this opening motive, even the accompaniment

patterns.

An obvious relationship between the opening and clos­

ing sections is apparent: the orchestra and piano merely

exchange material. A more subtle relationship is found

in the middle section. This section, functioning as a

quasi-development through the use of imitation and shift­

ing tonal centers, begins with the second phrase of the

127

opening section (measures l6 through 21 corresponding to

measures 10 through 15)• The middle section then uses

material from the first phrase of the opening (measures 22

through 25 corresponding to measures 6 through 9). As a

final means of unity, the codetta is parallel to the tran­

sition between the middle and last sections, ending with

the same motive that opened the movement. Once again we

see Barber's classical economy combined with romantic

expression.

Nathan Broder's description of this movement is most

appropriate:

This movement, which seldom rises to a forte and never above, is suffused with a quality that can only be described with a word rarely encoun­tered in discussions of new music nowadays. The word is enchantment. Is this romanticism? Very well then, it is romanticism. But it is not Romanticism. The distinction is, I believe, useful rather than pedantic. It is helpful to maintain the difference between a term that is applicable to intense feeling as expressed in unlike ways in various periods of music history and a term that denotes the thought-habits and technical devices characteristic of one partic­ular era. In Barber's Canzona no reminiscences of 19th-century music obtrude to break the spell. Instead, we have a lyric poem as fresh as it is lovely. It is the most consistently tonal of the three movements, departing only once from C-sharp minor.^^

The Canzone, perhaps one of Barber's most lyrical

movements, presents the fewest technical problems. A

^^ Nathan Broder, "Current Chronicle," The Musical Quarterly. XLIX (1963). 97-

128

legato, cantabile touch is the primary requirement. While

the melody is most often in the soprano, it appears in the

middle voice for the final strophe. As the theme is shared

by both hands, the performer should carefully project the

meoldy, creating the effect of a single voice. The orna­

mental accompaniment should decorate the melody and never

interrupt.

Beginning in measure 37. complex rhythmic patterns

are presented: nine notes against six notes; twelve

notes against eight. The problem is simplified, however,

if the performer subdivides the patterns into three

against two.

Subtle rhythmic and dynamic nuances will greatly

enhance the performance of the Canzone. Because the form

is strophic, each section should display maximum tonal

control and variety to avoid a static quality.

Third Movement: Allegro molto

5 A perpetually driving rondo, in g meter, serves as a

blajzing, virtuosic finale to the Concerto. A five-note

ostinato and the emphasis on intervals of a second are

characteristic throughout much of the movement. Based on

a B* minor tonality, the overall form is ABACA coda.

Opening with fortissimo, secundal chords in the

129

orchestra, the g meter is established as a 2+3 grouping.

Example 1: orchestral introduction

Finally resolving to Bb, the piano enters with an

ostinato, in measure 6 (Example 2), as the orchestra

merely repeats a tonic pedal for the next forty measures.

Example 2: piano ostinato

J deal so, nan legato

^ ^

^ ^ ^

^s=^

Above the ostinato, the piano states the first theme,

A (Example 3). The theme, as well as the ostinato and

tonic pedal in the orchestra, firmly establishes the fib

center and exploits the interval of a second.

130

Example 3'- first theme (A)

In measure 15, the theme forcefully drives to the top of

the keyboard with an ascending pattern of major seconds.

The phrase closes with a broadened pattern of three dis­

sonant, descending chords.

Beginning in measure 23. the piano states the theme

as at measure 8, modified by the use of octave displace­

ment. The ascending seconds from measure 15 reappear in

measure 34. The opening orchestral chords appear in the

piano and once again lead to the ostinato figure.

The orchestra now states the opening theme (measure

42), accompanied first by the ostinato and later by ar­

peggios in the piano. The roles are reversed again, how­

ever, as the piano recaptures the theme in the repeated

presentation, ending with the opening chords at measure

71. After an orchestral repetition of the opening chords,

the piano states a brief two-measure transition: a de­

scending pattern of major seconds.

The B section, slower and calmer, is introduced by a

five-note chromatic ostinato in the xylophone.

131

Example 4: xylophone ostinato

almando

Beginning in Et minor, the second theme is stated in

the clarinet. As in the second movement, the accompanying

pattern is derived from the theme itself.

Example 5'- B theme

Dropping to a B minor center, the piano states the

second theme. The texture is extremely thin: a single

line in the orchestra, and unisons in the piano, spaced

three octaves apart.

Accompanied by figuration in the piano, the ostinato

and descending major sevenths in the violins, the theme is

now stated by the trombones. The tonal center has shifted

to E. As the piano continues the figuration, the theme is

given to the strings. A brief transition (measure 108)

prepares for the return of A.

This section is a dramatic contrast to the opening.

While the entire A section did not change from the tonal

132

center of sb minor, the B section exhibits a fluctuation

in tonality. The orchestration provides variety as the

melody is heard in contrasting timbres. The theme itself,

a more lyrical, flowing line, greatly contrasts the jagged

contour of the opening.

The return of A in the tonic key begins in measure

112. The melody appears in the orchestra, accompanied by

an embellished ostinato in the piano. The piano joins

the orchestra ten bars later, in a canonic entry starting

three beats later. Enormous intensity is created by the

rhythmic complexity of the canon as well as the loud

dynamic level and dense texture» A climax, achieved in

measure l40, is extended in the orchestra. Reappearing in

measure 154, the piano begins a transition, returning to

the opening chords. A descending passage of fourths and

tritones disintegrates into a very low ranged unison os­

tinato in the piano, preparing for the C section.

The orchestra introduces the C section, just as it

introduced the B section. In tertian structures in D

major, the woodwinds first state the new theme.

Example 6: G theme

133

Characterized by a graceful, dance-like quality, this sec­

tion again is a release from and contrast with the opening.

The smooth contour of the melody, a descending first phrase

balanced by an ascending second phrase, provides a clas­

sical sense of balance.

Following the orchestral presentation, the piano

states the theme in the upper register, embellished by

triplet sixteenth-note figuration. The orchestra returns

with a boisterous presentation of the theme (measure 201)

in the new key of FT minor. The piano merely punctuates

with a rapid, five-note octave pattern at the end of each

measure.

Finally asserting itself with crashing, dissonant

harmonies, the piano takes over in measure 2l4. After a

diminuendo, the piano begins the final statement of C.

Marked by extreme registers, the theme appears in the top

voice of pianissimo chords, at the top of the keyboard,

accompanied by an ostinato in the lower register. The

orchestra joins the piano four bars later, but the section

ends with the soloist repeating the F*f ostinato in the low

range of the keyboard.

An extended transition, developmental in style, begins

in measure 229. Opening in a soft, but menacing character,

the orchestra presents the opening chordal motive above a

cb pedal. The piano embellishes the motive with rising

and falling major seconds. The first theme appears to

134

prepare for the return of the initial tempo and character.

A second section of the transition (measure 248)

functions as a false return. Over .a D pedal, the orches­

tra presents the first theme in successively higher regis­

ters. A foreboding quality is achieved through the con­

sistent use of a pianissimo dynamic level. The piano sud­

denly enters with violent, fortissimo polychords, very

much like the opening of the first movement cadenza,

ushering in the final return of A.

The entire last section is marked by a relentless

drive to the final cadence. After a two-measure ostinato,

the piano states the first theme, accompanied by a tonic

fib pedal in the orchestra. In measure 295. the orchestra

presents fragments of A while the piano accompanies with

loud, rising glissandos.

The orchestra, in a pressing frenzy, states the

opening chordal motive, combined with the melodic outline

of the second theme. The piano repeats the same material

ei^t bars later over long-held pedals in the orchestra.

The chordal theme returns in the piano and is echoed in

the orchestra.

The opening theme returns in the orchestra (measure

329) while the piano accompanies with a sixteenth-note

secundal pattern. The broadened closing chords, empha­

sizing the interval of a second, lead'to the end of the

work: a final repetition of the opening ostinato.

135

The last movement, a brilliant and exciting finale,

provides an extreme degree of contrasting elements. The

main theme, characterized by a sweeping gesture and empha­

sis on clashing seconds, contributes to the driving quality

of the movement. In contrast, the second theme is narrow-

ranged and much more lyrical. As previously mentioned, the

orchestral timbres also supply a great deal of variety.

The third theme, having a Mediterranean flavor, provides

contrast by its smooth contour as well as its tertian har­

monies .

The entire Concerto remains traditional in the sense

of formal design and tonal centers. In addition, Barber's

classical economy provides a cohesive unity within each

movement. The effective use of contrapuntal writing and

motivic transformations also contribute to the greatness

of this work. These rather "classical" principles are

combined with "romantic" qualities of wide-ranged inten­

sity, broad lyricism and bravura piano technique to create

a very significant contribution to the contemporary con­

certo repertoire.

As in the first movement, rhythmic control is the

primary concern for the performer. Because the tempo is

extremely fast, the g meter should be felt as one main

pulse per measure. Although, the meter is consistently

I, the subdivisions within the measure do change. Most o often the grouping is 2+3. but the lyrical B sections

136

reverse the grouping to 3+2.

Particular care needs to be given to the ostinato of

the A section. While a 2+3 grouping is indicated, the

tonic accents occur on beats 1 and 4, implying a 3+2

division. To avoid confusion, the pianist should pulse

the third note and should refrain from using a heavy

thumb on the fourth note.

If the pianist feels the meter in 1,- complicated

subdivisions will be easier to play, i.e.. measure 59

(seven notes in the measure) and measures 22, 64, and 69

throu^ 70 (three equal notes in a measure).

Cross rhythms are frequent in the movement. Measures

75 through 76, 121 through 122, 129 through 131. and 138

through 139 will be easier to control if they are felt in

a ^ meter. Measures 232 through 235 and 238 through 240

should be felt in j meter.

A further rhythmic complication occurs in measures

123 through 129. The piano and orchestra present canonic

entries. While the orchestra preserves the original 2+3

grouping, the piano (entering three beats late) presents

a 3+2 grouping. A similar cross rhythm occurs at measure

l62: the orchestra is in g, but the piano is actually

. 4 m g.

In addition to rhythmic problems, many technical

problems are posed. Rather atypical of Barber's music,

there are few cantabile passages, the B section being the

137

exception. Instead, a percussive touch is more often

needed. Because there are no fingerings provided in the

score, the pianist should take special care in selecting

successful fingering solutions.

The emphasis on harmonic seconds presents a problem,

especially in passages of rapid figuration, requiring a

particularly agile thumb. (Because examples of harmonic

seconds appear throughout the movement, the discussion of

this particular technical problem will consider these

examples as a whole.) Beginning in measure 15. a pattern

of ascending harmonic seconds is presented. Analyzing the L

passage as an ascending B'' diminished seventh arpeggio,

doubled in seconds, will make the pattern easier to play.

A possible fingering would begin with fingers one and two

on the B'^-C interval, followed by three and four on the

2^-Z^ interval. The pianist could continue to alternate

this fingering throughout the entire passage. (The same

fingering can be repeated in measures 34, 283 and 292.)

At measure 58. "the harmonic seconds appear in the lower

staff, but will be easier to execute if the right hand is

used instead. The pattern returns again in measure 329,

but here, both hands are involved, as the right hand fol­

lows the left a sixteenth-note later.

A similar passage occurs in measure 232, the left

hand playing the first two seconds and the right, playing

the last two. A possible fingering would be to play AH-

138

BII with the left-hand thumb and the C-DH with the right-

hand thumb.

Measure l62 presents aparticularly difficult passage.

By conceiving the pattern as a series of four descending

thirds, the following fingering is possible: 3 " ^ " i " 5 4

2 - 5 ^ - 3 - 2 " ^ ' ®^c.

Perhaps the most difficult passage occurs in measure

187. Special attention should be given to the double-

stemmed notes in the soprano, taking care to project the

melody above the figuration.

Another technical demand involves playing rapid,

pesante octaves. Contrary to the notation, the pattern

at measure 201 will be easier to control if the left hand

plays the first, third amd fifth octaves, while the right

hand plays the second and fourth octaves.

An additional technical problem is presented in mea­

sure 295: a series of rapid, fortissimo glissandos. More

control and support can be attained if the wrist remains

parallel with the keyboard (not rotated). Using fingers

2 and 3, firmly braced, the wrist should be slightly

angled so that the fingers point to the top of the key­

board. By keeping the wrist and fingers in a well-support­

ed position, the glissandos can be played evenly in a

loud dynamic range.

CHAPTER VII

BALLADE

In 1976, the Van Cliburn Foundation, Inc. Board of

Directors commissioned Barber to compose a piece for the

fifth Van Cliburn InternationalQuadriennial Piano Compe­

tition. The commission was made possible by a gift from

Mrs. J. Lee Johnson, III, in honor of her mother, Mrs.

Nenetta Burton Carter. Part of the required repertoire

for the competition which was held in Fort Worth, Texas

in September, 1977, the Ballade was performed by each of

the twelve semi-finalists as part of a one-hour recital

requirement. By commissioning a work from Samuel Barber,

the Van Cliburn Foundation has maintained its tradition

of commissioning works by American composers as part of

the required repertoire. Commissions for the previous

four competitions have included the following works by

living American composers: I962, Lee Hoiby's Capriccio on

Five Notes; I966, Willard Straight's Structure for Piano;

1969, Norman Dello Joio's Capriccio on the Interval of a 2

Second; and 1973, Aaron Copland's Night Thoughts.

^ "Samuel Barber Work Commissioned," Music Clubs Magazine, March 1976, p. 15-

^ Ibid.

139

140

Like the Nocturne. the Ballade is modeled after a

nineteenth-century character piece. Although perhaps in­

spired by epic and tragic poetry, the piano ballades are

not associated with specific literary models. Most often,

ballades are simple ternary designs although Chopin's

ballades were conceived as larger and more elaborate than

the simple structure commonly used for a character piece.

With Brahms, however, the ballade is no longer the large-

scale, virtuoso piece. In fact. Barber's influence appears

to be more from Brahms than Chopin.

An important element of the ballade is the use of the 3

same theme in varied form throughout. A frequent device

in nineteenth-century music, thematic variation replaces

the use of developmental procedures. In contrast to the

Sonata, the Concerto and the Nocturne (with its develop­

mental middle section), Barber avoids developmental pro­

cedures in the Ballade. making this piece perhaps the most

Romantic of all the piano works.

The Ballade is ternary in design (ABA). In addition,

the opening and closing A sections, which are identical,

can also be subdivided into ternary forms, (aba). Basic­

ally homophonic, with the melody in the soprano, the over­

all character is one of restless melancholy, conveyed by

the emphasis on minor harmonies and descending half-steps.

^ Kirby, Keyboard Music, p. 280.

l4l

The entire composition is based on two motives con­

tained in the opening eight measures:

Example la: motive 1

^ l ^ / fi M ' mp

^: 1 b—:H-. y yW' ^

1 r • —^

«» '0

. >—J,u '

V

Zxam.iDle lb: motive 2

The opening a section consists of three phrases, building

to a climax in measures 10 and 11. Preparing for the cli-

T.az in measures 8 and 9, the texture becomes more dense,

with low bass octaves supporting five-part chords in the

ri^ht hand. As the climax is achieved, the rhythm is

much broader, with the descending motive now appearing in

half-notes, rather than quarter and eighth-notes. Opening

m n minor, the section modulates to F in measure 11.

142

Although tertian structures are used consistently, the

unusual harmonic progressions provide interest by oscil­

lating between freely borrowed major and minor chords.

The use of traditional chords gives the piece somewhat of

am amtique character, while the novel harmonic progressions

provide a more contemporairy quality.

Following a cadenza-like passage after the climax in

measure 11, the b-section begins in measure 12. The tonal

center is now F major and the character is more aggres­

sive, supported by fortissimo, marcato chords. The melo­

dic material for b is derived from motive 2.

Example 2: opening of b

^ # = ^ f f l'^ aSII

The b section is carefully balanced, with the forceful

opening amd closing phrases (measures 12 through 15 and

measures 19 through 22) framing a tranquil phrase, which

Barber marks "distant." These dramatic and abrupt dynamic

contrasts (from fortissimo to pianissimo and back to for­

tissimo) reinforce the expressive, romantic quality which

we have observed as characteristic of Barber's style.

The A section closes with a return to the opening

143

phrase at the end of measure 22. After a literal repeti­

tion of the first two measures, a rhythmic variation occurs,

as the block chords are changed to an arpeggiated sixteenth-

note pattern.

A new phrase in measure 27 begins the closing section.

The character is changed by an allargando marking and rhy­

thmic augmentation in measures 27 and 28. The final

phrase of the section (measures 30 through 33) ends with a

polytonal cadence: a low At] pedal point is sustained for

three measures (held in the sostenuto pedal) while a D b

major chord is reiterated in a high register. The final

cadence ends on the Neapolitan chord of the opening C

minor tonality.

The B section, beginning in measure 33. is a dramatic

contrast to the opening section: 1) the register is ex­

tremely low, with the octave melody in the left hand, 2)

the texture is more contrapuntal and 3) the character is

more aggressive and energetic.

.The melody is a transformation of motive 2.

Example 3' transformation of motive 2

/ /

l44

Centered on A, the ascending and descending half steps

(A5^) suggest the Phrygian mode. The opening three bar

phrase is then sequenced on C^^ , with the melody moving to

the right hand.

A one-bar transition, leads to the second section of

B. Although the key signature is now four flats, the E'

bass pedal, sustained for eight measures, and the fre­

quent use of AH im.p ies a Mixolydian mode. Contrapuntal

voices are now heard (measure ^0), as the soprano voice

sings a lyrical transformation of motive 2, accompanied by .

a countermelody in the tenor, derived from the four-note

descending motive of fig -xre 1. The bass sustains the ped­

al tone, Eb, while the alto voice provides rhythmic and

r.armiOni C^ v-»

xamiDle 4: t ransform.a t ion of motive 2

Ringing

This phrase is repeated in measure 44, increasing in

intensity as the soprano is heard an octave higher and

the tenor is expanded into octaves. An augmented presen­

tation of the motive is used in measure 48, beginning

145

quietly and building to a fortissimo climax in measures

50 through 52. After a complete moment of silence, a

three-bar transition prepares for the return of A. The

transition is another transformation of motive 2, the char­

acter now being calm and serene. (Compare example lb.

Example 2, Example 3. Example 4.)

Example 5- transition

allarg, e morendo ^^

^m ^

^t^ w^$ J - J i l ^ b77»

o

The return of A is a literal restatement of the open­

ing section.

The most significant feature of this piece is the ex­

tremely limited amount of melodic material: 1) a four-

note ascending or descending motive and 2) the rising and

falling semi-tone. The character transformations of

these figures create an expressive, romantic sense of

drama. The performer should clearly define the differ­

ences in the transformations if the performance is to be

interesting and convincing. The lyrical statements should

be played in a cantabile style with a broad, singing tone,

while the aggressive figures of section B should be sharply

rhythmic and well articulated by a more percussive touch.

146

The success of a piece that is built upon such limited

thematic material demands an extreme range and variety of

touch, dynamic and rhythmic control.

CHAPTER VIII

CONCLUDING STATEMENT

Those concerned with the developments of twentieth-

century compositional techniques may give the piano music

of Samuel Barber a mere cursory glance. Those who examine

these works more closely, however, will be justifiably

rewarded.

In a traditional formal and tonal framework. Barber's

music has more in common with the nineteenth rather than

the twentieth century. The striking aspect of Barber's

music, however, is that it expresses the thoughts and ideas

of a previous century through a contemporary vocabulary.

The 1930s witnessed a turbulent period of musical

activity in the United States. Anxious to express their

new-found freedom from European domination, American com­

posers such as Aaron Copland, Roy Harris, and William

Schuman were developing new and individual styles. In

contrast. Barber's emphasis on lyricism remained a rather

uncommon quality for music of this period.

Nathan Broder writes:

The ferment of such a time produced important and exciting works, but was not conducive to calm contemplation of beauty for its own sake.

147

148

Barber, primarily a lyric poet, remained aloof from the swirling currents in which many of his colleagues were immersed. His visions were not of the sort that required the forging of an in­dividual idiom; they could best be expressed in an existing and well-known tongue.^

Lyricism emerges as a definitive stylistic element

throughout Barber's works. His melodic emphasis stems

from a deeply felt emotional point of departure, creating

an accessible idiom characterized by a romantic sensitiv­

ity. Much of Barber's success is a result of his poetic

lyricism. Robert Sabin has described the effect of this

quality:

His ^Barber's] music does not stun us, or ter­rify us, or tear us to pieces; but it refreshes our spirits and stimulates our perceptions and imaginations. Its victories are quieter, but not, for that reason, less lasting.^

The third movement of the Piano Sonata, with its aria­

like melody, and the Canzone from the Piano Concerto ex­

emplify Barber's elegant and refined melodic style.

Other examples include the second theme from the first

movement of the Piano Sonata, the Nocturne and the first

two themes from the opening movement of the Piano Concerto.

In addition to lyricism. Barber's music consistently

•'• Broder, Samuel Barber, p. 58.

^ Robert Sabin, "Samuel Barber," International Cyclopedia of Music and Musicians. 10th ed. U975)•

149

adheres to traditional forms. The Sonata and Concerto re­

main faithful to their eighteenth- and nineteenth-century

prototypes of sonata form. Even when a germ motive is

used to provide structural unity, as in the first move­

ment of the Sonata, traditional formal procedures are main­

tained. The opening movement of the Concerto, based on the

three motives of the introduction, is also adapted to tra­

ditional sonata form principles.

Although Barber effectively imposes the discipline

of sonata form in the first movements of the Sonata and

the Concerto. his neo-Romantic tendencies are more obvious

in ternary, strophic and rondo forms. Melodic transfor­

mation and variation, a definite romantic influence, re­

place strict developmental procedures in the more repeti­

tive structures.

In addition to sonata form, Barber employs ternary

structures (Piano Sonata, third movement; . Excursions,

fourth movement; Ballade; Nocturne), scherzo (Piano

Sonata, second movement), fugue (Piano Sonata, fourth move­

ment) , strophic forms (Piano Concerto, second movement;

Excursions, first and second movements), rondo (Piano

Concerto, third movement) and variation form (Excursions,

third movement).

Related to the constant use of traditional forms is

the tonal element of Barber's music. Although often dis­

guised by shifting levels and extensive chromaticism, a

150

tonal center is always present. Even his experiments with

serialism, as in the Sonata or the Nocturne. preserve to­

nality as the principal organizing element.

Barber's earliest piano composition. Excursions, is

largely diatonic. The Sonata, however, written five years

later, exhibits a departure from diatonicism. In addition

to the serial techniques found in the third movement, hints

of twelve-tone writing occur in the first and last move­

ment as well. Although these movements avoid serial pro­

cedures, several motives appear in which all twelve chro­

matic tones are used. These melodic gestures, however,

are based on well-defined tonal centers and are chromatic

motives, rather than twelve-tone rows.

In addition to major, minor and chromatic scales.

Barber occasionally draws upon Phrygian modes (Fuga and

Nocturne). Implications of bitonality are also found as

well as the combination of serialism and tonality (Noc­

turne and Sonata, third movement).

Consistent with Barber's conservatism, tertian struc­

tures (mostly triads and seventh chords) prevail, but

quartal harmonies and tritones are effectively used to

provide variety. In addition, harmonic seconds occur fre­

quently, especially in the Concerto, coloring the texture

with a more dissonant quality.

Scalero's emphasis on counterpoint is evident through­

out the piano music. Barber's mastery of contrapuntal

151

devices is seen not only in his effective use of strettos,

canons and imitative writing, but especially in the Fuga

of the Sonata. Employing all the devices of learned

counterpoint (inversion, augmentation, diminution, etc.).

Barber creates one of the finest examples of twentieth-

century polyphony.

Another important element of Barber's style is his

economy of means. As seen throughout the piano works, a

lir.ited number of motives is used to generate an entire

composition. By exploring the implied potential of these

limited motives. Barber creates tightly cohesive struc­

tures that express variety and contrast through their

unity.

Beginning with Excursions, motivic unity is observed

as the important structural element. The first two move­

ments are unified by their repetitive harmonic progres­

sions as well as by the use of limited melodic motives.

Variation of a single theme is the obvious principle of

structural unity in the third movement. The fourth move­

ment is unified by the consistent use and juxtaposition of

only two motives throughout.

Economy of means is a fundamental structural element

of each movement of the Sonata. A germ provides unity

in the first movement. While two contrasting themes are

presented, both are derived from the germ. The scherzo

presents two motives in the opening section from which the

152

entire movement is generated. The twelve-tone row of the

Adagio permeates the entire third movement, dramatically

transformed in the middle section. Creating the most ef­

fective thematic transformations, the entire Fuga is de­

rived solely from the subject and countersubject.

The Nocturne and Ballade, although ternary in design,

also exhibit extreme unity. While dramatic contrast is

provided in the B sections, unity is achieved through the

close motivic relationship of the A and B sections in

both compositions.

The first movement of the Concerto presents, perhaps,

the most unique example of motivic unity. The opening

section introduces three motives, the third being derived

from the first two. Both the first and second themes are

derivatives of the opening motives as well. Displaying

the most economic use of material, the Canzone presents

only one main theme in its strophic design, accompanied by

a motive derived from this theme. The last movement, how­

ever, contains the greatest number of themes, but unity

is preserved by the recurrence of the rondo theme (A).

Barber's traditional use of form and tonality, as

well as his lyrical emphasis, reveal the conservative

elements of his style. His use of rhythm, however, dis­

plays a more contemporary spirit. In general. Barber tends

to avoid the obvious, preferring irregular patterns in­

stead. The third movements of both the Concerto and

153

Excursions, contain many examples of complex figures and

cross rhythms. In addition, hemiolas are effectively

used in the Scherzo fromthe Piano Sonata. Barber's rhyth­

mic style also reflects jazz influences, particularly ap­

parent in the Fuga (Piano Sonata) and the blues movement

of Excursions. While driving, aggressive rhythmic ele­

ments occur in the opening movements of the Sonata and the

Concerto. smooth, flowing lines (compatible with Barber's

lyrical persuasion) are more commonly found. Particularly

effective examples include: the Nocturne. the third move­

ment of Excursions, the third movement of the Sonata, and

the Canzone from the Concerto.

While Barber has preferred to avoid such twentieth-

century techniques as complete serialism or atonality,

his contribution to contemporary music is considerable.

Barber's lyricism and sense of form, which many contempo­

rary composers have chosen to reject, contribute to the

high artistic level as well as accessibility of his music.

As a significant contribution to the twentieth-cen­

tury repertoire. Barber's piano music provides the per­

former with both interpretive and technical challenges.

While the formal procedures are based on eighteenth- and

nineteenth-century models, the harmonic and rhythmic ele­

ments demand an understanding of a contemporary vocabulary

In addition, Barber's idiomatic treatment of the keyboard

itself explores a wide range of tone color possibilities.

154

Because lyricism is the most important element of Barber's

style, the pianist must be skilled in cantabile. legato

technique. Most melodies are long, and the performer must

sing these lines as a vocalist would, disguising and avoid­

ing the innate percussive quality of the instrument.

In addition to a well-developed legato technique, the

piano music requires a virtuosic technique, particularly

in the Sonata and Concerto. As in eighteenth- and nine­

teenth-century keyboard works, control of rapid scales,

arpeggios, and broken chords is mandatory. This technique,

however, must be adapted to contemporary rhythmic and har­

monic patterns. The thumb needs to be particularly agile,

as it is often required to play on black keys in rapid

figuration passages. Barber also employs the extreme

registers of the keyboard, requiring a rapid and con­

trolled forearm rotation. A large hand extension is also

necessary for the many widely spaced harmonic structures.

A further technical demand involves precise control of the

sostenuto pedal, a somewhat neglected skill for many pia­

nists .

As in any great music, the understanding of formal

principles and stylistic elements of Barber's piano music

has direct bearing on the interpretation. The most ef­

fective performances are those which project the meaning

found in the musical structure itself, resulting from an

interpretation based upon valid analytical principles.

APPENDIX

A. LECTURE RECITAL

B. DISCOGRAPHY

155

APPENDIX A: LECTURE RECITAL

^exasTech Umversih/ Departmenl-of Alusc Lubbock, Texas

SUSAN BLINDERMAN CARTER Piano

Ph.D. Lecture-Recital The Piano Music of Samuel Barber"

Sunday, Februarv 17, 1980, 3:00 p.m. Hemmie Recital Hall

Sonata for Piano, Op. 26 Samuel Barber Allegro energico (1910- )

BIOGRAPHY OF SAMUEL BARBER SURVEY OF THE PIANO MUSIC THE PIANO SONATA, OPUS 26

INTERMISSION

Sonata for Piano, Op. 26 Barber Allegro energico Allegro vivace e leggero Adagio mesto Fuga; Allegro con spirito

This recital is presented in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the Doctor of Philosophy degree in Fine Arts. Ms. Carter is a student of Dr. Thomas Redcay and Dr. Paul F. Cutter.

156

157

LECTURE

Introduction

Good afternoon, Ladies and Gentlemen. The music that

you have just heard is the first movement of Samuel Bar­

ber's Sonata for Piano. Op. 26. composed in 19^9. The

Sonata is one of Bsirber's finest works, and a significant

contribution to the twentieth-century keyboard repertoire.

While still in his twenties, Samuel Barber established

a secure position in the forefront of American composers.

His many awards for composition are eloquent testimony to

his achievements: the Beams Prize from Columbia Univer­

sity (1928), the Prix de Rome (1935). the New York Music

Critics Circle Award (19^7). and two Pulitzer Prizes (1958

and 1963). In addition, Barber received many honors for

his overall contribution to American music, including mem­

bership in the Academy of Arts and Letters (1935). appoint­

ment as a consultant at the American Academy of Rome (19^8),

and the award of an honorary Doctorate from Harvard Univer­

sity (1959).

158

Biography

Samuel Barber was born on March 9, I910, in West

Chester, Pennsylvania, a small town near Philadelphia.

His early musical training included cello and piano les­

sons, beginning at the age of six. He studied the piano

for six years with West Chester's leading piano teacher,

William Hatten Green, a former pupil of Theodore Lesche­

tizky.

Barber's interest in composition also appeared at an

early age. When once asked how he happened to become a

composer, he replied, "I began writing music at seven and

I just never stopped." His first composition was a twen-

4:y-three measure piano piece called Sadness. but he soon

became more ambitious, even composing an opera at the age

of ten.

By the age of fourteen. Barber had begun his profes­

sional musical career; he was the organist at the West­

minster Presbyterian Church in West Chester, earning a

salary of one hundred dollars per month. During this same

year, 192^, Barber was accepted as a charter student at

the newly organized Curtis Institute of Music.in Philadel­

phia, where he remained as a student and teaching assis­

tant for the next nine years.

While at Curtis, Barber majored in three areas:

piano, composition and voice. He also studied conducting

159

under Fritz Reiner.

During his sophomore year at Curtis (1928), Barber

befriended a new composition student from Italy, Gian-

Carlo Menotti. This was the beginning of a friendship

that would prove to be most influential on Barber's pro­

fessional as well as personal life.

In the same year (1928), Barber won his first award

for composition: the Beam's Prize, a $1,200 award spon­

sored by Columbia University. The piece that Barber sub­

mitted was a violin sonata which, however, has remained

unpublished.

The money earned from this prize was used to finance

the first of many trips to Europe. While there, he met

two famous musicians: George Antheil, an important con­

temporary composer, and Eusebius Mandycewski, his compo­

sition teacher's mentor, and a friend of Johannes Brahms.

In the early 1930s, Barber wrote several important

compositions: Overture to the School for Scandal. Dover

Beach. and the Sonata for Cello and Piano.

After leaving Curtis in 1933. Barber pursued a pro­

fessional singing career, performing lieder recitals for

the NBC radio network as well as recording his composition

Dover Beach for voice and string quartet. The first per­

formance of Barber's music by a major orchestra also oc­

curred in 1933: the Overture to the School for Scandal,

performed by the Philadelphia Orchestra under Alexander

160

Smallens. With this composition. Barber won his second

Beams Prize.

In October, 193^. he presented some of his compo­

sitions to Carl Engle, president of the music publishing

firm G. Schirmer, Inc. Following this meeting, Schirmer

became Barber's sole publisher, and has remained so ever

since. This important event opened many doors for the

aspiring young composer, resulting in a performance of

the Music for a Scene from Shellev by the New York Phil­

harmonic and an all-Barber radio program on March 23. 1935-

In the spring of 1935. Barber won a $1,500 Pulitzer

Traveling Scholarship as well as the Prix de Rome. The

following year, he won a second Pulitzer Scholarship,

becoming the first person to receive this award twice.

Perhaps the most significant early performance of

Barber's music was a concert on November 5. 1938. The

world premiere of Adagio for Strings and First Essay for

Orchestra, by Arturo Toscanini and the NBC Orchestra,

firmly launched the internationally acclaimed career of

Samuel Barber.

Barber returned to Curtis as a faculty member from

1939 to 19^2. In 19^3. he was inducted into the United

States Army and was commissioned to compose a symphony for

the Army Air Force, an unprecedented act in the history

of the American military. The Symphony Dedicated to the

Army Air Forces was premiered by Serge Koussevitsky and

161

the Boston Symphony Orchestra on March 3, 19^4.

Returning to Capricorn, the home he shared with Gian-

Carlo Menotti in Mt. Kisco, New York, after his discharge

from the army in 19^5. Barber composed many of his finest

works: the Cello Concerto (winner of the 19^7 New York

Critics Circle Prize); the ballet Cave of the Heart.

later retitled Medea, for Martha Graham; Knoxville;

Summer of 1915. for Eleanor Steber; Melodies Passagres.

premiered by Pierre Bernac and Francis Poulenc in 1952;

and Hermit Songs for Leontyne Price.

In 1956, Menotti wrote the libretto for Barber's

opera Vanessa, which was awarded a Pulitzer Prize in 1958.

A second venture by Barber and Menotti resulted in the one-

act opera, A Hand of Bridge. in 1959-

Important compositions in the 1960s included the

Piano Concerto, commissioned in I96I, for the one hun­

dredth anniversary of G. Schirmer, which also won a Pulit­

zer Prize in I963. Barber's most ambitious work of the

1960s was the opera Antony and Cleopatra, written in I966,

for the opening of the new house for the Metropolitan

Opera at Lincoln Center.

Barber's more recent compositions include Three Songs.

written for Dietrich Fisher-Dieskau in 197^, and the piano

Ballade, composed for the 1977 Van Cliburn Piano Competi­

tion.

162

Personality

Barber's rather conservative tastes, as well as his

easy elegance, charm and unpretentious sophistication are

reflected in his music, which is most often described as

"avowedly Romantic, quiet, elegant, and wholeheartedly

traditionalist." The personality of Samuel Barber and

his music are one. Nathan Broder, in his biography of

Barber, gives the following description:

His work, as a whole, is like a living organism with a clearly stamped individuality, enriching itself as it grows, and this organism mirrors the qualities of the man -- his dedication to art, the elegance and refinement of his taste, his unswerving adherence to the highest stan­dards, his constant search for new means of creating beauty, a search guided by a sense of discrimination and a power of self-criticism that prevent him from being stampeded into adopting novel techniques merely because they are novel and widely used.

The legend of Samuel Barber has been a different sort

of story for an American composer. While most twentieth-

century American composers have struggled against indif­

ference and neglect, success discovered Barber early in

life and has followed him, with very few exceptions,

throughout his career.

163

The Piano Music

Samuel Barber, along with Aaron Copland, is perhaps

the most important composer of twentieth-century American

keyboard music. As is typical of other twentieth-century

composers, his reputation as a composer of keyboard music

is based on very few works: the set of four Excursions

(Op. 20) of 19^5; the Sonata for Piano of 19^9; the

Nocturne of 1959; the Piano Concerto of I962, and his

most recent composition for piano, the Ballade of 1977-

Before examining the Piano Sonata. I will briefly discuss

the other keyboard works in chronological order.

Excursions. first performed by Vladimir Horowitz in

19^5. are, as Barber states in the score, "excursions in

small classical forms into regional American idioms. Their

rhythmic characteristics, as well as their source in folk

material and their scoring, reminiscent of local instru­

ments, are easily recognized." The opening piece is a

stylized boogie-woogie; the second, a blues piece; the

third, a theme and variations on the cowboy song, "The

Streets of Laredo;" and the fourth, a barn dance. This

piece is Barber's sole effort in a nationalistic vein.

The Nocturne, subtitled "Hommage to John Field,"

reflects the expressive spirit of nineteenth-century

nocturnes, but the harmonic idiom is wholly contemporary.

Basically homophonic and set in a ternary design, the

l6^'

first and last sections are based on a twelve-tone row,

while the middle section freely develops motives derived

from the row.

The Piano Concerto, written for the celebration of

G. Schirmer's one hundredth anniversary, was premiered

on September 24, I962, during the inaugural week of Lin­

coln Center for the Performing Arts in New York City.

The soloist was John Browning, for whom the work was writ­

ten, performing with the Boston Symphony Orchestra under

the direction of Erich Leinsdorf. Cast in three tradi­

tional movements, this work has been widely performed both

in the United States and abroad.

Barber's most recent piano piece is the Ballade.

composed for the 1977 Van Cliburn Piano Competition.

Like the Nocturne. the Ballade is a ternary structure with

the outer homophonic sections framing a more contrapuntal

and dramatic middle section. This piece reveals a return

to Barber's more conservative approach, similar to his

earlier compositions.

The Piano Sonata

Premiered at Carnegie Hall on January 23, 1950, by

Vladimir Horowitz, the Piano Sonata was hailed by many

critics as one of the most outstanding contributions to

165

the contemporary keyboard repertoire. Hans Tischler de­

scribed the work as, "standing head and shoulders above

any other sonata written by an American composer in the

past thirty years." Writing in The Musical Quarterly in

April, 1950, Nathan Broder states that this Sonata repre­

sents "Barber's final emancipation from the neo-Romantic

traits that dominated his early compositions and is thus

the culmination of a development that had taken a decade

to reach its goal." In the biography of Samuel Barber,

written in 195^, Mr. Broder continues his praise of the

work by saying, "Its grand sweep, its largeness of ut­

terance, is reminiscent of Beethoven, and its intensity

makes one think of Bartok." Tischler also compares this

work with Beethoven's examples by virtue of its drama, and

humor, in the tendency to develop motives rather than

merely repeat them, and in the propounding and solution of

musical problems. The successful fusion of serial tech­

niques, contemporary harmonic vocabulary, traditional

sonata form, and contrapuntal control stamp this work as

a landmark of the twentieth century.

The Sonata was commissioned by Irving Berlin and

Richard Rodgers on September 23. 19^7. in honor of the

twenty-fifth anniversary of the League of Composers in

1950. With the premiere by Vladimir Horowitz, the Sonata

achieved the status of being the first American piano

piece of major importance to be performed by a leading

166

piano virtuoso.

The romantic influences of broad lyricism and dramatic

expression are balanced by Barber's complete understanding

of classical formal structures, but the harmonic and rhyth­

mic vocabulary are unmistakably in a contemporary idiom.

Traditional formal procedures are observed in each of the

four movements: sonata form in the opening movement; a

Mendelssohn-like scherzo in the second movement; a lyrical

ternary Adagio, reminiscent of the dirge-like Baroque la­

ment in the third; and a brilliant fugue in the fourth.

Inherent dramatic implications of sonata form are ex­

ploited in the opening movement, including conflicting to­

nalities in the exposition, highly contrasting first and

second theme groups, and a thorough working out of the mo­

tives in the development section. The formal design sup­

ports Barber's dramatic intentions, heightened by an ef­

fective use of chromaticism, extremely contrasting dynamic

levels, as well as the use of extreme registers of the key­

board . L

Typical of sonata form, the first theme, in E' minor,

is strongly rhythmic and aggressive. The first two notes

of the melody form a germ idea, used consistently through­

out the entire movement. Exam.ple la: germ

^ ^P

167

The important short-long rhythm of the germ, as well as

the descending half-step motion, allow the listener to

easily identify it.

The first theme is merely an expansion of the germ.

Example lb: first theme

I'; uMuiij.j^ij te

¥ i r i il J

-w ¥m^^^ The texture of the first theme is contrapuntal, with

an important countermelody in the bass. A loud dynamic

level, low range and rhythmic drive create an intense cli­

max that is released in the transition which begins with

the first theme, inverted in the bass. A new figure, a

triplet pattern using all twelve chromatic tones, accom­

panies the inverted theme. Following this phrase, an im­

portant new motive is introduced: an expanding triplet

figure, which reappears in the closing sections and the

coaa.

Example Ic: triplet figure

168

A second important motive is also heard in the transi­

tion: an arpeggiated figure again using all twelve tones

of the chromatic scale. This motive is used as a melodic

gesture, not as a twelve-tone row. It also reappears in

the coda, in a much faster tempo.

Example Id: twelve-tone row

iJJtfjT^i ITiffii

A lyrical second theme is now presented in the sopra­

no. Flowing rhythm, in both the melody and accompaniment,

helps establish the more r9la:<:ed atmosphere.

Example le: second theme

liifrffjiri

The smooth contour of this theme, the homophonic texture

and the broader sixteenth note show an extreme contrast to

the opening. Although the second theme begins in the up­

per range, the melody is soon shared by the lower voice.

A new motive, derived from the second theme appears and

is used extensively in the development and coda.

169

Example If : d e r i v e d motive

uP-^ I

Another important motive is introduced in the closing

section: a four-note repeated figure which is combined

with the germ, the triplet figure, the twelve-tone motive

and the motive derived from the second theme.

Example Ig: repeated figure with germ

iiijjnjijii

The development section consists of three parts.

The opening section employs the first theme, beginning

mysteriously in the lower register and building to a

climax twelve bars later at the top of the keyboard.

The second section, slower and more lyrical, uses the

motive derived from the second theme combined with the

repeated note figure.

170

Example Ih: second section of the development

The third section begins loudly with the repeated note

figure, but the accent is now on the last note. A trans­

formation of the second theme, heard in the soprano, pre­

pares for the return of E' minor, and an intensely dramatic

build up ushers in the recapitulation.

Example Ii: transformed motive

A fortissimo dynamic level, thick texture and ex­

treme registers mark the return of the first theme. The

recapitulation unfolds much like the exposition, with only

slight modifications. The second theme is now based on

J, as opposed to the B center of the exposition.

The coda begins in a tranquil character, much like

the second section of the development. All of the motives

171

are used, but the return of the first theme is saved for

the last phrase, ending with a powerful reiteration of the

germ.

-he second movement, a sophisticated and witty

scherzo, provides a release from the intensity of the

opening movement. The release is achieved by: 1) the use

of a G major tonality; 2) a very light, mostly two-voiced

texture; 3) a simple rondo form (ABACA), with an emphasis

on repetition rather than developmental procedures; and

^) basically diatonic melodies and harmonies. The fast

temipo and exploitation of the upper registers also enhance

the light, lance-like character.

Rhythmic subtleties perm:eate the movement. The open-/•

ing meter is :; , but hem.iolas are implied throughout. The

opening tneme presents a shifting of major and minor har­

mony, as well as a subtle rhythmic pattern.

Example 2a: opening theme

ly^rJ•l -^ lf¥^

An excellent example of hemiola occurs at the end

of the first section, defined by the bass melody.

172 -xample 2b: hemiola

^%. ' . 'U 'H i ' i j i i a ; ;^

An obvious display of humor is heard at the opening

of the B section, illustrating another rhythmic subtlety.

This section, a stylized waltz, alternates ^ and ^ meters

T.te slurs and staccatos in the accompaniment also provide

a touch of humor.

Example 2c: B section of scher zo

(VdUihjw ti -r-

I'V r \y^ £=J

Following the waltz, a return of the opening section

is heard in the tonic key. A new section, C, functions

as a brief development. A bit of humor is observed as the

final return of A occurs, the first fifteen measures being

m A major, a hali-step too high.

After returning to the tonic key of G major, the

opening theme makes its final appearance. The movement

closes, or rather disappears, as the theme becomes faster

173

and softer, vanishing off the top of the keyboard.

The somber third movement is a tragic lament. The

form is ternary: ABA coda. The opening section is an

aria, presenting a long flowing melody in the soprano,

accompanied by a slow arpeggiated figure in the bass. A

complete transformation of the theme, building to a drama­

tic and passionate climax, is found in the middle section.

Following this climax, the opening section returns, em­

bellished with a new countermelody in the alto.

This movement reveals Barber's first use of serial

techniques, but his style of twelve-tone writing is highly

individual. The row is used only as an accompaniment pat­

tern ajid has a tonal center of B minor, departing from an

equal treatment of all twelve tones. The construction of

the row itself further departs from rigid twelve-tone pro­

cedures, emphasizing the consonant interval of a minor

sixth. As an introduction to the movement, the row is

first heard in a harmonic pattern, followed by an arpeg­

giated figure used to accompany the soprano melody.

Example 3a: introduction

17^

Example 3b: arpeggiated accompaniment

The long melodic phrases are conjunct, using very

few leaps. Falling seconds are emphasized, reminiscent

of a Baroque-sigh, and contribute to the melancholy char­

acter of the theme.

Example 3c: opening theme

^i^x"^\^ujM m

The melody is most often heard in the soprano voice

in the A sections. In the 3 section, however, the melody

alternates between the bass and soprano voices.

The tempo is very slow and the persistent eighth-

note pattern in the accompaniment enhances the relentless,

tragic quality of this movement. A fluid rhythm in the

melody contrasts with the accompaniment and implies a

vocal aria-like quality.

The dramatic expression spans the extreme dynamic

limits, from pianissimo to fortissimo. The soft, inti­

mate mood of the A sections contrasts greatly with the

175

intense outbursts heard in the middle section. The move­

ment closes with a feeling of complete despair as the

theme disintegrates in the lower register.

The fourth movement, a four-voiced fugue, is a bril­

liant finale to the sonata --a tour de force for both the

composer and performer. The architecture and craftsman­

ship of the movement are reminiscent of Bartok. The over­

all form is an arch design, which could be diagrammed

ABCBA coda, with development sections framing the central

C section. Barber exhibits masterful control of fugal

techniques throughout the movement, but the powerful emo­

tional communication is never overshadowed by the expert

handling of compositional devices.

This movement is an excellent example of Barber's

ability to construct an expansive com.position from very

limited material. The entire movement is built on the

subject and countersubject of the fugue. Both the rhyth­

mic and harmonic structure of these themes display a strong

jazz influence. The subject is made up of two segments,

labeled a and b. The first segment outlines a tonic ninth L

chord, beginning and ending on the root, E^ ; the second

segment is a sequential pattern that modulates to the L

dominant, B''.

;xample ^a: subjec t

176

tri g h'i i\^\'\fiUr%j^\[^f\((f

\[W\JUi\>Wr^\^^ The countersubject. also a sequential pattern, ends

with an important closing motive of four ascending,

heavily accented step-wise tones.

Example ^b: countersubject

^ ^ ^ ^ ^ ^ ^ ^ ^ ^ m ^ ^

In the first exposition, both the subject and counter-

subject are heard in all four voices. An episode, built

on the countersubject, leads to a second exposition, marlced

•oy a series of stretto entries in a higher register and

thinner texture. ^ ,.,-;-(->. a Gtprips of partial entries, The B section opens with a seri-.s ux ycu.

using the a segment of the subject. A rhythmic variation

of both the a motive and the countersubject in now heard.

177

Example 4-0: s u b j e c t

W i^ui mWtUf^^^

Example ^d: c o u n t e r s u b j e c t

?>V>^'^^tjfV;Vjl^'^f'te'L!^

C-ollowing a dynarriic building to a bass pedal on A,

the development section begins in a more lyrical vein.

Barber employs contrapuntal devices of augmentation and

inversion in this section. The augmented version of the

subject, married espressivo. is heard in the middle voice

Example 4e: augm.entation

Immediately following, we hear the inversion of this

same motive, no// in the soprano.

Example 4f: inversion

Avri^um^

,_-,a.

-178

The development section builds again to a climax, marked

by extreme registers, dense texture and a fortissimo dy­

namic level. A brief transition leads to the C section.

The middle section, C, provides a release from the

previous tension. The key is S major and the scherzando

character is conveyed by a folk-like melody, derived from

the countersubject. The contrapuntal alto line is also

derived from the same motive, now heard in an augmented

and inverted version.

Example ^g: opening of scherzo

m jm UJ f

A second development follows this section, once again

beginning very quietly. We now hear a transformation of

the second phrase of the subject in a light and playful

manner.

Example ^h: transformation of b

179

While the dynamic level is still very soft, Barber

begins a complex presentation of the subject. The first

segment of the subject, a, is heard in the lower voice in

augmentation, while the upper voice treats the same theme

in diminution. The entire phrase is then repeated, but

the soprano now has the augmentation while the lower voice

has the diminution.

Example ^i: bass augmentation

f -

The 3 section follows, transposed up a step, and pre­

pares for the return of the subject in the tonic key of

E' minor. A powerful presentation of the A section is

introduced by a two-measure phrase based on the counter-

subject .

180

Example 4 j : r e t u r n of A

^ ^ v>^" C7 Us i f-r

BEi E H ^ ^ E E ^ ^ ^ ±r

^)TH.V^ ^"**—^

Following an in .ense build-up of stretto entries only

an eighth-note apart, the coda tegins. Opening quietly

and building to the biggest climax in the piece, the

countersutject is once again used. Heard in the lowest

register as a canon between the hands, the rhythm is

identical to that used in the B section.

Example ' k: coda

.,-Ji Wif^^?'^ 7^n^ ? ¥

••

181

The subject finally returns in octaves in both hands,

ending the work in a blaze of brilliance.

Conclusion

Resulting from an analytical study of the Sonata. I

have become increasingly convinced of its eminent position

in twentieth-century keyboard repertoire. The profound

impact of this work can be attributed to its formal beauty

and expressive power, as well as to its exploration of an

idiomatic treatment of the keyboard.

Although Barber uses traditional formal procedures

throughout, his ability to realize the implied potential

of extremely limited motivic material provides each move­

ment with a cohesive unity. The result is a tightly

organized structure that exhibits a maximum degree of

thematic transformations through rigid formal control.

In addition to control of form aind compositional de­

vices. Barber is a master at creating logical sequences of

mounting intensity, as well as carefully prepared moments

of relajcation, both within and between movements. The

powerful preparation for the recapitulation in the first

movement, some twenty measures building from a thin, high

register to a dense, low texture all above a tonic pedal,

is a particularly effective example of his expertise in

182

creating mounting tension. Similar examples will be heard

in the coda, as well as in the development of the fugue

subject and its return in the coda of the last movement.

Barber's beautiful melodic writing is further tes­

timony to the greatness of this work, particularly in the

third movement Adagio. The fluid rhythm of this melody

contrasts greatly with the dotted rhythm of the first

movement, the humorous rhythmic subtleties of the second

movement, or the perpetual rhythmic drive of the fugue.

Barber's treatment of the keyboard itself is extra­

ordinary. He explores extreme ranges of touch, dynamics

and registers. Imaginative use of all three pedals add

greatly to the expressive power of the music. The techni­

cal interpretive demands of this work provide a constant

challenge for both the performer and listener as well.

>-• X <

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BIBLIOGRAPHY

PRIMRY SOURCES

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• Nocturne. Op. 33. New York: G. Schirmer, Inc., 1959.

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Apel, Willi, ed. Harvard Dictionary of Music. 2nd ed. Cambridge, Massachusetts: The Belknap Press of Harvard University Press, I969.

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Hanson, John R. "Macroform in Selected Twentieth-Cen­tury Piano Concertos." Diss. University of Roch­ester 1969.

Harrison, Jay S. "The New York Music Scene." Musical America. December 19^3. p. 178.

Helm, Everett. "Lincoln Center Opening." Musical Amer­ica. November I962, pp. 18-19.

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Hitchcock, H. Wiley. Music in the United States. 2nd ed. Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey: Prentice-Hall, Inc., 197^.

Horan, Robert. "American Composers, Samuel Barber." Modern Music. April 19^8, p. I69.

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Kolodin, Irving. "Farewell to Capricorn." Saturday Review. June 1, 197^, pp. 44-45.

. "Music to My Ears: Barber Concerto." Saturday Review. November 23, I963, p. 33.

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Sargeant, Winthrop. "Musical Events: The Main Stream." The New Yorker. April 13, 1963. PP- 153-15^.

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"Sonata to Honor League." New York Times, September 24, 1947, p. 20.

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"Some Remarks on the Use of Twelve-tone and Fugue Technics in Samuel Barber's Piano Sonata. Journal of the American Musicological Society. V (Summer 1952), 145-146.

Vinton, John, ed. Dictionary of Contemporary Music. New York: E. P. IDutton and Co., Inc., 1971-