copyright © allyn & bacon 2007 chapter 14 social psychology this multimedia product and its...
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Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007
Chapter 14Chapter 14
Social Psychology
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• ISBN: 0-131-73180-7
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Social PsychologySocial Psychology
Social psychology – The branch of psychology that studies the effects of social variables and cognitions on individual behavior and social interactions
Social context – The combination of(a) People
(b) The activities and interactions among people
(c) The setting in which behavior occurs, and
(d) The expectations and social norms governing behavior in that setting
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How Does theHow Does theSocial Situation Social Situation
Affect our Behavior?Affect our Behavior?
We usually adapt our behavior to the demands of the social situation, and in ambiguous situations we take our cues from the
behavior of others in that setting
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How Does theHow Does theSocial Situation Social Situation
Affect our Behavior?Affect our Behavior?
Situationism –The view that environmental conditions influence people’s behavior as much or more than their personal dispositions do
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Social Standards of BehaviorSocial Standards of Behavior
Social role –One of several socially defined patterns of behavior that are expected of persons in a given setting or group
Script –Knowledge about the sequenceof events and actions that isexpected in a particular setting
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Social Standards of BehaviorSocial Standards of Behavior
Social norms – A group’s expectations regarding what is appropriate and acceptable for its members’ attitudes and behavior
Social norms influence students’political views
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A 1 2 3
Standard line Comparison lines
Conformity:Conformity: The Asch studies The Asch studies
Which line matches the line on the left?
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Conformity:Conformity: The Asch studies The Asch studies
What would you say if you were in a room full of people who all picked line number three?
A 1 2 3
Standard line Comparison lines
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ConformityConformity
No opposition (control)No opposition (control)
Alone against majorityAlone against majority
With partnerWith partner
Critical trials1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12
Co
rre
ct e
stim
ate
d (
perc
ent) 100
80
60
40
20
0
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Group Characteristics That Produce Group Characteristics That Produce ConformityConformity
Asch identifies three factors that influence whether a person will yield to pressure:• The size of the majority• The presence of a partner who dissented
from the majority• The size of the discrepancy between the
correct answer and the majority position
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GroupthinkGroupthink
In “groupthink,” members of the group attempt to conform their opinions to what each believes to be the consensus of the group
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Conditions Likely to Promote Conditions Likely to Promote GroupthinkGroupthink
Conditions likely to promote groupthink include:• Isolation of the group• High group cohesiveness• Directive leadership• Lack of norms requiring methodical
procedures• Homogeneity of members’ social
background and ideology• High stress from external threats with low
hope of a better solution than that of the group leader
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Obedience to AuthorityObedience to Authority
Imagine if an experimenter studying “the effects of punishment on memory” asked you to deliver painful electric shocks to a a middle-aged man who had been treated for a heart condition
Each time the man missedan answer, you would beinstructed to deliver anincreasingly powerful shock
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Shock GeneratorCaution
Amps
On
Intensity Resistance
Amp Meter
SlightShock
ModerateModerateShockShock
StrongShock
VeryStrongShock
IntenseShock
ExtremeShock
Danger XXX
Milgram’s ShockMilgram’s ShockGeneratorGenerator
Would you deliver a “Moderate Shock?”
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Shock GeneratorCaution
Amps
On
Intensity Resistance
Amp Meter
SlightShock
ModerateShock
StrongShock
VeryStrongShock
IntenseShock
ExtremeExtremeShockShock
Danger XXX
Milgram’s ShockMilgram’s ShockGeneratorGenerator
Would you refuse the experimenter’s instruction to deliver an “Extreme Shock?”
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Shock GeneratorCaution
Amps
On
Intensity Resistance
Amp Meter
SlightShock
ModerateShock
StrongShock
VeryStrongShock
IntenseShock
ExtremeExtremeShockShock
Danger XXX
Milgram’s ShockMilgram’s ShockGeneratorGenerator
What if the victim was screaming in agony?
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Shock GeneratorCaution
Amps
On
Intensity Resistance
Amp Meter
SlightShock
ModerateShock
StrongShock
VeryStrongShock
IntenseShock
ExtremeShock
Danger XXXXXX
Milgram’s ShockMilgram’s ShockGeneratorGenerator
Two thirds of participants delivered the maximum 450 volts to the learner
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Obedience to AuthorityObedience to Authority
In Milgram’s experimentThe victim was an actorThe victim received no actual shocks
Nevertheless, this controversial experiment demonstrated how powerful effects of obedience to authority
Situational factors, and not personality variables, appeared to effect people’s levels of obedience
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Obedience in Milgram’s Obedience in Milgram’s ExperimentsExperiments
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Ten Steps Toward Evil-Ten Steps Toward Evil-Getting Good People to Harm OthersGetting Good People to Harm Others
1. Provide people with an ideology to justify beliefs for actions
2. Make people take a small first step toward a harmful act with a minor, trivial action and then gradually increase those small actions
3. Make those in charge seem like a “just authority”
4. Slowly transform a once compassionate leader into a dictatorial figure
5. Provide people with vague and ever changing rules
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Ten Steps Toward Evil-Ten Steps Toward Evil-Getting Good People to Harm OthersGetting Good People to Harm Others
6. Relabel the situation’s actors and their actions to legitimize the ideology
7. Provide people with social models of compliance
8. Allow verbal dissent but only if people continue to comply behaviorally with orders
9. Encourage dehumanizing the victim
10.Make exiting the situation difficult
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The Bystander ProblemThe Bystander Problem
Diffusion of responsibility –Dilution or weakening of each group member’s obligation to act when responsibility is perceived to be shared with all group members
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The Bystander ProblemThe Bystander Problem
In one experiment, a student was led to believe that the he or she was taking part in an experiment with between one and five other students (over an intercom)
The student then heard what sounded like another student having a seizure and gasping for help
The researchers timed how long it would take the students to ask for help
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Bystander Intervention in an EmergencyBystander Intervention in an Emergency
2-person groups2-person groups
3-person groups3-person groups
6-person groups6-person groups
20 80 120 160 200 240 280
Seconds from beginning of emergency
80
40
60
100
20
0
Per
cent
age
help
ing
Prosocial BehaviorProsocial Behavior
• Kitty Genovese case in Kew Gardens NY.
Bystander Effect:• Conditions in which people
are more or less likely to help one another. In general…the more people around…the less chance of help….because of…
• Diffusion of Responsibility
Pluralistic Ignorance• People decide what to do by
looking to others.
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Constructing Social Reality:Constructing Social Reality:What Influences OurWhat Influences Our
Judgments of Others?Judgments of Others?
The judgments we make about others depend not only on their behavior but also on
our interpretation of their actions within a social
context
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Constructing Social Reality:Constructing Social Reality:What Influences OurWhat Influences Our
Judgments of Others?Judgments of Others?
Social reality – An individual’s subjective interpretation of other people and of relationships with them
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Interpersonal AttractionInterpersonal Attraction
Reward theory of attraction – A social learning view that says we like best those who give us maximum rewards at minimum cost
ProximityProximity SimilaritySimilarity
Self-DisclosureSelf-Disclosure Physical Physical AttractivenessAttractiveness
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Expectations and theExpectations and theInfluence of Self-EsteemInfluence of Self-Esteem
Matching hypothesis – Prediction that most people will find friends and mates that are about their same level of attractiveness
Expectancy-value theory – Theory that people decide whether or not to pursue a relationship by weighing the potential value of the relationship against their expectations of success in establishing the relationship
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Attraction and Self-JustificationAttraction and Self-Justification
Cognitive dissonance – A highly motivating state in which people have conflicting cognitions, especially when their voluntary actions conflict with their attitudes
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Making CognitiveMaking CognitiveAttributionsAttributions
Fundamental attribution error – Tendency to emphasize internal causes and ignore external pressures
Self-serving bias – Attributional pattern in which one takes credit for success but denies responsibility for failure
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Prejudice and DiscriminationPrejudice and Discrimination
Prejudice – A negative attitude toward an individual based solely on his or her membership in a particular group
Discrimination – A negative action taken against an individual as a result of his or her group membership
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Prejudice and DiscriminationPrejudice and Discrimination
In-group – The group with which an individual identifies
Out-group – Those outside the group with which an individual identifies
Social distance – The perceived difference or similarity between oneself and another person
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Causes of PrejudiceCauses of Prejudice
Dissimilarity and Social DistanceDissimilarity and Social Distance
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Causes of PrejudiceCauses of Prejudice
Dissimilarity and Social Distance
Economic CompetitionEconomic Competition
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Causes of PrejudiceCauses of Prejudice
Dissimilarity and Social Distance
Economic Competition
ScapegoatingScapegoating
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Causes of PrejudiceCauses of Prejudice
Dissimilarity and Social Distance
Economic Competition
Scapegoating
Conformity to Social NormsConformity to Social Norms
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Causes of PrejudiceCauses of Prejudice
Dissimilarity and Social Distance
Economic Competition
Scapegoating
Conformity to Social Norms
Media StereotypesMedia Stereotypes
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Combating PrejudiceCombating Prejudice
Research suggests that the possible tools for combating prejudice include:New role models
Equal status contact
Legislation
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Other Topics in Social PsychologyOther Topics in Social Psychology
Social facilitation –An increase in an individual’s performance because of being in a group
Social loafing –An decrease in performance because of being in a group
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Other Topics in Social PsychologyOther Topics in Social Psychology
Deindividuation –Occurs when group members lose their sense of personal identity and responsibility and the group “assumes” responsibility for their behavior
Zimbardo’s Prison StudyZimbardo’s Prison Study
• Showed how we deindividuate AND become the roles we are given.
• Philip Zimbardo has students at Stanford U play the roles of prisoner and prison guards in the basement of psychology building.
• They were given uniforms and numbers for each prisoner.
• What do you think happened?
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Other Topics in Social PsychologyOther Topics in Social Psychology
Group polarization –When individuals in a group have similar, though not identical, views, their opinions become more extreme
Groupthink –An excessive tendency to seek recurrence among group members
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Loving RelationshipsLoving Relationships
Romantic love – A temporary and highly emotional condition based on infatuation and sexual desire
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Sternberg’s Triangular Theory of Love Sternberg’s Triangular Theory of Love
PassionPassion
IntimacyIntimacy CommitmentCommitment
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The power of the situation can help us understand violence
and terrorism, but the broader understanding requires
multiple perspectives that go beyond the boundaries of
traditional psychology
What Are the Roots of What Are the Roots of Violence and Terrorism?Violence and Terrorism?
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The Robbers’ Cave: The Robbers’ Cave: An Experiment in ConflictAn Experiment in Conflict
In the Robber’s Cave experiment, conflict between groups arose from an intensely competitive situation
Cooperation, however, replaced conflict when the experimenters contrived situations that fostered mutual interdependence and common goals for the groups
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The Robbers’ Cave: The Robbers’ Cave: An Experiment in ConflictAn Experiment in Conflict
Violence and aggression – Terms that refer to behavior that is intended to cause harm
Cohesiveness – Solidarity, loyalty, and a sense of group membership
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The Robbers’ Cave: The Robbers’ Cave: An Experiment in ConflictAn Experiment in Conflict
Mutual interdependence – Shared sense that individuals or groups need each other in order to achieve common goals
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TerrorismTerrorism
Terrorism – The use of violent, unpredictable acts by a small group against a larger group for political, economic, or religious goals
Taking multiple perspectives can provide important insights on the problems of aggression, violence, and terrorism
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End of Chapter 14End of Chapter 14