copyright, 2014, adriana c. tristan

Students with Disabilities: Meta-Analysis about the Accommodations in College

By

Adriana C. Tristan, B.S.

A Thesis

In

HIGHER EDUCATION ADMINISTRATION

Submitted to the Graduate Faculty

of Texas Tech University in

partial Fulfillment of

the Requirements for

the Degree of

MASTER OF EDUCATION

Approved by

Colette M. Taylor, Ed.D.

Chair

Trenia L. Walker

Mark Sheridan, Ph.D.

Vice Provost for Graduate Affairs and Dean of the Graduate School

May, 2014

Copyright, 2014, Adriana C. Tristan

Texas Tech University, Adriana C Tristan, May 2014

ii

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

I firstly, would like to thank my parents, Sergio and Guadalupe Tristan who have

supported me from the start of my education. Without them pushing me to go beyond my

ability, I do not think I would have considered getting my master’s degree. Thank you to

my parents for always being there. Even with an eight hour difference, you were always a

phone call away at any hour of the day. I would like to thank my fiancé Manuel

Quiñones for being by my side from the beginning of my graduate program. I know it

has not been easy but you have been there pushing me to finish my thesis. Finally, thank

you to my thesis chair Dr. Colette Taylor for supporting me through the whole thesis

process. I know it has not been easy but thank you for never giving up on me. Also,

thank you for all the critiques I have received not only through my thesis but through the

whole program, it has made me a better educator and administrator.

Texas Tech University, Adriana Tristan, May 2014

iii

TABLE OF CONTENTS

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS ................................................................................................ ii

ABSTRACT ........................................................................................................................v

I. INTRODUCTION ..........................................................................................................1

Statement of the Problem .............................................................................................5

Significance of the Problem .........................................................................................7

Theoretical Framework ................................................................................................7

Purpose of Study...........................................................................................................8

Research Question ........................................................................................................8

Significance of the Study..............................................................................................9

Limitations of the Study ...............................................................................................9

Organization of Study.................................................................................................10

Definition of Terms ....................................................................................................10

Summary.....................................................................................................................12

II. REVIEW OF THE LITERATURE ..........................................................................13

Introduction ................................................................................................................13

College Transition for Students with Learning Disabilities .......................................13

Individuals with Disabilities Education Act (IDEA)..................................................19

American Disabilities Act in Higher Education .........................................................20

Disability Services Office...........................................................................................22

Theoretical Framework ..............................................................................................23

Schlossberg Transition Theory ..............................................................................23

Summary.....................................................................................................................25

III. METHODOLOGY ....................................................................................................26

Restatement of the Purpose of the Study ....................................................................26

Restatement of Research Question .............................................................................26

Research Design .........................................................................................................27

Overview of the Selection Process .............................................................................27

Computerized Database Searches ..........................................................................28

Texas Tech University, Adriana Tristan, May 2014

iv

Samples and Procedures .............................................................................................29

Data Analysis..............................................................................................................30

Trustworthiness ..........................................................................................................32

Role of the Researcher................................................................................................33

Summary.....................................................................................................................33

IV. PRESENTATION OF FINDINGS ..........................................................................35

Introduction ................................................................................................................35

Restatement of Research Question .............................................................................35

Summary of Data Analysis .........................................................................................36

Results ........................................................................................................................36

Descriptive Information .........................................................................................36

Young, R.E. (2013) ................................................................................................39

Hollins, N.L. (2012) ..............................................................................................39

Mongiovi, K.A. (2012) .........................................................................................40

Heiney, E.P. (2011) ...............................................................................................41

Rice-Fitzpatrick, L.L. (2004) .................................................................................41

Garrison-Wade, D. (2004) ....................................................................................42

Emerging Themes ..................................................................................................42

Summary.....................................................................................................................44

V. DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSION ........................................................................45

Introduction ................................................................................................................45

Discussion and Conclusion.........................................................................................45

Effectiveness of Accommodations and Transition at the Postsecondary Level .........46

Implication for Future Research .................................................................................48

Implication for Higher Education ...............................................................................50

Conclusion ..................................................................................................................51

REFERENCES .................................................................................................................52


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ABSTRACT

Students with disabilities are not your traditional students who attend higher

education. These students face unique barriers when transitioning from secondary to

higher education due to differences in institutional and legal factors. This study utilizes

the narrative qualitative meta synthesis framework to examine the six dissertations found

by searching the ProQuest Dissertation and Theses digital database from 2003 through

2013 using the search terms postsecondary education, learning disabilities, transition, and

accommodations. The overarching research question for this study was: What can we

learn from the examination of higher education doctoral dissertations that focus on

college students with learning disabilities completed between 2003 through 2013? The

study’s findings provide an overview of doctoral research related to collegiate students

with learning disabilities and the discussion section focuses on quality of abstracts,

questions regarding the use of accommodations in postsecondary education, and the

quality of disability services.

Keywords: students with disabilities, transition, accommodations, ADA, IDEA


1

CHAPTER I

INTRODUCTION

The world needs all kinds of minds to work together” (Grandin, 2010). Higher

education has often been conceptualized as an instrument of social change. The

American society has gone through significant changes throughout its history, higher

education institutions reflect those transformed American values. In this time of

extraordinary societal diversity, economic change, and global competition, there are

numerous organizations that support the use of higher education as a systemic way to

help members of devalued groups both nationally and internationally. One of the most

overlooked groups being encouraged by these organizations to participate in higher

education is individuals with disabilities despite their significant impact on colleges and

universities. Students with disabilities have expanded the concept of inclusive diversity

within the student body, but also within the curriculum, as well as campus activities and

services. People with disabilities are increasingly a part of this complex and ever-

changing ecosystem of higher education. In fact, people with disabilities represent the

largest minority group within the United States (Drum, McClain, Horner-Johnson &

Taitano, 2011) and therefore not only represent a large pool of talent, they constitute a

significant market share of future students for higher education.

Although there has been an increase in the attendance of postsecondary education

amongst people with disabilities, these individuals still remain less likely to seek

postsecondary education than individuals without disabilities (Blackorby & Wagner,

1996; Getzel, 2008; Troiano, Leifeld, & Trachtenberg, 2010). Furthermore, those who do

pursue postsecondary education face a unique set of challenges that may hinder access,


2

participation and completion of their degree programs (Mamiseishvili & Koch, 2012,

Lau, 2003).

The transition to the college environment presents challenges to all students, this

transition is particularly difficult for students with disabilities, the majority of which

being learning disabilities (Henderson, 2001; Horn, Peter, Rooney, & Malizio, 2002;

Troiano, et. al., 2010). For example, national longitudinal data on first-time, full-time

entering college freshmen indicate that the number of students with learning disabilities

has more than doubled between 1988 and 1994 (Scott, 1997). In 1996, students with

disabilities accounted for 3.1 percent of all freshmen in the nation’s two and four year

institutions (“This Year’s Freshmen,” 1997). Enrollment of students with disabilities

has reached 707,000 in approximately 88% of two and four year higher education

institutions (Redden, 2011). These enrollment numbers require that higher education

begin to evaluate how to involve these students in the university environment.

Involvement in academics has been shown to increase the possibility of students

with disabilities to continue to stay in school (Mamiseishvili & Koch, 2012). Fostering

an environment conducive to student’s learning and educational needs is critical (Lau,

2003). Mamiseishvili & Koch (2012) state that students with disabilities will be more

likely to stay at the university when staff, faculty, and administrators help them to

believe in their own abilities in academics. For students with learning abilities often

requires support services or academic accommodations. Hurtubis-Sahlen and Lehmann

(2006) present that 98 percent of institutions that enrolled students with identified

disabilities had provided at least one support service or accommodations.


3

Despite any particular university system’s adherence to the American Disabilities

Act, a student’s success during their college transition requires the student to be able to

negotiate the learning environment (Kochhar and West, 1996) to acquire those

accommodations. An additional compounding factor is that students with disabilities

often enter higher education systems with fewer self-determination and self-advocacy

skills than their peers without disabilities (Stodden and Conway, 2003). The differences

between secondary education and college are tremendous.

While in secondary education, students were offered an Individual Education

Program (IEP) (Eckes and Ochoa, 2005), to help the student to receive accommodations

and achieve success. Those involved with the development of the IEP would include the

student, the parents, educators representing multiple disciplines (e.g., special education

and general education teachers, school counselor), and a transition specialist (Eckes &

Ochoa, 2005). The IEP falls under the Individuals with Disability Education Act (IDEA)

and under the act the student in secondary education is to be advised during the transition

for secondary to higher education. However, in 2004 IDEA changed the transition age

for the student from 14, to 16 years. (Eckes & Ochoa, 2005). Also added to the change of

law were, one appropriate measurable post-secondary goals based upon age appropriate

transition assessments related to training, education, employment, and where appropriate

independent living skills, and two, the transition services (including courses of study)

needed to assist the child in reaching these goals (Eckes & Ochoa, 2005 and IDEA

2004).

However, IDEA and the IEP support does not transfer to higher education

because ADA and Section 504 in the Rehabilitation Act come into effect when the


4

student enters higher education. ADA and Section 504 are primarily anti-discrimination,

or access, laws rather than specific education laws (Eckes & Ochoa, 2005). In addition,

the ADA and Section 504 also state that four-year institution cannot discriminate because

of the student’s disability and should provide the appropriate accommodations.

Ketterlin-Geller and Johnstone (2006) define accommodations as changes in

instruction or assessment practices that reduce the impact of an individual’s disability on

his or her interaction with the material. For a student to prove that they have a disability

the student must to show documentation to the appropriate university officials. The

documentation needs to identify that the student has a disability that interferes with at

least one major life activity (Katterlin-Geller & Johnstone, 2006). After documentation is

provided, the student will receive accommodations that are appropriate to their learning

disability.

Even though offices at institutions assist students to the best ability the office can,

it does not mean students have a good experience when asking professors to

accommodate things in the class so the student can succeed in class. Forty-five percent

of the students who were surveyed responded having a negative experience from their

professors (Carney, Ginsber, Lee, Li, Orr, Parks, and Schulte, 2007). Hurtubis-Sahlen

and Lehman (2006) presented that 82 percent of faculty at an institution reported having

limited or no training in the area of disability. The faculty is fine with accommodating

students with disabilities; however, sometimes professors do not know how to teach

students with disabilities. In addition to getting training on how to teach students with

disabilities, professors should also be trained on the law that supports students with

disabilities. While professors also indicated that they provided the extra time on tests, or


5

separate testing facilities, most professors also indicated a desire to learn more about best

practices and accommodations to better support students with disabilities (Carney, et al,

2007). If the professors are trained then possibly the negative reaction students with

disabilities had experienced will decrease, and more students with disabilities will get

accommodated in classes.

Requesting accommodations could create fear because students may not know

how to present these accommodations to their professors. However, while requesting

accommodations to the professor, the student should be confident, informed, and non-

confrontational manner. Cohen (2005) suggested that a student schedule a preliminary

meeting with the professor to 1) identify themselves as individuals with documented

learning disabilities; 2) disclose their individual learning style strengths and weaknesses;

3) discuss the scope of their reasonable accommodations, and 4) seek professor assistance

in the implementation of their reasonable accommodations.

Additionally, the student could be embarrassed about having a disability, or try

not using the accommodations while still being successful on their own. When this

happens the student underutilizes the accommodations and it seriously impacts the

students’ higher education experience (Getzel, 2008). However, in the end the student is

using the rights they have to be successful in higher education.

Statement of the Problem

By law, students with disabilities should not be discriminated against; however, it

is hard for all higher education institutions to provide state of the art services. Rund and

Scharf (2000) mentioned that higher education is tempted to select accommodations

based on cost or administrative convenience. However, by law, if the institution already


6

has knowledge of the student’s disabilities they must provide accommodations to the

student. The federal government was providing funds to the states, institutions, and

public or private programs to help with the disability programs provided. The funds were

provided prior to the final law in 1990 of the ADA and the federal government realized

the extensive funding that was given to the states, institutions, and public or private

programs. Therefore, in 1990, the U.S. Congress stopped funding to states, institutions,

and public or private programs (Rund & Scharf, 2000).

Due to the privacy clause in the ADA of 1990, students are not approached to

receive accommodations; therefore, during the transition from secondary to higher

education, the student does not know where to go to receive accommodations. With the

passage of the ADA Amendments Act (ADAAA) the umbrella of disabilities protected

under the law was expanded and clarified. With the addition of two new daily life

activities, which when significantly impaired, qualify a person for protection and services

under the law – thinking and concentration (ADA.Gov, 2013) – many students who had

been previously excluded from accommodations within higher education are now eligible

for services.

These changes has caused institutions to focus on ways accommodate these

students and make their transition to the higher education environment more effective.

Unfortunately, very little empirical research exists on effective and efficient ways

institutions can make a student’s transition to college easier when they have learning

disabilities.


7

Significance of the Problem

The American Council on Education collected data, finding that 6 percent of

entering freshmen attending 4-year colleges and universities in the fall 2000 reported

having a disability (Henderson, 2001). In 2004, the U.S. National Council on Disability’s

Higher Education Act Fact sheet stated that nearly 10 percent of all college students have

a disability, triple the number reported a decade earlier (Carney, et al, 2007). Therefore,

as higher education keep growing in all aspects, it is important to know that enrollment of

students with disabilities will continue to grow and higher education institutions need to

continue to support this type of student population so they also can be as successful as

students who do not have disabilities. The support offered by institutions can assist in the

retention of students with learning disabilities by helping institutions develop more

inclusive environments.

Theoretical Framework

Historically, students who struggled in secondary education have been able to

transition to successful lives beyond high school by locating trade jobs or other

employment opportunities not requiring postsecondary training. However, an ever-

growing population of students with learning disabilities (LD) are able to needing to

attend higher education institutions because of the changing global economy. This has

created an environment in which postsecondary education has become a necessary option

for students with LD (Eckes & Ochoa, 2005; Madaus & Shaw, 2006). Therefore, this

study was informed by the relationship of the following concepts: transition of college

students with disabilities, the transition endeavors needed to accommodate these students

in the educational environment, and the importance of recognizing the unique needs to


8

college students with disabilities in particular. Because transition is the major concept

evaluated in this study, the theoretical framework guiding this study is Schlossberg’s

Transition Theory. Schlossberg’s theory includes an examination of what constitutes a

transition, different forms of transitions, the transition process, and factors that influence

transitions (Evans, Forney, Guido, Patton, and Renn, 2010, p. 214). Students go through

transition in different ways; therefore, it is crucial to understand how students with

learning disabilities cope through their transition into higher education.

Purpose of Study

The purposes of this meta-analysis examine studies on students who have learning

disabilities in the collegiate environment. This topic will be examined by employing

narrative meta-analytical methods to aggregate findings derived from a growing body of

research surrounding the relationship between college transition programs and students

with learning disabilities.

Research Question

The researcher was interested in learning from an analysis of research conducted

on accommodations for collegiate students with learning disabilities from its conception

through current time. The overarching research question for this study was:

1. How has the issue of students with learning disabilities in higher education been

addressed by higher education dissertations from 2003 to 2013?


9

Significance of the Study

With the growth of students with disability attending higher education, this study

will help institutions on how to better assist students who have learning disabilities. The

first significance of the study is to help students understand that they still have the right to

receive accommodations when they start their higher education career. Even though, the

way to request accommodations is different the student still is able to receive

accommodations. The second significance of the study is to help institutions on how they

can better reach out to students who do have disabilities. The reason for this is

institutions have a goal to keep retention rate high and therefore, this study can help

improve institutions rate with students who have disability.

Limitations of the Study

Several limitations about this study should be noted because of the specific nature

of this review.

1. The study is limited to dissertations written prior to 2003 and 2013

2. Only dissertations categorized with the parameters of the six descriptors (i.e.,

accommodations, learning disability, postsecondary education, instruction, and

transition) were evaluated.

3. Despite the attempt to conduct an exhaustive search of literature, there may have

been additional search techniques not explored.

4. Selected studies may contact researcher bias.


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Organization of Study

Chapter I is the introduction of the study, which will explain why the study is

being conducted, the components that will guide the study, and key words that are used

through the whole study. Chapter II is the literature review, in which the study goes more

in depth to understand key items of the study. Chapter III will explain how the study is

being conducted, design of the study, and researcher is collecting data. Chapter IV

outlines the result of the study, in which data will show the positive and negative of the

study. Chapter V is a discussion of the conclusions of the study and recommendations

for future studies.

Definition of Terms

Accommodations: is defined as changes in instruction or assessment practices that

reduce the impact of an individual’s disability on his or her interaction with the material

(Ketterlin-Geller & Johnstone, 2006)

Advocacy: is defined as any action that speaks in favor of, recommends, argues for a

cause, supports or defends, or pleads on behalf of others

Americans with Disability Act (ADA): prohibits discrimination and ensures equal

opportunity for persons with disabilities in employment, State and local government

services, public accommodations, commercial facilities, and transportation

(www.ada.gov)

Disability: is defined as in respect to an individual, (A) a physical or mental

impairment that substantially limits one or more major life activities of such individual,

(B) a record of such impairment, (C) being regarded as having such impairment

(www.ada.gov)


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Individuals with Disability Education Act (IDEA): is the United States federal law

that governs how states and public agencies provide early intervention, special education,

and related services to children with disabilities (idea.ed.gov)

Individual Education Program (IEP): is a written statement for each child with a

disability that is developed, reviewed, and revised in a meeting (ideapartnership.org)

Learning disability: means a disorder in one or more of the basic psychological

processes involved in understanding or in using language, spoken or written, which

disorder may manifest itself in the imperfect ability to listen, think, speak, read, write,

spell, or do mathematical calculations.

(A) DISORDERS INCLUDED- Such term includes such conditions as perceptual

disabilities, brain injury, minimal brain dysfunction, dyslexia, and developmental

aphasia.

(B) DISORDERS NOT INCLUDED- Such term does not include a learning

problem that is primarily the result of visual, hearing, or motor disabilities, of

mental retardation, of emotional disturbance, or of environmental, cultural, or

economic disadvantage (IDEA, 2004).

Transition: any event, or non-event, that results in changed relationships, routines,

assumptions, and roles (Goodman, Schlossberg & Anderson, 2006, p.33)

Transition services: a coordinated set of activities for a child with a disability that -

(A) is designed to be within a results-oriented process, that is focused on

improving the academic and functional achievement of the child with a disability

to facilitate the child’s movement from school to post-school activities, including

postsecondary education; vocational education; integrated employment (including


12

supported employment); adult services; independent living or community

participation;

(B) is based on the individual child's needs, taking into account the child's

strengths, preferences and interests; and

(C) includes instruction, related services, community experiences, the

development of employment and other post-school adult living objectives and,

when appropriate, acquisition of daily living skills and functional vocational

evaluation (IDEA, 2004).

Secondary Education: students attending school from first to twelfth grade.

Self-advocacy: a student’s ability to speak on his or her own behalf with respect to

disability-related needs associated with the postsecondary educational experience

(Schutz, 2002, p. 56)

Summary

Universities across the country have seen an increase of numbers of students with

disabilities attending universities and community colleges. However, these students

sometimes do not know that there are services for them when attending the higher

education institutions. Chapter I provides the background information about students

with disabilities and how the student’s transition is not easy. In addition, information is

provided about how the student needs to learn very quickly on how to advocate for

themselves. Lastly, the researcher provides information on how the study is going to be

conducted.


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CHAPTER II

REVIEW OF THE LITERATURE

Introduction

The goal of this study was to explore recent higher education dissertations related

to collegiate students with learning disabilities and transition. This review of the

literature provides the context of the study by reviewing the theoretical framework,

federal legislation related to students with disabilities and transition to postsecondary

education. In addition, the literature review will discuss the history of student disability

services within higher education.

College Transition for Students with Learning Disabilities

Our growing global society needs a workforce that has extensive education

(Fagella- Luby & Deschler, 2008; National Council on Disability [NCD], 2003). The job

market during the last decade has become more competitive and individuals can no

longer depend on a dearth of unskilled jobs being available to those without a college

degree (Gregg, 2007; National Academics, 2006). The need for more educated workforce

has created a situation whereby more students need to attend institutions of higher

education to fill this potential gap in the workforce. Therefore, postsecondary education

needs to be able to assist all eligible students be successful at their institutions.

Students who have historically struggled in secondary education have been able to

transition to successful lives beyond high school by acquiring employment opportunities

not requiring postsecondary training. Students with learning disabilities often were able

to locate careers without a college degree, but due to the new global economy, students

with learning disabilities see higher education as more viable option. Therefore, assisting


14

students with learning disabilities in mastering rigorous world of college has become

vital. Transitioning to the college environment is a complex issue. High school teachers’

concerns include inadequate professional development for accommodating these students

and insufficient training in technology (Stodden, Galloway & Stodden, 2003). Many

students with disabilities receive substandard secondary curricula content despite the fact

that much of their special education instruction is individualized. Students cannot easily

generalize their secondary educational experiences to the university environment

(Wolanin & Steele, 2004). For example, Kavale and Forness (1996) conducted a

longitudinal study that associated childhood LD with a high risk of lasting deficits

inherent to the disability, such as low self-esteem, lower general IQ, and poor

psychosocial adjustment. Consideration of these factors warrants the establishment of

transition processes that foster independence and promote early linkages with

postsecondary service providers.

Early studies on transition to college of students with learning disabilities, as

noted by Estrada, Dupoux and Wolman (2006), focus primarily on academic ability as a

predictor of college adjustment, but their research on locus of control of college students

with LD suggested that psychological functioning may be as important as academic

functioning in predicting psychological adjustment to college. Locus of control refers to

one’s attribution tendency regarding the cause or control of events (Rotter, 1954).

Estrada, Dupoux and Wolman (2006) state that most students with learning disabilities

exhibit an external locus of control. This is important because individuals who have an

external locus of control often believe that situations in their lives are the result of luck,

fate, or the behaviors of powerful others rather than attributing their own efforts or


15

abilities as causal factors of these events. The positive association they found between

externality and social adjustment in college could indicate that external locus of control is

an appropriate survival tool for the college environment. This is the only current

literature on transition that which articulates this point of view. Other studies emphasize

the importance of self-advocacy, suggesting that students must place the responsibility

for positive outcomes in postsecondary school on themselves (Dalke & Schmitt, 1987;

Eckes & Ochoa, 2005; Izzo & Lamb, 2002).

Coming to a new environment may not be an easy transition for students with or

without disabilities. Students may feel uncomfortable with new peers. All students in

this study lived on the university campus in residence halls, living day in and day out in

close proximity to new peers. This can enable opportunities to make new connections,

but can also be overwhelming. Loneliness and fear are feelings that many encounter as

they begin the transition to college. These emotions can keep students from getting out

there and meeting people. These feelings are typical for many college students (NDSU,

2006).

Eckes and Ochoa (2005) discussed how disability laws prohibit institutions of

higher education from seeking information on disability status, resulting in a transfer of

responsibility from the school to the student with regards to seeking supportive academic

services. Students usually enter college without knowledge of the change in laws that

apply to their education and without knowledge of how to advocate for themselves.

Students with disabilities are one of the diverse types of students that a higher education

institution has. At any higher education institution, institutions try to meet the needs of


16

all diverse groups. Students with disabilities do go through a little more obstacles

compared to a student who does not have a disability.

The first step the student should do is present themselves to the disability office at

the institution the student has taken the first step towards advocating for himself or

herself. When students advocate for themselves, it does not mean the student has all the

answers. Therefore, the student should be able to disclose information about their

disability and be able to request an accommodation in accordance with the policies of the

higher education institution (Hurtubis-Sahlen & Lehmann, 2006). When a student has

given the correct documentation and received the accommodation paper to present to

professors the student gets nervous for multiple reasons. A student possibly will feel

scared to let the professor know about their disability because the professor might think

the student is seeking special privileges. Even though, the student just wants to succeed

as other students who do not have a disability.

Students with disabilities not only need to be self-advocates but also have self-

determination when it comes to their disabilities. As Getzel (2008) mentioned students

with disabilities need self-determination to successfully transition to, adjust to, and

remain in college. Students at this point need to learn that seeking accommodations in

higher education will need to be done on their own, and know when to ask and when to

use accommodations. Students possibly do not know how to ask for accommodations

because they did not need to ask for themselves during their time in secondary education.

The student has now become the primary person responsible for the effective use of the

accommodation requesting (Getzel, 2008).


17

Documentation of disability for postsecondary institutions can be more extensive

than the assessment information needed at the secondary level for special education

services or 504 accommodations (Sitlington & Payne, 2004). This can cause students

with learning disabilities have difficulty when transition to the university environment.

Association of Higher Education and Disability (AHEAD) in 1997 recommended specific

guidelines for documenting learning disabilities for purposes of receiving

accommodations at postsecondary institutions and these guidelines have been adopted by

many U.S. colleges and universities. AHEAD suggested five components for

substantiating a learning disability: a diagnostic interview; a comprehensive formal

educational assessment including data about aptitude, academic achievement and

information processing skills; a specific diagnosis; test scores in a standard form; and a

clinical summary. A prior history of accommodations does not ensure the provision of

similar accommodations (AHEAD, 1997; Sitlington & Payne, 2004). These

recommendations necessitate that students become active participants in the educational

process rather than the passive participants they were during their secondary education.

In addition, changes in the administration of special education programs under the

IDEA amendments of 1997 and 2004 have created some new obstacles in the transition

of students with disabilities into postsecondary schools, essentially creating a mismatch

between available assessment data provided by high schools and required assessment

data needed for accommodations in college (Gormley, Hughes, Block & Lendmann,

2005). Therefore, school districts are no longer obligated to conduct evaluations of

students presently receiving special education services. Therefore, although colleges

require a current assessment data in the form of standardized testing, the report from high


18

schools may not be available or could be presented in informal nature. Additionally,

some states’ departments of education have been moving away from the use of specific

disability labels toward more generic terms such as “student in need of services” terms

which do not constitute the diagnostic statements required for eligibility for disability

services in college.

This movement causes inconsistencies between the information provided by the

secondary schools and the requirements of postsecondary schools may force students and

their families to find alternative, often private, methods of assessment, which can be

expensive. This has not been a reasonable alternative for many students, leading to

inequities in accessing accommodations in college – possibly a deterrent to even applying

to college. Without a full assessment completed, many postsecondary institutions have

not allowed a grace period in which new students may receive class or exam

accommodations (Gormley, et al., 2005).

Sitlington and Payne (2004) proposed the following new approaches to

determining student eligibility for disability services to smooth the transition to

postsecondary education:

1. Summarize information from the IEP that documents why the student was

“in need of special education services,” including why the student’s disability

“substantially limits” his/her learning.

2. Report the results of any curriculum-based measurements, in which the

student is compared to the district or school norm group.


19

3. Include the results of the statewide and districtwide assessments, which

compare how the student performed in comparison to all students in the state or

district.

4. Summarize information from the student’s IEP that compares the student’s

performance to the standards and benchmarks of the district. Include the results of

any applicable formal psychometric tests, which may have been given as part of

the transition assessment process.

5. Arrange to have a certified or licensed professional from a local

educational agency provide a review and evaluation of previous disability

documentation and current data on the impact of the disability on the academic

achievement and functional performance. This review would include

recommendations on how to assist the student in meeting his or her postsecondary

goals (pp. 10 & 11).

Individuals with Disabilities Education Act (IDEA)

The way a student is accommodated by an institution is also influenced by the

Individuals with Disabilities Act. The Individuals with Disabilities Education Act

(IDEA) was the first national special education law applying to all public schools in the

United States (Madaus & Shaw, 2006, p. 12). IDEA of 1990 comes from the Education

of All Handicapped Children Act of 1975; it included “the requirement of postsecondary

transition planning for students with disabilities beginning at age 16” (Prince, Katsiyannis

& Farmer, 2013, p. 2). However, in 1997, amendments were added to IDEA and one of

the amendments was for transition planning to start at age 14. Seven years after the 1997

amendments were added IDEA went through other changes; which is “further refined the


20

transition requirements for youth with disabilities, including the requirement that

transition planning begin at age 16” (Prince, et al, 2013, p. 2). The IDEA law is a civil

rights law and the only that provides federal funds to educational agencies if only the

agencies comply with the law’s requirements.

IDEA reaffirms the constitutional right of children with disabilities to a free

appropriate public education (Morrissey, 1998, p. 5). The passing of IDEA of 1997

included the “recommendation to develop interagency linkages; expand curricula and

programs to encompass instruction, community experiences and employment; increase

accountability of states and schools for post schools, and students to the transition

process; and to inevitably change the roles of some school professionals from direct

service providers to service coordinators” (Schutz, 2002, p. 53). Also, IDEA requires

secondary school districts to create an Individual Education Plan (IEP) for students with

disabilities. “IEP is developed by a group comprised of the parents of the student, a

regular education teacher of the student, a special education teacher, a representative of

the local education agency, a person who can interpret the instructional implications of

the evaluation results, any other individuals who have knowledge or special expertise

regarding the student’s disability, and the student” (Schutz, 2002, p. 49).

American Disabilities Act in Higher Education

Students with disabilities want to continue their education after secondary

education. Stanley (2000) mentioned that students with disabilities who graduate from

secondary education were three times as likely to enroll in higher education programs

compared to students without disabilities. However, it was never easy for students with

disabilities to enroll in higher education. Historically, colleges and universities assisted


21

students with disabilities but were not compelled legally to do so until the 1990 when the

Americans with Disability Act (ADA) went into effect. Prior to the enactment of ADA,

students with disabilities were accommodated under Section 504 of the Rehabilitation

Act of 1973. Prior to implementation of the Rehabilitation Act of 1973, many colleges

and universities denied admission to students with disabilities(Stanley, 2000).

These denials were rectified by the establishments of these laws. As Jarrow

(1992) mentions, the Section 504 of the Rehabilitation Act of 1973 and ADA of 1990 are

basic civil rights laws that ensure accessibility and nondiscrimination and protect only

those deemed otherwise qualified. Skinner and Lindstrom (2003) defined otherwise

qualified as a student has met the admission standards of the institution, it does not

ensure an appropriate education that meets the student’s individual needs such as that

mandated by IDEA (p. 134). The ADA ensures “equal access by identifying and

providing accommodations to reduce the effects of the disability as much as possible”

(Skinner & Lindstrom, 2003, p.134). Therefore, it is important to evaluate the entity at

institutions of higher learning tasked with the responsibility of ensuring equal access:

disability services offices.

The ADA of 1990 allowed students with disabilities to receive accommodations;

however, it is restricted to the disability the student has. With the law being restricted,

there were students not able to receive accommodations. Therefore, in 2008 an

amendment act was passed to support the ADA and give more opportunity to students

with disabilities. The amendment act “emphasizes that the definition of disability should

be construed in favor of broad coverage of individuals to the maximum extent permitted

by the terms of the ADA and generally shall require extensive analysis” (www.eeoc.gov).


22

Disability Services Office

The offices that support students with disabilities are not allowed to make

inquiries about students’ disability status and “should be careful not to establish difficult

procedures that might hinder students with disabilities from receiving special education

accommodations” (Eckes & Ochoa, 2005, p.10). However, once the university is on

notice of a disability, the school must make “academic adjustments” that are necessary to

ensure an opportunity to participate (Eckes & Ochoa, 2005, p. 9). A few of the

adjustments that universities can provide are tape recorded lectures, extended time for

exams, note takers, books on tapes, or etc.. Eckes and Ochoa (2005) also mention that

once the student’s disability is documented, the higher education institution “must

reasonably accommodate” the student (p. 9). In addition, accommodations that are

provided are on a case-by-case because students have different needs depending on the

disability that is documented.

The process to help students with disabilities has been slow through the years;

however, “colleges and universities have made their programs more and more accessible,

sometimes in good faith, sometimes due to coercion by federal agencies and courts”

(Thomas, 2000, p. 248). There are government agencies that provide funds for disability

programs, such as the Departments of Education, Health and Human Services, and

Housing and Urban Development (Rund and Scharf, 2000).

Besides the help of these departments, institutions have turned to other ways on

how to collect funding. An example is the community in which the higher education

institution is located. The community funds can come in private foundations and

nonprofit organization. The community has discovered that higher education institutional


23

programs can be beneficial groups with which to associate because gifted funds are

prudently managed, easily accounted for, and used to produce tangible results (Rund and

Scharf, 2000). One way a higher education institution can collect funds is by the

institution itself. Institution support is important just like Rund and Scharf (2000)

mention it all depends on the type of institution, size, and student demographics. Higher

education institutions do fund different programs and offices on campus, but that does not

mean support is not given. Institutions have a limited amount and discretion of

institutional funds; support for campus programs has generally remained static over the

past several years (Rund and Scharf, 2000).

Theoretical Framework

Schlossberg Transition Theory

Traditional and non-traditional college students face many changes that will affect

their lives currently or in the future. Therefore, “Nancy Schlossberg’s transition theory

provides insights into factors related to the transition, the individual, and the environment

that are likely to determine the degree of impact a given transition will have at a

particular time” (Evans, et al., 2010, p. 212-213). In addition, Schlossberg believed the

need existed to “develop a framework that would facilitate and understanding of adults in

transition and aid them in connecting to the help they needed to cope with the “ordinary

and extraordinary process of living” (Evans, et al., 2010, p. 213). Schlossberg’s

transition theory explores the different forms of transitions, the transition process, and

factors that influence transitions (Evans, et al., 2010, p. 214).

The theory has three different forms of transitions: type, context, and impact.

Type describes three non-discrete types of transition, which are anticipated transition


24

(occur predictably), unanticipated transition (are not predictable or scheduled), and

nonevents (expected to occur but do not). The context of the transition refers to “one’s

relationship to the transition and to the setting in which the transition takes place” (Evans,

et al., 2010, p. 215). The transition process all depends on the person's own transition

with the situation. There can positive steps and negative steps but the transition depends

on the time needed to achieve a successful transition. Schlossberg (1989b) refers to the

transition process as reactions over time; such as moving in, moving through, and moving

out (Evans, et. al, 2010, p.216).

The factors that influence transitions are defined as the four S’s; which are

situation, self, support, and strategies. With situation there are factors to consider, such

as what triggered the transition, the timing, who has the control of the transition, will

there be a role change, the duration of the transition, does the person has previous

experience with the transition, how much stress there is for the transition, and assess the

transition so the person can make the best decision during the transition. Self is the

second word and it is divided two ways; such as personal and demographic

characteristics and psychological resources. Support follows with three components;

which are types, function, and measurement. The last S that influences transition is

strategies which are defined by “coping responses as essentially falling into three

categories: those that modify the situation, those that control the meaning of the problem,

and those that aid in managing the stress in the aftermath” (Evans, et al., 2010, p. 217).

Understanding the four S’s is critical when assisting students with learning disabilities

because of the critical need of the students to feel supported by a new challenging

educational environment.


25

Summary

The growing global society is encouraging more and more people to get a better

education and the population that is growing is students with disabilities. These students

do want to continue with their education, but they do not know that they could receive

accommodations and their transition is unique because they do have to make an extra

effort to succeed. Chapter II explains more in detail how students with disabilities

receive accommodations in secondary and higher education and the process to receive

accommodations is different. Also, the laws that students with disabilities are protected

explain how institutions in secondary and higher education are supposed to support the

students to have a successful education. Lastly, this chapter explains Schlossberg’s

theory of transition and gives in detail how transitions affect students depending on the

environment and/or situation.


26

CHAPTER III

METHODOLOGY

Chapter III presents the methodology for this meta-analysis. It consists of the

following sections: restatement of the purpose of study, restatement of the research

questions, context of the study, and the research design.

Restatement of the Purpose of the Study

The transition from secondary to higher education is never easy for any student.

However, it can be more difficult to students with learning disabilities because these

students loose the organized assistance they received in secondary education. This topic

can be examined by employing narrative meta-analytical methods to aggregate findings

derived from a growing body of research surrounding the relationship between college

transition programs and students with learning disabilities.

The purpose of this meta-analysis is to assist further studies on students who have

learning disabilities about the student’s transition from secondary to higher education.

The meta-analysis is to help and guide other researchers because the growth of students

with disability is growing and it is important for institutions retention.

Restatement of Research Question

This study was grounded by the following overarching research question:

1. How has the issue of students with learning disabilities in higher education been

addressed by higher education dissertations from 2003 to 2013?


27

Research Design

This study used Qualitative Metasynthesis Study (QMS) design, generating new

interpretive findings from existing dissertations related to students with learning

disabilities in higher education. The approach established evidence based research to

support informed practice, and as a tool that can be used in concert with traditional

quantitative meta-analysis. Unlike a typical quantitative meta-analysis, this study is

“bounded” by both a search of a specific research genre (the doctoral dissertation

abstract) and a specific time period. Like, Major and Savin-Baden (2010) who sought “a

better approach for making sense of existing research” (p.10). This study used qualitative

document analysis (Altheide, Coyle, DeVriese, & Schneider, 2008) as the framework as

well as a meta-study approach (Paterson, Thorne, Canam & Jillings, 2001). The latter

focused the analysis not only on the study findings, but on the particular methods and

theories employed in the studies.

Overview of the Selection Process

The selection process started with identifying potentially relevant studies by

screening the titles, keywords and abstracts of the citations derived from the

comprehensive database search described in the next section. This process was

completed by the primary researcher and one other researcher. The exclusion and

inclusion criteria were used to distinguish between those studies that clearly were not

representative of the population of studies of interest. Studies identified as being of

potential interest were marked for retrieval.


28

Computerized Database Searches

White’s (1994) recommendation to use “natural language terms” as well as

“controlled-vocabulary terms” to compose a comprehensive search statement (p.49) was

used to conducted the database search. Natural language terms are those terms directly

associated with the domain of inquiry such as may be revealed in abstracts or the full text

of potential studies of interest, while controlled vocabulary terms involve subject

headings and descriptors used for indexing. Reed and Baxter (1994) pointed out that the

selection of relevant terms should be based on a “clear definition of the topic, which

1. Precisely reflects the scope as well as the limits of the search

2. Included all important concepts

3. Indicates relationships among concepts, and

4. Provides criteria for inclusion/exclusions of materials” (p.60)

Based on these recommendations, a list of terms associated with college transition,

higher education, accommodations and learning disabilities was constructed to direct the

search process. Conceptual terms related to college transition included the terms:

accommodations, transition, and academic success. Conceptual terms that reflected this

study’s conceptualization of learning disabilities included: college students, universal

design, classroom teaching. These terms were validated by reviewing the subject

headings and descriptors in the databases and by reviewing the citation information of

several pre-selected dissertations in relation to the database.

Computerized citation searches also provide a good basis for retrospective and

prospective retrieval of potentially relevant published or unpublished dissertations

(White, 1994). For example, citation indexes were used to search references for


29

subsequent publications citing a particular source of interest. According to White (1994),

“Forward citation searching, still underutilized, has much to recommend it, since it tends

to produce hits different from those produced by retrievals with natural language or

controlled vocabulary” (p. 52). Citation searches were initiated after the other database

searches were completed and a sample of dissertations for inclusion were identified.

Selected dissertations were then subjected to manual footnote chasing by reviewing the

reference list and, if appropriate, to prospective citation searches using the Social Science

Citation Index and the Science Citation Index Expanded (Reed & Baxter, 1994).

The selection of pertinent databases is important in consideration of potential

biases introduced by the characteristics of each database. It is generally highly

recommended to search multiple database to retrieve an as complete as possible sample

of studies relevant to the research question (Reed & Baxter, 1994).

Sample and Procedures

The sampling procedures for this study were guided by the selection criteria as

well as by an extensive search strategy which was designed to construct a sample of

studies that was congruent with the research question and conceptual definitions

underlying this meta-analysis. According to Hedges (1994), “The sampling procedure

must be designed so as to yield studies that are representative of the intended universe of

studies” (p.35). Hedges explains that, although the notion of “exhaustive sampling” is

used to achieve a sufficiently representative sample of studies, one should not assume

that the aggregated sample of studies involves the complete extent of variability that may

be present in the universe of potential studies pertaining to the domain of inquiry.


30

In an effort to examine accommodations for postsecondary students with learning

disabilities, dissertation were located in the ProQuest Dissertation and Theses digital

database focusing on postsecondary students, accommodations, and transition from

2003 to 2013. A 10 year time frame was selected to provide for a reasonable number of

dissertations for examination. To account for dissertation publishing time, the year 2013

was selected for the stop year for this study. Dissertation abstracts were searched using

the following search terms: accommodations, learning disability, postsecondary

education, and transition. Only dissertations published in the United States were

included in this search.

All abstracts produced by these searches were screened. Each abstract used for

the unit of analysis in this study contained the information captured by downloading the

ProQuest data to Endnote and then exporting this information using the ‘‘Show All

Fields’’ filter. For the analysis, the following information was used: author, year,

institution, title, and abstract.

Data Analysis

Data analysis was completed using Noblit and Hare’s (1988) meta-ethnographic

methodology. This type of analysis is appropriate for QMS studies because meta-studies

has many similarities with meta-ethnography because both are integrative approaches in

the phenomenological tradition (Sandelowski & Barroso, 2007). A systematic

comparison using the inductive and integrative approach listed below was used to create

an integrative review:


31

Step 1. Getting started and deciding on a phenomenon of study: This first step is

to identify an area of interest worthy of synthesis. The experiences of teaching online

were chosen as the area of interest in this study.

Step 2. Deciding what qualitative studies and interview data are relevant to the

initial interest: This phase involves conducting a literature search for studies and

interviews to include in the analysis. Relevant studies were reviewed to narrow down the

selection based on the inclusion criteria stated earlier.

Step 3. Reading the qualitative data: This step allows for the extraction of

interpretive metaphors. All data must be read and re-read to identify key metaphors,

themes, or concepts. Detailed notes were kept on these themes, concepts, and metaphors.

Step 4. Determining how the data are related to each other: Lists of key phrases,

themes, concepts, or metaphors from the data are listed and juxtaposed. Preliminary

assumptions were made in regard to the relationships between data.

Step 5. Translating the data into one another: Translations are written based on the

tentative assumption derived from the previous phase. Metaphors of the individual

findings and their relationship remain intact but allow the comparison of results from one

finding to those in the other data.

Step 6. Synthesizing the translations: This step is a second level of synthesis used

when a large number of data is involved, allowing for a higher level of abstraction. At

that point, the study was reviewed and the translations were synthesized, which involved

“putting together” a whole that revealed more than the sum of all individual data.


32

Step 7. Expressing the synthesis in written words: In this final phase, the synthesis

is expressed in a form that communicates effectively with the target audience (Noblit &

Hare, 1988, pp. 26-29).

The goal of meta-synthesis analysis is to look for patterns in the included data that

have high explanatory power for the phenomenon under investigation. The synthesis

utilized three stages which overlapped to some degree: the free line-by-line coding of the

findings of dissertations; the organization of emerging codes into related areas to

constructed descriptive themes; and the development of ‘analytical’ themes. After the

completion of the independent coding for each dissertation, comparisons were done

between the individual translations. The translations and interpretations were revealed

naturally as progression through the phases continued; “The nature of the synthesis is

discovered in the process of the synthesis and aids, not supplants, the interpretation”

(Noblit & Hare, 1988, p. 80).

Trustworthiness

Creswell (2007) mentions trustworthiness or validity of a study means that the

“researcher checks for the accuracy of the findings by employing certain procedures or

strategies (p. 190). In addition, according to Lincoln and Guba (1985) researchers should

consider four criteria in order to establish trustworthiness; credibility – the degree that the

findings are congruent with the truth, transferability – the extent which findings can be

applied to other situations; dependability - if repeated with similar criteria the findings

would be similar; and conformability – the findings reflect the experiences of the

participants versus the preferences of the researcher (Shenton, 2004). To insure

trustworthiness of this study, the final set of dissertations used represented consensus by


33

two research team members who used the inductive coding process. The strategy of peer

examination (Creswell, 2007) was used by to reach consensus in assigning topical codes

to dissertation abstracts.

Role of the Researcher

The researcher is the instrument of this study and therefore, it is important that the

reader learns the background of the researcher and why this topic was selected. The

researcher is currently employed as a staff member at a higher education institution and

her duties are to help high school students get ready for higher education. In addition to

being a staff member and a student with the graduate school, the researcher is registered

with the Office of Disability Services. The researcher was diagnosed with a learning

disability in primary school and through her whole career of education she has been using

accommodations that are provided. By being registered with the office of disability

services, the researcher has a personal interested to find research and help other students

with disabilities.

The researcher’s interest to this study is when she started her higher education

career she did not know that she could continue to receive accommodations when taking

classes. The only way she found out about receiving accommodations was a month

before the first day of school. Therefore, my interest in this study was to make

institutions aware the population of students with disabilities is growing and it is

important to find ways to support them.

Summary

This meta-analysis focused on dissertations that were published within 2003 to

2013 with the topic of students with disabilities and then narrowed down the search with


34

using specific words; such as accommodations, learning disabilities, postsecondary

education, and transition. Chapter III went into detail on the research design used to

collect the data through computerized databases and the steps taken to analysis the data.

Chapter IV outlines the results found from this analysis.


35

CHAPTER IV

PRESENTATION OF FINDINGS

Introduction

Chapter IV presents the findings the data collected for this qualitative study. In

order to create the context of the study the chapter will begin by restating the purpose and

questions that guided the research.

Restatement of the Study Purpose

As previously, noted current research on postsecondary students with learning

disabilities is limited. Therefore, the purpose of this meta-analysis was to examine higher

education dissertations focused on students who have learning disabilities about the

student’s transition from secondary to higher education. The focus of this study was to

synthesize the methods and processes found in current higher education research that

enriched services for students with learning disabilities. The study uncovered successful

strategies that administrations could use as references to enhance support services for

students with learning disabilities in higher education.

Restatement of Research Question

This study was grounded by the following overarching research question:

1. How has the issue of students with learning disabilities in higher education

been addressed by higher education dissertations from 2003 to 2013?


36

Summary of Data Analysis

Data analysis for this study utilized systematic comparison using the inductive

and integrative approach listed to create an integrative review of dissertation

investigating accommodations for students who have learning disabilities transitioning

from secondary to higher education. The reading, coding, interpretation of each

dissertation, and synthesis between the dissertations promoted the identification of

common themes.

Results

Descriptive Information

Six dissertations were identified for this meta-synthesis and several

demographics and methodological characteristics of all the dissertations included in

this study are provided in Tables 1 and 2. Table 1 shows that these dissertations

involved 556 participants who were both students, faculty and higher education

administrators. As seen in Table 2, various qualitative a nd q uan t i t a t i ve designs

were equally used in these studies. The most common collection methodology was

interviews (n=4) followed by survey (n=2). The disciplines or fields represented by

the selected studies were Education (n = 5) and 5) Information Systems and

Technology (n = 1).


37

Table 1. Demographic Characteristics of Participants

Title of Study Author/Year Number of

Individuals

in Study

Individual Variables (e.g., age,

nationality, and

gender)

Advisor knowledge of

disability-related needs, laws,

and accommodation

requirements in postsecondary

academic advisement practices

Young,

R.E./2013 399 a. Academic

advisors

Learning disabilities and the virtual college campus: A

grounded theory of

accessibility

Hollins,

N.L./2012 16 a. Self-

identified

college

students

with

learning

disabilities

b. Enrolled in

a virtual

college

Faculty provisions of

accommodations for students

with disabilities in higher

education: An analysis of

community college faculty in

the traditional, hybrid, and

online mathematics course

teaching environments

Mongiovi,

K.A./2012 34 a. Mathemati

cs faculty

b. Communit

y college

Factors within the post-

secondary education

environment that positively

impact the academic success

of college students with

ADHD

Heiney,

E.P./2011 9

a. Collegestudents

b. ADHD


38

Continue Table 1. Demographic Characteristics of Participants

A study of perceptions of students with disabilities

toward services received in a

community college

Rice-

Fitzpatrick,

L.L/2004

61 a. 2 males, 1

femaleb. Representing

the same

educational

institution but

teaching

different

subject

matters

Exceeding Expectations

project: A case study on

students' with disabilities

transition to postsecondary

institutions

Garrison-

Wade,

D./2004

17 a. College

students with

disabilities

Table 2. Methodological Characteristics of Included Studies

Study Disciplin

e

Publishe

d in

Geographic

al Location

of Study

Research

Design

Data

Collection

Method

Data

Analysis

Method

Young, R.E./

2013

Education Mississippi Exploratory Sequential

mixed

method

Semi-structured

interviews

and web-

based

survey

Qualitative descriptive

Hollins,

N.L//

2012

Information

Systems and

Technology

New York Grounded

theory

Interviews Qualitative

Constant

comparativ

e

Mongiovi

K.A./

2012

Education Florida General

descriptive

design

Survey Quantitative

descriptive

Heiney,

E.P./2011

Education Kentucky General

descriptive

design

Interviews; Qualitative

Narrative

Analysis


39

Continue Table 2. Methodological Characteristics of Included Studies

Rice-

Fitzpatrick

, L.L/2004

Education Maryland General

descriptive

design

Survey Quantitative

descriptive

Garrison-Wade,

D./2004

Psychology Colorado Mixed Method Case

study

Focus

groups,

intervie

ws,

documen

t review,

and

survey

Quantitative descriptive and

Constant

Comparative

Results of Individual Reviews

Each individual dissertation review had a number of factors reflecting the

inclusionary and exclusionary criteria. Each of these six reviews is described briefly

below in terms of these criteria and their major findings

Young, R.E. (2013)

Utilizing Bandura’s (1977) social learning theory as a framework, this dissertation

study surveyed 387 postsecondary academic advisors about their knowledge of disability-

related issues and the influence of that knowledge on their advising practices.

Specifically, the research explored academic advisors’ knowledge of and practices related

to disability law, accommodation requirements, institutional disability services and the

specific needs of students with disabilities.

Findings demonstrated that more than half of the respondents had little training

regarding disability legislation or institutional disability services. Highlighting the need

for academic advisors to have more opportunities for training on referral and


40

developmental advising techniques were among the recommendations for colleges and

universities.

Hollins, N.L. (2012)

This qualitative study explored the experiences of 16 self-identified students with

learning disabilities interacting on a virtual college campus. The researcher used the

social model of disability to evaluate whether or not the features of the virtual campus

were helpful for participating students. Using a grounded theory methodology, the results

of this study suggest that web accessibility as currently conceived is too limiting to assist

students with learning disabilities to be successful. The researcher noted that universal

access is unrealistic as users of the virtual campus bring varied strengths and capabilities

as well as varied impairments to their interaction with web-based services. Of note, it was

recommended that institutions focus on the construction of a web-human interface that can

be individualized to meet the user's specific needs.

Mongiovi, K.A. (2012)

This exploratory descriptive dissertation examined the mathematics faculty

provisions of accommodations for students with disabilities within a community college.

Examining developmental and college level mathematics courses taught in traditional,

hybrid, and online formats, the researcher used the 5 C’s Model of Dropping Out (Repetto,

Cavanaugh, Wayer & Liu, 2010) to determine what factors impacted the providing

reasonable accommodations students with disabilities taking these courses. Seventy-nine

faculty responses were collected, while only 34 participants completed the Mathematics

Teaching Environments and Students with Disabilities Survey. Results indicated that

faculty attitudes and perceptions regarding disabilities may impact how faculty taught


41

students with disabilities. Faculty also demonstrated a disconnect regarding the number of

students who are self-identified as having disabilities and those numbers actually reported.

The researcher indicated that there was a great need for faculty training regarding

provisions of accommodations for students is necessary, regardless of the type of delivery

of instruction utilized.

Heiney, E.P. (2011)

Focused on one specific learning disability, ADHD, this dissertation attempted to

examine the factors within the academic environment that positively influence the

academic success of college students with ADHD. A qualitative examination of nine

successful college students with ADHD was conducted. Using a narrative analysis

method, two main themes were revealed by: (1) support within the academic environment

and (2) effective teaching methods for students who learn differently. Although unrelated

to the academic environment, a third theme emerged, which involved the strong emphasis

participants placed on factors inherent to themselves. The author suggests that the

academic success of college students with ADHD is a collaborative effort between the

individual and the institution.

Rice-Fitzpatrick, L.L. (2004)

Designed to investigate the perceptions of students with disabilities toward the

services provided by a community college, this quantitative dissertation surveyed 150

community college students about transitional services, accommodations/support services,

and social acceptance/self- advocacy initiatives. The theoretical frameworks utilized for

this study were Astin’s Theory of Student Involvement (1984) and Tinto’s Student

Integration Model (1975), Descriptive statistics along with cross-tabulations and the Chi-


42

Square test were utilized to discover the interactions and significance of various survey

parameters. Results indicated a need to initiate programs to dispel negative myths and

societal expectations of students with disabilities. In addition, the findings demonstrated

that demographics such as age, gender, and type of disability impacted student perceptions

toward transitional services, accommodations/support services, self-advocacy initiatives

and socialization opportunities.

Garrison-Wade, D. (2004)

This case study dissertation explored the outcomes of a grant called the Exceeding

Expectations: Model Demonstration Project implemented by Colorado State University.

The model was designed to increase access, transition and retention of students with

disabilities in higher education. The mixed method design specifically explored the

transition experiences of students with disabilities. Data collection techniques included

focus group discussions, individual interviews, document/archival reviews, field notes

from site visits, and a survey instrument.

The study demonstrated that students lacked preparation for their transition to

postsecondary institutions. Despite this unpreparedness, students articulated satisfaction

with the activities and services provided by their respective institutions for transition. The

researcher offers several suggestions to assist students with disabilities transition into

postsecondary education including programs designed to improve self-advocacy skills.

Emerging Themes

The analysis of the six dissertations identified two major themes that captured the

nature and experience of collegiate students with learning disabilities: (a) lack of


43

institutional support and (b) biases toward accommodations. Each theme contributes to a

developing picture of the experiences of students with disabilities in higher education.

Theme 1: Lack of Institutional Support for Students with Learning Disabilities

Higher education, as a whole, seems to lack baseline competencies, programs, and

knowledge needed to support collegiate students with disabilities. t. Lack of knowledge

about the disability law, accommodation practices and specific knowledge about

disabilities were the single most important reported item throughout this study.

Commonalities also occurred when dissertations focused on the lack of training of

administrators and faculty regarding supporting students in the learning environment.

Higher education institutions require a student with a disability to register with

a designated office that provides support services for students with disabilities as pointed

out by every dissertation, but there is a considerable amount of unevenness in the

implementation of services for students with disabilities. Because of the lack of research

in this area, very few of the strategies supported by institutions are grounded in empirical

research. This lack of information creates a lack of cohesion in institutional strategies and

hampers transition of students with learning disabilities.

Theme 2: Biases toward Accommodations by Faculty and Staff

Despite the legal changes and vision expansion to education landscape, attitudes,

prejudice and discrimination can still exist on college campuses. The everyday practices

implemented on campus are still performed by people who carry their own perspectives

and experiences about individuals with disabilities. It became clear with this analysis that

faculty were seen as a potential barrier to the successful transition to institutions of higher

learning for students with learning disabilities. All studies mentioned the lack for training


44

regarding the various forms of accommodations, in of faculty. As a compounding factor,

students with disabilities entered their institutions with fewer self-determination and self-

advocacy skills than their peers putting them at greater risk in successfully negotiating

higher education systems. This comes into play when faculty and administrators have

unrealistic expectations of students with learning disabilities and are not willing or able to

assist students appropriately.

Summary

Chapter IV presented the results of the analysis of data collected for this narrative

meta-synthesis focused on students with learning disabilities in postsecondary education.

All dissertations selected were completed between 2003 and 2013. Two themes emerged

from the data. The first theme was that institutions of higher learning still struggled with

ways to successfully support students with learning disabilities from high school to their

postsecondary institutions. Whether focused on the faculty, administrators or student

perspective, there was an overall negative experience with accommodations at colleges

and universities. The second theme, faculty biases as it related to accommodations

highlighted Higher education institutions have federal obligations to support students’

transition academically. However, there appears to be a lack of consistent support

mechanisms within the field to effectively support students to transition successfully.

Chapter V will explore discussions of these findings and establish a context for

these findings by linking the emergent themes to both the literature and the pre-established

conceptual framework. Recommendations for future study are made following the

explanation of the researcher’s conclusions and implications for higher education.


45

CHAPTER V

DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSION

Introduction

The goal of this study was to examine current higher education doctoral research

focused on students with learning disabilities attending postsecondary education. A

narrative meta-synthesis of six dissertations was used to develop themes among the

dissertations completed between 2003 and 2013. In this section, the findings and the

implication for future research are discussed.

Discussion and Conclusion

This narrative synthesis provided a clear picture of the current state of higher

education doctoral research on the transition process for students with learning

disabilities in postsecondary education. First, it is evident that the transition to college as

a construct is extraordinarily multi-faceted and complex, similar to other important

constructs particularly in accommodation literature in special education. This is

highlighted by the fact that many of the researchers mixed intervention and outcome

accommodation constructs in ways that made transition interventions difficult and more

time-consuming.

The themes that emerged from this study highlighted that transition to the

collegiate environment for students with learning disabilities is not a seamless process

and the narrative review reflected an apparent need for higher education to improve the

process. The review suggests that postsecondary settings are not adequately meeting the

needs of students with learning disabilities. In addition, instructional strategies and

modifications provided to students with learning disabilities at the postsecondary level


46

seldom impact their success. Adjusting to college life, balancing academic

responsibilities and grappling with the developmental transition are concerns that all

students encounter, but for students with disabilities, this transition has an additional

twist.

Effectiveness of Accommodations and Transition at the Postsecondary Level

The disparity between disability support services provided at high schools and the

services provided at postsecondary setting are profound and places postsecondary

students with learning disabilities at a disadvantage as they begin their college careers.

Dalke and Schmitt (1987) articulated that the individual guidance offered in a controlled

and structured high school setting may impair the transition to a college environment for

students with disabilities. The dissertations reviewed in this study highlighted this as a

possible cause for the effectiveness of accommodations for students at the postsecondary

level. Multiple factors support the effort to improve the adequacy of services for

postsecondary students with learning disabilities.

First, federal legislation gives institutions a clear directive about how to support

the learning of a secondary student’s disability. This is critical so that postsecondary

students with learning disabilities receive necessary educational accommodations.

Federal legislation also mandates that related supports and recommendations for

postsecondary accommodations be evaluated by the Summary of Performance upon high

school graduation. These summaries provide an outline of provisions needed for the

student to successfully transition to the postsecondary level. The transition process for

students with disabilities from the secondary to postsecondary level needs to be smooth


47

and concise. If this occurs, the student with learning disabilities will have a better

experience throughout the transition process. By providing a transparent process, the

student shall be better able to navigate the institutional challenges of self-advocacy in the

higher education environment.

Academic support programs can be enhance in the freshman year of college by

adding first-year seminars, refocusing orientation programs, and strengthening advising

and mentoring for student with disabilities. Once effective strategies, and

accommodations, are established and validated, faculty and staff must be trained and

supported as they work toward including these practices into the university environments.

This is important because faculty and staff can play an important role in creating the

inclusive and welcoming campus environments as it is important for students’

persistence.

Given that students within this population are reluctant to utilize their

accommodations in the higher education setting (Denhart, 2008; Field, Sarver & Shaw,

2003), and the expansion of coverage now to include thinking and concentration

(ADA.Gov, 2011), higher education is faced with many challenges when working with

students with disabilities. Transition is one of those challenges. Schlossberg categorizes

transition into three types: anticipated, unanticipated and non-event. For a student with

learning disabilities, making the decision to attend college is an anticipated event. An

unanticipated event might include having to deal with the hoops a student has to jump

through in order to successfully enroll in college. There is the application process, setting

up financial aid, meeting with a disability services office, gathering documentation


48

regarding a disability and just navigating new surroundings. Non-events occur when the

expected transition does not happen.

According to Evans, et al., (2010), the situation in Schlossberg’s transition theory

refers to “trigger, timing, control, role change, duration, previous experience in similar

transition, concurrent stress, and assessment”. Evans, et al., goes on to note that the self

encompasses two areas: personal/ demographic factors and psychological resources. The

first area includes age, gender, ethnicity and the second area includes ego-development

and values. Support can entail a student’s relationships outside of a postsecondary

institution, and institutional support. Institutional support is particularly important to the

student with disabilities.

The meta-synthesis presented above shed light on the broader collegiate

experience as well as the more specific experiences of learning disabilities and transition.

Although this review of literature highlighted some key variables, the methodological

weaknesses warrant closer attention in order to substantiate the need for a study that

utilizes more complex theoretical frameworks and sophisticated statistical techniques.

Implication for Future Research

To more accurately understand the complexities of the accommodation and

transitions process of students with disabilities, future research will need to be conducted.

Because, minimal research in the field is available which critically studies the programs

and services needed by students with disabilities in higher education, it is suggested that

research which focuses specifically on the specific transition programs and services. For

example, further research should be conducted on high school transition programs and

their impact on college transition due the fact these studies all highlighted the fact that


49

students with disabilities were ill-prepared to attend their institutions. Furthermore, this

research can be utilized to expound upon the connection between the accommodations

and transition skills developed by the student.

Second, because the lack of training specific to advisors and faculty was

articulated by reviewed dissertations, it is suggested that the specific training and

preparation perceived to be needed needs to be further researched in order to develop

support mechanism and comprehensive training programs which directly address the

articulated needs of those students with learning disabilities enrolled.

A theme found in this meta-synthesis indicated that individuals working with

students with disabilities had no idea about existing services to accommodate students.

This suggests a lack of knowledge and training. Because faculty articulated this lack of

knowledge and previous exposure to the needs of students with learning disabilities,

research exploring effective ways to teach students with learning disabilities needs to be

further examined. Disability training focused specifically on faculty is beginning to

emerge, but additional research conducted to assess the extent to which these programs

are being implemented needs to be conducted.

Schroeder’s (2003) recommendations for programs like findings of the current

study indicated that the most common accommodations and programs are not in

grounded in research specifically focused on postsecondary students with learning

disabilities. Therefore, more information is needed on the role postsecondary offices of

student with disabilities hold in the educational success at the postsecondary level for

students with learning disabilities. To do this, it is suggested that a qualitative study be

conducted including interview data from graduating high school students, college faculty,


50

college disability providers, and family members to assess the impact on

accommodations and transition services on student success.

In addition, it is also important to note that there is a dearth of doctoral research

on students with learning disabilities as evidenced by the small number of being found

between 2003 and 2013. Therefore, it is imperative that further research be focused on

the collegiate transition of these students.

Implication for Higher Education

Not only does higher education need to prepare themselves for the arrival of

student with learning disabilities and all that they bring to campus, but disability service

providers need to be ready to accommodate these students and their unique situations.

While students in postsecondary institutions are required to self-disclose and provide

appropriate documentation, disability service providers can provide tremendous support

in the transition of students with disabilities. The dissertations in this study indicate that

institutions of higher education across the country would bode well for themselves by

proactively understanding the transition challenges for students with learning disabilities

and creating programs that easy those transitions on campus.

Since advisors are often the first academic contact for a student, they may become

the sounding board for these students. Schlossberg’s Theory of Transition can assist

advisers, counselors, and disability services staff in developing educational plans for this

student sub-population. Support might be the most important of Schlossberg’s theory for

the student with learning disabilities. Higher education professionals will want to make

sure that the student has the opportunity to establish relationships with them, as students

with learning disabilities need and want a good, strong support system. The final “S” of


51

the 4S’s is strategies. Work with the students to make sure they understand all the

available support on campus from a disability services office to a tutoring lab. This will

be but one strategy to help them succeed.

Conclusion

The estimated number of students with disabilities entering to higher education is

growing exponentially and higher education is charged with the task of creating a

welcoming and supportive college environment for all of its students. It involves more

than just adhere to federal law; it involves developing an academic climate that provides

acceptance for differences.

Literature has shown that colleges and universities may not be prepared for the

influx of this cohort of students, nor know the true impact of the long-term effects of

learning disabilities and how these disabilities may affect this student sub-population in

the classroom and on campus. The synthesis presented in this study serves as an

overview of some fundamental perspectives that institutions can use to guide decisions

for improving support services for students with learning disabilities. The findings and

suggestions shared can serve as a starting point to enhance specific programs, policies

and services to assist students with learning disabilities to develop strong atmospheres of

equity and inclusion at all levels of the academic experience.


52

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