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Lightweight Materials—Understanding the BasicsF.C. Campbell, editor

Contents

Preface ix

CHAPTER 1Introduction and Uses of Lightweight Materials 1

1.1 Today’s Lightweight Materials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41.2 Aluminum Alloys . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41.3 Magnesium Alloys . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 101.4 Beryllium . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 121.5 Titanium Alloys . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 141.6 Titanium Aluminide Intermetallics . . . . . . . . . . . . . 161.7 Engineering Plastics. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 191.8 Polymer-Matrix Composites . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 211.9 Metal-Matrix Composites . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 271.10 Structural Ceramics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 281.11 Ceramic-Matrix Composites . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29

CHAPTER 2Aluminum Alloys 33

2.1 Applications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 362.2 Aluminum Metallurgy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 382.3 Aluminum Alloy Designation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 382.4 Aluminum Alloys . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 402.5 Wrought Non-Heat-Treatable Alloys . . . . . . . . . . . . 412.6 Wrought Heat Treatable Alloys . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 472.7 Melting and Primary Fabrication . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 542.8 Rolling Plate and Sheet . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 572.9 Extrusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 602.10 Forging . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 622.11 Heat Treating . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 672.12 Annealing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73

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2.13 Forming . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 742.14 Casting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 852.15 Casting Alloys. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 852.16 Machining. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1012.17 Chemical Milling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1042.18 Joining . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1052.19 Corrosion of Aluminum and Aluminum Alloys . . . . . . 119

CHAPTER 3Magnesium Alloys 141

3.1 Magnesium Metallurgy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1413.2 Magnesium Applications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1483.3 Magnesium Alloy Designation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1493.4 Magnesium Casting Alloys . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1503.5 Die Casting Alloys . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1533.6 Sand and Permanent Mold Casting Alloys . . . . . . . . . 1553.7 Wrought Magnesium Alloys . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1603.8 Sheet and Plate . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1623.9 Extrusions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1623.10 Forgings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1653.11 Forming . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1663.12 Magnesium Heat Treating. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1673.13 Joining Methods. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1683.14 Machinability . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1713.15 Magnesium Corrosion. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1723.16 Corrosion Protection of Magnesium . . . . . . . . . . . . 1833.17 Protective Coating Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 185

CHAPTER 4Beryllium 193

4.1 Beryllium Properties and Applications . . . . . . . . . . . 1944.2 Beryllium Powder Production Operations. . . . . . . . . . 1954.3 Powder Consolidation Methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1984.4 Beryllium Grades and Their Designations . . . . . . . . . 2004.5 Wrought Products and Fabrication . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2044.6 Forming Beryllium . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2074.7 Beryllium Machining . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2124.8 Beryllium Joining . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2134.9 Aluminum-Beryllium Alloys . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2134.10 Beryllium Corrosion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2144.11 Corrosion-Protection Surface Treatments and Coatings . . 2194.12 Health and Safety . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 221

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CHAPTER 5Titanium Alloys 223

5.1 Titanium Applications. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2245.2 Titanium Physical Metallurgy. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2275.3 Titanium Properties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2415.4 Processing of Titanium and Titanium Alloys . . . . . . . . 2435.5 Titanium Primary Fabrication. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2475.6 Titanium Secondary Fabrication . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2505.7 Titanium Powder Metallurgy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2585.8 Directed Metal Deposition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2595.9 Titanium Forming. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2625.10 Superplastic Forming . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2645.11 Heat Treating . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2695.12 Titanium Casting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2735.13 Machining. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2795.14 Titanium Joining . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2845.15 Corrosion Resistance of Titanium and Titanium Alloys . . 292

CHAPTER 6Titanium Aluminide Intermetallics 299

6.1 Titanium Aluminides . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3026.2 Alpha-2 Alloys . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3036.3 Orthorhombic Alloys . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3056.4 Gamma Alloys . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3066.5 Gamma Titanium Aluminide Applications . . . . . . . . . 3156.6 Processing Near-Gamma Alloys . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 315

CHAPTER 7Engineering Plastics 325

7.1 General Characteristics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3257.2 Thermosets and Thermoplastics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3267.3 Metals versus Plastics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3337.4 Effect of Fillers and Reinforcements . . . . . . . . . . . . 3387.5 Temperature and Molecular Structure . . . . . . . . . . . 3417.6 Effect of Crystallinity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3427.7 Effect of Viscoelasticity. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3447.8 Thermal Properties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3447.9 Electrical Properties. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3467.10 Environmental Factors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3477.11 Categories of Engineering Plastics and Applications . . . . 3497.12 Plastic Fabrication Processes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3697.13 Joining Plastics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 376

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CHAPTER 8Polymer-Matrix Composites 385

8.1 Advantages and Disadvantages of Composite Materials . . 3898.2 Applications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3918.3 Laminates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3978.4 Fibers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4008.5 Product Forms. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4138.6 Matrices . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4238.7 Fabrication Processes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4258.8 Thermoplastic Consolidation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4378.9 Thermoforming . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4408.10 Sandwich and Cocured Structure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4418.11 Integrally Cocured Unitized Structure . . . . . . . . . . . 4458.12 Machining. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4478.13 Mechanical Fastening . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4478.14 Thermoplastic Joining. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 449

CHAPTER 9Metal-Matrix Composites 457

9.1 Applications of Metal-Matrix Composites . . . . . . . . . 4579.2 Discontinuously Reinforced Metal-Matrix Composites . . . 4619.3 Discontinuously Reinforced Aluminum. . . . . . . . . . . 4669.4 Processing of Discontinuously Reinforced Aluminum . . . 4699.5 Processing of Discontinuously Reinforced Titanium . . . . 4849.6 Secondary Processing of Discontinuous Metal-Matrix

Composites . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4879.7 Continuous Fiber-Reinforced Metal-Matrix Composites . . 4889.8 Processing of Continuous Fiber-Reinforced Aluminum

Composites . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4939.9 Processing of Continuous Fiber-Reinforced Titanium

Composites . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4959.10 Secondary Fabrication of Titanium-Matrix Composites . . 5009.11 Processing of Other Metal-Matrix Composites . . . . . . . 5049.12 Fiber-Metal Laminates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 506

CHAPTER 10Structural Ceramics 511

10.1 Structural Ceramics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51310.2 Applications for Structural Ceramics . . . . . . . . . . . . 51310.3 Properties of Structural Ceramics. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51910.4 Toughened Ceramics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52310.5 Design and Selection Considerations . . . . . . . . . . . . 52810.6 Processing of Structural Ceramics . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53910.7 Joining of Ceramics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 560

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CHAPTER 11Ceramic-Matrix Composites 569

11.1 Discontinuously Reinforced Ceramic-Matrix Composites . 57311.2 Applications for Discontinuously Reinforced Ceramic-

Matrix Composites . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57511.3 Continuous Fiber Ceramic-Matrix Composites . . . . . . . 58211.4 Applications for Continuous Fiber Ceramic-Matrix

Composites . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58611.5 Carbon-Carbon Composites. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59011.6 Applications for Carbon-Carbon Composites . . . . . . . . 59511.7 Processing of Ceramic-Matrix Composites . . . . . . . . . 598

CHAPTER 12Selection Guidelines for Lightweight Materials 621

12.1 The Materials Selection Process . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62112.2 Performance Characteristics of Materials . . . . . . . . . . 62212.3 Relation of Materials Selection to Manufacturing . . . . . 62612.4 Costs and Related Aspects of Materials Selection . . . . . 63312.5 Methods of Materials Selection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63312.6 Conclusions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63812.7 Lightweight Materials Selection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63912.8 Lightweight Materials in the Transportation (Automotive)

Industry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 66012.9 Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 670

Index 673

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