copyright © 2012 pearson education, inc. all rights reserved. infants, children, and adolescents...

Copyright © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved.

Infants, Children, and Infants, Children, and AdolescentsAdolescents

Chapter 6Chapter 6

Cognitive Cognitive Development in Development in Infancy and Infancy and ChildhoodChildhood

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PiagetPiaget’’s Cognitive-s Cognitive-Developmental TheoryDevelopmental Theory

The sensorimotor stage spans the first The sensorimotor stage spans the first two years of life. two years of life.

Organized ways of making sense of Organized ways of making sense of experience, called schemes, change experience, called schemes, change with age.with age. Action-based (motor patterns) at firstAction-based (motor patterns) at first Later move to a mental (thinking) levelLater move to a mental (thinking) level


Building SchemesBuilding SchemesAdaptationAdaptation

Building schemesBuilding schemes

AssimilationAssimilation Using current schemes to Using current schemes to

interpret external worldinterpret external world

AccommodationAccommodation Adjusting old schemes Adjusting old schemes

and creating new ones to and creating new ones to better fit environmentbetter fit environment

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Sensorimotor StageSensorimotor Stage Birth to 2 years, divided Birth to 2 years, divided

into six substages into six substages Building schemes through Building schemes through

sensory and motor sensory and motor explorationexploration

Circular reactions—Circular reactions—stumbling upon a new stumbling upon a new experience caused by the experience caused by the babybaby’’s own motor activitys own motor activity

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PiagetPiaget’’s Sensorimotor s Sensorimotor SubstagesSubstages

Table 6.1


Intentional BehaviorIntentional Behavior

Goal-directedGoal-directed

Means–end action Means–end action sequencessequences

According to Piaget, According to Piaget, develops in Substage 4develops in Substage 4

Object permanenceObject permanence Babies still make A-not-B Babies still make A-not-B

search errors.search errors. © Petro Feketa | Dreamstime.com


Object PermanenceObject Permanence

Renée Baillargeon and her collaborators Renée Baillargeon and her collaborators claim to have found evidence for object claim to have found evidence for object permanence in the first few months of permanence in the first few months of life. life.

Some critics question whether babiesSome critics question whether babies’’ looking preferences tell us what they looking preferences tell us what they really know. really know.

Mastery of object permanence is a Mastery of object permanence is a gradual achievement. gradual achievement.


Violation-of-Expectation Violation-of-Expectation MethodMethod

Figure 6.1


Mental RepresentationsMental Representations

Internal, mental depictions of objects, Internal, mental depictions of objects, people, events, informationpeople, events, information

Can manipulate with mindCan manipulate with mind Allow Allow deferred imitationdeferred imitation and and make-make-

believe playbelieve play


Deferred ImitationDeferred Imitation

Piaget: Develops at about 18 monthsPiaget: Develops at about 18 months

Newer research:Newer research: Present at 6 weeks – facial imitationPresent at 6 weeks – facial imitation 66––9 months – copy actions 9 months – copy actions 14 months – imitate rationally14 months – imitate rationally 18 months – imitate intended, but not 18 months – imitate intended, but not

completed, actionscompleted, actions


Testing Infants for Testing Infants for Deferred ImitationDeferred Imitation

Figure 6.2After researchers performed a novel series of actions with a puppet, this 6-month-old imitated the actions a day later—(a) removing the glove; (b) shaking the glove to ring a bell inside. With age, gains in recall are evident in deferred imitation of others’ behaviors over longer delays.

Baby Learning from TV and Baby Learning from TV and Video: Video Deficit Effect Video: Video Deficit Effect

40% of U.S. 3 month-40% of U.S. 3 month-olds watch TV olds watch TV regularly; rises to 90% regularly; rises to 90% at age 2.at age 2.

Infants initially Infants initially respond to videos of respond to videos of people as actual people as actual people. people.

Toddlers demonstrate Toddlers demonstrate video deficit effect—video deficit effect—poorer performance poorer performance after a video than a live after a video than a live demonstration. demonstration.

Around age 2½ , this Around age 2½ , this effect declines. effect declines.

Videos for teaching 2-Videos for teaching 2-year-olds work best year-olds work best when they are rich in when they are rich in social cues. social cues.



Evaluation of Evaluation of Sensorimotor StageSensorimotor Stage

Some developments happen when Piaget described:Some developments happen when Piaget described: Object searchObject search A-not-B search errorA-not-B search error Make-believe playMake-believe play

Many appear to happen Many appear to happen soonersooner than Piaget thought: than Piaget thought: Object permanenceObject permanence Secondary circular reactionsSecondary circular reactions Deferred imitationDeferred imitation Problem solving by analogyProblem solving by analogy


Model of Human Information-Model of Human Information-Processing SystemProcessing System

Figure 6.4


AttentionAttention During the first year, During the first year,

infants pay attention to infants pay attention to novel events. novel events.

During toddlerhood, During toddlerhood, children become children become capable of intentional capable of intentional behavior and behavior and sustained attention sustained attention improves.improves.

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Memory Memory Operant conditioning research:Operant conditioning research:

InfantsInfants’’ memories increase dramatically during memories increase dramatically during infancy and toddlerhood.infancy and toddlerhood.

Memories move from highly context-dependent to Memories move from highly context-dependent to increasingly context-free. increasingly context-free.

Habituation/recovery research: Habituation/recovery research: Infants do not need to be physically active to Infants do not need to be physically active to

acquire and retain new information. acquire and retain new information.

Infants can engage in recall by end of first year. Infants can engage in recall by end of first year.


Increase in Retention in Two Operant Increase in Retention in Two Operant

Conditioning Tasks from 2 to 18 MonthsConditioning Tasks from 2 to 18 Months

Figure 6.5


Infantile AmnesiaInfantile Amnesia

Most of us cannot recall events before age 3.Most of us cannot recall events before age 3.May be due to:May be due to:

Immature brain developmentImmature brain development Memory processing in infants isMemory processing in infants is nonverbal.nonverbal. Lack of focused self-imageLack of focused self-image

Fig

ure

6.6


CategorizationCategorization

By 6 months, infants can By 6 months, infants can categorize based on two categorize based on two features (e.g., shape features (e.g., shape and color).and color).

Earliest categories are Earliest categories are perceptual, but by the perceptual, but by the second half of the first second half of the first year, more categories year, more categories are conceptual. are conceptual.

Figure 6.7


VygotskyVygotsky’’s s Sociocultural TheorySociocultural Theory

Social contextsSocial contexts (other people) contribute (other people) contribute to cognitive development.to cognitive development.

Zone of Proximal DevelopmentZone of Proximal Development – tasks – tasks child cannot do alone but can learn to do child cannot do alone but can learn to do with helpwith help

Scaffolding promotes learning at all ages.Scaffolding promotes learning at all ages. Cultural variations affect mental strategies Cultural variations affect mental strategies

taught and learned.taught and learned.


Social Origins of Social Origins of Make-Believe PlayMake-Believe Play

Society provides children with Society provides children with opportunities to represent opportunities to represent culturally meaningful activities in culturally meaningful activities in play.play.

Research indicates that make- Research indicates that make- believe play is a result of believe play is a result of readinessreadiness and and experiencesexperiences..

Adult participation leads to more Adult participation leads to more complex play and teaches complex play and teaches cultural values. cultural values.

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HOME HOME Infant–Toddler SubscalesInfant–Toddler Subscales

Source: Bradley, 1994; Bradley et al., 2001.


High-Quality High-Quality HOME EnvironmentHOME Environment

Checklist for gathering information about the Checklist for gathering information about the quality of childrenquality of children’’s home lives through s home lives through observation and parental interviewobservation and parental interview

Measured during first three yearsMeasured during first three years Extent to which parents talk with children Extent to which parents talk with children

especially importantespecially important Predicts language, IQ, and academic Predicts language, IQ, and academic

achievement achievement Genetic–environmental correlation?Genetic–environmental correlation?


Elements of Developmentally Elements of Developmentally Appropriate Child CareAppropriate Child Care

Responsive, interactive, well-trained caregiversResponsive, interactive, well-trained caregivers Clean, safe, uncrowded indoor spacesClean, safe, uncrowded indoor spaces Appropriate toys, stored within reachAppropriate toys, stored within reach Safe equipmentSafe equipment Low teacher-child ratiosLow teacher-child ratios Flexible daily scheduleFlexible daily schedule Warm atmosphereWarm atmosphere Parents welcome anytimeParents welcome anytime AccreditedAccredited


IQ Improvement from IQ Improvement from Early Intervention ProgramsEarly Intervention Programs

IQ scores of treatment and control children from infancy to 21 years in the Carolina Abecedarian Project. At 1 year, treatment children outperformed controls, an advantage consistently maintained through age 21. The IQ scores of both groups declined gradually during childhood and adolescence—a trend probably due to the damaging impact of poverty on mental development. (Adapted from Campbell et al., 2001.)

Figure 6.10


Three Theories of Three Theories of Language DevelopmentLanguage Development

BehavioristBehaviorist(B. F. Skinner)(B. F. Skinner)

Learned through operant Learned through operant conditioning (reinforcement) and conditioning (reinforcement) and imitationimitation

NativistNativist(Noam Chomsky)(Noam Chomsky)

Inborn language acquisition device Inborn language acquisition device (LAD) biologically prepares infants (LAD) biologically prepares infants to learn rules of language.to learn rules of language.

InteractionistInteractionist Inner capacities and environment Inner capacities and environment work together; social context is work together; social context is important.important.


BrocaBroca’’s and Wernickes and Wernicke’’s Areas in the Left s Areas in the Left Hemisphere of the Cerebral CortexHemisphere of the Cerebral Cortex

BrocaBroca’’s Areas AreaSupports grammatical Supports grammatical processing and processing and language productionlanguage production

WernickeWernicke’’s Areas AreaPlays role in Plays role in comprehending word comprehending word meaningmeaningFigure 6.11


Milestones of Language Milestones of Language Development During the Development During the

First Two YearsFirst Two Years

Table 6.3


Getting Ready to TalkGetting Ready to Talk

First speech soundsFirst speech sounds CooingCooing BabblingBabbling

Becoming a Becoming a communicatorcommunicator

Joint attentionJoint attention Give-and-takeGive-and-take Preverbal gesturesPreverbal gestures

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Sensitive Period for Language Sensitive Period for Language Development Development

A deaf-born 5-month-old given a cochlear A deaf-born 5-month-old given a cochlear implant showed typical infant babbling and implant showed typical infant babbling and resembled her hearing agemates in language resembled her hearing agemates in language development at 3 to 4 years. development at 3 to 4 years.

If hearing is not restored until after age 2, If hearing is not restored until after age 2, children remain behind in language children remain behind in language development. development.

If implantation occurs after age 4, language If implantation occurs after age 4, language delays are severe and persistent. delays are severe and persistent.


Starting to TalkStarting to Talk

First WordsFirst Words UnderextensionUnderextension OverextensionOverextension

Two-Word UtterancesTwo-Word Utterances Most children show a Most children show a

steady, continuous steady, continuous increase in the rate of increase in the rate of word learning through the word learning through the preschool years.preschool years.

Telegraphic speechTelegraphic speech © Ajphotos | Dreamstime.com


Comprehension versus Comprehension versus Production Production

ToddlersToddlers’’ comprehension of the comprehension of the spoken language increases spoken language increases dramatically over the second year. dramatically over the second year.

Quick comprehension frees space in Quick comprehension frees space in working memory for picking up new working memory for picking up new words and for the more demanding words and for the more demanding task of using them to communicate. task of using them to communicate.


Individual and Cultural Differences Individual and Cultural Differences in Language Developmentin Language Development

GenderGenderTemperamentTemperamentEnvironmentEnvironment

SESSES Child-directed speechChild-directed speech

Language styleLanguage style ReferentialReferential ExpressiveExpressive

Language delayLanguage delay © Gilbert Agao | Dreamstime.com


Supporting Supporting Early Language DevelopmentEarly Language Development

InfantsInfants

Respond to coos and babbles.Respond to coos and babbles. Establish and respond to joint Establish and respond to joint

attention.attention. Play social games.Play social games.

ToddlersToddlers

Play make-believe together.Play make-believe together. Have frequent conversations.Have frequent conversations. Read to toddlers often and talk about Read to toddlers often and talk about

the books.the books.

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